JOB STRESS, JOB SATISFACTION AND LIFE SATISFACTION

BETWEEN MANAGERIAL AND TECHNICAL IS PERSONNEL

Jiunn-Woei Lian
Department of Information Management, Nanhua University, No.32,Chung Keng Li,
Dalin Chia-Yi , 62248, Taiwan , R.O.C.
jwlian@mail.nhu.edu.tw

Tzu-Ming Lin
jmlin@mgt.ncu.edu.tw
Hsin-Kuan Wu
ivan_wu@ringline.com.tw
Department of Information Management, National Central University, No.300,
Jhongda Rd., Jhongli City, Taoyuan County 32001, Taiwan, R.O.C.

ABSTRACT

Information System (IS) Personnel faces changing demands within the dynamic
environments of business and Information Technology (IT) development. Such
constant changes create stressful working situations, as a result, the job satisfaction of
IS professionals is usually low and their job turnovers are high. Previous MIS studies
focused on job stress and job satisfaction of IS employees. However, nowadays
people put more emphasis on the quality of life than before. Consequently life
satisfaction becomes an important issue for human resources management. When
employees have high degrees of satisfaction in their jobs and lives, they tend to
perform better in their work. The purpose of this study is to understand the
relationships among three variables that have potential impact on the well-being of
individual employees: (a) job stress, (b) job satisfaction, and (3) life satisfaction. Then,
we compared these three variables perceived by managerial and technical IS staff
respectively. Using samples of IS personnel in Taiwan, we found that managerial IS
employees tend to have significantly higher degrees of job and life satisfaction than
their IS technical counterparts. On the other hand, technical employees tend to have
higher degrees of job stress than managerial employees. We also found that job stress
has negative effects on life satisfaction whereas job satisfaction has positive effects on
life satisfaction. Furthermore, job stress has negative effects on job satisfaction of IS
employees. Based on the findings of this study, related implications of well-being
variables are discussed in this paper.

Keywords: Job Stress, Job Satisfaction, Life Satisfaction, IS Personnel

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 1. INTRODUCTION

With the economic and technological development in the society, people place more
importance on the quality of life than before. Nowadays, people emphasize not only
work environment, but also non-work-related life. Therefore, understanding
employees’ life satisfaction is becoming more important. A Pan-EU study (European
Commission, 2006) found that when people are satisfied with their jobs, they are
satisfied with their non-work-related life and become happier. Developed countries
are paying much attention to understand citizens’ life satisfaction. (Many indices are
proposed in order to understand the quality of citizens’ lives: American Demographics
Index of Well-Being, the Fordham Index of Social Health, Genuine Progress Indicator
and so on.) Recently, a national survey conducted in Taiwan has indicated that half of
the people sampled feel unhappy. Only ten percent feels that they are very happy. This
survey also found that men are generally happier than women. Additionally, those
who are younger and better educated; earn higher income and bear more children,
tend to be happier (Yahoo News, 2007). Globally, more and more countries pay
attention to the concept of “Gross National Happiness GNH”, which was proposed by
the ex-president of Bhutan. In addition, the “World Map of Happiness” proposed by
White (2006) is attracted to many organizations. With this growing trend, quality of
life has been becoming an important issue for governments and businesses. It is
important for managers to establish not only good working but also good living
environments. Tatarkiewicz (1976) proposed that “happiness requires total satisfaction
with life”. Hence, life satisfaction is a key determinant for happiness.

In the Information Systems (IS) field, as Information Technology (IT) has

progressively provided an important infrastructure for business to become more
competitive, IS employees are playing more significant role than mere support for
businesses today. As a result, IS human resources management is becoming more
important but increasingly difficult to manage than before. Previous MIS study had
focused on job stress (Sethi, King, and Quick, 2004; Sethi, Barrier, and King, 1999)
and job satisfaction (Niederman and Sumner, 2004; Sumner and Niederman,
2003-2004; Mcmurtery, Grover, Teng and Lightner, 2002) of IS employees. Several
important findings which were indicated by previous related studies are recapitulated
below.

(1) Job stress is the source of burnout and turnover of IS employees.

