Essay Writing

Copyright ©1995-2008 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue

Overview

The essay is a commonly assigned form of writing that every student will encounter while in
academia. Therefore, it is wise for the student to become capable and comfortable with this type
of writing early on in her training.

Essays can be a rewarding and challenging type of writing and are often assigned both in class—
which requires previous planning and practice (and a bit of creativity) on the part of the
student—and as homework, which likewise demands a certain amount of preparation. Many
poorly crafted essays have been produced on account of a lack of preparation and confidence.
However, students can avoid the discomfort often associated with essay writing by
understanding some common genres within essay writing.

However, before delving into its various genres, let’s begin with a basic definition of the essay.

What is an Essay?

Though the word ‘essay’ has come to be understood as a type of writing in Modern English, its
origins provide us with some useful insights. The word comes into the English language through
the French influence on Middle English; tracing it back further, we find that the French form of
the word comes from the Latin verb exigere, which means ‘to examine, test, or (literally) to drive
out’. Through the excavation of this ancient word, we are able to unearth the essence of the
academic essay: to encourage students to test or examine their ideas concerning a particular
topic.

Essays are shorter pieces of writing that often require the student to hone a number of skills such
as close reading, analysis, comparison and contrast, persuasion, conciseness, clarity, and
exposition. As is evidenced by this list of attributes, there is much to be gained by the student
who strives to succeed at essay writing.

The purpose of an essay is to encourage students to develop ideas and concepts in their writing
with the direction of little more than their own thoughts (it may be helpful to view the essay as
the converse of a research paper). Therefore, essays are (by nature) concise, and require clarity in
purpose and direction. This means that there is no room for the student’s thoughts to wander or
stray from her purpose; she must be deliberate and interesting.

It is the purpose of this handout to help students become familiar and comfortable with the
process of essay composition through the introduction of some common essay genres.

This handout will include a brief introduction to the following genres of essay writing:

• The Expository Essay

• The Descriptive Essay

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 • The Narrative Essay
• The Argumentative (Persuasive) Essay

The Expository Essay

What is an Expository Essay?

The expository essay is a genre of essay that requires the student to investigate an idea, evaluate
evidence, expound on the idea, and set forth an argument concerning that idea in a clear and
concise manner. This can be accomplished through comparison and contrast, definition,
exempla, the analysis of cause and effect, etc.

Please note: This genre is commonly assigned as a tool for classroom evaluation and is often
found in various exam formats.

The structure of the expository essay is held together by the following:

A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay.

It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set
forth in the assignment. If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite
difficult to compose an effective or persuasive essay.

Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion.

Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical
progression of thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will
collapse.

Body paragraphs that include evidential support.

Each paragraph should be limited to the exposition of one general idea. This will allow for
clarity and direction throughout the essay. What is more, such conciseness creates an ease of
readability for one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay
must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph.

Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal).

Often times, students are required to write expository essays with little or no preparation;
therefore, such essays do not typically allow for a great deal of statistical or factual evidence.

A bit of creativity!

Though creativity and artfulness are not always associated with essay writing, it is an art form
nonetheless. Try not to get stuck on the formulaic nature of expository writing at the expense of

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writing something interesting. Remember, though you may not be crafting the next great novel,
you are attempting to leave a lasting impression on the people evaluating your essay.

A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence
provided.

It is at this point of the essay that students will inevitably begin to struggle. This is the portion of
the essay that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it
must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather,
synthesize and come to a conclusion concerning the information presented in the body of the
essay.

A Complete Argument

Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a classmate. If

I were to discuss the cause of the Great Depression and its current effect on those who lived
through the tumultuous time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to the conversation. In
fact, if I were to end the exposition in the middle of my second point, questions would arise
concerning the current effects on those who lived through the Depression. Therefore, the
expository essay must be complete, and logically so, leaving no doubt as to its intent or
argument.

The Five-Paragraph Essay

A common method for writing an expository essay is the five-paragraph approach. This is,
however, by no means the only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that
is because it is; in fact, the method consists of:

1. an introductory paragraph
2. three evidentiary body paragraphs
3. a conclusion

The Argumentative Essay

What is an Argumentative Essay?

The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic,
collect, generate, and evaluate evidence, and establish a position on the topic in a concise
manner.

Please note: Some confusion may occur between the argumentative essay and the expository
essay. These two genres are similar, but the argumentative essay differs from the expository
essay in the amount of pre-writing (invention) and research involved. The argumentative essay is
commonly assigned as a capstone or final project in first year writing or advanced composition
courses and involves lengthy, detailed research. Expository essays involve less research and are

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shorter in length. Expository essays are often used for in-class writing exercises or tests, such as
the GED or GRE.

Argumentative essay assignments generally call for extensive research of literature or previously
published material. Argumentative assignments may also require empirical research where the
student collects data through interviews, surveys, observations, or experiments. Detailed research
allows the student to learn about the topic and to understand different points of view regarding
the topic so that s/he may choose a position and support it with the evidence collected during
research. Regardless of the amount or type of research involved, argumentative essays must
establish a clear thesis and follow sound reasoning.

The structure of the argumentative essay is held together by the following:

A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay.

In the first paragraph of an argument essay, students should set the context by reviewing the
topic in a general way. Next the author should explain why the topic is important (exigence) or
why readers should care about the issue. Lastly, students should present the thesis statement. It is
essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in
the assignment. If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to
compose an effective or persuasive essay.

Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion.

Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical
progression of thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will
collapse. Transitions should wrap up the idea from the previous section and introduce the idea
that is to follow in the next section.

Body paragraphs that include evidential support.

Each paragraph should be limited to the discussion of one general idea. This will allow for
clarity and direction throughout the essay. In addition, such conciseness creates an ease of
readability for one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay
must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph. Some
paragraphs will directly support the thesis statement with evidence collected during research. It is
also important to explain how and why the evidence supports the thesis (warrant).

However, argumentative essays should also consider and explain differing points of view
regarding the topic. Depending on the length of the assignment, students should dedicate one or
two paragraphs of an argumentative essay to discussing conflicting opinions on the topic. Rather
than explaining how these differing opinions are wrong outright, students should note how
opinions that do not align with their thesis might not be well informed or how they might be out
of date.

Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal).

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The argumentative essay requires well-researched, accurate, detailed, and current information to
support the thesis statement and consider other points of view. Some factual, logical, statistical,
or anecdotal evidence should support the thesis. However, students must consider multiple points
of view when collecting evidence. As noted in the paragraph above, a successful and well-
rounded argumentative essay will also discuss opinions not aligning with the thesis. It is
unethical to exclude evidence that may not support the thesis. It is not the student’s job to point
out how other positions are wrong outright, but rather to explain how other positions may not be
well informed or up to date on the topic.

A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence
provided.

It is at this point of the essay that students may begin to struggle. This is the portion of the essay
that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be
effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather,
synthesize the information presented in the body of the essay. Restate why the topic is important,
review the main points, and review your thesis. You may also want to include a short discussion
of more research that should be completed in light of your work.

A Complete Argument

Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a classmate. If

I were to discuss the cause of World War II and its current effect on those who lived through the
tumultuous time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to the conversation. In fact, if I
were to end the argument in the middle of my second point, questions would arise concerning the
current effects on those who lived through the conflict. Therefore, the argumentative essay must
be complete, and logically so, leaving no doubt as to its intent or argument.

The Five-Paragraph Essay

A common method for writing an argumentative essay is the five-paragraph approach. This is,
however, by no means the only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that
is because it is; in fact, the method consists of 1) an introductory paragraph 2) three evidentiary
body paragraphs that may include discussion of opposing views and 3) a conclusion.

Longer Argumentative Essays

Complex issues and detailed research call for complex and detailed essays. Argumentative
essays discussing a number of research sources or empirical research will most certainly be
longer than five paragraphs. Authors may have to discuss the context surrounding the topic,
sources of information and their credibility, as well as a number of different opinions on the
issue before concluding the essay. Many of these factors will be determined by the assignment.

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Developing Strong Thesis Statements
The Thesis statement or main claim must be debatable

An argumentative or persuasive piece of writing must begin with a debatable thesis or claim. In
other words, the thesis must be something that people could reasonably have differing opinions
on. If your thesis is something that is generally agreed upon or accepted as fact then there is no
reason to try to persuade people.

Example of a non-debatable thesis statement:

Pollution is bad for the environment.

This thesis statement is not debatable. First, the word pollution means that something is bad or
negative in some way. Further, all studies agree that pollution is a problem, they simply disagree
on the impact it will have or the scope of the problem. No one could reasonably argue that
pollution is good.

Example of a debatable thesis statement:

At least twenty-five percent of the federal budget should be spent on limiting pollution.

This is an example of a debatable thesis because reasonable people could disagree with it. Some
people might think that this is how we should spend the nation's money. Others might feel that
we should be spending more money on education. Still others could argue that corporations, not
the government, should be paying to limit pollution.

Another example of a debatable thesis statement:

America's anti-pollution efforts should focus on privately owned cars.

In this example there is also room for disagreement between rational individuals. Some citizens
might think focusing on recycling programs rather than private automobiles is the most effective
strategy.

The thesis needs to be narrow

Although the scope of your paper might seem overwhelming at the start, generally the narrower
the thesis the more effective your argument will be. Your thesis or claim must be supported by
evidence. The broader your claim is, the more evidence you will need to convince readers that
your position is right.

Example of a thesis that is too broad:

Drug use is detrimental to society.

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There are several reasons this statement is too broad to argue. First, what is included in the
category "drugs"? Is the author talking about illegal drug use, recreational drug use (which might
include alcohol and cigarettes), or all uses of medication in general? Second, in what ways are
drugs detrimental? Is drug use causing deaths (and is the author equating deaths from overdoses
and deaths from drug related violence)? Is drug use changing the moral climate or causing the
economy to decline? Finally, what does the author mean by "society"? Is the author referring
only to America or to the global population? Does the author make any distinction between the
effects on children and adults? There are just too many questions that the claim leaves open. The
author could not cover all of the topics listed above, yet the generality of the claim leaves all of
these possibilities open to debate.

Example of a narrow or focused thesis:

Illegal drug use is detrimental because it encourages gang violence.

In this example the the topic of drugs has been narrowed down to illegal drugs and the detriment
has been narrowed down to gang violence. This is a much more manageable topic.

We could narrow each debatable thesis from the previous examples in the following way:

Narrowed debatable thesis 1:

At least twenty-five percent of the federal budget should be spent on helping upgrade business to
clean technologies, researching renewable energy sources, and planting more trees in order to
control or eliminate pollution.

This thesis narrows the scope of the argument by specifying not just the amount of money used
but also how the money could actually help to control pollution.

Narrowed debatable thesis 2:

America's anti-pollution efforts should focus on privately owned cars because it would allow
most citizens to contribute to national efforts and care about the outcome.

This thesis narrows the scope of the argument by specifying not just what the focus of a national
anti-pollution campaign should be but also why this is the appropriate focus.

Qualifiers such as "typically," "generally," "usually," or "on average" also help to limit the scope
of your claim by allowing for the almost inevitable exception to the rule.

Types of Claims

Claims typically fall into one of four categories. Thinking about how you want to approach your
topic, in other words what type of claim you want to make, is one way to focus your thesis on
one particular aspect of you broader topic.

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Claims of fact or definition: These claims argue about what the definition of something is or
whether something is a settled fact. Example:

What some people refer to as global warming is actually nothing more than normal, long-term
cycles of climate change.

Claims of cause and effect: These claims argue that one person, thing, or event caused another
thing or event to occur. Example:

The popularity of SUV's in America has caused pollution to increase.

Claims about value: These are claims made about what something is worth, whether we value it
or not, how we would rate or categorize something. Example:

Global warming is the most pressing challenge facing the world today.

Claims about solutions or policies: These are claims that argue for or against a certain solution
or policy approach to a problem. Example:

Instead of drilling for oil in Alaska we should be focusing on ways to reduce oil consumption,
such as researching renewable energy sources.

Which type of claim is right for your argument? Which type of thesis or claim you use for
your argument will depend on your position and knowledge on the topic, your audience, and the
context of your paper. You might want to think about where you imagine your audience to be on
this topic and pinpoint where you think the biggest difference in viewpoints might be. Even if
you start with one type of claim you probably will be using several within the paper. Regardless
of the type of claim you choose to utilize it is key to identify the controversy or debate you are
addressing and to define your position early on in the paper!

Organizing Your Argument

How can I effectively present my argument?

Use an organizational structure that arranges the argument in a way that will make sense to the
reader. The Toulmin Method of logic is a common and easy to use formula for organizing an
argument.

The basic format for the Toulmin Method is as follows:

Claim: The overall thesis the writer will argue for.

Data: Evidence gathered to support the claim.

Warrant (also referred to as a bridge): Explanation of why or how the data supports the claim,
the underlying assumption that connects your data to your claim.
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Backing (also referred to as the foundation): Additional logic or reasoning that may be
necessary to support the warrant.

Counterclaim: A claim that negates or disagrees with the thesis/claim.

Rebuttal: Evidence that negates or disagrees with the counterclaim.

Including a well thought out warrant or bridge is essential to writing a good argumentative essay
or paper. If you present data to your audience without explaining how it supports your thesis they
may not make a connection between the two or they may draw different conclusions.

Don't avoid the opposing side of an argument. Instead, include the opposing side as a
counterclaim. Find out what the other side is saying and respond to it within your own argument.
This is important so that the audience is not swayed by weak, but unrefuted, arguments.
Including counterclaims allows you to find common ground with more of your readers. It also
makes you look more credible because you appear to be knowledgeable about the entirety of the
debate rather than just being biased or uniformed. You may want to include several
counterclaims to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic.

Example:

Claim: Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.

Data1:Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air polluting activity.

Warrant 1:Because cars are the largest source of private, as opposed to industry produced, air
pollution switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.

Data 2: Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15 years.

Warrant 2: Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that a decision to switch to a hybrid
car will make a long-term impact on pollution levels.

Data 3: Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric motor.

Warrant 3: This combination of technologies means that less pollution is produced. According
to ineedtoknow.org "the hybrid engine of the Prius, made by Toyota, produces 90 percent fewer
harmful emissions than a comparable gasoline engine."

Counterclaim: Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages a culture of driving even if it
cuts down on pollution, the nation should focus on building and encouraging use of mass transit
systems.

Rebuttal: While mass transit is an environmentally sound idea that should be encouraged, it is
not feasible in many rural and suburban areas, or for people who must commute to work; thus
hybrid cars are a better solution for much of the nation's population.

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Using Research and Evidence
What type of evidence should I use?

There are two types of evidence:

First hand research is research you have conducted yourself such as interviews, experiments,
surveys, or personal experience and anecdotes.

Second hand research is research you are getting from various texts that has been supplied and
compiled by others such as books, periodicals, and websites.

Regardless of what type of sources you use, they must be credible. In other words, your sources
must be reliable, accurate, and trustworthy.

How Do I know if a source is credible?

You can ask the following questions to determine if a source is credible:

Who is the author? Credible sources are written by authors respected their fields of study.
Responsible, credible authors will cite their sources so that you can check the accuracy of and
support for what they've written. (This is also a good way to find more sources for your own
research.)

How recent is the source? The choice to seek recent sources depends on your topic. While
sources on the American Civil War may be decades old and still contain accurate information,
sources on information technologies, or other areas that are experiencing rapid changes, need to
be much more current.

What is the author's purpose? When deciding which sources to use, you should take the
purpose or point of view of the author into consideration. Is the author presenting a neutral,
objective view of a topic? Or is the author advocating one specific view of a topic? Who is
funding the research or writing of this source? A source written from a particular point of view
may be credible; however, you need to be careful that your sources don't limit your coverage of a
topic to one side of a debate.

What type of sources does your audience value? If you are writing for a professional or
academic audience, they may value peer-reviewed journals as the most credible sources of
information. If you are writing for a group of residents in your hometown, they might be more
comfortable with mainstream sources, such as Time or Newsweek. A younger audience may be
more accepting of information found on the Internet than an older audience might be.

