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International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 125–132

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International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhmt

Effect of absorption of solar radiation in glass-cover(s) on heat transfer coefficients


in upward heat flow in single and double glazed flat-plate collectors
Naiem Akhtar a,⇑, S.C. Mullick b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Z.H. College of Engineering & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India
b
Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi 110 016, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Absorption of solar radiation in the glass cover(s) of a flat plate solar collector increases the temperature
Received 9 September 2008 of cover(s) and hence changes the values of convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients. The gov-
Received in revised form 10 June 2011 erning equations for the case of single as well as double glazed collector have been solved for inner and
Accepted 15 July 2011
outer surface temperatures of glass cover(s) with/without including the effect of absorption of solar radi-
Available online 24 September 2011
ation in the glass cover(s), with appropriate boundary conditions. The effects of absorption of solar radi-
ation on inner and outer surface temperatures and consequently on convective and radiative heat
Keywords:
transfer coefficients have been studied over a wide range of the independent variables. The values of glass
Absorption of solar radiation in glass
cover(s)
cover temperatures obtained from numerical solutions of heat balance equations with and without
Heat transfer coefficients including the effect of absorption of solar radiation in the glass cover(s) are compared. For a single glazed
Single and double glazed flat plate collectors collector the increase in glass cover temperature due to absorption of solar radiation could be as high as
6°. The increase in temperatures of first and second glass covers of a double glazed collector could be as
high as 14° and 11°, respectively. The effect on the convective heat transfer coefficient between the absor-
ber plate and the first glass cover is substantial. The difference in the values of the convective heat trans-
fer coefficients between the absorber plate and the first glass cover (hcp1) of a double glazed collector for
the two cases: (i) including the effect of absorption and (ii) neglecting the effect of absorption in glass
cover, could be as high as 49%. Correlations for computing the temperatures of inner and outer surfaces
of the glass cover(s) of single and double glazed flat plate collectors are developed. The relations devel-
oped enable incorporation of the effect of absorption of solar radiation in glass cover(s) in the relations for
inner and outer surface temperatures in a simple manner. By making use of the relations developed for
inner and outer surface temperatures of glass cover(s) the convective and radiative heat transfer coeffi-
cients can be calculated so close to those obtained by making use of surface temperatures of glass cov-
er(s) obtained by numerical solutions of heat balance equations that numerical solutions of heat
balance equations are not required.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction an empirical relation for Ut that was popular at that time. Simi-
larly, Francey and Papaioannou [2] have obtained the wind heat
Solar radiation incident on the aperture of a solar collector is transfer coefficient (hw) experimentally by calculating hw from
transmitted through the glass cover(s) to the absorber plate. A Ut using an empirical relation for Ut. However, the empirical rela-
fraction of the solar radiation is absorbed by the glass cover(s). tion for Ut can lead to large errors as shown in the analytical
Absorption of solar radiation in a glass cover leads to an increase study by Mullick and Samdarshi [3], Samdarshi and Mullick [4]
in its temperature and consequently affects the values of heat and by Akhtar and Mullick [5,6]. In a study on upward heat flow
transfer coefficients. The values of the convective and radiative in solar collectors exposed to solar radiation and in such cases
heat transfer coefficients are often of interest. For example, a where the values of convective and radiative heat transfer coeffi-
method to obtain the emittance of a selective coating by experi- cients are of interest the effect of absorption of solar radiation in
mentation has been presented by Nagar et al. [1]. The emittance the glass cover(s) has to be incorporated in the set of heat balance
has been calculated from the top heat loss coefficient (Ut) using equations (and then numerical solutions have to be obtained).
Correlations for inner and outer surface temperatures of the glass
cover for estimation of heat transfer coefficients in upward heat
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 0571 2721335; +91 9457694976 (mobile); fax: flow in solar collectors with single glazing have been proposed
+91 0571 2701895.
by the authors [7].
E-mail address: akhtar_n@rediffmail.com (N. Akhtar).

0017-9310/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2011.08.048
126 N. Akhtar, S.C. Mullick / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 125–132

Nomenclature

f ratio of outer to inner thermal resistance of a single T temperature (K)


glazed collector a thermal diffusivity (m2 s1)
f1 ratio of thermal resistance between two glass covers to b collector tilt from horizontal (°)
0
the thermal resistance between the absorber plate and b volumetric coefficient of expansion (K1)
first glass cover of a double glazed collector e emittance
f2 ratio of outer to inner thermal resistance of a double v kinematic viscosity of air (m2 s1)
glazed collector r Stefan–Boltzman constant (W m2 K4)
g acceleration due to gravity (m2 s1) ag absorptance of glass cover
hc convective heat transfer coefficient (W m2 K1)
hr radiative heat transfer coefficient (W m2 K1) Subscripts
hw wind heat transfer coefficient (W m2 K1) a ambient air
I intensity of solar radiation on the surface (W m2) g glass cover
k thermal conductivity (W m1 K1) i inner surface of glass cover
L air gap spacing between absorber plate and glass cover o outer-surface of glass cover
of a single glazed collector (m) p absorber plate
L1 air gap spacing between absorber plate and first glass 1 first glass cover of double glazed collector
cover of double glazed collector (m) 2 second glass cover of double glazed collector
L2 air gap spacing between first and second glass cover of a
double glazed collector (m) Superscript
Lg thickness of glass cover (m) ⁄ with absorption of solar radiation in glass cover(s)
Nu Nusselt number (hcL/k) included
Ra Rayleigh number (gb0 DTL3/va)
0
Ra Rayleigh number generalized for tilted layers = Ra cosb

