ECE 333

Renewable Energy Systems

Lecture 14: Power Flow

Prof. Tom Overbye

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
overbye@illinois.edu
Announcements

• Power flow is only covered in lecture; not in the book

• No quiz today
• HW 6 is posted on the website and is due on Thursday
March 19. HW 6 must be turned in and will count the
same as a quiz. There will be no quiz on March 19.
• Start Reading Chapter 4 (The Solar Resource)

1
Bus Admittance Matrix or Ybus

• First step in solving the power flow is to create what is

known as the bus admittance matrix, often call the Ybus.
• The Ybus gives the relationships between all the bus
current injections, I, and all the bus voltages, V,
I = Ybus V
• The Ybus is developed by applying KCL at each bus in
the system to relate the bus current injections, the bus
voltages, and the branch impedances and admittances

2
 Ybus Example

Determine the bus admittance matrix for the network

shown below, assuming the current injection at each
bus i is Ii = IGi - IDi where IGi is the current injection into
the bus from the generator and IDi is the current flowing
into the load

3
Ybus Example, cont’d
By KCL at bus 1 we have
I1 IG1  I D1
V1  V2 V1  V3
I1  I12  I13  
ZA ZB
1
I1  (V1  V2 )YA  (V1  V3 )YB (with Yj  )
Zj
 (YA  YB )V1  YA V2  YB V3
Similarly
I 2  I 21  I 23  I 24
 YA V1  (YA  YC  YD )V2  YC V3  YD V4 4
 Ybus Example, cont’d
We can get similar relationships for buses 3 and 4
The results can then be expressed in matrix form
I  Ybus V
 I1  YA  YB YA YB 0  V1 
 I   Y YA  YC  YD YC YD  V2 
  
2 A  
 I 3   YB YC YB  YC 0  V3 
I   0 YD YD  V4 
 4  0

For a system with n buses, Ybus is an n by n

symmetric matrix (i.e., one where Aij = Aji)
5
Ybus General Form

•The diagonal terms, Yii, are the self admittance

terms, equal to the sum of the admittances of all
devices incident to bus i.

•The off-diagonal terms, Yij, are equal to the

negative of the sum of the admittances joining the
two buses.
•With large systems Ybus is a sparse matrix (that is,
most entries are zero)

6
Power Flow Analysis

• When analyzing power systems we know neither

the complex bus voltages nor the complex current
injections
• Rather, we know the complex power being
consumed by the load, and the power being injected
by the generators plus their voltage magnitudes
• Therefore we can not directly use the Ybus equations,
but rather must use the power balance equations

7
Power Flow Slack Bus

• We can not arbitrarily specify S at all buses because

total generation must equal total load + total losses
• We also need an angle reference bus.
• To solve these problems we define one bus as the
"slack" bus. This bus has a fixed voltage magnitude
and angle, and a varying real/reactive power
injection.
• A “slack bus” does not exist in the real power
system.

8
Power Balance Equations
From KCL we know at each bus i in an n bus system
the current injection, I i , must be equal to the current
that flows into the network
n
I i  I Gi  I Di   Iik
k 1
Since I = Ybus V we also know
n
I i  I Gi  I Di   YikVk
k 1

The network power injection is then Si  Vi I i*

9
Power Balance Equations, cont’d
*
 n  n
Si  Vi I i*  Vi   YikVk   Vi  Yik*Vk*
 k 1  k 1
This is an equation with complex numbers.
Sometimes we would like an equivalent set of real
power equations. These can be derived by defining
Yik Gik  jBik
Vi Vi e ji  Vi  i
 ik i   k
Recall e j  cos  j sin 
10
 Real Power Balance Equations
n n
j ik
Si  Pi  jQi  Vi  Yik*Vk*   i k
V V e (Gik  jBik )
k 1 k 1
n
  Vi Vk (cos ik  j sin  ik )(Gik  jBik )
k 1
Resolving into the real and imaginary parts
n
Pi   Vi Vk (Gik cos ik  Bik sinik )  PGi  PDi
k 1
n
Qi   Vi Vk (Gik sinik  Bik cosik )  QGi  QDi
k 1

11
 Newton-Raphson Method (scalar)
General form of problem: Find an x such that
f ( xˆ )  0
1. For each guess of xˆ , x ( v ) , define
x ( v )  xˆ - x ( v )
2. Represent f ( xˆ ) by a Taylor series about f ( x )
(v)
df ( x ) (v)
f ( xˆ )  f ( x ) 
(v)
x 
dx
1 d 2 f ( x( v ) )
 