Be especially careful when evaluating Internet sources! Never use Web sites where an author
cannot be determined, unless the site is associated with a reputable institution such as a respected
university, a credible media outlet, government program or department, or well-known non-
governmental organizations. Beware of using sites like Wikipedia, which are collaboratively
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developed by users. Because anyone can add or change content, the validity of information on
such sites may not meet the standards for academic research.

Using Rhetorical Strategies for Persuasion

There are three types of rhetorical appeals, or persuasive strategies, used in arguments to support
claims and respond to opposing arguments. A good argument will generally use a combination of
all three appeals to make its case.

Logos

Logos or the appeal to reason relies on logic or reason. Logos often depends on the use of
inductive or deductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning takes a specific representative case or facts and then draws generalizations
or conclusions from them. Inductive reasoning must be based on a sufficient amount of reliable
evidence, in other words the facts you draw on must fairly represent the larger situation or
population. Example:

Fair trade agreements have raised the quality of life for coffee producers, so fair trade
agreements could be used to help other farmers as well.

In this example the specific case of fair trade agreements with coffee producers is being used as
the starting point for the claim. Because these agreements have worked the author concludes that
it could work for other farmers as well.

Deductive reasoning begins with a generalization and then applies it to a specific case. The
generalization you start with must have been based on a sufficient amount of reliable
evidence.Example:

Genetically modified seeds have caused poverty, hunger, and a decline in bio-diversity
everywhere they have been introduced, so there is no reason the same thing will not occur when
genetically modified corn seeds are introduced in Mexico.

In this example the author starts with a large claim, that genetically modified seeds have been
problematic everywhere, and from this draws the more localized or specific conclusion that
Mexico will be affected in the same way.

Avoid Logical Fallacies

These are some common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument.
Also, watch out for these slips in other people's arguments.

Slippery slope: This is a conclusion based on the premise that if A happens, then eventually
through a series of small steps, through B, C,..., X, Y, Z will happen, too, basically equating A
and Z. So, if we don't want Z to occur A must not be allowed to occur either. Example:

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If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the environment eventually the government will
ban all cars, so we should not ban Hummers.

In this example the author is equating banning Hummers with banning all cars, which is not the
same thing.

Hasty Generalization: This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. In other

words, you are rushing to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts. Example:

Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course.

In this example the author is basing their evaluation of the entire course on only one class, and
on the first day which is notoriously boring and full of housekeeping tasks for most courses. To
make a fair and reasonable evaluation the author must attend several classes, and possibly even
examine the textbook, talk to the professor, or talk to others who have previously finished the
course in order to have sufficient evidence to base a conclusion on.

Post hoc ergo propter hoc: This is a conclusion that assumes that if 'A' occurred after 'B' then
'B' must have caused 'A.' Example:

I drank bottled water and now I am sick, so the water must have made me sick.

In this example the author assumes that if one event chronologically follows another the first
event must have caused the second. But the illness could have been caused by the burrito the
night before, a flu bug that had been working on the body for days, or a chemical spill across
campus. There is no reason, without more evidence, to assume the water caused the person to be
sick.

Genetic Fallacy: A conclusion is based on an argument that the origins of a person, idea,
institute, or theory determine its character, nature, or worth. Example:

The Volkswagen Beetle is an evil car because it was originally designed by Hitler's army.

In this example the author is equating the character of a car with the character of the people who
built the car.

Begging the Claim: The conclusion that the writer should prove is validated within the claim.
Example:

Filthy and polluting coal should be banned.

Arguing that coal pollutes the earth and thus should be banned would be logical. But the very
conclusion that should be proved, that coal causes enough pollution to warrant banning its use, is
already assumed in the claim by referring to it as "filthy and polluting."

Circular Argument: This restates the argument rather than actually proving it. Example:

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George Bush is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.

In this example the conclusion that Bush is a "good communicator" and the evidence used to
prove it "he speaks effectively" are basically the same idea. Specific evidence such as using
everyday language, breaking down complex problems, or illustrating his points with humorous
stories would be needed to prove either half of the sentence.

Either/or: This is a conclusion that oversimplifies the argument by reducing it to only two sides
or choices. Example:

We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth.

In this example where two choices are presented as the only options, yet the author ignores a
range of choices in between such as developing cleaner technology, car sharing systems for
necessities and emergencies, or better community planning to discourage daily driving.

Ad hominem: This is an attack on the character of a person rather than their opinions or
arguments. Example:

Green Peace's strategies aren't effective because they are all dirty, lazy hippies.

In this example the author doesn't even name particular strategies Green Peace has suggested,
much less evaluate those strategies on their merits. Instead, the author attacks the characters of
the individuals in the group.

Ad populum: This is an emotional appeal that speaks to positive (such as patriotism, religion,
democracy) or negative (such as terrorism or fascism) concepts rather than the real issue at hand.
Example:

If you were a true American you would support the rights of people to choose whatever vehicle
they want.

In this example the author equates being a "true American," a concept that people want to be
associated with, particularly in a time of war, with allowing people to buy any vehicle they want
even though there is no inherent connection between the two.

Red Herring: This is a diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding opposing
arguments rather than addressing them. Example:

The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their families.

In this example the author switches the discussion away from the safety of the food and talks
instead about an economic issue, the livelihood of those catching fish. While one issue may
effect the other it does not mean we should ignore possible safety issues because of possible
economic consequences to a few individuals.

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Ethos

Ethos or the ethical appeal is based on the character, credibility, or reliability of the writer.There
are many ways to establish good character and credibility as an author:

• Use only credible, reliable sources to build your argument and cite those sources
properly.
• Respect the reader by stating the opposing position accurately.
• Establish common ground with your audience, often this can be done by acknowledging
values and beliefs shared by those on both sides of the argument.
• If appropriate for the assignment, disclose why you are interested in this topic or what
personal experiences you have had with the topic.
• Organize your argument in a logical, easy to follow manner. You can use the Toulmin
method of logic or a simple pattern such as chronological order, most general to most
detailed example, earliest to most recent example, etc.
• Proofread the argument. Too many careless grammar mistakes cast doubt on your
character as a writer.

Pathos

Pathos or the emotional appeal appeals to an audience's needs, values, and emotional
sensibilities.

Argument emphasizes reason, but used properly there is often a place for emotion as well.
Emotional appeals can use sources such as interviews and individual stories to paint a more
legitimate and moving picture of reality or illuminate the truth. For example, telling the story of a
single child who has been abused may make for a more persuasive argument than simply the
number of children abused each year because it would give a human face to the numbers.

Only use an emotional appeal if it truly supports the claim you are making, not as a way to
distract from the real issues of debate. An argument should never use emotion to misrepresent
the topic or frighten people.

Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an

Argument Paper
The following sections outline the generally accepted structure for an academic argument paper.
Keep in mind that these are guidelines and that your structure needs to be flexible enough to
meet the requirements of your purpose and audience.

You may also use the following Purdue OWL resources to help you with your argument paper:

• Creating a Thesis Statement

• Establishing Arguments
• Organizing Your Argument

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 • Organizing Your Argument Slide Presentation
• Logic in Argumentative Writing
• Paragraphs and Paragraphing
• Transitions and Transitional Devices

Introduction

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions:

1. What is this?
2. Why am I reading it?
3. What do you want me to do?

You should answer these questions by doing the following:

1. Set the context – provide general information about the main idea, explaining the
situation so the reader can make sense of the topic and the claims you make and support
2. State why the main idea is important – tell the reader why s/he should care and keep
reading. Your goal is to create a compelling, clear, and convincing essay people will want
to read and act upon
3. State your thesis/claim – compose a sentence or two stating the position you will support
with logos (sound reasoning: induction, deduction), pathos (balanced emotional appeal),
and ethos (author credibility).

For exploratory essays, your primary research question would replace your thesis statement so
the audience understands why you began your inquiry. An overview of the types of sources you
explored might follow your research question.

If your argument paper is long, you may want to forecast how you will support your thesis by
outlining the structure of your paper, the sources you will consider, and the opposition to your
position. Your forecast could read something like this:

First, I will define key terms for my argument, and then I will provide some background of the
situation. Next I will outline the important positions of the argument and explain why I support
one of these positions. Lastly, I will consider opposing positions and discuss why these positions
are outdated. I will conclude with some ideas for taking action and possible directions for future
research.

This is a very general example, but by adding some details on your specific topic, this forecast
will effectively outline the structure of your paper so your readers can more easily follow your
ideas.

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Thesis Checklist

Your thesis is more than a general statement about your main idea. It needs to establish a clear
position you will support with balanced proofs (logos, pathos, ethos). Use the checklist below to
help you create a thesis.

This section is adapted from Writing with a Thesis: A Rhetoric Reader by David Skwire and
Sarah Skwire:

Make sure you avoid the following when creating your thesis:

• A thesis is not a title: Homes and schools (title) vs. Parents ought to participate more in
the education of their children (good thesis).
• A thesis is not an announcement of the subject: My subject is the incompetence of the
Supreme Court vs. The Supreme Court made a mistake when it ruled in favor of George
W. Bush in the 2000 election.
• A thesis is not a statement of absolute fact: Jane Austen is the author of Pride and
Prejudice.
• A thesis is not the whole essay: A thesis is your main idea/claim/refutation/problem-
solution expressed in a single sentence or a combination of sentences.
• Please note that according to the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Sixth
Edition, "A thesis statement is a single sentence that formulates both your topic and your
point of view" (Gibaldi 56). However, if your paper is more complex and requires a
thesis statement, your thesis may require a combination of sentences.

Make sure you follow these guidelines when creating your thesis:

• A good thesis is unified: Detective stories are not a high form of literature, but people
have always been fascinated by them, and many fine writers have experimented with
them (floppy). vs. Detective stories appeal to the basic human desire for thrills (concise).
• A good thesis is specific: James Joyce’s Ulysses is very good. vs. James Joyce’s Ulysses
helped create a new way for writers to deal with the unconscious.
• Try to be as specific as possible (without providing too much detail) when creating your
thesis: James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with the
unconscious. vs. James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with
the unconscious by utilizing the findings of Freudian psychology and introducing the
techniques of literary stream-of-consciousness.

Quick Checklist:

_____ The thesis/claim follows the guidelines outlined above

_____ The thesis/claim matches the requirements and goals of the assignment

_____ The thesis/claim is clear and easily recognizable

16 
 
_____ The thesis/claim seems supportable by good reasoning/data, emotional appeal

Body Paragraphs
Body Paragraphs: Moving from General to Specific Information

Your paper should be organized in a manner that moves from general to specific information.
Every time you begin a new subject, think of an inverted pyramid - the broadest range of
information sits at the top, and as the paragraph or paper progresses, the author becomes more
and more focused on the argument ending with specific, detailed evidence supporting a claim.
Lastly, the author explains how and why the information she has just provided connects to and
supports her thesis (a brief wrap up or warrant).

Image Caption: Moving from General to Specific Information

The four elements of a good paragraph (TTEB)

A good paragraph should contain at least the following four elements: Transition, Topic
sentence, specific Evidence and analysis, and a Brief wrap-up sentence (also known as a
warrant) – TTEB!

1. A Transition sentence leading in from a previous paragraph to assure smooth reading.

This acts as a hand off from one idea to the next.
2. A Topic sentence that tells the reader what you will be discussing in the paragraph.

17 
 
 3. Specific Evidence and analysis that supports one of your claims and that provides a
deeper level of detail than your topic sentence.
4. A Brief wrap-up sentence that tells the reader how and why this information supports the
paper’s thesis. The brief wrap-up is also known as the warrant. The warrant is important
to your argument because it connects your reasoning and support to your thesis, and it
shows that the information in the paragraph is related to your thesis and helps defend it.

Supporting evidence (induction and deduction)

Induction

Induction is the type of reasoning that moves from specific facts to a general conclusion. When
you use induction in your paper, you will state your thesis (which is actually the conclusion you
have come to after looking at all the facts) and then support your thesis with the facts. The
following is an example of induction taken from Dorothy U. Seyler’s Understanding Argument:

Facts:

There is the dead body of Smith. Smith was shot in his bedroom between the hours of 11:00 p.m.
and 2:00 a.m., according to the coroner. Smith was shot with a .32 caliber pistol. The pistol left
in the bedroom contains Jones’s fingerprints. Jones was seen, by a neighbor, entering the Smith
home at around 11:00 p.m. the night of Smith’s death. A coworker heard Smith and Jones
arguing in Smith’s office the morning of the day Smith died.

Conclusion: Jones killed Smith.

Here, then, is the example in bullet form:

• Conclusion: Jones killed Smith

• Support: Smith was shot by Jones’ gun, Jones was seen entering the scene of the crime,
Jones and Smith argued earlier in the day Smith died.
• Assumption: The facts are representative, not isolated incidents, and thus reveal a trend,
justifying the conclusion drawn.

Deduction

When you use deduction in an argument, you begin with general premises and move to a specific
conclusion. There is a precise pattern you must use when you reason deductively. This pattern is
called syllogistic reasoning (the syllogism). Syllogistic reasoning (deduction) is organized in
three steps:

1. Major premise
2. Minor premise
3. Conclusion

18 
 
In order for the syllogism (deduction) to work, you must accept that the relationship of the two
premises lead, logically, to the conclusion. Here are two examples of deduction or syllogistic
reasoning:

Socrates

1. Major premise: All men are mortal.

2. Minor premise: Socrates is a man.
3. Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

Lincoln

1. Major premise: People who perform with courage and clear purpose in a crisis are great
leaders.
2. Minor premise: Lincoln was a person who performed with courage and a clear purpose in
a crisis.
3. Conclusion: Lincoln was a great leader.

So in order for deduction to work in the example involving Socrates, you must agree that 1) all
men are mortal (they all die); and 2) Socrates is a man. If you disagree with either of these
premises, the conclusion is invalid. The example using Socrates isn’t so difficult to validate. But
when you move into more murky water (when you use terms such as courage, clear purpose, and
great), the connections get tenuous.

For example, some historians might argue that Lincoln didn’t really shine until a few years into
the Civil War, after many Union losses to Southern leaders such as Robert E. Lee.

The following is a more clear example of deduction gone awry:

1. Major premise: All dogs make good pets.

2. Minor premise: Doogle is a dog.
3. Conclusion: Doogle will make a good pet.

If you don’t agree that all dogs make good pets, then the conclusion that Doogle will make a
good pet is invalid.

Enthymemes

When a premise in a syllogism is missing, the syllogism becomes an enthymeme. Enthymemes

can be very effective in argument, but they can also be unethical and lead to invalid conclusions.
Authors often use enthymemes to persuade audiences. The following is an example of an
enthymeme:

If you have a plasma TV, you are not poor.

19 
 
The first part of the enthymeme (If you have a plasma TV) is the stated premise. The second part
of the statement (you are not poor) is the conclusion. So the unstated premise is “Only rich
people have plasma TVs.” The enthymeme above leads us to an invalid conclusion (people who
own plasma TVs are not poor) because there are plenty of people who own plasma TVs who are
poor. Let’s look at this enthymeme in a syllogistic structure:

• Major premise: People who own plasma TVs are rich (unstated above).
• Minor premise: You own a plasma TV.
• Conclusion: You are not poor.

To help you understand how induction and deduction can work together to form a solid
argument, you may want to look at the American Declaration of Independence. The first section
of the Declaration contains a series of syllogisms, while the middle section is an inductive list of
examples. The final section brings the first and second sections together in a compelling
conclusion.

Rebuttal Sections
In order to present a fair and convincing message, you may need to anticipate, research, and
outline some of the common positions (arguments) that dispute your thesis. If the situation
(purpose) calls for you to do this, you will present and then refute these other positions in the
rebuttal section of your essay.

It is important to consider other positions because in most cases, your primary audience will be
fence-sitters. Fence-sitters are people who have not decided which side of the argument to
support.