In the present paper the governing heat transfer equations for


the case of single as well as double glazed collectors have been
solved for inner and outer surface temperatures of glass cover(s)
with appropriate boundary conditions. The effect of absorption of
solar radiation in glass cover(s) on inner and outer surface temper-
atures and consequently on convective and radiative heat transfer
coefficients have been studied over a wide range of independent
variables. The intensity of solar radiation has been taken as a var-
iable (in addition to absorber plate temperature, ambient temper-
ature, absorber plate emittance, air gap spacing(s), wind heat
transfer coefficient, and thickness of glass covers). The results ob-
tained are then used to develop appropriate relations for inner
and outer surface temperatures of glass cover(s) of single as well
as double glazed collectors. The relations developed enable incor-
poration of the effect of absorption of solar radiation in glass cov-
er(s) in the relations for inner and outer surface temperatures in a
simple manner.1

2. The heat balance for the glass cover(s) considering absorption


of solar radiation in glass cover(s)

2.1. Single glazed flat plate collector

The thermal network for upward heat flow in a single glazed flat
plate solar collector including the effect of absorption of solar radi-
ation in glass cover is shown Fig. 1(a). Under steady-state condi-
tions the energy absorbed in the glass cover plus the energy
transferred from the absorber plate to the glass cover is equal to
the energy lost from the outer surface of the glass cover to the
atmosphere. Heat balance including absorption of solar radiation Fig. 1. Thermal network for upward heat flow in single and double glazed flat plate
solar collectors including the effect of absorption of solar radiation in glass cover(s).
in glass cover, is given by
     
ag I þ hcpg þ hrpg 
T p  T gi ¼ hrga þ hw T go  T a ; ð1Þ
where the superscript ⁄ indicates the values of the variables when
1
the effect of absorption in glass cover is included.
However, this exercise is not required for the estimation of top heat loss factor
Absorption of solar radiation in the glass cover has been ana-
(Ut) because the effect of absorption in glass cover is taken care of by increasing the
optical efficiency term without changing Ut [6]. It is desirable to have an expression lyzed as a case of uniform heat generation. The rate of heat gener-
for Ut for any absorber temperature, independent of the insolation level [8]. ation per unit volume is (ag I/Lg).
N. Akhtar, S.C. Mullick / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 125–132 127

The boundary conditions are:


Solving the equation for heat conduction across the second
(i) at the inner surface of the glass cover (x = 0), T ¼ T gi , and glass cover and applying the boundary conditions:
   
dT        
kg 
 
¼ hcpg þ hrpg T p  T gi ; kg T 2i  T 2o =Lg2 ¼ hc12 þ hr12 T 1o  T 2i þ 0:5ag I: ð6Þ
dx x¼0
The values of inner and outer surface temperatures of glass cov-
(ii) at the outer surface of the glass cover (x = Lg), T ¼ T go , and
 er of a single glazed collector, T gi and T go , have to be obtained by
dT    
kg 

¼ hw þ hrga T go  T a : numerical solutions of heat balance Eqs. (1) and (2). Similarly,
dx x¼Lg Eqs. (3)–(6) have to be solved simultaneously for determination
of surface temperatures T 1i , T 1o , T 2i and T 2o of a double glazed col-
lector, since the radiative and convective heat transfer coefficients
Solving the equation for heat conduction across glass cover with
(Appendix A) are non-linear functions of these temperatures. Alter-
uniform heat generation and applying the boundary condition at
natively, empirical relations can be developed so that the surface
the inner surface of the glass cover:
 .    temperatures can be obtained without the requirement of numer-
 
kg T gi  T go Lg ¼ hcpg þ hrpg T p  T gi þ 0:5ag I: ð2Þ ical solutions of heat balance equations. Such relations are
proposed.

2.2. Double glazed flat plate collector 3. Prediction of inner and outer surface temperatures of glass
cover(s)
The thermal network for upward heat flow in a double glazed
flat plate solar collector including the effect of absorption of solar Taking into account the effect of absorption of solar radiation in
radiation in glass covers is shown Fig. 1(b). Under steady-state con- glass cover, the values of inner and outer surface temperatures of
ditions the energy transferred from absorber plate to the first glass glass cover(s) have been obtained by iterative procedure/numerical
cover plus the energy absorbed in the first glass cover is equal to solutions of heat balance equations. The values of surface temper-
the energy transferred from the first glass cover to the second glass atures of glass cover (T gi and T go ) of a single glazed collector have
cover. Similarly, the energy transferred upwards from the first been obtained by numerical solutions of the heat balance Eqs. (1)
glass cover to the second glass cover plus the energy absorbed in and (2). The values of T 1i , T 1o , T 2i and T 2o of a double glazed collec-
the second glass cover is equal to the energy lost from the second tor have been obtained by numerical solutions of the heat balance
glass cover to the atmosphere. Incorporating the effect of absorp- Eqs. (3)–(6). The radiative and convective heat transfer coefficients
tion of solar radiation in glass covers, the heat balance for first glass are evaluated by Eqs. (A1)–(A7). In the numerical solutions of heat
cover is given by balance equations, the value of absorptance of glass cover, ag, is ta-
   