2
 x (v)
 higher order terms
2 dx 2
12
 Newton-Raphson Method, cont’d
3. Approximate f ( xˆ ) by neglecting all terms
except the first two
(v)
df ( x ) (v)
f ( xˆ )  0  f ( x ) 
(v)
x
dx
4. Use this linear approximation to solve for x ( v )
1
 df ( x )  (v)
x (v)
   f ( x (v)
)
 dx 
5. Solve for a new estimate of x̂
x ( v 1)  x ( v )  x ( v )
13
Newton-Raphson Example
Use Newton-Raphson to solve f ( x)  x 2 - 2  0
The equation we must iteratively solve is
1
 df ( x ) 
(v )
x (v)
   f ( x (v)
)
 dx 
x ( v )  1  (v) 2
   ( v )  (( x ) - 2)
2x 
( v 1)
x  x (v)
 x (v)

x ( v 1)
 x (v)  1  (v) 2
  (v )  (( x ) - 2)
2x 
14
 Newton-Raphson Example, cont’d

x ( v 1)
 x (v )  1  (v ) 2
  ( v )  (( x ) - 2)
2x 
Guess x (0)  1. Iteratively solving we get
v x(v ) f ( x(v ) ) x (v )
0 1 1 0.5
1 1.5 0.25 0.08333
2 1.41667 6.953  103 2.454  103
3 1.41422 6.024  106

15
Newton-Raphson Comments

• When close to the solution the error decreases quite

quickly -- method has quadratic convergence
• f(x(v)) is known as the mismatch, which we would
like to drive to zero
• Stopping criteria is when f(x(v))  < 
• Results are dependent upon the initial guess. What
if we had guessed x(0) = 0, or x (0) = -1?
• A solution’s region of attraction (ROA) is the set of
initial guesses that converge to the particular
solution. The ROA is often hard to determine

16
Multi-Variable Newton-Raphson
Next we generalize to the case where x is an n-
dimension vector, and f (x) is an n-dimension function
 x1   f1 (x) 
x   f ( x) 
x   2 f ( x)   2 
   
x   f ( x) 
 n  n 
Again define the solution xˆ so f (xˆ )  0 and
x  xˆ  x

17
Multi-Variable Case, cont’d
The Taylor series expansion is written for each fi (x)
f1 (x) f1 ( x)
f1 (xˆ )  f1 (x)  x1  x2 
x1 x2
f1 (x)
xn  higher order terms
xn

f n (x) f n (x)
f n (xˆ )  f n (x)  x1  x2 
x1 x2
f n (x)
xn  higher order terms
xn
18
 Multi-Variable Case, cont’d
This can be written more compactly in matrix form
 f1 (x) f1 (x) f1 (x) 
 x x2 xn 
 f1 (x)     x1 
1

 f (x)   f 2 (x) f 2 (x) f 2 (x)  

x 
f (xˆ )   2    x1 x2 xn   2 
    
 f ( x)   
 
 n   f (x) f (x) f n (x)   n 
x
 n n

 x1 x2 xn 
 higher order terms

19
Jacobian Matrix
The n by n matrix of partial derivatives is known
as the Jacobian matrix, J (x)
 f1 (x) f1 (x) f1 (x) 
 x x2 xn 
 1

 f 2 (x) f 2 (x) f 2 (x) 
J (x)   x1 x2 xn 
 
 
 f (x) f n (x) f n (x) 
 n 
 x1 x2 xn 

20
 Multi-Variable N-R Procedure
Derivation of N-R method is similar to the scalar case
f (xˆ )  f (x)  J (x)x  higher order terms
f (xˆ )  0  f (x)  J (x)x
x  J (x) 1f (x)
x( v 1)  x( v )  x( v )
( v 1) ( v ) 1
x  x (v)
 J (x ) f (x )(v)

Iterate until f (x( v ) )  

21
Multi-Variable Example
 x1 
Solve for x =   such that f (x)  0 where
x2 
f1 (x)  2 x12  x22  8  0
f 2 (x)  x12  x22  x1x2  4  0
First symbolically determine the Jacobian
 f1 (x) f1 ( x) 
 x x2 
J (x) =  1

 f 2 (x) f 2 (x) 
 x1 x2 
22
Multi-variable Example, cont’d
 4 x1 2 x2 
J (x) = 
 2 x1  x2 x1  2 x2 
Then
1
 x1   4 x1 2 x2   f1 (x) 
 x     2 x  x x1  2 x2   f 2 (x) 
 2  1 2
1
Arbitrarily guess x(0)  
1
1
1  4 2   5  2.1
x (1)
        
