trends in analytical chemistry, vol. 73, no.
7, 7994
Acknowledgement
Support of the National Science Foundation
under grant CHE-92-01277 is gratefully acknow-
ledged.
References
1 J.C. Giddings, Anal. Chem., 39 (1967) 1027.
2 J.M. Davis and J.C. Giddings, Anal. Chem., 55
(1983) 418.
3 J.C. Giddings, Anal. Chem., 56 (1984) 1258A.
4 H. Himberg, E. Sippola and M.L. Riekkola, J. Mi-
crocol. Sep., I (1989) 271.
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sional Chromatography, Techniques and Applica-
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Marcel Dekker, New York and Basel, 1990, pp.
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9 G. Schomburg, H. Husmann and F. Weeke, 1. Chro-
matogr., 99 (1974) 63.
10 G. Schomburg, H. Husmann and F. Weeke, J. Chro-
matogr., 112 (1975) 205.
Analytical chemistry and quality
M. ValcSrcel and A. Rios
Chdoba, Spain
Quality has been a continuous objective in
analytical chemistry for years, but today it is
a fashionable term because of the implemen-
tation of qualifyassurance principles in ana-
lytical laboratories. This article deals with
the involvement of quality in today’s analyti-
cal chemistry, establishing the definition of
the basic concepts as well as the relation-
ships between quality and analytical chem-
istry. Moreover, analytical quality must be
considered as a component of overall qual-
ity, playing an important role as a service
involved in checking the quality of manufac-
tured products, systems and other services.
01659936494/$07.00
17
11 Z. Liu and J.B. Phillips, J. ChromatogI: Sci., 29
(1991)227. -
12 D.W. Wright, K.O. Mahler and J. Davis, J. Chroma-
togl: Sci., 30 (1992) 291.
13 N. Kannan, G. Petrick, D. Schulz, J. Duinker, J.
Boon, E. van Arnhem and S. Jansen, Chemosphere,
23 (1991) 1055.
14 C. Askari, U. Hener, H G. Schmarr, A. Rapp and A.
Mosandl, Fresenius J. Anal. Chem., 340 (1991) 368.
15 C.L. Wilkins, Anal. Chem., 59 (1987) 571A.
16 J.R. Cooper and C.L. Wilkins, Anal. Chem., 61
(1989) 1571.
17 F. David, P. Sandra, A. Hoffmann and J. Gerstel,
Chromatographia, 34 (1992) 259
18 K.A. Krock and C.L. Wilkins, Anal. Chim. Actu, 277
(1993) 381.
19 N. Ragunathan, K.A. Krock and CL. Wilkins, Anal.
Chem., 65 (1993) 1012.
20 K.A. Krock, N. Ragunathan and C.L. Wilkins, J.
Chromatogr., 645 (1993) 153.
Charles L. Wilkins is Professor of Chemistry at the
Deparfment of Chemistry, University of California,
Riverside, CA 92521, USA. Kevin Krock is a
graduate student at the University of California,
Riverside.
Introduction
Quality has become a crucial demand in the
social, economic, technical and scientific field.
Despite the fact that the concept is as old as human
activites, it has become a buzzword in the last few
years. Humans have always striven for excellence,
even though this can be contradictory depending
on when, how and by whom it is defined. What is
actually new about quality? Put simply, the imple-
mentation of new planning, control and assess-
ment systems which are integrated in a hierarchical
sequence that is applicable to any body, whether
public or private: quality policy -+ quality man-
agement 4 quality system + quality assurance.
Analytical chemistry, as a chemical information
science [l], cannot evade this trend. The purpose
0 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved
18
of this article is to establish relationships between
quality and analytical chemistry. There are fre-
quent misconceptions as the literature on analyti-
cal quality is atypical, confusing, contradictory
and full of acronyms, which makes it especially
difficult for analytical chemists who wish to know
more about quality, whether to adhere to current
trends or in the belief that the analytical laboratory
cannot meet present demands otherwise. As can be
seen from Fig. 1, the analytical chemist is sur-
rounded by quality-related concepts that condition
his way of working. Systematizing quality through
a series of comprehensible, clear definitions is thus
in order with a view to facilitating effective com-
munication in this context.
Quality
The difficulty involved in establishing a precise
definition of quality can readily be understood by
considering the accepted usages of this term as it
refers to persons and things [2,3]. Basically, the
quality of something is an attribute, a property, a
special feature or a group of them. The many
available definitions of quality can be summarized
in two general approaches which are illustrated in
Fig. 2, quality can be appreciated by comparison
(“the attribute or set of attributes inherent in one
thing that allows one to perceive it as the same,
better or worse than the others of its kind”). This
involves such concepts as the “degree of excel-
, 7- , 1 TESTING 1 ~
Fig. 1. Analytical chemists surrounded by a cloud of
quality-related concepts and systems.
trends in analytical chemistry, vol. 13, no. 1, 1994
lence”, “special or distinguishing attribute”, “de-
gree of superiority”, etc. The other major group of
definitions of quality involve social, economic and
technological utility/ability concepts. Thus, IS0
defines quality as “the whole of attributes and
characteristics of a product, system or service that
influence its ability to meet regulated or implicit
needs” [4].
Overall quality integrates both approaches, viz.
the comparative and the untility/ability approach,
which are obviously complementary. The quality
of a “thing” is reflected in the quality of a product
(e.g. milk), a system (e.g. a dairy product factory)
or a service (e.g. an analytical control laboratory).
Overall quality is the result of integrating these
three types of quality and encompasses their obvi-
ous mutual relationships.
In order to have a full view of quality one must
take two obligatory cornpartible components into
account. On the one hand, quality should reflect
observable facts that can in turn be reflected by
numbers (data), usually grouped as the so-called
“quality parameters”. On the other, quality has a
subjective component related to the features or
qualitative use of the product, system or service
concerned. The quality of a wine is determined not
only by its compositional analytical figures, but
also by its flavour, odour and other sensory prop-
erties, which are as important, or even more so than
COMPARATIVE
QUALITY PARAMETEF
Fig. 2. Integration of the definitions and most salient
aspects of the term “quality”.
trends in analytical chemistry vol. 13, no. 1, 1994 19