(2) There exists a negative relationship between job stress and job satisfaction of IS
employee.

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(3) When IS professionals’ jobs can fit their job career orientations or career anchors,
they can get higher degrees of job satisfaction.

(4) Job stress and job satisfaction of IS employee will affect business productivity and
performance.

Previous studies indicated that life satisfaction is the consequence of job satisfaction
(Judge et al., 2001, Heller et al., 2002, Rode, 2004). However, life satisfaction of IS
professionals has not received much attention in the academia. In order to fill this gap,
this research reports on the results of a survey conducted in Taiwan, in order to better
understand the job stress, job satisfaction, life satisfaction and in particular, their
relationships experienced by IS personnel.

Based on the above discussion, the main objective of this study is to investigate and
understand the differences of job stress, job satisfaction and life satisfaction, between
technical and managerial workers in the IS field. Specifically, this paper attempts to
provide practical suggestions to IS human resource management. In order to achieve
this goal, a method to classify IS personal based on their job duties or contents instead
of their job titles is hereby proposed. At the same time, this paper attempts to
scrutinize and explain the relationships between job stress, job satisfaction and life
satisfaction among IS professionals.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Job Stress of IS Professionals

Previous studies have concluded that stress is the source of burnout and turnover in
the IS industry, and it affects business productivity and performance (Sethi, King, and
Quick, 2004; Sethi, Barrier, and King, 1999). Sethi, Barrier, and King (1999)
indicated that role ambiguity and role conflict of IS professionals affect their burnout
behavior. Sethi, King, and Quick (2004) proposed that there are seven stressors of IS
professionals that affected professionals’ burnout, job satisfaction, and intention to
quit. First and foremost, IS employees are often forced to work overtime in order to
finish a project before a deadline. Other factors that make employees stressful are:
inadequate training, poor performance evaluations, lack of job security, poor
communication with other coworkers, fuzzy requirements and specifications, and lack
of career development.

2.2 Job Satisfaction of IS Professionals

Job satisfaction is one of the key determinants that affects employee turnover.

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Niederman and Sumner (2004) compared MIS professionals who have changed job
within their field of expertise to attain satisfaction with their new jobs. In another
study they conducted they arrived at similar findings (Sumner and Niederman,
2003-2004). From their studies, we deduce that IS professionals will seek satisfactory
jobs in their career planning.

Igbaria is one of the most active researchers in studying factors that affected IS
professionals’ job satisfaction. Igbaria, Parasuraman, and Badawy (1994) found that
job involvement served as a moderator in the relationships between demographic
variables, work experience and quality of work life. In addition, Igbaria and Wormley
(1992) discovered that white MIS employees were more satisfied with their jobs than
their black counterparts. Igbaria and Baroudi (1995) also concluded that there are
gender differences in job promotion and career advancement in addition to the race
factor. Igbaria, Greenhaus and Parasuraman (1991) discovered that if IS employees’
career orientations fit their positions, they have higher job satisfaction. Moreover, IS
managers’ personal characteristics positively affect their job satisfaction (Okpara,
2004). After all, if IS professionals are satisfied with their jobs, they have stronger
organizational commitment and subsequently lower level of turnover intentions
(Igbaria and Greenhaus, 1992). In the study conducted by Ridings and Eder (1998),
they found that equity between technical and managerial employees is the key factor
for IS professionals’ job satisfaction.

Focused on Taiwan’s IS employees, Kuo and Chen (2004) found that individual
demographic characteristics such as marital status, age, position title, and annual
salary affect employees’ job satisfaction.

2.3 Job Classification of IS Personnel

The positions of IS professionals vary from their capacities as programmer, systems

analyst, database administrator to IS manager. Igbaria, Greenhaus and Parasuraman
(1991) divided the career orientation of IS professional into two categories: technical
orientation and managerial orientation. Technical professionals are a general grouping
that encompasses positions such as systems programmers, applications programmers,
and software engineers. On the other hand, managerial professionals are a general
grouping for employees such as systems analysts, project leasers, and managers.
Within the managerial category, we can further classify employees into the following
sub-categories: supervisory, middle and top: all of them need different IS managerial
skills (Wu, Chen and Lin, 2004). Additionally, Igbaria, Greenhaus and Parasuraman
(1991) also found that females were more generally lifestyle-orientated and less
technically-oriented than male. Similarly, Todd, McKeen and Gallupe (1995)

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proposed that there are three requirements of IS jobs: technical, systems and business
knowledge or skills. Programming jobs require high technical skills while requiring
low systems and business skills. In comparison, IS manager jobs require high business,
but relatively low technical skills (please refer to table 1).