People who are on your side of the argument will not need a lot of information to align with your
position. People who are completely against your argument - perhaps for ethical or religious
reasons - will probably never align with your position no matter how much information you
provide. Therefore, the audience you should consider most important are those people who
haven't decided which side of the argument they will support - the fence-sitters.

In many cases, these fence-sitters have not decided which side to align with because they see
value in both positions. Therefore, to not consider opposing positions to your own in a fair
manner may alienate fence-sitters when they see that you are not addressing their concerns or
discussion opposing positions at all.

Organizing your rebuttal section

Following the TTEB method outlined in the Body Paragraph section, forecast all the information
that will follow in the rebuttal section and then move point by point through the other positions
addressing each one as you go. The outline below, adapted from Seyler's Understanding
Argument, is an example of a rebuttal section from a thesis essay.

When you rebut or refute an opposing position, use the following three-part organization:

20 
 
The opponent’s argument – Usually, you should not assume that your reader has read or
remembered the argument you are refuting. Thus at the beginning of your paragraph, you need to
state, accurately and fairly, the main points of the argument you will refute.

Your position – Next, make clear the nature of your disagreement with the argument or position
you are refuting. Your position might assert, for example, that a writer has not proved his
assertion because he has provided evidence that is outdated, or that the argument is filled with
fallacies.

Your refutation – The specifics of your counterargument will depend upon the nature of your
disagreement. If you challenge the writer’s evidence, then you must present the more recent
evidence. If you challenge assumptions, then you must explain why they do not hold up. If your
position is that the piece is filled with fallacies, then you must present and explain each fallacy.

Conclusions
Conclusions wrap up what you have been discussing in your paper. After moving from general to
specific information in the introduction and body paragraphs, your conclusion should begin
pulling back into more general information that restates the main points of your argument.
Conclusions may also call for action or overview future possible research. The following outline
may help you conclude your paper:

In a general way,

• restate your topic and why it is important,

• restate your thesis/claim,
• address opposing viewpoints and explain why readers should align with your position,
• call for action or overview future research possibilities.

Remember that once you accomplish these tasks, unless otherwise directed by your instructor,
you are finished. Done. Complete. Don't try to bring in new points or end with a whiz bang(!)
conclusion or try to solve world hunger in the final sentence of your conclusion. Simplicity is
best for a clear, convincing message.

The preacher's maxim is one of the most effective formulas to follow for argument papers:

1. Tell what you're going to tell them (introduction).

2. Tell them (body).
3. Tell them what you told them (conclusion).

Logic in Argumentative Writing

This handout is designed to help writers develop and use logical arguments in writing. Through
an introduction in some of the basic terms and operations of logic, the handout helps writers
analyze the arguments of others and generate their own arguments. However, it is important to

21 
 
remember that logic is only one aspect of a successful argument. Non-logical arguments,
statements that cannot be logically proven or disproved, are important in argumentative writing,
such as appeals to emotions or values. Illogical arguments, on the other hand, are false and must
be avoided.

Logic is a formal system of analysis that helps writers invent, demonstrate, and prove arguments.
It works by testing propositions against one another to determine their accuracy. People often
think they are using logic when they avoid emotion or make arguments based on their common
sense, such as "Everyone should look out for their own self interests" or "People have the right to
be free." However, unemotional or common sense statements are not always equivalent to logical
statements. To be logical, a proposition must be tested within a logical sequence.

The most famous logical sequence, called the syllogism, was developed by the Greek
philosopher Aristotle. His most famous syllogism is:

Premise 1: All men are mortal.

Premise 2: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

In this sequence, premise 2 is tested against premise 1 to reach the logical conclusion. Within
this system, if both premises are considered valid, there is no other logical conclusion than
determining that Socrates is a mortal.

This guide provides some vocabulary and strategies for determining logical conclusions.

All Sections in Logic in Argumentative Writing:

Using Logic
Logical Vocabulary

Before using logic to reach conclusions, it is helpful to know some important vocabulary related
to logic.

Premise: Proposition used as evidence in an argument.

Conclusion: Logical result of the relationship between the premises. Conclusions serve as the
thesis of the argument.
Argument: The assertion of a conclusion based on logical premises.
Syllogism: The simplest sequence of logical premises and conclusions, devised by Aristotle.
Enthymeme: A shortened syllogism which omits the first premise, allowing the audience to fill
it in. For example, "Socrates is mortal because he is a human" is an enthymeme which leaves all
the premise "All humans are mortal."
Induction: A process through which the premises provide some basis for the conclusion.
Deduction: A process through which the premises provide conclusive proof for the conclusion.

Reaching Logical Conclusions

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Reaching logical conclusions depends on the proper analysis of premises. The goal of a
syllogism is to arrange premises so that only one true conclusion is possible.

Example A:
Consider the following premises:

Premise 1: Non-renewable resources do not exist in infinite supply.

Premise 2: Coal is a non-renewable resource.

From these two premises, only one logical conclusion is available:

Conclusion: Coal does not exist in infinite supply.

Example B:
Often logic requires several premises to reach a conclusion.

Premise 1: All monkeys are primates.

Premise 2: All primates are mammals.
Premise 3: All mammals are vertebrate animals. Conclusions: Monkeys are vertebrate animals.

Example C:
Logic allows specific conclusions to be drawn from general premises. Consider the following
premises:

Premise 1: All squares are rectangles.

Premise 2: Figure 1 is a square.
Conclusion: Figure 1 is also a rectangle.

Example D:
Notice that logic requires decisive statements in order to work. Therefore, this syllogism is false:

Premise 1: Some quadrilaterals are squares.

Premise 2: Figure 1 is a quadrilateral.
Conclusion: Figure 1 is a square.

This syllogism is false because not enough information is provided to allow a verifiable
conclusion. Figure 1 could just as likely be a rectangle, which is also a quadrilateral.

Example E:
Logic can also mislead when it is based on premises that an audience does not accept. For
instance:

Premise 1: People with red hair are not good at checkers.

Premise 2: Bill has red hair.
Conclusion: Bill is not good at checkers.

23 
 
Within the syllogism, the conclusion is logically valid. However, it is only true if an audience
accepts Premise 1, which is very unlikely. This is an example of how logical statements can
appear accurate while being completely false.

Example F:
Logical conclusions also depend on which factors are recognized and ignored by the premises.
Therefore, different premises could lead to very different conclusions about the same subject.
For instance, these two syllogisms about the platypus reveal the limits of logic for handling
ambiguous cases:

Premise 1: All birds lay eggs.

Premise 2: Platypuses lay eggs.
Conclusion: Platypuses are birds.

Premise 1: All mammals have fur.

Premise 2: Platypuses have fur.
Conclusion: Platypuses are mammals.

Though logic is a very powerful argumentative tool and is far preferable to a disorganized
argument, logic does have limitations. It must also be effectively developed from a syllogism
into a written piece.

Using Logic in Writing

Understanding how to create logical syllogisms does not automatically mean that writers
understand how to use logic to build an argument. Crafting a logical sequence into a written
argument can be a very difficult task. Don't assume that an audience will easily follow the logic
that seems clear to you. When converting logical syllogisms into written arguments, remember
to:

• lay out each premise clearly

• provide evidence for each premise
• draw a clear connection to the conclusion.

Say a writer was crafting an editorial to argue against using taxpayer dollars for the construction
of a new stadium in the town of Mill Creek. The author's logic may look like this:

Premise 1: Projects funded by taxpayer dollars should benefit a majority of the public.
Premise 2: The proposed stadium construction benefits very few members of the public.
Conclusion: Therefore, the stadium construction should not be funded by taxpayer dollars.

This is a logical conclusion, but without elaboration it may not persuade the writer's opposition,
or even people on the fence. Therefore, the writer will want to expand her argument like this:

Historically, Mill Creek has only funded public projects that benefit the population as a whole.
Recent initiatives to build a light rail system and a new courthouse were approved because of

24 
 
their importance to the city. Last election, Mayor West reaffirmed this commitment in his
inauguration speech by promising "I am determined to return public funds to the public." This is
a sound commitment and a worthy pledge.

However, the new initiative to construct a stadium for the local baseball team, the Bears, does
not follow this commitment. While baseball is an enjoyable pastime, it does not receive enough
public support to justify spending $210 million in public funds for an improved stadium.
Attendance in the past five years has been declining, and last year only an average of 400 people
attended each home game, meaning that less than 1% of the population attends the stadium. The
Bears have a dismal record at 0-43 which generates little public interest in the team.

The population of Mill Creek is plagued by many problems that affect the majority of the public,
including its decrepit high school and decaying water filtration system. Based on declining
attendance and interest, a new Bears stadium is not one of those needs, so the project should not
be publicly funded. Funding this project would violate the mayor's commitment to use public
money for the public.

Notice that the piece uses each paragraph to focus on one premise of the syllogism (this is not a
hard and fast rule, especially since complex arguments require far more than three premises and
paragraphs to develop). Concrete evidence for both premises is provided. The conclusion is
specifically stated as following from those premises.

Consider this example, where a writer wants to argue that the state minimum wage should be
increased. The writer does not follow the guidelines above when making his argument.

It is obvious to anyone thinking logically that minimum wage should be increased. The current
minimum wage is an insult and is unfair to the people who receive it. The fact that the last
proposed minimum wage increase was denied is proof that the government of this state is
crooked and corrupt. The only way for them to prove otherwise is to raise minimum wage
immediately.

The paragraph does not build a logical argument for several reasons. First, it assumes that
anyone thinking logically will already agree with the author, which is clearly untrue. If that were
the case, the minimum wage increase would have already occurred. Secondly, the argument does
not follow a logical structure. There is no development of premises which lead to a conclusion.
Thirdly, the author provides no evidence for the claims made.

In order to develop a logical argument, the author first needs to determine the logic behind his
own argument. It is likely that the writer did not consider this before writing, which demonstrates
that arguments which could be logical are not automatically logical. They must be made logical
by careful arrangement.

The writer could chose several different logical approaches to defend this point, such as a
syllogism like this:

25 
 
Premise 1: Minimum wage should match the cost of living in society.
Premise 2: The current minimum wage does not match the cost of living in society.
Conclusion: Therefore, minimum wage should be increased.

Once the syllogism has been determined, the author needs to elaborate each step in writing that
provides evidence for the premises:

The purpose of minimum wage is to ensure that workers can provide basic amenities to
themselves and their families. A report in the Journal of Economic Studies indicated that workers
cannot live above the poverty line when minimum wage is not proportionate with the cost of
living. It is beneficial to society and individuals for a minimum wage to match living costs.

Unfortunately, our state's minimum wage no longer reflects an increasing cost of living. When
the minimum wage was last set at $5.85, the yearly salary of $12,168 guaranteed by this wage
was already below the poverty line. Years later, after inflation has consistently raised the cost of
living, workers earning minimum wage must struggle to support a family, often taking 2 or 3
jobs just to make ends meet. 35% of our state's poor population is made up of people with full
time minimum wage jobs.

In order to remedy this problem and support the workers of this state, minimum wage must be
increased. A modest increase could help alleviate the burden placed on the many residents who
work too hard for too little just to make ends meet.

This piece explicitly states each logical premise in order, allowing them to build to their
conclusion. Evidence is provided for each premise, and the conclusion is closely related to the
premises and evidence. Notice, however, that even though this argument is logical, it is not
irrefutable. An opponent with a different perspective and logical premises could challenge this
argument. See the next section for more information on this issue.

Does Logic Always Work?

Logic is a very effective tool for persuading an audience about the accuracy of an argument.
However, people are not always persuaded by logic. Sometimes audiences are not persuaded
because they have used values or emotions instead of logic to reach conclusions. But just as
often, audiences have reached a different logical conclusion by using different premises.
Therefore, arguments must often spend as much time convincing audiences of the legitimacy of
the premises as the legitimacy of the conclusions.

For instance, assume a writer was using the following logic to convince an audience to adopt a
smaller government:

Premise 1: The government that governs best, governs least.

Premise 2: The government I am proposing does very little governing.
Conclusion: Therefore, the government I am proposing is best.

26 
 
Some members of the audience may be persuaded by this logic. However, other members of the
audience may follow this logic instead:

Premise 1: The government that governs best, governs most.

Premise 2: The government proposed by the speaker does very little governing.
Conclusion: Therefore, the government proposed by the speaker is bad.

Because they adhere to a different logical sequence, these members of the audience will not be
persuaded to change their minds logically until they are persuaded to different values through
other means besides logic. See the OWL resource here for more examples of how to integrate
argument and rhetorical strategies into your writing.

Writing Transitions
Good transitions can connect paragraphs and turn disconnected writing into a unified whole.
Instead of treating paragraphs as separate ideas, transitions can help readers understand how
paragraphs work together, reference one another, and build to a larger point. The key to
producing good transitions is highlighting connections between corresponding paragraphs. By
referencing in one paragraph the relevant material from previous ones, writers can develop
important points for their readers.

It is a good idea to continue one paragraph where another leaves off (instances where this is
especially challenging may suggest that the paragraphs don't belong together at all.) Picking up
key phrases from the previous paragraph and highlighting them in the next can create an obvious
progression for readers. Many times, it only takes a few words to draw these connections. Instead
of writing transitions that could connect any paragraph to any other paragraph, write a transition
that could only connect one specific paragraph to another specific paragraph.

Example: Overall, Management Systems International has logged increased sales in every
sector, leading to a significant rise in third-quarter profits.
Another important thing to note is that the corporation had expanded its international influence.
Revision: Overall, Management Systems International has logged increased sales in every
sector, leading to a significant rise in third-quarter profits.
These impressive profits are largely due to the corporation's expanded international influence.
Example: Fearing for the loss of Danish lands, Christian IV signed the Treaty of Lubeck,
effectively ending the Danish phase of the 30 Years War.
But then something else significant happened. The Swedish intervention began.
Revision: Fearing for the loss of more Danish lands, Christian IV signed the Treaty of Lubeck,
effectively ending the Danish phase of the 30 Years War.
Shortly after Danish forces withdrew, the Swedish intervention began.
Example: Amy Tan became a famous author after her novel, The Joy Luck Club, skyrocketed up
the bestseller list.
There are other things to note about Tan as well. Amy Tan also participates in the satirical garage
band the Rock Bottom Remainders with Stephen King and Dave Barry.
Revision: Amy Tan became a famous author after her novel, The Joy Luck Club, skyrocketed up
the bestseller list.

27 
 
Though her fiction is well known, her work with the satirical garage band the Rock Bottom
Remainders receives far less publicity.

Teaching Detailed Writing and Procedural Transitions

Students new to writing lab and research reports often underestimate the importance of
consistency of terminology and detail as well as appropriate and precise procedural transitions.
One reason for this is that they may not clearly understand the purpose of this kind of writing
beyond a school setting.

In the professional world, a lab or research report serves to both publicize new information and
to give future researchers a framework for testing and applying the original researchers’
methods. As all instructors who deal with writing understand, it is difficult to reproduce the
conditions of scientific publication for students. However, the following activity emphasizes the
function of an audience with needs and expectations, while simplified, that mirror those of the
scientific community they ought to have in mind as they write.

Activity: Describe Setting a Mousetrap

Put students into groups of two or more. Give them a standard mouse trap and ask them to write
a set of directions for setting and disabling the trap. Make sure they do not have access to
directions for setting mousetraps (e.g. discard the directions and limit access to the Internet).
Prohibit students from using visual elements in this exercise. Students may think at first that the
assignment is easy and beneath them, but will soon understand the difficulty of inventing terms
that describe each part of the trap and the operations that must be performed in order to set the
trap correctly and safely. Students will need at least 10-15 minutes to write the first part of the
exercise. Expect a lot of noise as students verbally work on defining their terms as a group.