     ken as 0.08 (This corresponds to an extinction coefficient of about
hcp1 þ hrp1 ðT p  T 1i Þ þ ag I ¼ hc12 þ hr12 T 1o  T 2i ; ð3Þ
22 m1 for a path length through the glass cover of 4 mm. At nor-
and the heat balance for the second glass cover is mal incidence the path length will be minimum and equal to the
        glass cover thickness.). The effect of absorption of solar radiation
hc12 þ hr12 T 1o  T 2i þ ag I ¼ hr2a þ hw T 2o  T a : ð4Þ in glass cover is dependent on the product of absorptance and
The boundary conditions for the first glass cover are: intensity of solar radiation (ag I). The absorptance in the glass cover
(i) at the inner surface of the first glass cover (x = 0), T ¼ T 1i , is dependent on extinction coefficient of the glass cover and path
and length of solar radiation through the glass cover. The path length
 of solar radiation through the glass cover is depending upon the
dT    
kg
 
¼ hcp1 þ hrp1 T p  T 1i thickness of glass cover and incidence angle. The incidence angle

dx x¼0 is dependent on hour angle, declination, location of the place and
the orientation of the collector. Considering these, in the analysis,
(ii) at the outer surface of the first glass cover (x = Lg1), T ¼ T 1o ,
(ag I) has been taken as a variable so that the relations developed
and
 for surface temperatures of glass cover are valid for other values
dT       of ag as well. Taking the values of surface temperatures of the glass
kg ¼ hc12 þ hr12 T 1o  T 2i
dx x¼Lg1 cover(s) obtained by numerical solutions as the basis, the empirical
relations for surface temperatures of glass cover(s) for single as
Solving the equation for heat conduction across the first glass cover well as double glazed collectors are developed.
and applying the boundary conditions:
3.1. Single glazed flat plate collector
    
 
kg T 1i  T 1o =Lg1 ¼ hcp1 þ hrp1 T p  T 1i þ 0:5ag I: ð5Þ
Including the effect of absorption of solar radiation in glass cov-
The boundary conditions for the second glass cover are: er, the following relation for T gi is developed:
 
T gi ¼ fT p þ T a þ ag I=ðhw þ 6Þ =ð1 þ f Þ; ð7Þ
(i) at the inner surface of the second glass cover (x = 0), T ¼ T 2i ,
and where

dT    3
½12  108 ðT a þ 0:2T p Þ þ hw 
1
þ 1:1Lg
kg 
 
¼ ðhc12 þ hr12 Þ T 1o  T 2i ; f¼ 3
:
dx x¼0 8
½6  10 ðep þ 0:028ÞðT p þ 0:5T a Þ þ 0:6L0:2
1 fðT p  T a Þ cos bg0:25 1
(ii) at the outer surface of the second glass cover (x = Lg2), ð8Þ
T ¼ T 2o , and The equation for the factor f is developed by regression analysis.
 For this, the values of radiative and convective heat transfer coef-
dT 
kg 

¼ ðhw þ hr2a ÞðT 2o  T a Þ: ficients are approximated (the radiation coefficients are known
dx x¼Lg2
functions of emittances and cubes of mean absolute temperatures,
128 N. Akhtar, S.C. Mullick / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 125–132