Table 1 IS Skills Requirements Between Managers, Systems Analysts and

Programmer (Todd, McKeen and Gallupe, 1995)

% of total job advertisements Managers Systems Analysts Programmers

per category in 1990
Technology knowledge/skills 65% 77% 96%
Business knowledge/skills 92% 70% 60%
System knowledge/skills 80% 77% 68%

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Model and Hypothesis

Three main constructs are included in a research model proposed below

encompassing job stress, job satisfaction and life satisfaction. Their relationships are
illustrated in figure 1 below. The definitions of these variables are listed as follows:

(1) Beehr (1995) defined job stress as “a situation in which some characteristics of the
work situation are thought to cause poor psychological or physical health, or to
cause risk factors making poor health more likely.” (p.11.)

(2) Job satisfaction includes general elements and specific elements: the whole
perception of job pleasure is considered as general elements; job security, pay,
co-worker, supervision and personal growth and development are considered as
specific elements (Hackman & Oldham, 1980).

(3) Diener et al. (1985) defined life satisfaction as “a cognitive, judgmental process. It
dependent upon a comparison of one’s circumstances with what is thought to be
an appropriate standard.” (p.71).

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 Job
Satisfaction (H1) H4(+)

Life Satisfaction
H5(-)
(H2)

Job
H3(-)
Stress

Figure 1 Research Model

The underlying theory of this study is the concept of job autonomy, which was
proposed by Stamps and Piedmonte (1986). They defined job autonomy as “the
amount of job-related independence, initiative, and freedom either permitted or
required in daily work activities” (Stamps and Piedmonte,1986, p.60). Many studies
emphasize the relationship between work autonomy and job satisfaction, and found
that there exists a positive relationship between work autonomy and job satisfaction.
Similar findings are found by DeCarlo and Agarwal (1999). They proved that job
autonomy is an important antecedent to work satisfaction among salespersons
surveyed from three different countries (Indian, Australian and American).
Additionally, Finn (2001) indicated that work autonomy is one of the most important
factors that will affect job satisfaction. Although researches have emphasized on the
importance of work autonomy in various fields, but little study has been conducted in
the IS field.

In this study, we infer that IS professional who have higher managerial work activities
will have higher work autonomy than those who have higher technical work activities.
Furthermore, we infer that managerial employees will have higher job satisfaction and
life satisfaction than technical employees.

Besides, Judge et al. (2001) proposed three possible forms of the relationships
between job satisfaction and life satisfaction, including (1) spillover (2) segmentation
and (3) compensation. Among them, spillover means that the integration of job
satisfaction into life. Therefore, job satisfaction affects life satisfaction. Similar
opinion has been proposed by other scholars. Heller et al. (2002) and Rode (2004)
indicated that there exists a positive relationship between job satisfaction and life
satisfaction. More specifically, Chacko (1983) indicated that there exists a causal
relationship between job and life satisfaction. In addition, Beehr (1995) proposed that

6
there exists a positive relationship between work and life attitude. Recently, a Pan-EU
study found that when people are satisfied with their jobs, they are also satisfied with
their non-work-related lives and attain happiness (European Commission, 2006).
Therefore, this study infers that there exists a negative relationship between job stress
and life satisfaction. Finally, Igharia and Greenhaus (1992) found that job stress
affects job satisfaction and career satisfaction negatively. Besides, they also found that
job satisfaction affects career satisfaction positively.

Based on the above discussions, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H1: Managerial employees have higher job satisfaction than technical employees.

H2: Managerial employees have higher life satisfaction than technical employees.

H3: Job stress negatively affects life satisfaction of IS employees.