Next, select a volunteer to set and disable a mousetrap according to the directions of another
group for the entire class. The volunteer should be provided only with the written directions of
the selected group. Have the volunteer read the directions aloud as s/he attempts to set the trap
and instruct him or her to follow only the directions as stated. S/he should also be instructed to
let the class know when s/he is confused or cannot proceed. Chances are, the volunteer will run
into problems right away. Here’s a list of common problems:

• Unclear, wordy, or imprecise descriptions

• Inconsistent use of key terms
• Missing or imprecise procedural transitions

This activity can be a good way to socialize new lab partners and simply introduce the
importance of precision, consistent use of terms, and procedural transitions. If this is your aim,
you can end the activity at the end of class and perhaps ask students to write a reflection of why
the activity was interesting or important. You can also use this activity to introduce the
challenges of writing a methods and materials section. Ask students to work with their directions
over the course of a few class periods. They should be asked to revise together for accuracy and

28 
 
clarity and, importantly, the genre conventions of methods sections (e.g. using past tense, passive
voice etc).

A good way to extend this exercise is to require students to refine their instructions and add
graphics to their explanations as homework.

Brief Overview of Punctuation

When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When
writing, we use punctuation to indicate these places of emphases. This handout should help to
clarify when and how to use various marks of punctuation.

Independent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb and can stand alone; a complete
sentence
Dependent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone; an incomplete
sentence

Comma

Use a comma to join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and,
but, or, for, nor, so).

Road construction can be inconvenient, but it is necessary.

The new house has a large fenced backyard, so I am sure our dog will enjoy it.
Use a comma after an introductory phrase, prepositional phrase, or dependent clause.
To get a good grade, you must complete all your assignments.
Because Dad caught the chicken pox, we canceled our vacation.
After the wedding, the guests attended the reception.
Use a comma to separate elements in a series. Although there is no set rule that requires a
comma before the last item in a series, it seems to be a general academic convention to include it.
The examples below demonstrate this trend.
On her vacation, Lisa visited Greece, Spain, and Italy.
In their speeches, many of the candidates promised to help protect the environment, bring about
world peace, and end world hunger.
Use a comma to separate nonessential elements from a sentence. More specifically, when a
sentence includes information that is not crucial to the message or intent of the sentence, enclose
it in or separate it by commas.
John's truck, a red Chevrolet, needs new tires.
When he realized he had overslept, Matt rushed to his car and hurried to work.
Use a comma between coordinate adjectives (adjectives that are equal and reversible).
The irritable, fidgety crowd waited impatiently for the rally speeches to begin.
The sturdy, compact suitcase made a perfect gift.
Use a comma after a transitional element (however, therefore, nonetheless, also, otherwise,
finally, instead, thus, of course, above all, for example, in other words, as a result, on the other
hand, in conclusion, in addition)
For example, the Red Sox, Yankees, and Indians are popular baseball teams.

29 
 
If you really want to get a good grade this semester, however, you must complete all
assignments, attend class, and study your notes.
Use a comma with quoted words.
"Yes," she promised. Todd replied, saying, "I will be back this afternoon."
Use a comma in a date.
October 25, 1999
Monday, October 25, 1999
25 October 1999
Use a comma in a number.
15,000,000
1614 High Street
Use a comma in a personal title.
Pam Smith, MD
Mike Rose, Chief Financial Officer for Operations, reported the quarter's earnings.
Use a comma to separate a city name from the state.
West Lafayette, Indiana
Dallas, Texas
Avoid comma splices (two independent clauses joined only by a comma). Instead, separate the
clauses with a period, with a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction, or with a
semicolon.

Semicolon

Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or when
the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with
bulldozers, trucks, and cones.
Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive
adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless, otherwise) or
a transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words, on the other
hand, even so).
Terrorism in the United States has become a recent concern; in fact, the concern for America's
safety has led to an awareness of global terrorism.
Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include
commas.
Recent sites of the Olympic Games include Athens, Greece; Salt Lake City, Utah; Sydney,
Australia; Nagano, Japan.

Colon

Use a colon to join 2 independent clauses when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main, Fifth, and West
Street are closed during the construction.
Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, a quotation, appositive, or
other idea directly related to the independent clause.
Julie went to the store for some groceries: milk, bread, coffee, and cheese.

30 
 
In his Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln urges Americans to rededicate themselves to the
unfinished work of the deceased soldiers: "It is for us the living rather to be dedicated here to the
unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us
to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we
take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion —
that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation under God
shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the
people shall not perish from the earth."
I know the perfect job for her: a politician.
Use a colon at the end of a business letter greeting.
To Whom It May Concern:
Use a colon to separate the hour and minute(s) in a time notation.
12:00 p.m.
Use a colon to separate the chapter and verse in a Biblical reference.
Matthew 1:6

Parenthesis

Parentheses are used to emphasize content. They place more emphasis on the enclosed content
than commas. Use parentheses to set off nonessential material, such as dates, clarifying
information, or sources, from a sentence.
Muhammed Ali (1942-present), arguably the greatest athlete of all time, claimed he would "float
like a butterfly, sting like a bee."

Dash

Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that
follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses.
Perhaps one reason why the term has been so problematic—so resistant to definition, and yet so
transitory in those definitions—is because of its multitude of applications.
In terms of public legitimacy—that is, in terms of garnering support from state legislators,
parents, donors, and university administrators—English departments are primarily places where
advanced literacy is taught.
The U.S.S. Constitution became known as "Old Ironsides" during the War of 1812—during
which the cannonballs fired from the British H.M.S. Guerriere merely bounced off the sides of
the Constitution.
To some of you, my proposals may seem radical—even revolutionary.
Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word
that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it.
The cousins—Tina, Todd, and Sam—arrived at the party together.

Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods are placed
inside the closing quotation mark, and colons and semicolons are placed outside. The placement
of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation.

31 
 
He asked, "When will you be arriving?" I answered, "Sometime after 6:30."
Use quotation marks to indicate the novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word.
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "justice."
Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or
newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or
radio shows.
"Self-Reliance," by Ralph Waldo Emerson
"Just Like a Woman," by Bob Dylan
"The Smelly Car," an episode of Seinfeld
Do not use quotation marks in indirect or block quotations.

Italics

Underlining and Italics are often used interchangeably. Before word-processing programs were
widely available, writers would underline certain words to indicate to publishers to italicize
whatever was underlined. Although the general trend has been moving toward italicizing instead
of underlining, you should remain consistent with your choice throughout your paper. To be safe,
you could check with your teacher to find out which he/she prefers. Italicize the titles of
magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays of
three or more acts, operas, musical albums, works of art, websites, and individual trains, planes,
or ships.
Time
Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
The Metamorphosis of Narcissus by Salvador Dali
Amazon.com
Titanic
Italicize foreign words.
Semper fi, the motto of the U.S. Marine Corps, means "always faithful."
Italicize a word or phrase to add emphasis.
The truth is of utmost concern!
Italicize a word when referring to that word.
The word justice is often misunderstood and therefore misused.

Punctuation in Types of Sentences

Learning rules for how and when to punctuate a sentence can be difficult, especially when you
consider that different types of sentences call for different types of punctuation. This handout
should help to clarify not only the types of sentences, but also what punctuation to use in what
situation.

Punctuation in Types of Sentences

Independent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb and can stand alone; a complete
sentence
Dependent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone; an incomplete
sentence

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Simple: composed of 1 independent clause.

No standard punctuation.

Compound: composed of 2 or more independent clauses.

Join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor,
so).

Road construction can be inconvenient, but it is necessary.

Join 2 independent clauses by a colon when you wish to emphasize the second clause.

Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main, Fifth, and West
Street are closed during the construction.

Join 2 independent clauses by a semicolon when the second clause restates the first or when the
two clauses are of equal emphasis.

Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with
bulldozers, trucks, and cones.

Complex: composed of 1 or more dependent clauses and 1 or more independent clauses.

Join an introductory dependent clause with the independent clause by a comma.

Because road construction has hindered travel around town, many people have opted to ride
bicycles or walk to work.
Many people have opted to ride bicycles or walk to work because road construction has hindered
travel around town.

Compound-Complex: composed of 1 or more dependent clauses and 2 or more independent

clauses.

Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2
independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).

When it is filtered, water is cleaner, and it tastes better.

Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2
independent clauses by a colon when you wish to emphasize the second clause.

Whenever it is possible, you should filter your water: filtered water is cleaner and tastes better.

33 
 
Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2
independent clauses by a semicolon when the second clause restates the first or when the two
clauses are of equal emphasis.

When it is filtered, water is cleaner and tastes better; all things considered, it is better for you.

Visual Rhetoric: Overview

This section of the OWL discusses the use of rhetorical theory and rhetoric as it relates to visuals
and design. "Visual rhetoric" has been used to mean anything from the use of images as
argument, to the arrangement of elements on a page for rhetorical effect, to the use of typography
(fonts), and more.

While we cannot hope to cover these and many other topics in depth in this resource, it will be
possible for us to look at some of the common visual rhetoric problems encountered by student
writers: the text elements of a page (including font choices), the use of visuals (including
photographs, illustrations, and charts and graphs), and the role of overall design in composing a
page rhetorically.

Note: Much of the current use of "visual rhetoric" is directed at analyzing images and other
visuals that already exist. This handout is meant to help you generate visual material.

What is Visual Rhetoric?

The term visual rhetoric falls under an umbrella term known as visual literacy, which is generally
split into three categories: visual thinking, visual learning, visual rhetoric/communication
(though clearly visual thinking and visual learning must occur in order to communicate visually).
The following diagram illustrates these ideas. The graphic is modified from Sandra Moriarty's
diagram in her essay, "A Conceptual Map of Visual Communication" and from "Teaching Visual
Literacy and Document Design in First-Year Composition" (MA Thesis) by Allen Brizee.

34 
 
Image Caption: Visual Literacy

Essentially, a beginning definition of visual rhetoric and its applications are as follows:

• Use of images as argument

• Arrangement of elements on a page
• Use of typography (fonts, etc.)
• Analysis of existing images and visuals

Other OWL resources that are related to visual rhetoric and that may help you understand these
ideas are:

• Visual Rhetoric Slide Presentation

• Color Theory Slide Presentation
• Using Fonts with Purpose
• Design an Effective PowerPoint Presentation
• HATS (Headings, Access, Typography, and Space) Slide Presentation: A Design
Procedure for Routine Business Documents

For more information:

You may also download the pdf Works Cited and Works Referenced from "Teaching Visual
Literacy and Document Design in First-Year Composition" in the Media box above. This pdf
contains a number of resources on visual literacy, visual rhetoric, and document design and the
uses of these concepts in composition and professional writing.

35 
 
Visual Rhetoric: Text Elements
Text is so obviously visual that its visual nature and power is often invisible. While it might be
interesting to look at the history of typography, or the way type has been transformed by
computers, what we really need to do is think about what type does. Let's consider a few
examples using some words that are probably unfamiliar <http://www.lipsum.com/> to you so
that you can better "see" the type without considering the actual meaning of the words (though
we'll talk later about why meaning and visual should and cannot be separated).

Image Caption: Lorem Ipsum Text Placeholder

Even with just these four type faces, we can see different personalities (however limited), levels
of formality, and even hints of the rhetorical concept ethos emerging (one's credibility). Novice
designers tend to choose fonts not according to their rhetorical situation, but rather to what the
think looks pretty, or cool, or whatever. But it's important to think about the kinds of
visual/cultural associations that different fonts bring with them. Here are the same four fonts,
with text that appears visually/culturally appropriate:

Image Caption: Arial, Century Schoolbook, Dauphin, Futura Xtra Black Condensed Italic

The first two fonts (Arial and Century Schoolbook, respectively) may not jump out at you as
having a whole lot of cultural associations; that's partly by design—the fonts are deliberately

36 
 
nondescript (especially Arial), and thus are used quite commonly. Not so with the fonts used for
"Medieval History" (Dauphin) and "Bigfoot Captured!" (Futura Xtra Black Condensed Italic).
The "Medieval History" text looks like our cultural conception of Medieval script. That is, the
font looks almost like it was hand-written. Likewise, we've all seen tabloid papers in the
checkout lanes of the supermarket, announcing in bold, loud text all sorts of incredible news.

Let's look again at a negative example, where these cultural codes are ignored:

Image Caption: Arial, Century Schoolbook, Dauphin, Futura Xtra Black Condensed Italic Used
Out of Context

Again, the first two examples may not jump out at you. But if "In deepest sympathy" were on the
front of a sympathy card, it would seem cold, callous, impersonal. With the "Lafayette Teen
Center," that font face may be appropriate in, say, a fundraising drive, but probably not for
promotional materials to get teens to come there off of the streets (for that, we'd want a font that
was exciting, more youthful in appearance). The "Chemistry Lab Report" example might seem
OK at first glance (it's formal, it evokes a sense of history with the word "chemistry"—though
chemistry is a relatively young discipline), but it fails rhetorically because it does not
acknowledge the expectations of the general audience of chemists or chemistry instructors.
Taken in that light, in fact, the text for "Chemistry Lab Report" looks ridiculous. Likewise with
"Museum of Natural History"; we still see the tabloid headline in it, as though "Overtaken by
Mutants" were the words we'd expect next!

Headline versus Body Text

Keeping in mind the ideas we've already covered, there is an issue of readability involved in font
choices. For example, this script font is fine for the following headline text:

37 
 
Image Caption: Lunch Menu

However, let's repeat the text from the preceding section in the same font:

Image Caption: Scriptblocktext

Now, that font may be OK if that's all the text there is. But can you imagine reading that for five
pages? 25? An entire biology textbook? Absolutely not! This is specifically why we have fonts
like Times New Roman or Arial (though there are far better choices, in print, than those): they
are comfortable to read for quite awhile; we don't have to strain to read the words.

Text and the Web

When novice designers bring some of their bad font-choice habits to the Web, the results can be
disastrous.

First, there is the issue of how fonts get handled on the Web. You may have a computer with
hundreds or even thousands of fonts installed on it, and as you're designing for the Web on that
computer, it may seem no big deal to use Poster Wangedoodle Medium Xtra Bold, or whatever
font it is that you're feeling is appropriate. However, you must realize that not all users have that
(and many other fonts) installed on their computers. So stick with the simple standard for HTML
text: Arial, Verdana, etc. In certain Web-authoring programs, you can also specify simply San
Serif (no ornamentation, like Arial) or Serif(ornamentation, like Times New Roman); in these
cases, your Web audience's browser will use a common font on the user's machine.

Second, following directly from the first issue, is screen readability. Some fonts that looks
awesome in print fail miserably on the screen (and vice-versa; Times New Roman is a great
screen font, but doesn't work as well when it's printed). Again, even assuming the compatibility
issues we just covered, fonts meant to look like handwritten script become practically illegible.
And if the font used on a Web page isn’t on the users computer, they may just get a string of
boxes or nonsense characters.

38 
 
TEXT SUMMARY:
Questions to Consider When Choosing Fonts

1. What kinds of expectations does my audience have regarding fonts? Are they scholars or
soccer fans? Church-goers or movie-goers?
2. What am I representing in my font choices? Am I a job applicant? A student writing a
seminar paper? A club officer making a poster to advertise a formal dinner?
3. What kind of text am I running in different fonts? Headlines or fine print? Body text or
bulleted lists?
4. What distance is my text being viewed at? On a greeting card or a bumper sticker? A
poster or a flyer?
5. What fonts are commonly available on computers that I can use for the Web? What kinds
of alternatives are available for text that cannot be displayed in Web browsers?

Visual Rhetoric: Color

There are thousands of books and Websites that cover the use of color from all sorts of practical
and theoretical perspectives. We will limit ourselves here to some basic ideas about color. Please
note that we are only scratching the surface by giving primary consideration to contrast.

Contrast is one of the most basic and critical choices for color. Basically, contrast deals with the
brightness of one color relative to another—and contrast typically is pushed to its absolute
envelope on the printed page. That's why black text on white paper is so common: the contrast
between black character and white space increases legibility.