whereas convective heat transfer coefficients between absorber ing is kept lower than inner air gap spacing. So, the range of outer
plate and glass cover is a function of air gap spacing, cos b and tem- air gap spacing is considered as 10–50 mm and the inner air gap
perature difference) in such a way that the value f (hence the sur- spacing is considered as 10–90 mm. Hence, the relations developed
face temperatures of glass cover) can be computed fairly are valid for a wide range of variables. Temperature dependence of
accurately. the properties of air has been taken into account.
For outer surface temperature of glass cover, T go , the following
relation is developed:
4. Results and discussion
T go ¼ T gi  8:4ðT p  T a ÞLg  0:64ag ILg : ð9Þ
For any combination of the variables, inner and outer surface
temperatures of glass cover of a single glazed collector are ob-
3.2. Double glazed flat plate collector
tained by Eqs. (7)–(9). The values of surface temperatures of glass
cover of a single glazed collector obtained by numerical solutions
The method discussed above for computation of the surface
of heat balance equations for intensity of solar radiation
temperatures of glass cover of flat plate solar collectors with single
I = 600 W/m2, I = 1000 W/m2, as well as those neglecting the effect
glazing has been extended for computing the surface temperatures
of absorption of solar radiation in glass cover are compared, in Figs.
of the two glass covers of double glazed flat plate collectors.
2 and 3. Also shown for comparison are the values obtained by
Including the effect of absorption of solar radiation in glass covers
using the proposed relations: Eqs. (7)–(9). It can be seen from these
of a double glazed collector, the following relation for T 2i is
figures that the proposed relations – Eqs. (7)–(9) – predict the
developed:
changes in surface temperatures due to absorption of solar radia-
T 2i ¼ ½f2 T p þ T a þ 1:4ag I=ðhw þ 5Þ=ð1 þ f2 Þ; ð10Þ tion in glass cover correctly.
The inner and outer surface temperatures of the two glass cov-
where
  ers of a double glazed collector are obtained by Eqs. (10)–(15). Figs.
f2 ¼ f  0:7  0:26ep ð11Þ 4 and 5 show a comparison of the values of surface temperatures of
first glass cover of a double glazed collector obtained by numerical
and f is same as given by Eq. (8).
solutions of heat balance equations for intensity of solar radiation
The outer surface temperature of the second glass cover is ob-
I = 600 W/m2, I = 1000 W/m2, as well as those neglecting the effect
tained as:
of absorption of solar radiation in glass cover. Also shown for com-
T 2o ¼ T 2i  5ðT p  T a ÞLg2  1:9ag ILg2 : ð12Þ parison are the values obtained by using the proposed relations:
Eqs. (13)–(15). The values of surface temperatures of the second
For estimating the surface temperatures of the first glass cover
glass cover of a double glazed collector obtained by numerical
the factor f1, defined as ðT 1i  T 2i Þ=ðT p  T 1i Þ, is obtained by regres-
solutions of heat balance equations for intensity of solar radiation
sion analysis:
I = 600 W/m2, I = 1000 W/m2, as well as those neglecting the effect
h  3 i1 of absorption of solar radiation in glass cover are compared, in Figs.
3:1r T 2o þ DO þ 0:8ðDO CosbÞ0:25 L0:2
2 þ 1:1Lg1
f1 ¼ : ð13Þ 6 and 7. Also shown for comparison are the values obtained by
h i1
3:45rep ðT p  Di Þ3 þ 0:8ðDi CosbÞ0:25 L0:2 using the proposed relations: Eqs. (10)–(12). It can be seen from
1
Figs. 4–7 that the proposed relations – Eqs. (10)–(15) – predict
where Di ¼ ð2  p ÞðT p  T 2i Þ=6 and Do ¼ ð1 þ p ÞðT p  T 2o Þ=6. the changes in surface temperatures due to absorption of solar
Di and Do are obtained by regression analysis so that the value radiation in the two glass covers of a double glazed collector
of f1 (hence T 1i and T 1o ) can be computed fairly accurately. correctly.
The temperature of the inner surface of the first glass cover, T 1i , It has been verified that the values of surface temperatures of
is calculated as: glass cover(s) obtained by the proposed relations, Eqs. (7)–(15),
  are close to those obtained by numerical solutions of the heat bal-
T 1i ¼ f1 T p þ T 2i þ 0:11ag I =ð1 þ f1 Þ: ð14Þ ance equations.
The outer surface temperature of the first glass cover is obtained as: The effect of absorption of solar radiation in glass cover(s) on
temperatures and hence on convective and radiative heat transfer
T 1o ¼ T 1i  4ðT p  T 2i ÞLg1  ag ILg1 : ð15Þ coefficients for the cases of single and double glass covers have
A users’ guide to the method is given in Appendix B. Knowing been studied in detail. It is found by analysis that due to absorption
the inner and outer surface temperatures of glass cover(s), the heat
transfer coefficients can be computed using Eqs. A1, A2, (A3), A4,
330
Inner surface temperature of glass

A5, A6, A7. This leads to calculation of upward heat flow. Num.Solution (I = 1000 W/m)
The range of variables covered in the analysis of single glazed Present work (I = 1000 W/m)
Num.Solution (I = 600 W/m)
collector is 50 °C to 150 °C in the absorber plate temperature, 320 Present work (I = 600 W/m)
0.1–0.95 in absorber coating emittance, 5–45 W/m2 K in wind heat
(K)

Num.Sol. (Neglecting absorption in glass)


transfer coefficient, 20–50 mm in air gap spacing, 0–70 deg in col-
*
gi

lector tilt angle, 10–45 °C in ambient temperature, 3–5 mm in glass 310


cover , T

cover thickness and intensity of solar radiation up to 1000 W/m2.


In the analysis of double glazed collector the range of absorber Ta = 288 K, L = 50 mm
plate temperature is 60–200 °C, inner air gap spacing is 10–90 mm, 300
h w = 15 W/m 2K
outer air gap spacing is 10–50 mm, and other variables are same as o
ε p = 0.1, β = 45
for single glazed collector. The range of variables considered in the
290
analysis is the same as reported in the literature [3–6]. In the anal- 323 333 343 353 363 373 383 393 403 413 423
ysis of double glazed collector the range of inner air gap spacing is
Absorber plate temperature, T p (K)
planned in the broader range, considering the application. Some-
times, the double glazed collectors are used as solar cookers and Fig. 2. Variation of inner surface temperature of glass cover with absorber plate
in the solar cookers/double glazed collectors the outer air gap spac- temperature for a single glazed collector.
N. Akhtar, S.C. Mullick / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 125–132 129

330

Inner surface temperature of second


Num.Solution (I = 1000 W/m)
Ta = 288 K, L = 50 mm
320 Present work (I = 1000 W/m)
Outer surface temperature of

320 hw = 15 W/m K 2
Num.Solution (I = 600 W/m)

glass cover , T 2i * (K)


glass cover , T go * (K)

Present work (I = 600 W/m)


o
310 εp = 0.1 , β = 45 Num.Sol. (Neglecting absorption in glass)
310
300

290 Num.Solution (I = 1000 W/m)


Present work (I = 1000 W/m) 300
Num.Solution (I = 600 W/m) Tp = 383 K, Ta = 293 K, L1 = 50 mm
280 Present work (I = 600 W/m)
Num. Sol. (Neglecting absorption in glass) L 2 = 25 mm, e p = 0.1, β = 45
o