1  3 1  3 1.3 
23
 Multi-variable Example, cont’d
1
 2.1 8.40 2.60   2.51 1.8284 
x(2)
        
  
1.3 5.50  0.50   1.45  1.2122 
Each iteration we check f (x) to see if it is below our
specified tolerance 
0.1556 
f (x )  
(2)

 0.0900 
If  = 0.2 then we would be done. Otherwise we'd
continue iterating.

24
 Newton-Raphson Power Flow
In the Newton-Raphson power flow we use Newton's
method to determine the voltage magnitude and angle
at each bus in the power system.
We need to solve the power balance equations
n
Pi   Vi Vk (Gik cos ik  Bik sin  ik )  PGi  PDi
k 1
n
Qi   Vi Vk (Gik sin  ik  Bik cos ik )  QGi  QDi
k 1
 Power Flow Variables
Assume the slack bus is the first bus (with a fixed
voltage angle/magnitude). We then need to determine
the voltage angle/magnitude at the other buses.
 2   P2 (x)  PG 2  PD 2 
   
   
 n   Pn (x)  PGn  PDn 
x    f ( x)  
V Q2 (x)  QG 2  QD 2 
 2  
   
   
 Vn   Qn (x)  QGn  QDn 
N-R Power Flow Solution
The power flow is solved using the same procedure
discussed last time:
Set v  0; make an initial guess of x, x( v )
While f (x( v ) )   Do

x( v 1)  x(v )  J (x(v ) ) 1f (x(v ) )

v  v 1
End While
Power Flow Jacobian Matrix
The most difficult part of the algorithm is determining
and inverting the n by n Jacobian matrix, J (x)
 f1 (x) f1 (x) f1 (x) 
 x x2 xn 
 1

 f 2 (x) f 2 (x) f 2 (x) 
J (x)   x1 x2 xn 
 
 
 f (x) f (x) f n (x) 
 n n

 x1 x2 xn 
 Power Flow Jacobian Matrix, cont’d
Jacobian elements are calculated by differentiating
each function, fi (x), with respect to each variable.
For example, if fi (x) is the bus i real power equation
n
fi ( x)   Vi Vk (Gik cos ik  Bik sin  ik )  PGi  PDi
k 1

fi ( x) n

 i
  Vi Vk (Gik sin  ik  Bik cosik )
k 1
k i

fi ( x)
 Vi V j (Gik sin  ik  Bik cosik ) ( j  i )
 j
Two Bus Newton-Raphson Example

For the two bus power system shown below, use the
Newton-Raphson power flow to determine the
voltage magnitude and angle at bus two. Assume
that bus one is the slack and SBase = 100 MVA.
Line Z = 0.1j

One 1.000 pu Two 1.000 pu

0 MW 200 MW
0 MVR 100 MVR

2    j10 j10 

x    Ybus   
 V2   j10  j10 
 Two Bus Example, cont’d
General power balance equations
n
Pi   Vi Vk (Gik cosik  Bik sin ik )  PGi  PDi
k 1
n
Qi   Vi Vk (Gik sin ik  Bik cosik )  QGi  QDi
k 1
Bus two power balance equations
V2 V1 (10sin  2 )  2.0  0
V2 V1 ( 10cos  2 )  V2 (10)  1.0  0
2
Two Bus Example, cont’d

P2 (x)  V2 (10sin  2 )  2.0  0

Q2 (x)  V2 (10cos 2 )  V2 (10)  1.0  0
2

Now calculate the power flow Jacobian

 P2 (x) P2 (x) 
  V 2 
J ( x)   2

 Q 2 (x) Q 2 ( x) 
   V 2 
 2

10 V2 cos 2 10sin  2 

 
10 V2 sin  2 10cos 2  20 V2 
 Two Bus Example, First Iteration
0 
Set v  0, guess x (0)
 
1 
Calculate
 V2 (10sin  2 )  2.0   2.0 
f(x )  
(0)
  1.0 
 V2 (10cos 2 )  V2 (10)  1.0 
2
 
10 V2 cos 2 10sin  2  10 0 
J (x )  
(0)
   0 10 
10 V2 sin  2 10cos 2  20 V2   
1
0  10 0   2.0  0.2
Solve x (1)
   1.0    
  
1 0 10     0.9 
Two Bus Example, Next Iterations

 0.9(10sin(0.2))  2.0  0.212 

f(x )  
(1)
 