the cold figures of an analytical report. In this

respect, there have been some recent attempts at EXTERNAL
,
QUALITY OF THE
PRODUCTS OR
OIJALITY SYSTEMS
developing methods for “quantifying” sensory
i
properties (e.g. by chromatographic and pattern
recognition techniques) [5].

Quality in analytical chemistry

Obtaining increasingly greater amounts of

chemical information of a higher quality by using
increasingly less material, time, human and eco-
nomic resources has been a major goal of analyti-
cal chemistry since the earliest chemical measure-
ments were made, as shown in Fig. 3. Classical and
contemporary analytical chemistry share the same
generic objective: enhancing analytical features.
The real current novelty in this respect is the
development of a series of design, planning, con-
trol, assessment and correction activities that are
performed simultaneously with ordinary analyti-
cal laboratory work in order to assure quality in
analytical chemistry.
In dealing with quality in analytical chemistry,
one should distinguish several concepts that are
frequently confused. Fig. 4 shows a scheme of the
different sides of the analytical chemistry/quality
binomial. Here, external quality refers to the fea-
tures of the products and/or systems of the public
or private body to which the laboratory is answer-
able. On the other hand, internal quality, analytical
quality proper, consists of two components: the
quality of the analytical process and the quality of
the results delivered.
Fig. 5 shows the analytical (internal) quality
concepts and their mutual relationships. The qual-
ity of the analytical process is made up of two
Fig. 4. Aspects of the analytical chemistry/quality
binomial.
components:
l quality of the work performed inside and out-
side the laboratory; and
l quality of the materials (reagents, reference sub-
stances), apparatus (extractors, centrifuges,
heaters), instruments (e.g. spectrometers) and
software used.
Both components, which are mutually related,
determine the quality of analytical results, which
is undoubtedly the decisive element of analytical
quality.
However, in order to better understand the rela-
tionship between analytical chemistry and quality,
one must relate quality unequivocally to analytical
properties as is schematically presented in Fig. 6.
Analytical properties can be classified into three
hierarchical blocks, namely:
l capital (accuracy and representativeness),