270 290
323 333 343 353 363 373 383 393 403 413 423 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Absorber plate temperature, Tp (K) Wind heat transfer coefficient, h w (W/m 2K)

Fig. 3. Variation of outer surface temperature of glass cover with absorber plate Fig. 6. Variation of inner surface temperature of second glass cover with wind heat
temperature for a single glazed collector. transfer coefficient for a double glazed collector.
Inner surface temperature of first glass

Outer surface temperature of second glass


370 Tp = 383 K, Ta = 293 K, L1 = 50 mm
320
L2 = 25 mm, hw = 15 W/m 2 K, β = 45o Num.Solution (I = 1000 W/m)
360
Present work (I = 1000 W/m)
Num.Solution (I = 600 W/m)
cover , T 1i * (K)

350 Present work (I = 600 W/m)


Num.Sol. (Neglecting absorption in glass)

cover , T 2o * (K)
310
340

330 Num.Solution (I = 1000 W/m)


Present work (I = 1000 W/m)
Num.Solution (I = 600 W/m)
320 Present work (I = 600 W/m) 300
Num. Sol. (Neglecting absorption in glass)
T p = 383 K, T a = 293 K, L1 = 50 mm
310
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 o
L 2 = 25 mm, ep = 0.1 , β = 45
Plate emittance, εp 290
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Fig. 4. Variation of inner surface temperature of first glass cover with absorber 2
Wind heat transfer coefficient, h w (W/m K)
plate emittance for a double glazed collector.
Fig. 7. Variation of outer surface temperature of second glass cover with wind heat
transfer coefficient for a double glazed collector.
Outer surface temperature of first glass

370
Tp = 383 K, Ta = 293 K, L1 = 50 mm
collector the resulting effect on temperature of first glass cover is
360 L2 = 25 mm, hw = 15 W/m 2 K, β = 45o significantly more in comparison to the second glass cover.
The values of convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients
cover , T 1o * (K)

350 of a single glazed collector (hcpg, hrpg and hrga) obtained by numer-
ical solutions including the effect of absorption of solar radiation in
340 glass cover have been compared with the resulting values without
Num.Solution (I = 1000 W/m) the effect of absorption in glass cover. A sample of these values are
330
Present work (I = 1000 W/m) given in Tables 1 and 2 for absorber plate temperature ranging
Num.Solution (I = 600 W/m)
Present work (I = 600 W/m) from 323 K to 423 K with the other combination of variables:
Num.Sol. (Neglecting absorption in glass) hw = 10 W/m2 K, L = 20 mm, Lg = 4 mm, Ta = 283 K, b = 50o and ab-
320
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 sorber plate emittance e ¼ 0:1 and 0:95, respectively. It can be
Plate emittance, εp seen from these tables that the effect of absorption of solar radia-
tion in glass cover on the values of heat transfer coefficients is low
Fig. 5. Variation of outer surface temperature of first glass cover with absorber
plate emittance for a double glazed collector.
in case of single glazed collectors. The analysis has been carried out
for the entire range of all the variables, considering all possible
combinations of variables and it has been verified that the values
of covective and radiative heat transfer coefficients obtained by
of solar radiation in glass cover of a single glazed flat plate solar making use of the proposed relations of T gi and T go are very close
collector the increase in glass cover temperature under certain to the values obtained by making use of T gi and T go from numerical
conditions could be as high as 6°. Similarly, for a double glazed col- solutions of heat balance equations. It is found by the analysis that
lector due to absorption of solar radiation in glass covers the in- the resulting effect is more in case of double glazed collectors.
crease in temperatures of first and second glass covers could be The values of the heat transfer coefficients of a double glazed
as high as 14° and 11°, respectively. The resulting effect in case collector obtained by numerical solutions including the effect of
of double glass cover is found to be relatively more than in case absorption of solar radiation in glass covers have been compared
of single glass cover collector. This is due to the fact that in a single with the resulting values when the effect of absorption in glass
glazed collector the glass cover is exposed to the environment and covers is neglected. A sample of these values for the two cases
rise in temperature due to absorption of solar radiation is small in (i.e., by including the effect of absorption and by neglecting the ef-
comparison to a double glazed collector. In case of a double glazed fect) is given in Table 3. The effect of absorption of solar radiation
130 N. Akhtar, S.C. Mullick / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 125–132

Table 1
Comparison of the values of convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients of a single glazed collector (with ep = 0.1) for the two cases: (i) including the effect of absorption in
glass cover (with I = 1000 W/m2) and (ii) neglecting the effect of absorption.

Absorber plate temp., Tp (K) hcpg (W/m2 K) hrpg (W/m2 K) hrga (W/m2 K)
With absorption Without absorption With absorption Without absorption With absorption Without absorption
323 3.11 3.28 0.66 0.65 4.83 4.73
333 3.32 3.45 0.71 0.69 4.89 4.79
343 3.48 3.59 0.75 0.74 4.95 4.85
353 3.61 3.71 0.80 0.78 5.02 4.92
363 3.72 3.80 0.85 0.83 5.09 4.99
373 3.82 3.89 0.90 0.88 5.16 5.06
383 3.90 3.96 0.95 0.94 5.23 5.13
393 3.97 4.03 1.01 0.99 5.31 5.21
403 4.03 4.09 1.07 1.05 5.38 5.28
413 4.09 4.14 1.13 1.11 5.46 5.36
423 4.14 4.19 1.19 1.17 5.54 5.44

Table 2
Comparison of the values of convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients of a single glazed collector (with ep = 0.95) for the two cases: (i) including the effect of absorption in
glass cover (with I = 1000 W/m2) and (ii) neglecting the effect of absorption.

