Feature Article. . .
THERMOMECHANICAL SIMULATIONS OF
REFRACTORY LININGS . . . AN OVERVIEW
Jacques Poirier, Centre de Recherche sur les Matériaux à Haute Température - CNRS, ESEM, Institute
Polytechnique d’Orléans, 8, rue L. de Vinci, 45072 Orléans Cedex France
1. INTRODUCTION
Refractories deteriorate and wear due to chemical and mechani-
cal constraints of various intensities which can occur together or
separately. These mechanical constraints may lead to frequent fail-
ures due to degradation of refractories, through cracking, spalling
of materials, by creep rupture, by joint failure of the brick mortar
systems [1].
The thermomechanical behavior of refractories is complex on dif-
ferent scales:
• micro-cracking pattern and damage on the material;
• cracks on the brick or shaped part;
• fractures and movements on the structure.
An example of cracks and microscopic damage in the refractory
lining of industrial vessels (steel degasser) is shown in Figure 1.
Because of increasing competitiveness in industry, different
means of extending refractory life and increasing reliability of
industrial tools are being pursued and investigations regarding the
Figure 1. Cracks and microscopic damage in the refractory
lining of industrial vessels (steel degasser).
16 November/December 2003
structural/mechanical behavior of refractory systems are becoming
essential.
Up to now, the design of refractory linings for high temperature
vessels has been conducted in conventional ways. This approach
has permitted considerable progress; however, it considerably
increases the time and cost due to the on trial-and-error method
used.
In a lining design process steps to prevent substantial failure and
damage of a refractory lining under thermal load may involve [2,3]:
• selection of compatible lining refractory materials;
• rational thermomechanical analysis and design toward
developing acceptable stress and strain distributions;
• determination of optimal operating conditions (specially
heating scheme)
The objectives of this paper is to provide an understanding of the
thermomechanical behavior of refractory linings. It is divided into
two parts:
• the thermomechanical behavior of refractory materials;
• the modeling of refractory lined vessels.
2. THERMOMECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF
REFRACTORY MATERIALS
2.1. Phase constitution of refractory materials
Refractories are porous, multi-components and heterogeneous
materials [4, 5] composed of thermally stable mineral aggregates, a
binder phase and additives.
Figure 2 shows the composition and the microstructure of a mag-
nesia graphite refractory.
Refractory materials are quasi brittle at low temperature and have
a viscous behavior at high temperature. They are subject to consid-
erable variability in strength, resulting from local variations in their
microstructure and their lack of ductility [6]. They are character-
ized by high-temperature creep or plastic deformation. Their brit-
tleness and their high elastic modulus make them sensible to fail-
ure under thermal stresses and shocks.
2.2. Thermomechanical properties required for
structural analysis
Modeling the behavior of refractory lined vessels requires a
knowledge of the thermomechanical properties of the refractories
which are highly atmosphere and temperature dependent. The
required parameter sets are: thermal properties (conductivity λ,
density ρ, specific heat Cp), thermo-elastic and thermomechanical
properties (Young’s modulus E, Poisson’s ratio ν, expansion α,
high temperature creep behavior and high temperature flexural,
compressive and tensile stress-strain curves: σ−ε). Techniques for
measuring such properties are described elsewhere [4, 7, 8, 9]. In
Refractories Applications and News, Volume 8, Number 6

Figure 2. Composition and microstructures of a magnesia
graphite refractory.
order to compute stresses, it seems necessary to take into account
the major characteristics of refractory materials:
• non-linear and inelastic behavior
• non-symmetry in tension and compression behavior
• a scale effect
2.2.1. Non linear and inelastic behavior
Two major types of mechanical phenomena, damage and visco-
plasticity occur. These two phenomena make the behavior of
refractories dependent on time and temperature with irreversible
effects.
Damage
Damage is responsible for the initial deviations from linearity and
for some irreversible deformations. It mainly occurs at low tem-
perature.
Figure 3. Stress - Longitudinal strain curve during load-
unload paths compression test (MgO-C material).