0.9(10cos(0.2))  0.9  10  1.0  
2 0.279 
 8.82 1.986 
J (x )  
(1)

 1.788 8.199 
1
 0.2   8.82 1.986  0.212  0.233
x 
(2)
       
 0.9   1.788 8.199   0.279   0.8586 
 0.0145  0.236
f(x )  
(2)
 x (3)
  
 0.0190   0.8554 
0.0000906
f(x )  
(3)
 Done! V2  0.8554  13.52
 0.0001175 
Two Bus Solved Values

Once the voltage angle and magnitude at bus 2 are

known we can calculate all the other system values,
such as the line flows and the generator reactive
power output
200.0 MW -200.0 MW
168.3 MVR Line Z = 0.1j -100.0 MVR

One 1.000 pu Two 0.855 pu -13.522 Deg

200.0 MW 200 MW
168.3 MVR 100 MVR
PV Buses

• Since the voltage magnitude at PV buses is fixed

there is no need to explicitly include these voltages
in x or write the reactive power balance equations
– the reactive power output of the generator varies to
maintain the fixed terminal voltage (within limits)
– optionally these variations/equations can be included by
just writing the explicit voltage constraint for the
generator bus

|Vi | – Vi setpoint = 0
Three Bus PV Case Example
For this three bus case we have
 2   P2 (x)  PG 2  PD 2 
x   3  f (x)   P3 (x)  PG 3  PD3   0
   
 V2   Q2 (x)  QD 2 
Line Z = 0.1j

0.941 pu
One 1.000 pu Two -7.469 Deg

170.0 MW 200 MW
68.2 MVR 100 MVR
Line Z = 0.1j Line Z = 0.1j

Three 1.000 pu

30 MW
63 MVR
Solving Large Power Systems

• The most difficult computational task is inverting the

Jacobian matrix
– inverting a full matrix is an order n3 operation, meaning
the amount of computation increases with the cube of the
size size
– this amount of computation can be decreased substantially
by recognizing that since the Ybus is a sparse matrix, the
Jacobian is also a sparse matrix
– using sparse matrix methods results in a computational
order of about n1.5.
– this is a substantial savings when solving systems with
tens of thousands of buses
40 Bus Power Flow Example

Eagle
Island Electric Company (IEC)
1 .0 1 3 pu
13%
1 .0 1 8 pu
1 .0 2 0 pu 44% Robin
39% 38%
Pheasant 9 5 MW Flamingo 8 3 M var
5 0 5 MW
0 .9 9 2 pu

System Losses: 35.22 MW

1 1 0 MW
2 3 M var 8 7 MW
3 0 0 MW 1 9 M var 0 .9 9 9 pu 3 0 M var
24% 2 0 0 MW 13% 2%
1 .0 1 0 pu 6 0 M var

1 5 0 MW
7 5 MW
1 5 M var
Canary 1 .0 0 6 pu
1 9 8 MW
5% 1 6 0 MW
3 5 M var
1 .0 1 8 pu 7 0 M var 3 5 M var
19% 46% 5 6 M var
3 5 0 MW 0 .9 9 3 pu
1 .0 1 5 pu

Dove
7 8 M var 1 1 2 MW
Woodpecker
8%
28%
16% 17% 9%
4 0 M var
Rook 30%

1 .0 1 5 pu 1 .0 2 3 pu 1 .0 1 2 pu 1 1 5 MW
1 .0 1 8 pu 2 5 M var

Cardinal
12% 17%
24%
Parrot 1 .0 1 5 pu 35%
5 7 M var 1 .0 1 9 pu 2 6 8 MW 0 .9 9 1 pu
1 3 0 MW
3 0 M var Turkey 14% 1 2 8 M var
29%

Sparrow
1 .0 1 0 pu
10% 7%
8% 30% 1 .0 0 5 pu
1 .0 1 4 pu

Bluebird
0 .9 9 3 pu
6%
14% 45%
30% 13%
1 7 5 MW
Ostrich 1 .0 1 5 pu
0 .9 9 6 pu 18%
4 0 M var
0 .9 9 6 pu 1 3 2 MW
28%
Mallard 1 5 M var
7%
1 5 0 MW
3 9 M var 23%
5 1 M var
22%