QUALITY

ANALYTICAL ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY FEATURES

ANALYTICAL
DES,GN,PLANNlNG
CONTROL CHEMISTRY
ASSESSMENT
CORRECTION
TODAY

ANALYTICAL

Fig. 3. Quality in classical and contemporary analyti-

cal chemistry. Fig. 5. Basic components of analytical quality.
20
Fig. 6. Relationships between analytical properties
and analytical quality. For details, see text.
l basic (sensitivity, selectivity, precision and
proper sampling), and
l accessory (expeditiousness, economy and per-
sonnel safety and comfort) [6].
Capital properties are closely related to the qual-
ity of results, whereas basic and accessory proper-
ties arise from quality in the implementation of the
analytical process. In any case, all of these proper-
ties are mutually dependent. Quality in the results
relies on a high sensitivity, selectivity and preci-
sion, in addition to properly executed (repre-
sentative) sampling. A high analytical profitability
(i.e. expeditiousness and low cost) can usually
only be achieved at the expense of capital and basic
properties. Before the analytical problem con-
cerned is addressed, one must balance the required
features of the results with the expected productiv-
ity and adjust the latter to the demands imposed on
the analytical laboratory. One should bear in mind
that, how accurate and representative a result may
be, it will hardly be a quality result if it is not
delivered timely.
Quality of analytical results
As noted earlier, quality in the analytical results
relies chiefly on two primary features: accuracy
andrepresentativeness. It is essential to realize that
neither is sufficient by itself.
No doubt, the accuracy of a result (i.e. its con-
sistency with the actual value within a given un-
certainty margin arising from both bias and ran-
dom errors) is a key to defining its quality.
Accuracy is related to traceability, i.e. to an un-
equivocal relationship to reference standards (e.g.
trends in analytical chemistry, vol. 13, no. 1, 1994
the standard kg, atomic masses) established via an
unbroken chain of comparisons where both stand-
ardization and calibration play a prominent role.
This entails the whole production “history”, i.e.
description and monitoring of all the elements
(material, instrumental, methodological, temporal
and human) involved in the result generation proc-
ess.
However, an accurate result may not necessarily
be a quality result, i.e. it may not meet the specific
demands. Results must be also representative, i.e.
consistent with (a) the samples that are subjected
to the analytical process, (b) the object (bulk sam-
ple), (c) the analytical problem and (d) the eco-
nomic/social problem for which the analytical
problem arose. The ease with which quality can be
achieved decreases as one advances in this se-
quence. Thus, while (a) and (b) can be addressed
by using statistical-chemometric methods, (c) and
(d) require the concourse of other social, technical
and scientific factors for a correct approach to be
selected.
If the results are to be delivered expeditiously in
order to allow monitoring of strongly time-de-
pendent processes, whether productive or not, then
they will be inconsistent with the problem ad-
dressed unless they are delivered timely. Also, if
the sampling is not representative of the problem
addressed, the results will be of no quality. Occa-
sionally, the primary goal is not accuracy but con-
sistency between the results and those provided by
other, widely used routine methods, whether offi-
cial or not, which are usually scarcely rigorous
(e.g. those for the determination of bitter com-
pounds in beer and edible oils); the results will thus
be useless in order to assess product quality.
Quality of the analytical process
As shown in Fig. 5, the quality of the analytical
process consists of two components: quality in the
laboratory work and quality of the material sys-
tems used. Both, which are obviously mutually
related, are indispensable in order to accomplish
quality in the analytical process and hence in the
delivered results. Neither is thus sufficient to en-
sure analytical quality.
Analytical laboratory work includes several ele-
ments, the most immediate of which is work car-
ried out at the bench; however, in a broader con-
text, one should also consider both laboratory
trends in analytical chemistry vol. 13, no. 1, 1994
management and the need to establish interfaces
with other social and technical areas in order to
ensure representativeness of the results. Analytical
chemistry does not begin at the laboratory door and
end at the printer that delivers the results.
One other essential component of the analytical
process is the suite of systems used in the labora-
tory. Their quality can be defined in terms of puri ty
(of reagents and standards), accuracy and trace-
ability (to reference materials, whether certified or
not), proper functioning (of both all-purpose and
specific apparatus and instruments) and consis-
tency of the whole suite with the analytical prob-
lem addressed.
Analytical quality assurance
Quality assurance (QA) for the analytical labo-
ratory can be defined as the overall set of activities
planned in accordance with the policy, manage-
ment and quality systems of a public or private
body to which the laboratory is answerable in order
to ensure that the analytical information produced
meets the demanded quality requirements in terms