However, black on white is not the most interesting use of color. And when designing for the
screen, white may not be the best choice—it can be almost blinding on certain monitors. One of
the more conservative choices, then, is to run black text over a neutral, light color like beige or
event mint green.

Many beginning designers, however, find themselves overwhelmed by the palettes available on
most comptuers, and begin choosing colors for the palette of their designed based on favorites.
However, results like that can be disastrous:

Image Caption: Blue on Red

Can you read that? Not comfortably! Imagine an entire screen of text like that. Part of the reason
that this color combination (which appears more frequently on the Web than you can imagine) is
so hard on the eyes has to do with how computer screens handle color information. If you move

39 
 
your face close enough to the screen, you'll notice an almost black outline at the left side of the
characters, and a strange, almost white glow at the right. Why? Computer screens are made up of
tiny little boxes of light, called pixels. Each pixel contains a red element, a green element, and a
blue element (you can see this even better on a standard television set). But what happens in this
case is the red element of the red areas of the screen is full on (leaving green and blue dark), and
the blue element of the blue areas is full on (leaving red and green dark). The result is a literal
"black hole" on the left side (remember, RED GREEN BLUE), and a glow on the right (since
both the far-right BLUE element is full on, as is the far-left RED).

OK, enough technical information. But another problem with this palette is the fact that blue and
red do not have much contrast from one another—they are roughly the same brightness. Worse
than that, red is culturally-coded to jar us (just like the bulls at the Plaza de Toros). That's why
red is typically used on everything from stop signs and stop lights to warning labels and fire
alarms.

Image Caption: Gray on Yellow

Now, this is not an ideal palette—but it does illustrate our concern with contrast. This may not be
a fun palette for reading several thousand pages of an online novel, but it's great for small areas
of text and encouraging a soft, peaceful mood.

Image Caption: Black on Yellow

Part of what’s at issue with these colors—the black versus the grays, the muted versus bright
yellows—is the idea of saturation. Saturation is how much of a color there is. You might think
back to when you painted with watercolors as a child. If you really scrubbed your brush around
in the yellow paint, you’d get a deep, bright yellow. But by watering the brush down, and
dabbing just the tiniest bit of yellow, you got something of a more faint, muted yellow.

One of the common mistakes that beginning designers make is using highly-saturated colors
(which is another reason the red-on-blue thing didn’t work above). Perhaps it's because we liked
the brightest-colored crayons as children. However, you'll find that most sophisticated designs
tend to use muted/desaturated colors.

Finally, the advice we’ll leave you with (besides "go pick up a few dozen books on color
theory") is this: just like we have certain culturally-loaded sensibilities when it comes to font
choices, the same is often true for color. Think, for example, about the difference in color
schemes between a Best Buy ad (deep blues, bright yellows) and a Fall catalogue for J. Crew
(deep wood-tones, crisp blue-grays). Each one conveys a level of excitement (or not), and a

40 
 
degree of sophistication. Observe the colors around you—see what they do, and what impacts
they have on you. Bring those ideas with you as you design with color. And remember: it's no sin
to borrow and experiment with a color scheme you find.

Color Summary: Questions to Consider

When Choosing Colors

1. Does the combination of colors you’re using lend itself to easy reading, either on-screen
or on paper?
2. Are the cultural associations, if any, accompanying the colors appropriate?

All Sections in Visual Rhetoric: Visual Rhetoric: Color:

Visual Rhetoric: Use of Images

The impact of images on one's ethos (credibility) cannot be understated. The illustrations you
use, the charts or graphs that make up a presentation, and even the photographs you place within
a design will have significant impact as to whether an audience takes you seriously.

A. Clip-Art

Very little commercially-available clip-art looks good or has any type of sophistication—
especially clip art that comes packaged with common software programs. Clip-art is often
cartoony and silly, or abstract and general to the point of being useless. And remember: every
user of Microsoft Word has the same clipart, and has probably used it, and will recognize it when
you use it, and be unimpressed accordingly.

When choosing visuals, think about the kinds of extra information that is conveyed. For
example, this piece of clipart seems to be a nice touch for advertising a pipe and cigar shop:

41 
 
Image Caption: Clipart

But then there are so many elements that surround the main object of emphasis, which in this
case is the pipe. Besides, again, the “cartoony” look, there are ridiculous, outmoded fashions
(which may be OK if the design is striving for an antique/nostalgic look), plus there is an issue of
colors that get introduced by the clipart (if your design scheme is using deep reds and yellows,
say, this is going to look awful). And what’s with the guy’s facial expression? Yet most
beginning designers will look no further than the pipe, and ruin their design because of it. Worse
still, for this rhetorical situation (but certainly not for public health), there is the depiction of the
health-hazardous act of smoking.

If the pipe is what’s important, then perhaps seek out something along these lines:

Image Caption: Pipe Clipart

Again, there is a palette at work here (although it’s natural to what we think of as pipe); but more
importantly, there is a style: the rough lines, for example. While it's not cartoony, this pipe may
not fit into a total design (see the Overall Design section below).

Why is clipart so difficult to work with? Because clipart is often stylized and colored, it may be
hard to find some that really works well with your design, and manages to pull off the kind of
ethos you’re striving for.

B. Illustrations and Diagrams

Like clipart, illustrations and diagrams can make or break a design. However, unlike clipart,
which is meant usually as an accent, illustrations and diagrams often serve a central purpose to
inform.

Always strive for clarity in illustrations and diagrams. Think about maps, for example. A driving
atlas of the United States does not include representations and labels of every single office
building, townhouse, apartment, gas station, and tool shed between New York City and Los
Angeles. If it did, we’d have a hard time reading what we really want out of the map: the roads!
Illustrations and diagrams are selective pictures of reality; that’s what makes them useful. In the
case of representing large amounts of complex information, it is probably helpful to break up the
information spatially—that's why driving atlases of the United States are in book form, and not
gigantic maps; each state gets its own page, rather than the entire country squeezed onto a
bedsheet-sized piece of paper.

42 
 
C. Graphs

Programs like Microsoft Excel will automatically generate everything from bar graphs to pie
charts; you can choose things like color and scale. Some issues to consider when choosing to
graphically represent quantitative information:

1. Everyone likes pie charts, but they are only helpful in terms of showing parts of a whole.
So if your figures are not in percentages, pie charts won’t be of much help to you. And
unless several pie charts are included, they are not useful for demonstrating changes over
time.
2. Bar graphs are especially helpful for comparisons between a number of different numeric
variables, even over time.
3. Line graphs are excellent for plotting changes in one variable over time, particularly over
small time segments. When multiple colors are used, several variables can be plotted, but
too many lines may be confusing, and a bar graph might be a better choice.

D. Photographs and Manipulated Images

With the availability of digital cameras, scanners, and other imaging devices coupled with the
easy electronic distribution of photo-quality images, photographs are more popular than ever.
Yet many beginning designers tend to avoid capturing their own images. Many will search the
Web for images and, quality or not, copyright or not, will select the first available image. Again,
we stumble onto the important question of ethos, which in the world of photographic images is
primarily tied to two aspects of the photographic image: composition and quality.

We'll start with the second aspect, quality. Practically every computer image format has some
settings for "compressing" the image. That is, areas of similar color lose their information, and
are filled in with approximations when the image is opened in a Web browser or other program.
Especially when designing for a Web audience, there is a constant push and pull between the
quality of the image, and its size on disk. The better quality image, the larger it is on disk, and
thus the longer it takes to load in a Web browser. However, in terms of ethos—and this itself is
audience-dependent—it is often wise to opt for a slightly larger image file, rather than sacrifice
quality.

Consider these two photos of the Purdue Memorial Union:

Image Caption: Good Picture

Image Caption: Poor Picture

In both photos, the subject matter is clear; however, the quality is stirkingly different. While the
first photo still uses a fairly high compression, little details like the whisps of clouds and treetops
are clear, as is the texture of the bricks and the panes in the windows. The second photo is clearly
degraded—there are large blocks of blue visible in the sky area, and there are “sparkles” between
the treetops and clouds, and the building and sky. Of course, the top photo file is three times
larger than the bottom—but is the speed with which the second photo can be transferred worth

43 
 
the loss in quality? If this photo were in the context of a Web page meant to encourage students
to come study at Purdue, which would likely have a more powerful effect on your impression of
the University? Why?

In terms of composition, remember that photos are basically frames of reality. Any given subject
can be photographed an infinite number of ways, both in terms of the framing (what is where in
the shot) and the exposure (shutter speed, aperature, etc.) When shooting or selecting your
images, pay careful attention to how the shot is composed. Is the image light? Dark? What gets
highlighted? What is the central subject in the shot? What do you notice? Is there anything
inappropriate in the shot that you wouldn’t want? Now, there are entire books and courses on
photography, so we’ll have to limit our discussion to what has been said so far, with the
exception of that last question: Is there anything inappropriate in the shot that you wouldn’t
want? Digital photo manipulation has opened up huge possibilities for image manipulation.
Consider the following two images:

Image Caption: Original Picture

Image Caption: Manipulated Picture

In the top image, various clutter (in this case, street lights) have been removed to improve the
overall look of the Lafayette skyline. The question is this: what is the line between an accurate
portrayal of reality, and an aesthetic representation of it? How is our ethos as visually-oriented
writers affected, positively and negatively, when we manipulate images to achieve a certain
effect?

Four Main Components for Effective Outlines

Ideally, you should follow these four suggestions to create an effective outline. The examples are
taken from the Sample Outline handout.

Parallelism - How do I accomplish this?

Each heading and subheading should preserve parallel structure. If the first heading is a verb, the
second heading should be a verb. Example:

1. Choose Desired Colleges

2. Prepare Application

("Choose" and "Prepare" are both verbs. The present tense of the verb is usually the preferred
form for an outline)

Coordination - How do I accomplish this?

All the information contained in Heading 1 should have the same significance as the information
contained in Heading 2. The same goes for the subheadings (which should be less significant
than the headings). Example:
44 
 
 1. Visit and evaluate college campuses
2. Visit and evaluate college websites
1. Note important statistics
2. Look for interesting classes

(Campus and websites visits are equally significant. They are part of the main tasks you would
need to do. Finding statistics and classes found on college websites are parts of the process
involved in carrying out the main heading topics.)

Subordination - How do I accomplish this?

The information in the headings should be more general, while the information in the
subheadings should be more specific. Example:

1. Describe an influential person in your life

1. Favorite high school teacher
2. Grandparent

(A favorite teacher and grandparent are specific examples from the generalized category of
influential people in your life.)

Division - How do I accomplish this?

Each heading should be divided into 2 or more parts. Example:

1. Compile resume
1. List relevant coursework
2. List work experience
3. List volunteer experience

(The heading "Compile resume" is divided into 3 parts.)

Technically, there is no limit to the number of subdivisions for your headings; however, if you
seem to have a lot, it may be useful to see if some of the parts can be combined.

Why and How to Create a Useful Outline

Why create an outline? There are many reasons; but in general, it may be helpful to create an
outline when you want to show the hierarchical relationship or logical ordering of information.
For research papers, an outline may help you keep track of large amounts of information. For
creative writing, an outline may help organize the various plot threads and help keep track of
character traits. Many people find that organizing an oral report or presentation in outline form
helps them speak more effectively in front of a crowd. Below are the primary reasons for
creating an outline.

• Aids in the process of writing

45 
 
 • Helps you organize your ideas
• Presents your material in a logical form
• Shows the relationships among ideas in your writing
• Constructs an ordered overview of your writing
• Defines boundaries and groups

How do I create an outline?

• Determine the purpose of your paper.

• Determine the audience you are writing for.
• Develop the thesis of your paper.

Then:

• Brainstorm: List all the ideas that you want to include in your paper.
• Organize: Group related ideas together.
• Order: Arrange material in subsections from general to specific or from abstract to
concrete.
• Label: Create main and sub headings.

Remember: creating an outline before writing your paper will make organizing your thoughts a
lot easier. Whether you follow the suggested guidelines is up to you, but making any kind of
outline (even just some jotting down some main ideas) will be beneficial to your writing process.

All Sections in Developing an Outline: Why and How to Create a Useful Outline:

Types of Outlines and Samples

Alphanumeric Outlines

This is the most common type of outline and usually instantly recognizable to most people. The
formatting follows these characters, in this order:

• Roman Numerals
• Capitalized Letters
• Arabic Numerals
• Lowercase Letters

If the outline needs to subdivide beyond these divisions, use Arabic numerals inside parentheses
and then lowercase letters inside parentheses. Select the "Sample Outlines" PDF in the Media
Box above to download the sample of this outline.

The sample PDF in the Media Box above is an example of an outline that a student might create
before writing an essay. In order to organize her thoughts and make sure that she has not
forgotten any key points that she wants to address, she creates the outline as a framework for her
essay.

46 
 
What is the assignment?

Your instructor asks the class to write an expository (explanatory) essay on the typical steps a
high school student would follow in order to apply to college.

What is the purpose of this essay?

To explain the process for applying to college

Who is the intended audience for this essay?

High school students intending to apply to college and their parents

What is the essay's thesis statement?

When applying to college, a student follows a certain process which includes choosing the right
schools and preparing the application materials.

Full Sentence Outlines

The full sentence outline format is essentially the same as the Alphanumeric outline. The main
difference (as the title suggests) is that full sentences are required at each level of the outline.
This outline is most often used when preparing a traditional essay. Select the "Sample Outlines"
PDF in the Media Box above to download the sample of this outline.

Decimal Outlines

The decimal outline is similar in format to the alphanumeric outline. The added benefit is a
system of decimal notation that clearly shows how every level of the outline relates to the larger
whole. Select the "Sample Outlines" PDF in the Media Box above to download the sample of
this outline.

Conciseness
The goal of concise writing is to use the most effective words. Concise writing does not always
have the fewest words, but it always uses the strongest ones. Writers often fill sentences with
weak or unnecessary words that can be deleted or replaced. Words and phrases should be
deliberately chosen for the work they are doing. Like bad employees, words that don't
accomplish enough should be fired. When only the most effective words remain, writing will be
far more concise and readable.

This resource contains general conciseness tips followed by very specific strategies for pruning
sentences.

1. Replace several vague words with more powerful and specific words.

47 
 
Often, writers use several small and ambiguous words to express a concept, wasting energy
expressing ideas better relayed through fewer specific words. As a general rule, more specific
words lead to more concise writing. Because of the variety of nouns, verbs, and adjectives, most
things have a closely corresponding description. Brainstorming or searching a thesaurus can lead
to the word best suited for a specific instance. Notice that the examples below actually convey
more as they drop in word count.

Wordy: The politician talked about several of the merits of after-school programs in his speech
(14 words)
Concise: The politician touted after-school programs in his speech. (8 words)
Wordy: Suzie believed but could not confirm that Billy had feelings of affection for her. (14
words)
Concise: Suzie assumed that Billy adored her. (6 words)
Wordy: Our website has made available many of the things you can use for making a decision
on the best dentist. (20 words)
Concise: Our website presents criteria for determining the best dentist. (9 words)
Wordy: Working as a pupil under a someone who develops photos was an experience that really
helped me learn a lot. (20 words)
Concise: Working as a photo technician's apprentice was an educational experience. (10 words)

2. Interrogate every word in a sentence

Check every word to make sure that it is providing something important and unique to a
sentence. If words are dead weight, they can be deleted or replaced. Other sections in this
handout cover this concept more specifically, but there are some general examples below
containing sentences with words that could be cut.