Absorber plate temp., Tp (K) hcpg (W/m2 K) hrpg (W/m2 K) hrga (W/m2 K)
With absorption Without absorption With absorption Without absorption With absorption Without absorption
323 2.82 3.00 5.82 5.73 4.96 4.88
333 3.02 3.16 6.24 6.15 5.07 4.99
343 3.16 3.28 6.68 6.59 5.19 5.10
353 3.27 3.37 7.15 7.06 5.31 5.23
363 3.35 3.44 7.65 7.56 5.44 5.36
373 3.42 3.50 8.18 8.09 5.58 5.50
383 3.47 3.55 8.74 8.64 5.72 5.64
393 3.51 3.58 9.33 9.23 5.88 5.80
403 3.55 3.61 9.96 9.86 6.04 5.96
413 3.57 3.63 10.62 10.52 6.21 6.13
423 3.58 3.64 11.31 11.21 6.39 6.31

Table 3
Comparison of the values of convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients of a double glazed collector for the two cases: (i) including the effect of absorption in glass covers
(with I = 1000 W/m2) and (ii) neglecting the effect of absorption.

Absorber plate hcp1 (W/m2 K) hc12 (W/m2 K) hrp1 (W/m2 K) hr12 (W/m2 K) hr2a (W/m2 K)
temp. Tp (K)
With Without With Without With Without With Without With Without
absorption absorption absorption absorption absorption absorption absorption absorption absorption absorption
333 1.77 2.65 2.23 2.02 0.79 0.75 5.68 5.19 5.60 5.40
343 2.22 2.86 2.36 2.23 0.84 0.81 5.83 5.35 5.64 5.44
353 2.48 3.02 2.49 2.39 0.90 0.86 5.99 5.52 5.68 5.49
363 2.69 3.14 2.61 2.55 0.96 0.92 6.15 5.69 5.73 5.54
373 2.87 3.25 2.72 2.69 1.02 0.98 6.33 5.87 5.78 5.59
383 3.01 3.33 2.82 2.80 1.08 1.05 6.52 6.05 5.83 5.64
393 3.12 3.41 2.90 2.90 1.15 1.11 6.71 6.24 5.89 5.69

Table 4
Comparison of the values of convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients obtained by making use of T 1i ,T 1o , T 2o , and T 2o from (i) numerical solutions and (ii) proposed
relations.

Absorber plate hcp1 (W/m2 K) hc12 (W/m2 K) hrp1 (W/m2 K) hr12 (W/m2 K) hr2a (W/m2 K)
temp. Tp (K)
Numerical Proposed Numerical Proposed Numerical Proposed Numerical Proposed Numerical Proposed
solution relation solution relation solution relation solution relation solution relation
333 1.77 1.86 2.23 2.21 0.79 0.79 5.68 5.61 5.60 5.56
353 2.48 2.50 2.49 2.49 0.90 0.90 5.99 5.95 5.68 5.64
373 2.87 2.86 2.72 2.74 1.02 1.02 6.33 6.31 5.78 5.74
393 3.12 3.10 2.90 2.92 1.15 1.15 6.71 6.71 5.89 5.85
413 3.29 3.26 3.03 3.06 1.29 1.30 7.11 7.14 6.00 5.97
433 3.41 3.37 3.14 3.17 1.45 1.46 7.54 7.59 6.12 6.09
453 3.50 3.45 3.22 3.26 1.62 1.63 7.99 8.08 6.24 6.23
473 3.57 3.51 3.29 3.33 1.80 1.81 8.47 8.60 6.38 6.37

in glass cover on its temperature and the convective and radiative tions of variables. One such combination where the difference is
heat transfer coefficients is more pronounced for certain combina- noticeable is: Ta = 298 K, hw = 10 W/m2 K, ep ¼ 0:1, L1 = 20 mm,
N. Akhtar, S.C. Mullick / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 125–132 131