of accuracy and representativeness-chiefly.
As can be seen in Fig. 7, quality assurance (QA)
is made up of three components, namely:
(a) Quality control (QC), which can be defined
as the suite of specific activities intended to facili-
tate operation of the analytical laboratory under
conditions ensuring analytical quality (organiza-
tion, management, work, materials, instuments);
not only the analytical laboratory, but also the
results produced must be controlled.
(b) Quality assessment, which encompasses a
QUALITY ASSURANCE
:\\\*.
,
,__._._\
LABORATORY QUALITY
l
CONTROL
\’ v
I
____________..__. *’ CORRECTION
\\ ACTIVITIES
\
s_______’
Fig. 7. Quality assurance in analytical chemistry.
21
suite of specific operations performed by both the
laboratory staff and hired workers (quality audits)
with a view to ensuring that quality control is done
correctly and efficiently. It thus entails systematic,
continuous contrast (in space and time) of the
features of the analytical process within the labo-
ratory and the analytical information produced.
Quality control and quality asessment share indis-
tinguishable aspects (e.g. the use of control charts
or blind samples), but differ in proper quality
control systems implemented by the laboratory
and in which the activity is preferentially per-
formed: laboratory staff (Quality Control) or out-
laboroty personnel (Quality Assessment).
(c) Correcting activities, which are obvious
consequences of quality assessment and affect
both QC activities and laboratory work, both of
which must be adjusted in order to ensure that the
results meet the requirements in terms of the
planned quality parameters.
In conclusion, quality assurance uses quality
asessment systems at the required intervals in or-
der to check that the quality control systems used
are efficient and consistent with the problem so as
to assure quality (accuracy and representativeness)
in the analytical results. Quality assurance pro-
vides the analytical laboratory with a guarantee
that relies on the credibility and reliability of the
information it produces provided control, assess-
ment and correction activities are preformed and
documented systematically, and are never imple-
mented indifferently and mechanically, but in the
deep conviction that this is the best route to excel-
lence.
Finally, it should be noted that the term “Quality
Assessment” can have both the above-described
generic meaning or a more specific one when used
as part of Good Laboratory Practices, which are
discussed in the following section.
Analytical quality systems
ASSESSMENT From a more practical and operative point of
view, the activities involved in assuring analytical
quality have led to the development of specific
systems [7-91, for some of which the laboratory
+.’
staff (executives, technicians, specialists and
‘\
workers) are the sole actors and those responsible,
,?
whereas others require establishing external rela-
tionships with other sections (e.g. the quality de-
partment) of the public or private body to which
22
the laboratory is answerable (quality assurance
unit in Good Laboratory Practices, GLPs), with
other quality-related agents (e.g. national accredi-
tation bodies) and other laboratories, whether
compulsorily (e.g. by business deals) or voluntar-
ily (e.g. participation in inter-laboratory exercises
and creditation).
One essential element of quality systems in an
analytical laboratory is the so-called Quality Man-
ual, a detailed description of all the laboratory
features and activities, with special emphasis on
the systems used for quality control and assess-
ment, and derived from the adopted quality policy.
The quality manual is slow, costly and tedious to
compile and keep, but it is absolutely indispensa-
ble for quality systems of analytical laboratories.
Good Laboratory Practices (GLPs) are sets of
rules, operational procedures and practices of
compulsory fulfillment (enforced by national gov-
ernments, for example) that are established by
some bodies (e.g. OECD, EC, FDA) in order to
assure quality in the information produced by
laboratories. These practices introduce external
assessment via the so-called Quality Assurance
Unit (QAU) and consist, among other elements, of
Standard Operational Procedures (SOPS), which
are detailed descriptions of the specific operations
performed at the laboratory from reception of the
samples to filing of the reports.
Laboratory Accreditation is a formal acknow-
ledgement of the competence of an analytical labo-
ratory to carry out specific analyses (specific ana-
lytes in definite samples). It is an external audit
requested by the laboratory and performed by a
specialized national body in coordination with
those of other countries via supranational institu-
tions (ILAC, WELAC). Subjection to the scheme
is voluntary, temporary (it must be repeated after
a given period) and partial (only some specific
activities are accredited, but not the whole labora-
tory).
For those not well versed in quality, reading the
contents and structuring of GLPs and accreditation
schemes can be rather confusing as they are quite
similar. The objectives, subjects and systems in-
volved are common to both, and both entail third
party approval/control and provide a solid guaran-
tee for laboratories. The most conspicuous differ-
ences between GLPs and accreditation processes
lie in the fact that, while GLPs are compulsory,