Wordy: The teacher demonstrated some of the various ways and methods for cutting words from
my essay that I had written for class. (22 words)
Concise: The teacher demonstrated methods for cutting words from my essay. (10 words)
Wordy: Eric Clapton and Steve Winwood formed a new band of musicians together in 1969,
giving it the ironic name of Blind Faith because early speculation that was spreading everywhere
about the band suggested that the new musical group would be good enough to rival the earlier
bands that both men had been in, Cream and Traffic, which people had really liked and had been
very popular. (66 words)
Concise: Eric Clapton and Steve Winwood formed a new band in 1969, ironically naming it
Blind Faith because speculation suggested that the group would rival the musicians’ previous
popular bands, Cream and Traffic. (32 words)
Wordy: Many have made the wise observation that when a stone is in motion rolling down a hill
or incline that that moving stone is not as likely to be covered all over with the kind of thick
green moss that grows on stationary unmoving things and becomes a nuisance and suggests that
those things haven’t moved in a long time and probably won’t move any time soon. (67 words)
Concise: A rolling stone gathers no moss. (6 words)

3. Combine Sentences.

48 
 
Some information does not require a full sentence, and can easily be inserted into another
sentence without losing any of its value. To get more strategies for sentence combining, see the
handout on Sentence Variety.

Wordy: Ludwig's castles are an astounding marriage of beauty and madness. By his death, he
had commissioned three castles. (18 words)
Concise: Ludwig's three castles are an astounding marriage of beauty and madness. (11 words)
Wordy: The supposed crash of a UFO in Roswell, New Mexico aroused interest in
extraterrestrial life. This crash is rumored to have occurred in 1947. (24 words)
Concise: The supposed 1947 crash of a UFO in Roswell, New Mexico aroused interest in
extraterrestrial life. (16 words)

Eliminating Words
1. Eliminate words that explain the obvious or provide excessive detail

Always consider readers while drafting and revising writing. If passages explain or describe
details that would already be obvious to readers, delete or reword them. Readers are also very
adept at filling in the non-essential aspects of a narrative, as in the fourth example.

Wordy: I received your inquiry that you wrote about tennis rackets yesterday, and read it
thoroughly. Yes, we do have... (19 words)
Concise: I received your inquiry about tennis rackets yesterday. Yes, we do have...(12 words)
Wordy: It goes without saying that we are acquainted with your policy on filing tax returns, and
we have every intention of complying with the regulations that you have mentioned. (29 words)
Concise: We intend to comply with the tax-return regulations that you have mentioned. (12
words)
Wordy: Imagine a mental picture of someone engaged in the intellectual activity of trying to
learn what the rules are for how to play the game of chess. (27 words)
Concise: Imagine someone trying to learn the rules of chess. (9 words)
Wordy: After booking a ticket to Dallas from a travel agent, I packed my bags and arranged for
a taxi to the airport. Once there, I checked in, went through security, and was ready to board. But
problems beyond my control led to a three-hour delay before takeoff. (47 words)
Concise: My flight to Dallas was delayed for three hours. (9 words)
Wordy: Baseball, one of our oldest and most popular outdoor summer sports in terms of total
attendance at ball parks and viewing on television, has the kind of rhythm of play on the field
that alternates between times when players passively wait with no action taking place between
the pitches to the batter and then times when they explode into action as the batter hits a pitched
ball to one of the players and the player fields it. (77 words)
Concise: Baseball has a rhythm that alternates between waiting and explosive action. (11 words)

2. Eliminate unnecessary determiners and modifiers

Writers sometimes clog up their prose with one or more extra words or phrases that seem to
determine narrowly or to modify the meaning of a noun but don't actually add to the meaning of

49 
 
the sentence. Although such words and phrases can be meaningful in the appropriate context,
they are often used as "filler" and can easily be eliminated.

Wordy: Any particular type of dessert is fine with me. (9 words)

Concise: Any dessert is fine with me. (6 words)
Wordy: Balancing the budget by Friday is an impossibility without some kind of extra help. (14
words)
Concise: Balancing the budget by Friday is impossible without extra help. (10 words)
Wordy: For all intents and purposes, American industrial productivity generally depends on
certain factors that are really more psychological in kind than of any given technological aspect.
(26 words)
Concise: American industrial productivity depends more on psychological than on technological
factors. (11 words)
Here's a list of some words and phrases that can often be pruned away to make sentences
clearer:

o kind of
o sort of
o type of
o really
o basically
o for all intents and purposes
o definitely
o actually
o generally
o individual
o specific
o particular

3. Omit repetitive wording

Watch for phrases or longer passages which repeat words with similar meanings. Words that
don't build on the content of sentences or paragraphs are rarely necessary.

Wordy: I would appreciate it if you would bring to the attention of your drafting officers the
administrator's dislike of long sentences and paragraphs in messages to the field and in other
items drafted for her signature or approval, as well as in all correspondence, reports, and studies.
Please encourage your section to keep their sentences short. (56 words)
Concise: Please encourage your drafting officers to keep sentences and paragraphs in letters,
reports, and studies short. Dr. Lomas, the administrator, has mentioned that reports and memos
drafted for her approval recently have been wordy and thus time-consuming. (37 words)
Wordy: The supply manager considered the correcting typewriter an unneeded luxury. (10
words)
Concise: The supply manager considered the correcting typewriter a luxury. (9 words)
Wordy: Our branch office currently employs five tellers. These tellers do an excellent job
Monday through Thursday but cannot keep up with the rush on Friday and Saturday. (27 words)

50 
 
Concise: Our branch office currently employs five tellers, who do an excellent job Monday
through Thursday but cannot keep up with Friday and Saturday rush periods. (25 words)

4. Omit Redundant Pairs

Many pairs of words imply each other. Finish implies complete, so the phrase completely finish
is redundant in most cases.

So are many other pairs of words:

o past memories
o various differences
o each individual _______
o basic fundamentals
o true facts
o important essentials
o future plans
o terrible tragedy
o end result
o final outcome
o free gift
o past history
o unexpected surprise
o sudden crisis

A related expression that's not redundant as much as it is illogical is "very unique." Since unique
means "one of a kind," adding modifiers of degree such as "very," "so," "especially,"
"somewhat," "extremely," and so on is illogical. One-of-a-kind-ness has no gradations;
something is either unique or it is not.

Wordy: Before the travel agent was completely able to finish explaining the various differences
among all of the many very unique vacation packages his travel agency was offering, the
customer changed her future plans. (33 words)
Concise: Before the travel agent finished explaining the differences among the unique vacation
packages his travel agency was offering, the customer changed her plans. (23 words)

5. Omit Redundant Categories

Specific words imply their general categories, so we usually don't have to state both. We know
that a period is a segment of time, that pink is a color, that shiny is an appearance.

In each of the following phrases, the general category term can be dropped, leaving just
the specific descriptive word:

o large in size
o often times

51 
 
 o of a bright color
o heavy in weight
o period in time
o round in shape
o at an early time
o economics field
o of cheap quality
o honest in character
o of an uncertain condition
o in a confused state
o unusual in nature
o extreme in degree
o of a strange type

Wordy: During that time period, many car buyers preferred cars that were pink in color and
shiny in appearance. (18 words)
Concise: During that period, many car buyers preferred pink, shiny cars. (10 words)
Wordy: The microscope revealed a group of organisms that were round in shape and peculiar in
nature. (16 words)
Concise: The microscope revealed a group of peculiar, round organisms. (9 words)

Changing Phrases
1. Change phrases into single-words and adjectives

Using phrases to convey meaning that could be presented in a single word contributes to
wordiness. Convert phrases into single words when possible.

Wordy: The employee with ambition... (4 words)

Concise: The ambitious employee... (3 words)
Wordy: The department showing the best performance... (6 words)
Concise: The best-performing department... (4 words)
Wordy: Jeff Converse, our chief of consulting, suggested at our last board meeting the
installation of microfilm equipment in the department of data processing. (23 words)
Concise: At our last board meeting, Chief Consultant Jeff Converse suggested that we install
microfilm equipment in the data processing department. (20 words)
Wordy: We read the letter we received yesterday and reviewed it thoroughly.
Concise: We thorougly read the letter we received yesterday.
Wordy: As you carefully read what you have written to improve your wording and catch small
errors of spelling, punctuation, and so on, the thing to do before you do anything else is to try to
see where a series of words expressing action could replace the ideas found in nouns rather than
verbs. (53 words)
Concise: As you edit, first find nominalizations that you can replace with verb phrases. (13
words)

52 
 
2. Change unnecessary that, who, and which clauses into phrases

Using a clause to convey meaning that could be presented in a phrase or even a word contributes
to wordiness. Convert modifying clauses into phrases or single words when possible.

Wordy: The report, which was released recently... (6 words)

Concise: The recently released report... (4 words)
Wordy: All applicants who are interested in the job must... (9 words)
Concise: All job applicants must... (4 words)
Wordy: The system that is most efficient and accurate... (8 words)
Concise: The most efficient and accurate system... (6 words)'

3. Change Passive Verbs into Active Verbs

See our document on active and passive voice for a more thorough explanation of this topic.

Wordy: An account was opened by Mrs. Simms. (7 words)

Concise: Mrs. Simms opened an account. (5 words)
Wordy: Your figures were checked by the research department. (8 words)
Concise: The research department checked your figures. (6 words)

Things to Avoid
1. Avoid overusing expletives at the beginning of sentences

Expletives are phrases of the form it + be-verb or there + be-verb. Such expressions can be
rhetorically effective for emphasis in some situations, but overuse or unnecessary use of
expletive constructions creates wordy prose. Take the following example: "It is imperative that
we find a solution." The same meaning could be expressed with this more succinct wording: "We
must find a solution." But using the expletive construction allows the writer to emphasize the
urgency of the situation by placing the word imperative near the beginning of the sentence, so
the version with the expletive may be preferable.

Still, you should generally avoid excessive or unnecessary use of expletives. The most common
kind of unnecessary expletive construction involves an expletive followed by a noun and a
relative clause beginning with that, which, or who. In most cases, concise sentences can be
created by eliminating the expletive opening, making the noun the subject of the sentence, and
eliminating the relative pronoun.

Wordy: It is the governor who signs or vetoes bills. (9 words)

Concise: The governor signs or vetoes bills. (6 words)
Wordy: There are four rules that should be observed: ... (8 words)
Concise: Four rules should be observed:... (5 words)
Wordy: There was a big explosion, which shook the windows, and people ran into the street. (15
words)
Concise: A big explosion shook the windows, and people ran into the street. (12 words)

53 
 
2. Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs

Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as nominalizations. Sentences with many
nominalizations usually have forms of be as the main verbs. Using the action verbs disguised in
nominalizations as the main verbs--instead of forms of be--can help to create engaging rather
than dull prose.

Wordy: The function of this department is the collection of accounts. (10 words)
Concise: This department collects accounts. (4 words)
Wordy: The current focus of the medical profession is disease prevention. (10 words)
Concise: The medical profession currently focuses on disease prevention. (8 words)

3. Avoid unnecessary infinitive phrases

Some infinitive phrases can be converted into finite verbs or brief noun phrases. Making such
changes also often results in the replacement of a be-verb with an action verb.

Wordy: The duty of a clerk is to check all incoming mail and to record it. (15 words)
Concise: A clerk checks and records all incoming mail. (8 words)
Wordy: A shortage of tellers at our branch office on Friday and Saturday during rush hours has
caused customers to become dissatisfied with service. (23 words)
Concise: A teller shortage at our branch office on Friday and Saturday during rush hours has
caused customer dissatisfaction. (18 words)

4. Avoid circumlocutions in favor of direct expressions

Circumlocutions are commonly used roundabout expressions that take several words to say what
could be said more succinctly. We often overlook them because many such expressions are
habitual figures of speech. In writing, though, they should be avoided since they add extra words
without extra meaning. Of course, occasionally you may for rhetorical effect decide to use, say,
an expletive construction instead of a more succinct expression. These guidelines should be
taken as general recommendations, not absolute rules.

Wordy: At this/that point in time... (2/4 words)

Concise: Now/then... (1 word)

Wordy: In accordance with your request... (5 words)

Concise: As you requested... (3 words)

Below are some other words which may simplify lengthier circumlocutions.

"Because," "Since," "Why" =

o the reason for

o for the reason that
o owing/due to the fact that

54 
 
 o in light of the fact that
o considering the fact that
o on the grounds that
o this is why

"When" =

o on the occasion of
o in a situation in which
o under circumstances in which

"about" =

o as regards
o in reference to
o with regard to
o concerning the matter of
o where ________ is concerned

"Must," "Should" =

o it is crucial that
o it is necessary that
o there is a need/necessity for
o it is important that
o cannot be avoided

"Can" =

o is able to
o has the opportunity to
o has the capacity for
o has the ability to

"May," "Might," "Could" =

o it is possible that
o there is a chance that
o it could happen that
o the possibility exists for

Wordy: It is possible that nothing will come of these preparations. (10 words)
Concise: Nothing may come of these preparations. (6 words)
Wordy: She has the ability to influence the outcome. (8 words)
Concise: She can influence the outcome. (5 words)
Wordy: It is necessary that we take a stand on this pressing issue. (12 words)

55 
 
Concise: We must take a stand on this pressing issue. (9 words)

Sentence Variety
Strategies for Variation
Adding sentence variety to prose can give it life and rhythm. Too many sentences with the same
structure and length can grow monotonous for readers. Varying sentence style and structure can
also reduce repetition and add emphasis. Long sentences work well for incorporating a lot of
information, and short sentences can often maximize crucial points. These general tips may help
add variety to similar sentences.

1. Vary the rhythm by alternating short and long sentences.

Several sentences of the same length can make for bland writing. To enliven paragraphs, write
sentences of different lengths. This will also allow for effective emphasis.

Example: The Winslow family visited Canada and Alaska last summer to find some native
American art. In Anchorage stores they found some excellent examples of soapstone carvings.
But they couldn't find a dealer selling any of the woven wall hangings they wanted. They were
very disappointed when they left Anchorage empty-handed.
Revision: The Winslow family visited Canada and Alaska last summer to find some native
American art, such as soapstone carvings and wall hangings. Anchorage stores had many
soapstone items available. Still, they were disappointed to learn that wall hangings, which they
had especially wanted, were difficult to find. Sadly, they left empty-handed.
Example: Many really good blues guitarists have all had the last name King. They have been
named Freddie King and Albert King and B.B. King. The name King must make a bluesman a
really good bluesman. The bluesmen named King have all been very talented and good guitar
players. The claim that a name can make a guitarist good may not be that far fetched.
Revision: What makes a good bluesman? Maybe, just maybe, it's all in a stately name. B.B.
King. Freddie King. Albert King. It's no coincidence that they're the royalty of their genre. When
their fingers dance like court jesters, their guitars gleam like scepters, and their voices bellow
like regal trumpets, they seem almost like nobility. Hearing their music is like walking into the
throne room. They really are kings.

2. Vary sentence openings.

If too many sentences start with the same word, especially "The," "It," "This," or "I," prose can
grow tedious for readers, so changing opening words and phrases can be refreshing. Below are
alternative openings for a fairly standard sentence. Notice that different beginnings can alter not
only the structure but also the emphasis of the sentence. They may also require rephrasing in
sentences before or after this one, meaning that one change could lead to an abundance of
sentence variety.

56 
 
Example: The biggest coincidence that day happened when David and I ended up sitting next to
each other at the Super Bowl.
Possible Revisions:

• Coincidentally, David and I ended up sitting right next to each other at the Super Bowl.
• In an amazing coincidence, David and I ended up sitting next to each other at the Super
Bowl.
• Sitting next to David at the Super Bowl was a tremendous coincidence.
• But the biggest coincidence that day happened when David and I ended up sitting next to
each other at the Super Bowl.
• When I sat down at the Super Bowl, I realized that, by sheer coincidence, I was directly
next to David.
• By sheer coincidence, I ended up sitting directly next to David at the Super Bowl.
• With over 50,000 fans at the Super Bowl, it took an incredible coincidence for me to end
up sitting right next to David.
• What are the odds that I would have ended up sitting right next to David at the Super
Bowl?
• David and I, without any prior planning, ended up sitting right next to each other at the
Super Bowl.
• Without any prior planning, David and I ended up sitting right next to each other at the
Super Bowl.
• At the crowded Super Bowl, packed with 50,000 screaming fans, David and I ended up
sitting right next to each other by sheer coincidence.
• Though I hadn't made any advance arrangements with David, we ended up sitting right
next to each other at the Super Bowl.
• Many amazing coincidences occurred that day, but nothing topped sitting right next to
David at the Super Bowl.
• Unbelievable, I know, but David and I ended up sitting right next to each other at the
Super Bowl.
• Guided by some bizarre coincidence, David and I ended up sitting right next to each other
at the Super Bowl.