H4: Job satisfaction positively affects life satisfaction of IS employees.

H5: Job stress negatively affects job satisfaction of IS employees.

3.2 Measurements

3.2.1 Definition of IS Personnel

Previous studies used job titles to classify IS personnel into different groups as an
important variable in employees’ backgrounds. However, there are some limitations in
this taxonomy. First, IS job titles vary and are inconsistent across different businesses.
Besides, IS job activities span from technical to managerial areas, which require
different knowledge and skills. Employees who have the same job title may have
different job duties. Therefore, we need another classification scheme to reflect real
job activities of IS employee across different organizations. Baroudi (1988) indicated
that IS personnel have dual track of job orientation including managerial and technical
career choices. Besides, IS professional have eight core competencies, among them
are managerial and technical competencies. In this study, based on the percentage of
their managerial versus technical work activities, we classify IS employees into
managerial and technical groups. By doing so, we can investigate the differences of
job stress, job satisfaction and life satisfaction between these two groups in a
meaningful way.

In our proposed classification scheme, those who work in business IS department and
have their work activities composed of more than 50% managerial activities are
defined as IS managerial workers, while the rest who spend more than 50% of their

7
time on technical activities are defined as IS technical employees. Instead of asking
for respondent’s job titles, this study requests all respondents to answer the following
determinant question in order to ascertain the essence of their job responsibilities
thereby classifying them into managerial or technical groups accordingly.

Question: Please indicate the percentage of your work related to managerial or

technical activities.

Non managerial work under 25% 25%~50% 50%~75% above 75% Managerial work
activities activities
(technical employee) (managerial employee)

3.2.2 Other Measurements

Variable measurements employed in this study are well defined and developed tools
from previous studies. Job stress is measured by “Job Stress Questionnaire, JSQ”
proposed by Caplan et al. (1975). This scale included four dimensions, namely (1)
work load, (2) role conflict, (3) role ambiguity and (4) underutilization of abilities,
which comprised thirteen items.

Job satisfaction is measured by “The Job Diagnostic Survey” proposed by Hackman

and Oldham (1980) and included fourteen items. Finally, life satisfaction is measured
by “the Satisfaction With Life Scale, SWLS” proposed by Diener, Emmons, Larsen
and Griffin (1985) and includes five items.

Based on above discussions, variable definitions and measurements are listed in the
table 2. The scales and items of three main variables are illustrated in the Appendix.

8
 Table 2 Variable definitions and measurements

Variables Definitions Sources Items

Job stress “a situation in which some characteristics Job Stress 13

of the work situation are thought to cause Questionnaire
poor psychological or physical health, or to (JSQ) (Caplan et
cause risk factors making poor health more al., 1975)
likely.” (Beehr, 1995. p.11.)

Job Includes general elements and specific The job 14

satisfaction elements: the whole perception of job diagnostic survey
pleasure is considered as general elements; (Hackman &
job security, pay, co-worker, supervision Oldham, 1980)
and personal growth and development are
considered as specific elements (Hackman
& Oldham, 1980).

Life “a cognitive, judgmental process. It The Satisfaction 5

satisfaction dependent upon a comparison of one’s With Life Scale
circumstances with what is thought to be (SWLS) (Diener
an appropriate standard.” (Diener et al., et al., 1985)
1985. p.71).

3.3 Samples and Procedures

Mail survey is employed in this study. In order to avoid bias, our sample includes
different types and sizes of businesses or industries in Taiwan. In each selected
business, we mailed two identical questionnaires to its IS department to be distributed
to a managerial worker and a technical employee respectively. Two sampling pools
are predominantly employed.

For small and medium businesses, members from two associations are selected to be
sampling pools, including members of Information Management Association (IMA)
and Information Service Industry Association in Taiwan. In total, 203 random subjects
are selected.

For large businesses, 575 businesses were stratified, using random selections from
Taiwan’s top 1,000 businesses in the manufacturing industry, top 500 businesses in
the service industry and top 100 businesses in the financial industry.