6 0 MW
1 .0 0 2 pu Owl 0 .9 9 3 pu 27%
1 .0 1 4 pu
1 5 M var

Hawk
7 0 M var 1 3 0 MW

Piper
36%
4 5 M var 10%
0 .0 0 0 pu 2%
1 6 5 MW

Finch Oriole 35%

NewWind
3% 3 0 M var 0 .9 8 9 pu
7% 1 .0 0 1 pu 1 .0 1 5 pu
0 .9 9 4 pu
22% sl a ck

16%

Crow 0 .9 9 7 pu 45% 11% 1 4 0 MW 3 9 6 MW

0 MW 3%
1 3 5 MW
19%
1 2 8 MW
3 2 M var 1 7 6 MW
1 5 M var 33%
2 0 M var 0 .9 8 8 pu 2 8 M var 57%
5 5 MW
1 5 M var
6%
Lark 0 .9 9 6 pu
Heron 47%

Finch 0 .9 9 9 pu
22%
1 6 1 MW
53% 2 1 M var
48%
1 4 0 MW
2 0 M var
Condor
47% 1 .0 2 5 pu

Peacock 1 .0 0 4 pu 1 .0 1 0 pu

Hen
9 0 0 MW
8 8 MW 4% 1 1 2 0 MW
78% 78%
1 1 M var

1 .0 2 0 pu
Good Power System Operation

• Good power system operation requires that there be no

reliability violations for either the current condition or in
the event of statistically likely contingencies
• Reliability requires as a minimum that there be no transmission
line/transformer limit violations and that bus voltages be within
acceptable limits (perhaps 0.95 to 1.08)
• Example contingencies are the loss of any single device. This
is known as n-1 reliability.
• North American Electric Reliability Corporation now has
legal authority to enforce reliability standards (and there
are now lots of them). See
http://www.nerc.com for details (click on Standards)
Looking at the Impact of Line and
Transformer Outages
Eagle
Island Electric Company (IEC)
1 .0 1 3 pu
13%
1 .0 1 8 pu
1 .0 2 0 pu 43% Robin
39% 39%
Pheasant 9 5 MW Flamingo 8 3 M var
5 0 5 MW
0 .9 9 1 pu

System Losses: 37.50 MW

1 1 0 MW
2 3 M var 8 7 MW
3 0 0 MW 1 9 M var 0 .9 9 9 pu 3 0 M var
23% 2 0 0 MW 13% 3%
1 .0 1 0 pu 6 0 M var

1 5 0 MW
7 5 MW
1 5 M var
Canary 1 .0 0 6 pu
1 9 8 MW
5% 1 6 0 MW
3 5 M var
1 .0 1 4 pu 7 0 M var 3 5 M var
20% 45% 5 6 M var
3 5 0 MW 0 .9 9 2 pu
1 .0 1 5 pu

Dove
7 8 M var 1 1 2 MW
Woodpecker
9%
30%
17% 16% 9%
4 0 M var
Rook 30%

1 .0 1 5 pu 1 .0 2 2 pu 1 .0 1 1 pu 1 1 5 MW
1 .0 1 4 pu 2 5 M var

Cardinal
13% 19%
24%
Parrot 1 .0 1 3 pu 37%
5 7 M var 1 .0 1 6 pu 2 6 8 MW 0 .9 9 0 pu
1 3 0 MW
3 0 M var Turkey 15% 1 2 8 M var
29%

Sparrow
1 .0 0 9 pu
12% 8%
9% 32% 1 .0 0 3 pu
1 .0 1 1 pu

Bluebird
0 .9 9 1 pu
7%
16% 49%
33% 15%
1 7 5 MW
Ostrich 1 .0 1 1 pu
0 .9 9 3 pu 23%
4 0 M var
0 .9 8 8 pu 1 3 2 MW
31%
Mallard 1 5 M var
11%
1 5 0 MW
3 9 M var 25%
5 1 M var
23%

6 0 MW
0 .9 9 6 pu Owl 0 .9 9 0 pu 32%
1 .0 1 1 pu
1 5 M var

Hawk
6 8 M var 1 3 0 MW

Piper
41%
4 5 M var 16%
0 .0 0 0 pu 6%
1 6 5 MW

Finch Oriole 37%

NewWind
9% 3 0 M var 0 .9 8 3 pu
4% 0 .9 8 8 pu 1 .0 1 5 pu
0 .9 9 1 pu
32% sl a ck