Sentence Types
Structurally, English sentences can be classified four different ways, though there are endless
constructions of each. The classifications are based on the number of independent and dependent
clauses a sentence contains. An independent clause forms a complete sentence on its own, while
a dependent clause needs another clause to make a complete sentence. By learning these types,
writers can add complexity and variation to their sentences.

Simple sentence: A sentence with one independent clause and no dependent clauses.

• My aunt enjoyed taking the hayride with you.

• China's Han Dynasty marked an official recognition of Confucianism.

57 
 
Compound Sentence: A sentence with multiple independent clauses but no dependent
clauses.

• The clown frightened the little girl, and she ran off screaming when she saw it.
• The Freedom Riders departed on May 4, 1961, and they were determined to travel
through many southern states.

Complex Sentence: A sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent
clause.

• After Mary added up all the sales, she discovered that the lemonade stand was 32 cents
short
• While all of his paintings are fascinating, Hieronymus Bosch's triptychs, full of mayhem
and madness, are the real highlight of his art.

Complex-Compound Sentence: A sentence with multiple independent clauses and at least

one dependent clause.

• With her reputation on the line, Peggy played against a fierce opponent at the Scrabble
competition, and overcoming nerve-racking competition, she won the game with one
well-placed word.
• Catch-22 is widely regarded as Joseph Heller's best novel, and because Heller served in
World War II, which the novel satirizes, the zany but savage wit of the novel packs an
extra punch.

For Short, Choppy Sentences

If your writing contains lots of short sentences that give it a choppy rhythm, consider these tips.

1. Combine Sentences With Conjunctions:

Join complete sentences, clauses, and phrases with conjunctions:

and, but, or, nor, yet, for, so

Example: Doonesbury cartoons satirize contemporary politics. Readers don't always find this
funny. They demand that newspapers not carry the strip.
Revision: Doonesbury cartoons laugh at contemporary politicians, but readers don't always find
this funny and demand that newspapers not carry the strip.

2. Link Sentences Through Subordination:

Link two related sentences to each other so that one carries the main idea and the other is no
longer a complete sentence (subordination). Use connectors such as the ones listed below to
show the relationship.

58 
 
after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, if only, rather than, since, that,
though, unless, until, when, where, whereas, wherever, whether, which, while
Example: The campus parking problem is getting worse. The university is not building any new
garages.
Revision: The campus parking problem is getting worse because the university is not building
any new garages.
Example: The US has been highly dependent on foreign oil for many years. Alternate sources of
energy are only now being sought.
Revision: Although the US has been highly dependent on foreign oil for many years, alternate
sources are only now being sought.

Notice in these examples that the location of the clause beginning with the dependent marker
(the connector word) is flexible. This flexibility can be useful in creating varied rhythmic
patterns over the course of a paragraph.

For Repeated Subjects or Topics

Handling the same topic for several sentences can lead to repetitive sentences. When that
happens, consider using these parts of speech to fix the problem.

1. Relative pronouns

Embed one sentence inside the other using a clause starting with one of the relative pronouns
listed below.

which, who, whoever, whom, that, whose

Example: Indiana used to be mainly an agricultural state. It has recently attracted more industry.
Revision: Indiana, which used to be mainly an agricultural state, has recently attracted more
industry.
Example: One of the cameras was not packed very well. It was damaged during the move.
Revision: The camera that was not packed very well was damaged during the move.
Example: The experiment failed because of Murphy's Law. This law states that if something can
go wrong, it will.
Revision: The experiment failed because of Murphy's Law, which states that if something can go
wrong, it will.
Example: Doctor Ramirez specializes in sports medicine. She helped my cousin recover from a
basketball injury.
Revision 1: Doctor Ramirez, who specializes in sports medicine, helped my cousin recover from
a basketball injury.
Revision 2: Doctor Ramirez, whose specialty is sports medicine, helped my cousin recover from
a basketball injury.

2. Participles

Eliminate a be verb (am, is, was, were, are) and substitute a participle:

59 
 
Present participles end in -ing, for example: speaking, carrying, wearing, dreaming.
Past participles usually end in -ed, -en, -d, -n, or -t but can be irregular, for example: worried,
eaten, saved, seen, dealt, taught.
Example: Wei Xie was surprised to get a phone call from his sister. He was happy to hear her
voice again.
Revision 1: Wei Xie, surprised to get a phone call from his sister, was happy to hear her voice
again.
Revision 2: Surprised to get a phone call from his sister, Wei Xie was happy to hear her voice
again.

3. Prepositions

Turn a sentence into a prepositional phrase using one of the words below:

about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, as, behind, below, beneath, beside,
between, by, despite, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, near, next to, of, off, on, out,
over, past, to, under, until, up, with
Example: The university has been facing pressure to cut its budget. It has eliminated funding for
important programs. (two independent clauses)
Revision: Under pressure to cut its budget, the university has eliminated funding for important
programs. (prepositional phrase, independent clause)
Example: Billy snuck a cookie from the desert table. This was against his mother's wishes.
Revision: Against his mother's wishes, Billy snuck a cookie from the desert table.

For Similar Sentence Patterns or Rhythms

When several sentences have similar patterns or rhythms, try using the following kinds of words
to shake up the writing.

1. Dependent markers

Put clauses and phrases with the listed dependent markers at the beginning of some sentences
instead of starting each sentence with the subject:

after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order to, since, though,
unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and while
Example: The room fell silent when the TV newscaster reported the story of the earthquake.
Revision: When the TV newscaster reported the story of the earthquake, the room fell silent.
Example: Thieves made off with Edvard Munch's The Scream before police could stop them.
Revision: Before police could stop them, thieves made off with Edvard Munch's The Scream.

2. Transitional words and phrases

Vary the rhythm by adding transitional words at the beginning of some sentences:

60 
 
accordingly, after all, afterward, also, although, and, but, consequently, despite, earlier, even
though, for example, for instance, however, in conclusion, in contrast, in fact, in the meantime,
in the same way, indeed, just as... so, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, not only... but also,
now, on the contrary, on the other hand, on the whole, otherwise, regardless, shortly, similarly,
specifically, still, that is, then, therefore, though, thus, yet
Example: Fast food corporations are producing and advertising bigger items and high-fat
combination meals. The American population faces a growing epidemic of obesity.
Revision: Fast food corporations are producing and advertising bigger items and high-fat
combination meals. Meanwhile, the American population faces a growing epidemic of obesity.

The Descriptive Essay

What is a Descriptive Essay?

The descriptive essay is a genre of essay that asks the student to describe an object, person,
place, experience, emotion, situation, etc. This genre encourages the student’s ability to create a
written account of a particular experience. What is more, this genre allows for a great deal of
artistic freedom (the goal of which is to paint an image that is vivid and moving in the mind of
the reader).

One might benefit from keeping in mind this simple maxim: If the reader is unable to clearly
form an impression of the thing that you are describing, try, try again!

Here are some guidelines for writing a descriptive essay:

Take time to brainstorm

If your instructor asks you to describe your favorite food, make sure that you jot down some
ideas before you begin describing it. For instance, if you choose pizza, you might start by writing
down a few words: sauce, cheese, crust, pepperoni, sausage, spices, hot, melted, etc. Once you
have written down some words, you can begin by compiling descriptive lists for each one.

Use clear and concise language.

This means that words are chosen carefully, particularly for their relevancy in relation to that
which you are intending to describe.

Choose vivid language.

Why use ‘horse’ when you can choose ‘stallion’? Why not use ‘tempestuous’ instead of
‘violent’? Or why not ‘miserly’ in place of ‘cheap’? Such choices form a firmer image in the
mind of the reader and often times offer nuanced meanings that serve better one’s purpose.

Use your senses!

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Remember, if you are describing something, you need to be appealing to the senses of the reader.
Explain how the thing smelled, felt, sounded, tasted, or looked. Embellish the moment with
senses.

What were you thinking?!

If you can describe emotions or feelings related to your topic, you will connect with the reader
on a deeper level. Many have felt crushing loss in their lives, or ecstatic joy, or mild
complacency. Tap into this emotional reservoir in order to achieve your full descriptive potential.

Leave the reader with a clear impression.

One of your goals is to evoke a strong sense of familiarity and appreciation in the reader. If your
reader can walk away from the essay craving the very pizza you just described, you are on your
way to writing effective descriptive essays.

Be organized!

It is easy to fall into an incoherent rambling of emotions and senses when writing a descriptive
essay. However, you must strive to present an organized and logical description if the reader is to
come away from the essay with a cogent sense of what it is you are attempting to describe.

The Narrative Essay

What is a Narrative Essay?

When writing a narrative essay, one might think of it as telling a story. These essays are often
anecdotal, experiential, and personal—allowing the student to express herself in a creative and,
quite often, moving way.

Here are some guidelines for writing a narrative essay:

If written as a story, the essay should include all the parts of a story.

This means that you must include an introduction, plot, characters, setting, climax, and
conclusion.

When would a narrative essay not be written as a story?

A good example of this is when an instructor asks a student to write a book report. Obviously,
this would not necessarily follow the pattern of a story and would focus on providing an
informative narrative for the reader.

The essay should have a purpose.

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Make a point! Think of this as the thesis of your story. If there is not point to what you are
narrating, why narrate it at all?

The essay should be written from a clear point of view.

It is quite common for narrative essays to be written from the standpoint of the author; however,
this is not the sole perspective to be considered. Creativity in narrative essays often times
manifests itself in the form of authorial perspective.

Use clear and concise language throughout the essay.

Much like the descriptive essay, narrative essays are effective when the language is carefully,
particularly, and artfully chosen. Use specific language to evoke specific emotions and senses in
the reader.

The use of the first person pronoun ‘I’ is welcomed.

Do not abuse this guideline! Though it is welcomed it is not necessary—nor should it be

overused for lack of clearer diction.

As always, be organized!

Have a clear introduction that sets the tone for the remainder of the essay. Do not leave the
reader guessing about the purpose of your narrative. Remember, you are in control of the essay,
so guide it where you desire (just make sure your audience can follow your lead).

Organizing an Exploratory Essay

Exploratory essays are very different from argumentative essays. In fact, an exploratory essay is
likely different from any other essay you’ve written. Instead of writing to convince an audience
of the validity of a thesis, you will be writing to find out about a problem and perhaps to form
some preliminary conclusions about how it might be solved.

But there is another aspect the exploratory genre that is equally important. An exploratory essay
is, in essence, a retrospective of your writing and thinking process as you work through a
problem. It describes when, how, and why you completed certain types of research. This kind of
writing is about how you work through problems that require writing and research. You will
have to be introspective and think about your thinking process in order for your essay to turn out
well.

Very roughly, then, your exploratory essay may follow this sort of structure:

Introduction

The introduction should outline the problem you explored and why it’s important. In addition,
you should briefly discuss 1) some of the problem’s possible causes; 2) the institutions and

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people involved with the problem; 3) some of the possible solutions to the problem. A brief
overview of the types of sources your researched during your inquiry.

Body Paragraphs

Body paragraphs should discuss the inquiry process you followed to research your problem.
These paragraphs should include the following:

1. Introduction of source (title, author, type of media, publisher, publication date, etc.) and
why you chose to use it in your exploration
2. Important information you found in the source regarding your problem
3. Why the information is important and dependable in relation to the problem
4. Some personal introspection on how the source helped you, allowed you to think
differently about the problem, or even fell short of your expectations and led you in a
new direction in your research, which forms a transition into your next source.

Conclusion

The conclusion should restate the problem you explored, outline some of its possible causes,
review the institutions and people involved, and highlight some possible solutions. If you still
have any questions about the problem (and it’s ok to have some), you will discuss them here.
Talk about why you think you still have questions regarding the problem you explored, where
you might look to answer these questions, and what other forms of research you would have to
do.

Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for

Exploratory Papers
Many paper assignments call for you to establish a position and defend that position with an
effective argument. However, some assignments are not argumentative, but rather, they are
exploratory. Exploratory essays ask questions and gather information that may answer these
questions. However, the main point of the exploratory or inquiry essay is not to find definite
answers. The main point is to conduct inquiry into a topic, gather information, and share that
information with readers.

Introductions for Exploratory Essays

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions:

1. What is this?
2. Why am I reading it?
3. What do you want me to do?

You should answer these questions in an exploratory essay by doing the following:

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 1. Set the context – provide general information about the main idea, explaining the
situation so the reader can make sense of the topic and the questions you will ask
2. State why the main idea is important – tell the reader why s/he should care and keep
reading. Your goal is to create a compelling, clear, and educational essay people will
want to read and act upon
3. State your research question – compose a question or two that clearly communicate what
you want to discover and why you are interested in the topic. An overview of the types of
sources you explored might follow your research question.

If your inquiry paper is long, you may want to forecast how you explored your topic by outlining
the structure of your paper, the sources you considered, and the information you found in these
sources. Your forecast could read something like this:

In order to explore my topic and try to answer my research question, I began with news sources.
I then conducted research in scholarly sources, such as peer-reviewed journals. Lastly, I
conducted an interview with a primary source. All these sources gave me a better understanding
of my topic, and even though I was not able to fully answer my research questions, I learned a lot
and narrowed my subject for the next paper assignment, the problem-solution report.

For this OWL resource, the example exploratory process investigates a local problem to gather
more information so that eventually a solution may be suggested.

Identify a problem facing your University (institution, students, faculty, staff) or the local area
and conduct exploratory research to find out as much as you can on the following:

• Causes of the problem and other contributing factors

• People/institutions involved in the situation: decision makers and stakeholders
• Possible solutions to the problem.

You do not have to argue for a solution to the problem at this point. The point of the exploratory
essay is to ask an inquiry question and find out as much as you can to try to answer your
question. Then write about your inquiry and findings.

Starting the Writing Process

Invention: Starting the Writing Process
Writing takes time

Find out when is the assignment due and devise a plan of action. This may seem obvious and
irrelevant to the writing process, but it's not. Writing is a process, not merely a product. Even the
best professional writers don't just sit down at a computer, write, and call it a day. The quality of
your writing will reflect the time and forethought you put into the assignment. Plan ahead for the
assignment by doing pre-writing: this will allow you to be more productive and organized when
you sit down to write. Also, schedule several blocks of time to devote to your writing; then, you

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can walk away from it for a while and come back later to make changes and revisions with a
fresh mind.

Use the rhetorical elements as a guide to think through your writing

Thinking about your assignment in terms of the rhetorical situation can help guide you in the
beginning of the writing process. Topic, audience, genre, style, opportunity, research, the writer,
and purpose are just a few elements that make up the rhetorical situation.

Topic and audience are often very intertwined and work to inform each other. Start with a broad
view of your topic such as skateboarding, pollution, or the novel Jane Eyre and then try to focus
or refine your topic into a concise thesis statement by thinking about your audience. Here are
some questions you can ask yourself about audience:

• Who is the audience for your writing?

• Do you think your audience is interested in the topic? Why or why not?
• Why should your audience be interested in this topic?
• What does your audience already know about this topic?
• What does your audience need to know about this topic?
• What experiences has your audience had that would influence them on this topic?
• What do you hope the audience will gain from your text?

For example, imagine that your broad topic is dorm food. Who is your audience? You could be
writing to current students, prospective students, parents of students, university administrators, or
nutrition experts among others. Each of these groups would have different experiences with and
interests in the topic of dorm food. While students might be more concerned with the taste of the
food or the hours food is available parents might be more concerned with the price.

You can also think about opportunity as a way to refine or focus your topic by asking yourself
what current events make your topic relevant at this moment. For example, you could connect
the nutritional value of dorm food to the current debate about the obesity epidemic or you could
connect the price value of dorm food to the rising cost of a college education overall.