9
A total of 1353 questionnaires were delivered. Data were systematically collected and
analyzed from April 2005 to April 2006. Those incomplete questionnaires – defined
as more than 10% items are not answered properly - were classified as unusable
responses and thus were excluded from our study. In total, 257 usable questionnaires
were returned, which comprised a return rate of 19%. Among them, 144 (56%)
questionnaires are returned from small and medium businesses, while 113 (44%)
questionnaires are returned from large businesses.

4. DATA ANLAYSIS

4.1 Sample Profiles

Among 257 respondents, 178 (70.1%) are male and 76 (29.9%) are female, while
another 3 respondent didn’t answer the gender question (please refer to table 3). Most
of the respondents (82%) are under 40 years (please refer to table 4). Based on the
classification scheme, 59.9% of the respondents are technical employees and the rest
39.7% are managerial employees. Profiles of the respondents are list in table 3 and 4.

Table 3 Profiles of Respondents (Categories * Gender)

Categories Number of Percentage Gender Number of Percentage

respondents of total respondents by
sample categories
Technical 154 59.9% Male 109 70.8%
employees Female 45 29.2%
Managerial 102 39.7% Male 69 69.0%
employees Female 31 31.0%

Table 4 Profiles of respondents (Categories * Age)

Categories Number of Percentage Age Number of Percentage
respondents of total respondents by
sample categories
Technical 154 59.9% Under 30 86 55.8%
employees 31~40 54 35.1%
41~50 13 8.4%
Over 50 1 0.6%
Managerial 102 39.7% Under 30 35 34.3%
employees 31~40 35 34.3%
41~50 28 27.5%
Over 50 4 3.9%

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4.2 Measurement Reliability

Cronbach’s α is employed to test instrument reliability. Hair et al. (1998, p. 88)

indicated that “Cronbach’s alpha is used to measure reliability that ranges from 0 to 1,
with values of .60 to .70 deemed as the lower limit of acceptability.” In this study, the
α value of job stress is 0.74, job satisfaction is 0.81, and life satisfaction is 0.86
respectively. All the values are higher than 0.7 and therefore are reasonably
acceptable.

4.3 Comparisons Between Job Stress, Job Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction

Independent samples T test is employed to compare means of job stress, work

satisfaction and life satisfaction between technical and managerial employees.
Descriptive statistics are illustrated as table 5, while t-tests of these three variables
between managerial and technical personnel are listed in table 6. T-test results showed
that both job satisfaction (p=0.01) and life satisfaction (p=0.04) have significant
difference between technical and managerial employees, while difference in job stress
(technical employee (mean=2.89) is higher than managerial employees (mean=2.84)),
has no significance statistically. Additionally, from table 5, we can find that
managerial employees have higher job and life satisfaction, but have lower job stress.
Based on the findings, hypothesis 1 and 2 are supported by the survey data.

Table 5 Descriptive statistics

Variables Categories Numbers Mean Standard
Deviation
Job stress Technical 154 2.89 0.37
employees
Managerial 102 2.84 0.36
employees
Job Technical 154 3.35 0.48
satisfaction employees
Managerial 102 3.52 0.45
employees
Life Technical 154 2.94 0.65
satisfaction employees
Managerial 102 3.11 0.60
employees

Table 6 Results
Variables T value Degree of freedom P-value
Job stress 0.92 254 0.36
Job satisfaction -2.77 254 0.01**
Life satisfaction -2.13 252 0.04**
Note: **: p<0.05

11
4.4 Factors Affecting Life Satisfaction

This study further used multiple regression analysis to understand factors that will
affect life satisfaction, with life satisfaction as a dependent variable and job stress and
job satisfaction variables as independent variables.

Regression results are shown in Tables 7 and 8. Table 7 depicts the computed F-value
and R square to understand the overall significance of the regression model. Research
model yielding significant p-values (p<0.01) and R square around 27 percent of the
variance in life satisfaction was explained. Table 8 lists detailed data on the statistical
coefficients of the regression model. Therefore, hypotheses 3 and 4 are supported by
the collected data.