accreditation is voluntary, and the laboratory ex-
ternal assessment is performed by staff of the body
trends in analytical chemistry, vol. 13, no. 1, 1994
to which it is answerable (personnel of the Quality
Assurance Unit) in GLPs, whereas accreditation is
done by an indepenent body.
Interlaboratory exercises involve analyses of
the same sample for determining the same analytes
in order to critically compare the results produced.
They should be desgined, planned, implemented
and supervised by a qualified independent body.
The objectives of interlaboratory exercises can be
quite varied, e.g. (a) training, (b) validation of
analytical methods, (c) monitoring the quality of
laboratory results (proficiency testing) and (d) cer-
tification of reference materials. As a rule, a dis-
tinction is made between collaborative and coop-
erative studies according to whether a single or
several methods are used.
Analytical and total quality
It is interesting to note that quality should never
be viewed in isolation, but rather in a global form,
considering the different aspects of things that are
assigned attributes or features.
As can be seen in Fig. 8, analytical quality is a
component of overall quality. As a service, the
analytical laboratory can help to check and im-
prove the quality of products (via 3), that of sys-
tems -whether productive or not- (via 2), and
that of other services (via 4).
Final remarks
This article was written with the aim of provid-
ing an overview of the many sides of the qual-
ity/analytical chemistry binomial. Notwithstand-
___,---_--_---.---
I 1 OVERALL QUALITY : I
, L__________________~
I
Fig. 8. Overall quality and analytical quality.
trends in analytical chemistry vol. 13. no. 1, 1994
ing the fact that the tasks involved in enforcing and
maintaining quality systems in analytical labora-
tories pose some problems that are more closely
related to the so-called “human factor” (viz., men-
tality and attitudinal changes, task extension and
diversification, constancy) than they are to the
economic factor, the benefits obtained (credibility,
rationalized work, avoidance of unnecessary repe-
titions, etc.) largely offset the disadvantages. It
should be made quite clear that the activities re-
quired to enforce QA should never prevent the
analytical laboratory from fulfilling its ordinary
commitments, which should be harmonized and
made compatible with quality control, assessment
(and correction), whether out of necessity (e.g.
mutual acknowledgement of results in interna-
tional trade relationships) or conviction.
Quality should be a key to analytical laboratory
work in the same way as it is in other social and
technical areas. Therefore, it should be included in
the chemistry graduate curriculum if it is to be
regarded as a substantial part of analytical chem-
istry from the beginning. This entails training uni-
versity teachers in analytical laboratory QA-re-
lated topics that are quite disparate from the basic
research they usually conduct. Proper coordina-
tion with experts and laboratory officials under the
umbrella of quality are two possible starting points
for overcoming the initial hurdle. It should be
TrAC Contributions
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sioned. Prospective authors who have not
been invited to write should first approach one
of the Contributing Editors, or the Staff Editor
in Amsterdam (see below), with a brief outline
of the proposed article including a few refer-
ences. Authors should note that all manu-
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missioning does not auto- matically guarantee
publication.
Short items of news, etc. and letters may be
sent without prior arrangement to: Mr. D.C.
Coleman, Staff Editor TrAC, P.O. Box 330,
1000 AH Amsterdam, Netherlands, Tel.: (+31
20) 5862784; Fax: (+31 20) 5862304.
23
borne in mind that these topics give rise to new,
interesting jobs that will no doubt appeal to under-
graduates.
References
M. Valcarcel, Fresenius J. Anal. Chem., 343 (1992)
814.
Webster S Third New International Dictionary, Mer-
riam-Webster Inc., Chicago, IL, 1981.
Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University
Press, Oxford, 1989.
International Standards Organization, Guide 25,
American National Standards Institute, New York,
1982.
K.C. Persaud, Trends Anal. Chem., 11 (1992) 61.
M. Valcarcel and A. Rfos, Anal. Chem., 65 (1993)
78.
J.K. Taylor, Quality Assurance of Chemical Mea-
surements, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1987.
EM. Garfield, Quality Assurance Principles for
Analytical Laboratories, AOAC, Arlington, VA,
1991.
M. Valcarcel and A. Rfos, LA Calidad en 10s Labo-
ratorios Analiticos, Revert& Barcelona, 1992.
Professor M. Valca’rcel and Dr. A. Rios are at the
Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of
Sciences, University of Cdrdoba, E-14004 Cdr-
doba, Spain.
Computer Corner Contributions
Contributions are welcome in the following
categories: hardware, software, chemical ap-
plications, mathematical tools and interfacing.
Please send your papers either to:
TrAC Computer Corner, Prof. G. Gauglitz, In-
stitut fur Physikalische und Theoretische
Chemie, Universitat Tubingen, Auf der Mor-
genstelle 8, W-7400 Tijbingen 1, Germany; or
TrAC Computer Corner, Dr. A. P. Wade, De-
partment of Chemistry, University of British
Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, B.C.
Canada V6T 1Y6.