L2 = 20 mm, Lg1 = 4 mm, Lg2 = 4 mm, and b = 50o. The values of heat (iii) The resulting effect of absorption of solar radiation in glass
transfer coefficients for this combination of variables are given in covers on heat transfer coefficients in a solar collector with
Table 3 for absorber plate temperature ranging from 333 K to double glazing is significantly more than in a solar collector
393 K. It can be observed from this table that the convective heat with single glazing. The effect on convective heat transfer
transfer coefficient between absorber plate and first glass cover, coefficients between the absorber plate and the first glass
hcp1, is the one most affected due to the absorption of solar radia- cover, hcp1, is substantial.
tion in glass covers. The effect on the other convective and radia- (iv) By comparing the values of hcp1 for the two cases: (i) includ-
tive heat transfer coefficients (hrp1, hc12, hr12, and hr2a) is less. ing the effect of absorption of solar radiation in glass covers
These effects are as expected. The effect on hcp1 is more because, and (ii) neglecting the effect of absorption of solar radiation
due to increase in temperature of first glass cover, the difference in glass covers in glass cover, it has been found that the dif-
in temperature between absorber plate and first glass cover will re- ference could be as high as 49%.
duce. On the contrary, the effect on hc12 is less because, due to in- (v) The relations developed for inner and outer surface temper-
crease in temperatures of both the glass covers, the difference in atures of glass cover(s) can be used for the calculation of the
temperature between the two glass covers is less affected. The ef- convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients. The val-
fect on hrp1, hr12, and hr2a is also less because the radiative heat ues of convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients cal-
transfer coefficients are dependent on absolute temperatures culated by making use of the relations developed for inner
rather than temperature difference. It can be observed from Table and outer surface temperatures of glass cover(s) are so close
3 that at low plate temperatures the difference in the values of hcp1 to those obtained by making use of surface temperatures of
for the two cases: (i) including the effect of absorption and (ii) glass cover(s) obtained from numerical solutions of heat bal-
neglecting the effect of absorption in glass cover, is as high as ance equations that numerical solutions of heat balance
49.7%. Therefore, for any detailed study, it is crucial to take in to ac- equations may not be required.
count the effect of absorption of solar radiation in glass covers.
The values of convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients,
including the effect of absorption of solar radiation in each glass Appendix A. Individual heat transfer coefficients
cover, can be calculated by making use of the relations of T 1i , T 1o ,
T 2i , and T 2o proposed in the present work. Table 4 shows a compar- A.1. Radiative and convective heat transfer coefficients in single glazed
    
ison of the values of hcp1 , hrp1 ,hc12 , hr12 , and hr2a calculated by mak- collector
   
ing use of T 1i , T 1o , T 2i , and T 2o obtained from numerical solutions of
heat balance equations and the values of these heat transfer coef- The radiative heat transfer coefficient between absorber plate
ficients estimated by making use of the proposed relations of T 1i , and the glass cover, hrpg, is
T 1o , T 2i , and T v2o of a double glazed collector. The intensity of solar   
radiation is taken as 1000 W/m2 and other variables are: r T 2p þ T 2gi T p þ T gi
T a ¼ 298 K; hw ¼ 10 W=m2 K, ep = 0.1, L1 = 20 mm, L2 = 20 mm, hrpg ¼ : ðA1Þ
1=ep þ 1=eg  1
Lg1 = 4 mm, Lg2 = 4 mm, and b = 50o (same as considered for Ta-
ble 3). It can be seen from Table 4 that the values of covective The radiative heat transfer coefficient between the glass cover and
and radiative heat transfer coefficients obtained by making use of the ambient, hrpg, is
the proposed relations of T 1i , T 1o , T 2i , and T 2o are very close to
hrga ¼ reg ðT 2go þ T 2a ÞðT go þ T a Þ: ðA2Þ
the values obtained by making use of T 1i ; T 1o ; T 2i ; and T 2o from
numerical solutions of heat balance equations. The maximum error The convective heat transfer coefficient between absorber plate and
in computation of heat transfer coefficients by using the proposed the glass cover, hcpg, can be calculated by using the correlation for
relations of T 1i , T 1o ; T 2i , and T 2o is only 5.1%: thus a reduction in Nusselt number provided by Hollands et al. [9]:
error by a factor of about 10, in comparison to the case when the  þ
effect of absorption in glass cover is neglected. Nu ¼ 1 þ 1:44 1  1708=Ra0 f1  1708ðsin bÞ1:6 =Ra0 g
h iþ
þ ðRa0 =5830Þ1=3  1 ; ðA3Þ
5. Conclusions
where the + exponent implies that only positive values of the terms
(i) Absorption of solar radiation in glass cover leads to an in the square brackets should be used (and ignored when they be-
increase in its temperature, including both the inner and come negative). Alternatively one may use the three-region correla-
outer surfaces. The increase in surface temperatures of glass tion for Nusselt number by Buchberg et al. [10]:
cover affects the values of heat transfer coefficients to some
extent, especially the convective heat transfer coefficient
Nu ¼ 1 þ 1:446ð1  1708=Ra0 Þ for 1708 < Ra0 < 5900
between the absorber plate and the glass cover. Therefore, Nu ¼ 0:229ðRa0 Þ0:252 for 5900 < Ra0 < 9:23  104 ðA4Þ
in a study on upward heat flow in solar collectors exposed 0 0:285
Nu ¼ 0:157ðRa Þ for 9:23  104 < Ra0 < 106 :
to solar radiation, the effect of absorption of solar radiation
in glass cover(s) has to be incorporated in the set of heat bal-
ance equations and then numerical solutions have to be A.2. Radiative heat transfer coefficients in double glazed collector
obtained.
(ii) It is found by analysis that due to absorption of solar radia- The radiative heat transfer coefficient between absorber plate
tion in glass cover of a single glazed flat plate collector the and first glass cover, hrp1,
increase in glass cover temperature under certain conditions
could be as high as 6°. For a double glazed collector the
rðT 2p þ T 21i ÞðT p þ T 1i Þ
hrp1 ¼ : ðA5Þ
increase in temperatures of first and second glass covers 1=ep þ 1=eg  1
due to absorption of solar radiation could be as high as 14° The radiative heat transfer coefficient between the two glass covers,
and 11°, respectively. hr12,
132 N. Akhtar, S.C. Mullick / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 125–132