9%

Crow 0 .9 8 7 pu 46% 2% 1 4 0 MW 3 9 8 MW

0 MW 4%
1 3 5 MW
19%
1 2 8 MW
3 2 M var 1 7 6 MW
1 5 M var 37%
2 0 M var 0 .9 7 4 pu 2 8 M var 62%
5 5 MW
1 5 M var
3%
Lark 0 .9 8 2 pu
Heron 40%

Finch 0 .9 8 6 pu
20%
1 6 1 MW
52% 2 1 M var
41%
1 4 0 MW
2 0 M var
Condor
42% 1 .0 2 5 pu

Peacock 0 .9 9 0 pu 0 .9 9 4 pu

Hen
9 0 0 MW
8% 1 1 2 0 MW
8 8 MW 139%
1 1 M var

1 .0 2 0 pu
40 Bus Example: New Wind
Generation
Eagle
Island Electric Company (IEC)
1 .0 1 2 pu
13%
1 .0 1 7 pu
1 .0 2 0 pu 45% Robin
36% 36%
Pheasant 9 5 MW Flamingo 8 3 M var
5 0 5 MW
0 .9 8 7 pu

System Losses: 129.92 MW

1 1 0 MW
2 3 M var 8 7 MW
3 0 0 MW 1 9 M var 0 .9 9 7 pu 3 0 M var
35% 2 0 0 MW 16% 1%
1 .0 1 0 pu 6 0 M var

1 5 0 MW
7 5 MW
1 5 M var
Canary 1 .0 0 5 pu
1 9 8 MW
4% 1 6 0 MW
3 5 M var
0 .9 0 7 pu 7 0 M var 3 5 M var
10% 53% 5 5 M var
3 5 0 MW 0 .9 8 7 pu
1 .0 1 2 pu

Dove
7 6 M var 1 1 2 MW
Woodpecker
6%
45%
26% 31% 12%
4 0 M var
Rook 29%

1 .0 1 2 pu 1 .0 0 9 pu 1 .0 0 4 pu 1 1 5 MW
0 .8 5 0 pu 2 5 M var

Cardinal
9% 8%
35%
Parrot 0 .9 9 8 pu 15%
4 0 M var 0 .9 5 3 pu 2 6 8 MW 0 .9 8 5 pu
1 3 0 MW
3 0 M var Turkey 14% 1 2 8 M var
27%

Sparrow
1 .0 0 4 pu
30% 11%
11% 28% 0 .9 9 7 pu
0 .9 7 3 pu

Bluebird
0 .9 7 3 pu
52%
14% 30%
33% 5%
1 7 5 MW
Ostrich 0 .9 4 7 pu
0 .9 5 5 pu 11%
4 0 M var
0 .6 5 3 pu 1 3 2 MW
28%
Mallard 1 5 M var
13%
1 5 0 MW
3 9 M var 13%
4 9 M var
15%

5 9 MW
0 .8 8 5 pu Owl 0 .9 5 2 pu 24%
0 .9 8 9 pu
1 5 M var

Hawk
6 2 M var 1 3 0 MW

Piper
35%
4 5 M var 8%
0 .6 5 7 pu 9%
1 6 5 MW

Finch Oriole 36%

NewWind
30% 3 0 M var 0 .9 4 4 pu
131% 0 .9 4 0 pu 1 .0 1 5 pu
0 .9 5 6 pu
17% sl a ck

70%

Crow 0 .8 4 3 pu 44% 19% 1 4 0 MW -1 1 0 M W

600 MW 5%
1 3 5 MW
10%
1 2 8 MW
3 2 M var 1 7 6 MW
1 5 M var 54%
2 0 M var 0 .9 2 5 pu 2 8 M var 47%
5 5 MW
1 5 M var
27%
Lark 0 .9 3 3 pu
Heron 42%

Finch 0 .9 4 2 pu
23%
1 6 1 MW
54% 2 1 M var
43%
1 4 0 MW
2 0 M var
Condor
40% 1 .0 2 5 pu

Peacock 0 .9 4 1 pu 0 .9 8 3 pu

Hen
9 0 0 MW
8 8 MW 11% 1 1 2 0 MW
71% 71%
1 1 M var

1 .0 2 0 pu

42