Refractories Applications and News, Volume 8, Number 6
For example, Figure 3 shows a typical experimental curve for
monotonic loading (compression test at room temperature) of resin
bonded magnesia graphite refractory [10]. The behavior of the
MgO-C refractory appears similar to that of a quasi brittle material
(concrete or rock). The elastic domain is limited to very small
strains. The non linear regime is due to a progressive degradation.
For each unloading to zero stresses, anelastic strains remain and,
for higher loads, a reduction in stiffness occurs. The degradation
mechanisms can be deduced by analysis of the microstructure of
the material:
• the micro-cracks created during loading are essentially locat-
ed in the carbon binder and propagate inside the binder and
around the magnesia grains. They are responsible for the
loss of strength and stiffness;
• the sliding and crumpling of graphite flakes may be one of
the causes of irreversible effects.
The stress-strain curves, for three different temperatures, are
shown in Figure 4. The lowest stresses are observed at a tempera-
ture that corresponds to the change in the binder. Up to 1100°C,
after the binder has transformed to a semi-coke residue, quasi brit-
tle behavior is also observed. At still higher temperatures, greater
ductility develops due to the fact that both the aggregates and the
binder become more visco-plastic.
Viscosity and plasticity
These generic terms cover all the relaxation phenomena which
can be observed, particularly at high temperatures.
For example, clay-bonded bauxite refractories are typical viscous
materials at high temperature. This viscosity is due to the growth of
mullite crystals around bauxite aggregates and the flow of complex
silicate glasses in the clay binder. The uniaxial compressive behav-
ior of these bauxite products is correctly described by a Newtonian
viscosity parameter (Figure 5) calculated by strain speed of materi-
als. The viscosity decreases with temperature. The values of strain
speeds are determined by constant load tests at pre-selected tem-
perature levels.
Figure 4. Stress - Longitudinal strain curve for different tem-
peratures compression test (MgO-C material).
November/December 2003 17

Figure 5. Evolution of viscosity (h = s/e ) with temperature
[bauxite product: A].
Figure 6. Stress - strain curves in tension and compression at
room temperature (Al2O3-C refractory material).
2.2.2. Non-symmetry in tension and compression
behavior
Figure 6 reveals the existence of a non-symmetrical compres-
sion–tensile refractory behavior. The presence of a non linear
domain even for extremely low strains perturbs the determination
of elastic properties such as Young ’s modulus [9, 10]. These non
symmetrical behavior in tension and compression is fundamental
for the computation of stresses in structures, i.e., it should be
accounted by Mohr Coulomb or Drucker Prager-based criteria clas-
sically used for concrete or rocks.
2.2.3. A scale effect
The apparent behavior of the refractory varies according to the
scale considered (Figure 7). This effect has two aspects:
• a structural effect linked to the field stresses. Experiments
show that the level of mechanical resistance of a refractory
material depends on the shape of the sample (i.e. the
height/diameter ratio) and the boundary conditions;
18 November/December 2003
Figure 7. Volume effect on the compressive strength of baux-
ite and magnesia materials.
Figure 8. Experimental and numerical results for a MgO-C
refractory material.
• a volumetric effect linked to the number of defects and its
associated distribution of local resistances (i.e. the materials
microstructure). An average behavior, representative of the
material, can be observed only by loading a volume of mate-
rial which is sufficiently large in terms of microstructure. In
the case of refractories, the minimum volume required,
known as the representative elementary volume, is about one
cubic decimeter.
2.3. Refractory constitutive equations
A representative formulation of material behavior is necessary in
thermomechanical analysis of refractory linings. Material constitu-
tive equations should be defined in order to describe physical phe-
nomena [8]. They should be as simple as possible and should
require very few mechanical trials. However, they should take into
account the mechanisms that cause non linear effects: damage,
plasticity, creep. Oversimplifying refractory constitutive equations
may cause miscalculations.
Figure 8 compares experimental calculationed results for a
MgO-C refractory subjected to suppressed thermal expansion tests.
The constitutive equation describing the MgO-C refractory, based
on isotropic linear thermoelasticity, led to overestimation of the
thermal stresses above 200°C.
Table 1 presents the advantages and limitations of various mate-
rial constitutive equations depending on their level of complexity.