rðT 21o þ T 22i ÞðT 1o þ T 2i Þ The outer surface temperature of the second glass cover is obtained
hr12 ¼ : ðA6Þ as:
2=eg  1
The radiative heat transfer coefficient between the second glass T 2o ¼ T 2i  5ðT p  T a ÞLg2  1:9ag ILg2 : ðB6Þ
cover and ambient, hr2a, For estimating surface temperatures of the first glass cover the fac-
hr2a ¼ re 2
T 2a ÞðT 2o þ T a Þ: tor f1i is obtained by:
g ðT 2o þ ðA7Þ
The convective heat transfer coefficient between absorber plate and ½3:1rðT 2 þ DO Þ3 þ 0:8ðDO CosbÞ0:25 L0:2
2 1 þ 1:1Lg1
f1i ¼ ; ðB7Þ
first glass cover, hcp1, and between the two glass covers, hc12, can be ½3:45rep ðT p  Di Þ3 þ 0:8ðDi CosbÞ0:25 L0:2
1 1
calculated by using Eq. (A3) or Eq. (A4). In the present work Eq.(A3)
where Di ¼ ð2  p ÞðT p  T 2i Þ=6 and Do ¼ ð1 þ p ÞðT p  T 2o Þ=6.
is used.
The temperature of the inner surface of the first glass cover, T1i, is
calculated as:
Appendix B. Users’ guide
T 1i ¼ ðf1i T p þ T 2i þ 0:11ag IÞ=ð1 þ f1i Þ: ðB8Þ
B.1. Users’ guide for the proposed method of estimating and of T gi T go The outer surface temperature of the first glass cover is obtained as:
single glazed flat plate collectors including the effect of absorption of
solar radiation in glass cover T 1o ¼ T 1i  4ðT p  T 2i ÞLg1  ag ILg1 : ðB9Þ
It may be noted that for the case when absorption in the glass cover
The factor fi is obtained by is neglected, e.g., in indoor experiments, substitute ag = 0 in Eqs.
h i1 (B2)–(B9). This will provide the surface temperatures of the glass
12  108 ðT a þ 0:2T p Þ3 þ hw þ 1:1Lg
cover(s) without absorption of solar radiation in glass cover.
fi ¼ 3
8
½6  10 ðep þ 0:028ÞðT p þ 0:5T a Þ þ 0:6L 0:2
fðT p  T a Þcosbg0:25 1
ðB1Þ References

The inner surface temperature of glass cover is calculated as: [1] V.K. Nagar, J.S. Vaishya, V.G. Bhide, Emittance from stagnation temperature

study, Solar Energy 32 (5) (1984) 633–636.
ag I [2] J.L. Francey, J. Papaioannou, Wind-related heat losses of a flat-plate collector,
T gi ¼ fi T p þ T a þ ð1 þ fi Þ ðB2Þ Solar Energy 35 (1) (1985) 15–19.
ðhw þ 6Þ [3] S.C. Mullick, S.K. Samdarshi, An improved technique for computing the top
heat loss factor of flat-plate collector with a single glazing, ASME J. Solar
The outer surface temperature of glass cover is obtained as: Energy Eng. 110 (1988) 262–267.
[4] S.K. Samdarshi, S.C. Mullick, An analytical equation for top heat loss factor a
T go ¼ T gi  8:4ðT p  T a ÞLg  0:64ag ILg ðB3Þ
flat-plate solar collector with double glazing, ASME J. Solar Energy Eng. 113
(1991) 117–122.
[5] N. Akhtar, S.C. Mullick, Approximate method for computation of glass-cover
B.2. Users’ guide for the proposed method of estimating T 1i , T 1o , T 2i , temperature and top heat-loss coefficient of solar collectors with single
and T 2o of double glazed collectors including the effect of absorption in glazing, Solar Energy 66 (5) (1999) 349–354.
[6] N. Akhtar, S.C. Mullick, Computation of glass-cover temperatures and top heat
glass covers loss coefficient of flat-plate solar collectors with double glazing, Energy 32
(2007) 1067–1074.
The factor f2i is obtained by: [7] N. Akhtar, S.C. Mullick, Correlations for surface temperatures of the glass cover
for estimation of heat-transfer coefficients in upward heat flow in solar
½f12  108 ðT a þ 0:2T p Þ3 þ hw g1 þ 1:1Lg2 ð0:7  0:26ep Þ collectors with single glazing, ASME J. Solar Energy Eng. 121 (1999) 201–206.
f2i ¼ ðB4Þ [8] H.C. Hottel, B.B. Woertz, The performance of flat-plate solar heat collectors,
½6  108 ðep þ 0:028ÞðT p þ 0:5T a Þ3 þ 0:6L0:2 fðT p  T a Þcosbg0:25 1 Trans. ASME 64 (1942) 94–102.
[9] K.G.T. Hollands, T.E. Unny, G.D. Raithby, L. Konicek, Free convective heat-
The inner surface temperature of the second glass cover, T2i, is cal- transfer across inclined air layers, ASME J. Heat Transfer 98 (1976) 89–192.
culated as: [10] H. Buchberg, I. Catton, D.K. Ewards, Natural convection in enclosed spaces – a

review of application to solar energy collection, ASME J. Heat Transfer 98
1:4ag I (1976) 182–188.
T 21 ¼ f2i T p þ T a þ ð1 þ f2i Þ: ðB5Þ
ðhw þ 5Þ

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