Table 7 Summary of Regression Analysis: Factors Affecting Life Satisfaction

Regression Statistics F-Value P-Value Adj-R2 Durbin-Watson Test

Values 47.46 0.00** 0.27 1.81
**: p<.01

Table 8 Relationships Between Job Stress, Job Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction

Variables Regression Standard Error of Standardized Regression

Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient (beta) (p-value)
Job stress -0.20 0.10 -0.11 (0.04)*
Job satisfaction 0.64 0.07 0.48 (0.00)**
*: p<0.05; **: p<0.01

4.5 Effects of Job Stress Toward Job Satisfaction

We also used multiple regression analysis to understand the effects of job stress
versus job satisfaction. With job satisfaction as dependent variable and job stress as
independent variable, a regression equation to represent this relationship is computed.

Regression results are shown in Tables 9 and 10. Table 9 depicts the computed
F-value and R square to understand the overall significance of the regression model.
Research model yielding significant p-values (p<0.01) and R square around 8 percent
of the variance in job satisfaction was explained. Table 10 lists detailed data on the
statistical coefficients of the regression model. Therefore, hypothesis 5 is supported
by the collected data.

12
 Table 9 Summary of Regression Analysis:
Effects of Job Stress Toward Job Satisfaction

Regression Statistics F-Value P-Value Adj-R2 Durbin-Watson Test

Values 22.60 0.00** 0.08 1.75
**: p<0.01

Table 10 Relationships Between Job Stress and Job Satisfaction

Variables Regression Standard Error of Standardized Regression
Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient (beta) (p-value)
Job stress -0.37 0.08 -0.29(0.00)**
**: p<0.01

5. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Many IS employees around the world work in stressful environments due to the
rapidly changing environment for information technology. Under stressful working
conditions, many IS personnel reports low job satisfaction and often quits their jobs or
get fired. Many studies focus on job stress and job satisfaction. This paper
differentiates itself from other similar studies by emphasizing the importance of
quality of life for IS employees. This is important because many human resource
managers know intuitively that when employees are happy with their work and life,
they tend to be more motivated and outperform their peers. The purpose of this study
is to investigate and understand what makes employees happy and how job stress, job
satisfaction, and life satisfaction play a role. Moreover, we investigate the differences
in stress and satisfaction levels between technical and managerial employees. Results
are summarized in figure 2.

Different from previous researches, this study proposed another scheme utilizing job
contents to classify IS employees into managerial and technical staff. Additionally,
this is the first time comprehensive information on Taiwanese IS personnel’s job
satisfaction and life satisfaction is collected from a large sample of small, medium,
and large businesses. The results of the investigation and subsequent analysis revealed
significance statistically in that managerial IS employees have higher job satisfaction
and life satisfaction than IS technical employees. Additionally, managerial IS
employees have less job stress than IS technical employees (technical employees
(mean=2.89) is higher than managerial employees (mean=2.84)). Furthermore, we
found that job stress negatively affects life satisfaction, while job satisfaction
positively affects life satisfaction. Finally, our findings also indicate that job stress
negatively affects job satisfaction of IS employees. In other words, although

13
managerial and technical employees both suffer from similar levels of stress,
managerial employees tend to be more satisfied with their job and their lives. Our
study reveals that employees that are dissatisfied with their jobs also tend to be
dissatisfied with their lives.

Job
Satisfaction
H4(+)=>supported
(H1)=>supported
(beta=0.48)
Life Satisfaction
H5(-)=>supported
(beta= - 0.29) (H2)=>supported

Job
Stress H3(-)=>supported
(beta= - 0.11)

Figure 2 Research Results

The degree of job autonomy is one of the major sources of stress and satisfaction
between managerial and technical employees. For personal life philosophy, some
people are seeking for stable income while others are seeking high risks and high
profits. Based on the results of this study, we infer that when people have higher job
freedom (autonomy) they might have higher job and life satisfaction. This is what an
IS manager should consider when he/she wishes to manage IS human resources
effectively. In order to inspire and enhance the satisfaction of their jobs and lives of
technical IS personnel, businesses should compensate them with equitable incentives.
These incentives should include monetary rewards, non-monetary (motivational)
rewards, key decision making influence, career path publicity, career planning tool
availability and advancement criteria equity (Ridings and Eder, 1998).

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