To conclude this first part, the refractory thermomechanical char-
acteristics must be considered when modeling the behavior of
structures. Considering the wide range of products and the wide
range of temperatures, there are presently not enough experimental
data. The building-up of a data base (however costly and time-con-
suming) must be pursued in order to identify refractory behavior
Refractories Applications and News, Volume 8, Number 6
laws that could take into account the main causes inducing non lin-
earity, while being simple enough for industrial users to apply.
Taking into consideration complex interactions (mineralogical
phase transformations) between chemical and mechanical phenom-
ena would also made modeling more accurate.
3. MODELING OF REFRACTORY-LINED VES-
SELS
3.1. The components of the refractory linings
Refractory-lined vessels are composed of an outside steel shell
and layers of refractory linings. The linings may be made of mono-
lithic castables, blocks or bricks jointed together using (or not)
some mortar material.
In most cases, the lining consists of several layers refractories of
varying qualities:
• the interior layer of the refractory lining that is exposed to the
process (molten metal, slag, corrosive gases )
• the linings between the shell and working lining are often
referred to as the “safety or insulating linings.” Insulating
linings are used to limit heat loss and to maintain the vessel
shell temperatures at reasonable levels.
Refractories show significant expansion upon heating. In service,
under given thermal and mechanical boundary conditions, the
Refractories Applications and News, Volume 8, Number 6
refractory linings are exposed primarily to through-thickness tem-
perature gradients and to thermal expansion loading [7]. The free
thermal expansion of linings is controlled by the external structur-
al steel shell. In most cases, the thermal stresses due to the restraint
are considerably greater than the gravity weight stresses (gravity
load stresses typically are in the range of 0.2 to 1 MPa, while the
thermal expansion stresses can be in the range of 15 to 100 MPa).
Of all the various shapes of industrial vessels, the cylindrical and
the flat refractory structures appear to be the most predominant
geometries. Refractory-lined vessels are generally composed of
two parts: a cylindrical lining and a flat lining [7]:
• the cylindrical lining remains in full contact with the outside
steel shell due to the lining thermal expansion and the hydro-
static pressure (due to molten steel). Therefore, both loads
develop a uniform pressure loading around the cylindrical
shell, with irreversibly damaging the shell.
• the behavior of the refractory flat lining differs considerably
from that of the cylindrical lining. The refractory flat linings
are subjected to unstable and undesirable inward and out-
ward displacements (with a risk of buckling) when subject-
ed to cyclic pressure and expansion loadings.
November/December 2003 19

Figure 9. Mechanical behavior of an assembly joint/MgO-C
brick/joint.
3.2. BEHAVIOR OF JOINTS
The joints form a small part of the lining of the vessels but they
have two important functions [7, 11].
• to assemble the pieces (bricks or blocks) together;
• to absorb thermal expansion and to limit the stresses gener-
ated in the masonry [12].
The joints may be either mortared joints (i.e. granular – material
with matrix and voids) or dry (without mortar) joints. In either case,
the stress/strain behavior of the joint interface differs considerably.
The joints constitute the weak part of the wear lining. Figure 9
shows the stress/strain curves at 20°C and 1200°C of:
• a magnesia carbon material;
• a mortar joint alone (with a very fine granulometry).
• an assembly (two pieces of MgO-C refractory and 0.55 mm
mortar )
20 November/December 2003
At room temperature, compressibility of the joints are around
20%. At 1200°C, the mortar becomes more and more plastic and its
compressibility approaches 50%. In all cases, the stress/strain
curves obtained are non-linear and typical of the behavior of plas-
tic materials: a very low stress is required at the beginning for a
large displacement, and then the level of stress required increases
suddenly and the displacement approaches close to zero. In prac-
tice, we have to consider that the compressibility of the mortar joint
is greater than 50% and so its role of expansion absorber is real.
To simulate refractory linings, the joint-brick assembly should be
considered as an homogeneous material with equivalent thermal
and mechanical properties.
3.3. ENGINEERING ANALYSIS USING FEM
(FINITE ELEMENT METHOD)
The object of a lining simulation is to provide insight into the
design of refractory materials to better resist the stress environ-
ments developed in the refractory lining components under various
operating conditions. Information is also provided on the mecha-
nisms of the origin of the stress states and displacements and how
they relate to the component fracture. An accurate thermomechan-
ical analysis method, on which a rational design approach for the
refractory linings can be based, is complicated by many factors.
These factors include: loading conditions, material modeling,
behavioral knowledge for the refractory linings, complex non-lin-
ear mechanics, numerical analysis [7].
Controlling the stresses requires the formulation of an optimum
combination of structure and properties, enabling the system to ful-
fill its function whilst deteriorating at the slowest possible rate.
Its structure is defined by:
• the geometry of the vessel;
• the shape and the size of the refractory bricks;
• the technique used to assemble the various parts of the lin-
ing (brick joints, expansion joint allowances). This assem-
bly method governs the interactions between the bricks, on
the one hand, and between refractories and the steel shell on
the other hand.
Its properties are determined by the characteristics (which are non
linear) and the thermomechanical laws of the refractory materials.
The finite element method (FEM) is a necessary tool for con-
ducting a reliable refractory investigation. A lining investigation is
usually conducted in two steps:
• the first is an evaluation of the thermal response of the lin-
ing system, which may be either steady-state or transient;
• the second step of the lining analysis consists in evaluating
the thermal stresses and strain fields within the lining sys-
tem.
The general procedure of the engineering design of refractory lin-
ings is shown in Figure 10.
The methodology is intended to describe the refractory lined ves-
sels through the use of models which are as simple as possible [13,
14]. The advantages are:
• reasonable calculation times;
•considerable ease of analysis and interpretation of the results;
• great flexibility in modifying and developing the models.
Refractories Applications and News, Volume 8, Number 6
Figure 10. General procedure of an engineering analysis
using FEM.
Thus, the calculations are systematically started using an axisym-
metrical model. The following geometrical simplifications were
introduced:
• the wall layers are considered as monolithic cylinders;
• the horizontal layers are considered as monolithic discs,
with joints at the periphery.
An example of a refractory structure simulation is shown in
Figure 11.
The main restriction on this type of model is clear: simplifying
the description of the network of joints makes it impossible to dis-
criminate the individual refractory brick and to calculate correctly
the stresses to which they are subjected.
However, this negative aspect can be countered by two observa-
tions:
• if the simplifications are made correctly, the model will pro-
vide a realistic description of the interactions between the
main elements of the brickwork and the interaction between
the brickwork and the steel shell. The results obtained can be
used as boundary conditions for more precise three-dimen-
sional calculations, restricted to particular zones of the
brickwork.
• the shapes of the fields of stress most frequently encountered
in refractory bricks, whether or not joints are used - subject-
ed to free or partially restrained expansion - are theoretical-
ly known. Numerical calculations are used to quantify the
stresses and takes into account the effect of the specific
properties of the materials in the form of fields of stresses.
Three-dimensional calculations are carried out afterwards, if nec-
essary.
Refractories Applications and News, Volume 8, Number 6
Figure 11. Von Mises stresses (steel shell of a ladle).
4. CONCLUSION
A global approach for the thermomechanical analysis of refracto-
ry- lined vessels used in the steel industry has been proposed. The
methodology, presently applied to industrial structures gives real-
istic results. The models used first allow to characterize thermome-
chanical solicitations and secondly to provide better solutions to
improve refractory linings. However, some limitations were identi-
fied:
• the lack of knowledge about the thermomechanical proper-
ties of refractory products specially at high temperature. Few
material models, which allow all inelastic phenomena such
as viscosity, plasticity and damage to be taken into account,
have been tested to see if they can reliably predict the behav-
ior of the structure;
• the unsuitability of the finite element models for taking into
account certain movements in the structure (sliding between
refractory bricks, friction between the different layers, inter-
action between the refractory lining and steel shell);
• the incomplete knowledge of the thermomechanical behav-
ior of the joints;
• the lack of validation data (industrial measurements and lab-
oratory trials) to confirm the relevance of the models;
These limitations should, to a large extent, be overcome in the
future, particularly as a result of introducing non-linear and more
complete constitutive equations of materials and joints into the
finite element models of refractory structures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is thankful to SOLLAC CRDM research center,
Cachan LMT laboratory and LMSP laboratory for their technical
support.
November/December 2003 21

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22 November/December 2003 Refractories Applications and News, Volume 8, Number 6