Keep in mind the purpose of the writing assignment.

Writing can have many different purposes. Here are just a few examples:

• Summarizing: Presenting the main points or essence of another text in a condensed form
• Arguing/Persuading: Expressing a viewpoint on an issue or topic in an effort to convince
others that your viewpoint is correct
• Narrating: Telling a story or giving an account of events
• Evaluating: Examining something in order to determine its value or worth based on a set
of criteria.
• Analyzing: Breaking a topic down into its component parts in order to examine the
relationships between the parts.
• Responding: Writing that is in a direct dialogue with another text.

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 • Examining/Investigating: Systematically questioning a topic to discover or uncover facts
that are not widely known or accepted, in a way that strives to be as neutral and objective
as possible.
• Observing: Helping the reader see and understand a person, place, object, image or event
that you have directly watched or experienced through detailed sensory descriptions.

You could be observing your dorm cafeteria to see what types of food students are actually
eating, you could be evaluating the quality of the food based on freshness and quantity, or you
could be narrating a story about how you gained fifteen pounds your first year at college.

You may need to use several of these writing strategies within your paper. For example you
could summarize federal nutrition guidelines, evaluate whether the food being served at the dorm
fits those guidelines, and then argue that changes should be made in the menus to better fit those
guidelines.

Pre-writing strategies

Once you have thesis statement just start writing! Don't feel constrained by format issues. Don't
worry about spelling, grammar, or writing in complete sentences. Brainstorm and write down
everything you can think of that might relate to the thesis and then reread and evaluate the ideas
you generated. It's easier to cut out bad ideas than to only think of good ones. Once you have a
handful of useful ways to approach thesis you can use a basic outline structure to begin to think
about organization. Remember to be flexible; this is just a way to get you writing. If better ideas
occur to you as you're writing, don't be afraid to refine your original ideas.

Understanding Writing Assignments

How to Decipher the Paper Assignment

Many instructors write their assignment prompts differently. By following a few steps, you can
better understand the requirements for the assignment. The best way, as always, is to ask the
instructor about anything confusing.

1. Read the prompt the entire way through once. This gives you an overall view of what
is going on.
2. Underline or circle the portions that you absolutely must know. This information may
include due date, research (source) requirements, page length, and format (MLA, APA,
CMS).
3. Underline or circle important phrases. You should know your instructor at least a little
by now - what phrases does she use in class? Does he repeatedly say a specific word? If
these are in the prompt, you know the instructor wants you to use them in the assignment.
4. Think about how you will address the prompt. The prompt contains clues on how to
write the assignment. Your instructor will often describe the ideas she wants discussed
either in questions, in bullet points, or in the text of the prompt. Think about each of these
sentences and number them so that you can write a paragraph or section of your essay on
that portion if necessary.

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 5. Rank ideas in descending order, from most important to least important. Instructors
may include more questions or talking points than you can cover in your assignment, so
rank them in the order you think is more important. One area of the prompt may be more
interesting to you than another.
6. Ask your instructor questions if you have any.

After you are finished with these steps, ask yourself the following:

1. What is the purpose of this assignment? Is my purpose to provide information without

forming an argument, to construct an argument based on research, or analyze a poem and
discuss it imagery?
2. Who is my audience? Is my instructor my only audience? Who else might read this?
Will it be posted online? What are my readers' needs and expectations?
3. What resources do I need to begin work? Do I need to conduct literature (hermeneutic
or historical) research, or do I need to review important literature on the topic and then
conduct empirical research, such as a survey or an observation? How many sources are
required?
4. Who - beyond my instructor - can I contact to help me if I have questions? Do you
have a writing lab or student service center that offers tutorials in writing? Can you
condense questions into shorter formats to email the Purdue OWL Email Tutors?

Examples

(Notes on prompts made in blue)

Poster or Song Analysis: Poster or Song? Poster!

Goals: To systematically consider the rhetorical choices made in either a poster or a song. She
says that all the time.

Things to Consider: ah- talking points

Poster:

• how the poster addresses its audience and is affected by context I'll do this first - 1.
• general layout, use of color, contours of light and shade, etc.
• use of contrast, alignment, repetition,and proximity C.A.R.P. she says that, too. I'll do
this third - 3.
• the point of view the viewer is invited to take, poses of figures in the poster, etc. any text
that may be present
• possible cultural ramifications or social issues that have bearing I'll cover this second - 2.
• ethical implications
• how the poster affects us emotionally, or what mood it evokes
• the poster's implicit argument and its effectiveness said that was important in class, so I'll
discuss this last - 4.

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Song:

• how the song addresses its audience

• lyrics: how they rhyme, repeat, what they say
• use of music, tempo, different instruments
• possible cultural ramifications or social issues that have bearing
• ethical implications
• emotional effects
• the implicit argument and its effectiveness

These thinking points are not a step-by-step guideline on how the write your paper; instead, they
are various means through which you can approach the subject. I do expect to see at least a few
of them addressed, and there are other aspects that may be pertinent to your choice that have not
been included in these lists. You will want to find a central idea and base your argument around
that. Additionally, you must include a copy of the poster or song that you are working with.
Really important!

I will be your audience. This is a formal paper, and you should use academic conventions
throughout.

Length: 4 pages Format: Typed, double-spaced, 10-12 point Times New Roman, 1 inch margins
I need to remember the format stuff. I messed this up last time =(

Academic Argument Essay

5-7 pages, Times New Roman 12 pt. font, 1 inch margins.

Minimum of five cited sources: 3 must be from academic journals or books

• Design Plan due: Thurs. 10/19

• Rough Draft due: Monday 10/30
• Final Draft due: Thurs. 11/9

Remember this! I missed the deadline last time

The design plan is simply a statement of purpose, as described on pages 40-41 of the book, and
an outline. The outline may be formal, as we discussed in class, or a printout of an Open Mind
project. It must be a minimum of 1 page typed information, plus 1 page outline.

This project is an expansion of your opinion editorial. While you should avoid repeating any of
your exact phrases from Project 2, you may reuse some of the same ideas. Your topic should be
similar. You must use research to support your position, and you must also demonstrate a fairly
thorough knowledge of any opposing position(s). 2 things to do - my position and the opposite.

Your essay should begin with an introduction that encapsulates your topic and indicates 1 the
general trajectory of your argument. You need to have a discernable thesis that appears early in

69 
 
your paper. Your conclusion should restate the thesis in different words, 2 and then draw some
additional meaningful analysis out of the developments of your argument. Think of this as a "so
what" factor. What are some implications for the future, relating to your topic? What does all this
(what you have argued) mean for society, or for the section of it to which your argument
pertains? A good conclusion moves outside the topic in the paper and deals with a larger issue.

You should spend at least one paragraph acknowledging and describing the opposing position in
a manner that is respectful and honestly representative of the opposition’s 3 views. The
counterargument does not need to occur in a certain area, but generally begins or ends your
argument. Asserting and attempting to prove each aspect of your argument’s structure should
comprise the majority of your paper. Ask yourself what your argument assumes and what must
be proven in order to validate your claims. Then go step-by-step, paragraph-by-paragraph,
addressing each facet of your position. Most important part!

Finally, pay attention to readability. Just because this is a research paper does not mean that it
has to be boring. Use examples and allow your opinion to show through word choice and tone.
Proofread before you turn in the paper. Your audience is generally the academic community and
specifically me, as a representative of that community. Ok, she wants this to be easy to read, to
contain examples I find, and she wants it to be grammatically correct. I can visit the tutoring
center if I get stuck, or I can email the OWL Email Tutors short questions if I have any more
problems.

Guidelines for Fair Use

Introduction

As schools and universities increase technology use in the classroom, more students and teachers
have questions about copyright law. Students are often unclear about how they can legally
incorporate images, music, video, and other multimedia into classroom projects. This is not
surprising. Copyright laws are very complicated, and it is often hard to find straightforward
answers about educational use.

This handout provides a few general guidelines about fair use and copyright laws but no concrete
legal advice. Anyone dealing with a specific legal issue or dilemma should contact a lawyer.
Anyone making decisions about using multimedia in a class project should first consult the usage
policy of their school or institution. The US Copyright Act contains relevant but complex
sections that can inform teachers and students making a decision. (These pages are hosted by
Cornell’s Legal Information Institute.)

• 17 U.S.C. § 106: Exclusive rights in copyrighted works

• 17 U.S.C. § 107: Fair Use
• 17 U.S.C. § 110: Limitations on Exclusive Rights

Please remember that companies more aggressively pursue violations that put them in a bad light
or reflect poorly on them. Thererore, since a number of student projects are designed to criticize

70 
 
corporate images, a balance between teacher and student desires must be found in order to
develop legal and fair information about corporate legal trends.

Fair Use

This handout works mostly with 17 U.S.C. § 107 on fair use, which provides the conditions that
allow the limited use of copyrighted works. Again, these guidelines are general rather than
specific, and courts often determine fair use on a case by case basis. Four things are considered
when determining fair use:

• The Purpose of the Use

• The Nature of the Copyrighted Work
• The Amount or Percentage of the Work Used
• The Effect of the Use on the Original Work

Based on this definition of fair use, some uses of copyrighted works are more likely to be
protected than others. Again, there are few hard and fast rules concerning educational approach.
Uses meeting these conditions are more likely, though not guaranteed, to be protected.

The purpose of the use is educational.

Many people assume that any educational use of a copyrighted work is legal. That is not
accurate. However, the law does recognize the unique situation of non-profit educational
institutions when it comes to fair use issues. Section 107 specifically distinguishes between
commercial and educational use. Therefore, teachers and students are more protected when using
copyrighted works for classroom assignments, lessons, or projects. Purposes that are specifically
mentioned in Section 107 include “criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching (including
multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research.” Almost any unauthorized use of a
copyrighted work that makes money will not be protected under fair use.

The new use is not widely available.

Fair use is more likely to apply when the new use is available for a limited time to a small group
of people. Therefore, showing part of a movie in the classroom is more likely to be protected
than posting the same clip to the internet. Similarly, using copyrighted images in a classroom
PowerPoint presentation is more acceptable than making the presentation available online or
putting the images on a website. Therefore, when determining the use of copyrighted work,
consider time, access, and durability. Make the new use available for the shortest amount of time
to the smallest group possible. Prevent others from duplicating the work for further use. Keep
copyrighted works off the internet, or place them behind password protection to avoid outside
access.

The copyrighted work was legally obtained.

When using a copyrighted work, get the original version legally. Buy the DVD, CD, or photo
instead of pirating it off the internet. Use a legally purchased film clip or song rather than one

71 
 
downloaded off YouTube or Limewire. Purchase a photo instead of taking it off Google image
search. This ensures that the copyright holder receives some funding for the use.

The use does not affect the copyright owner.

Uses of copyrighted works should not interfere with the copyright holder’s use of the work. This
means that the new use should not make any money or be available to a large audience. Uses that
allow others to access or reproduce the work, such as images or a pdf file posted on a website,
can also be detrimental to the copyright owner.

The use is partial.

Reproducing only a small part of a copyrighted work is more acceptable than using an entire
work. Try to use less than 10% of a movie, television show, music, or other media. Though
image use does not conform easily to this standard, consider using only a few photos or
illustrations rather than an artist’s entire collection. As a rule of thumb, using a smaller portion of
a work is more likely to be protected. Furthermore, take only what is necessary for the purposes
of the new use.

The use is transformative.

Courts often favor uses that transform the copyrighted work into something new by adding
criticism or commentary to change the meaning or message of the original. Educational use is
protected to allow creativity and intellectual expression, so educational expansion of the
copyrighted work is more likely to be protected. Contribute commentary or analysis to an image,
or include it as part of a collage or parody. Incorporate film or music as part of a larger work, or
edit and remix the clips to produce a new product. Transforming a work as part of the
educational process helps it fall under fair use.

The work is published.

Fair use will more likely apply to published works than unpublished works. The law wants to
give the original copyright holder the rights to the first publication of a work, meaning that a
work should never be used by a non-copyright holder before its publication.

Alternatives

Quite often, there is no legal use for a copyrighted work, even in an educational setting. In this or
any case, it is always the best option to get permission from the copyright holder before using a
work. However, time constraints and potential rejection often make this option unfeasible. In that
case, consider these alternatives.

Find available works.

Many sources, such as freeimages.com and imageafter.com, provide free or cheap images that
can be used without copyright violation. Try to find images offered for use instead of those

72 
 
protected by copyright law. Furthermore, some media is protected under creative commons
licensing, which can be more flexible than official copyright law. Creative commons works also
specify acceptable usage conditions.

Use homemade media.

When possible, take photos for the project instead of using those found of the internet. Generate
music or footage personally to ensure that copyright law is not being violated.

Helpful Resources:

Reverse Outlining: An Exercise for Taking Notes and

Revising Your Work
Some assignments ask you to read and analyze complex information. In these cases, reverse
outlining can help you distill the main ideas into short, clear statements. You may also use
reverse outlining to revise your own work. Reverse outlining follows a two-step, repeatable
process:

1. In the left-hand margin, write down the topic of each paragraph. Try to use as few words
as possible.

When reading, these notes should work as quick references for future study or in-class
discussion.

When revising your own work, these notes should tell you if each paragraph is focused
and clear.

2. In the right-hand margin, write down how the paragraph topic advances the overall
argument of the text. Again, be brief.

When reading, these notes allow you to follow the logic of the essay, making it easier for
you to analyze or discuss later.

When revising your own work, these notes should tell you if each paragraph fits in the
overall organization of your paper. You may also notice that paragraphs should be shifted
after completing this step.

Be brief, particularly when rereading your own work. If you can't complete each step in 5-10
words, the paragraph may need to be altered. You should be able to summarize the topic and the
manner of support quickly; if you can't, revise the paragraph until you can.

This exercise can be expanded into an actual outline by rewriting/typing your notes, but writing
in the margin might be sufficient.

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11. Organising Paragraphs

12. Organising the Main Body

3. Some common academic synonyms

74 
 
 75 
 
Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis Statements
Tips for Writing Your Thesis Statement

1.Determine what kind of paper you are writing:

• An analytical paper breaks down an issue or an idea into its component parts, evaluates
the issue or idea, and presents this breakdown and evaluation to the audience.
• An expository (explanatory) paper explains something to the audience.
• An argumentative paper makes a claim about a topic and justifies this claim with
specific evidence. The claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a
cause-and-effect statement, or an interpretation. The goal of the argumentative paper is to
convince the audience that the claim is true based on the evidence provided.

If you are writing a text which does not fall under these three categories (ex. a narrative), a thesis
statement somewhere in the first paragraph could still be helpful to your reader.

2. Your thesis statement should be specific—it should cover only what you will discuss in your
paper and should be supported with specific evidence.

3. The thesis statement usually appears at the end of the first paragraph of a paper.

4. Your topic may change as you write, so you may need to revise your thesis statement to reflect
exactly what you have discussed in the paper.

Thesis Statement Examples

Example of an analytical thesis statement:

An analysis of the college admission process reveals one challenge facing counselors: accepting
students with high test scores or students with strong extracurricular backgrounds.

The paper that follows should:

• explain the analysis of the college admission process

• explain the challenge facing admissions counselors

Example of an expository (explanatory) thesis statement:

The life of the typical college student is characterized by time spent studying, attending class,
and socializing with peers.

The paper that follows should:

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 • explain how students spend their time studying, attending class, and socializing with
peers

Example of an argumentative thesis statement:

High school graduates should be required to take a year off to pursue community service projects
before entering college in order to increase their maturity and global awareness.

The paper that follows should:

• present an argument and give evidence to support the claim that students should pursue
community projects before entering college

Visual-Textual Devices for Achieving Emphasis

In the days before computerized word processing and desktop publishing, the publishing process
began with a manuscript and/or a typescript that was sent to a print shop where it would be
prepared for publication and printed. In order to show emphasis, to highlight the title of a book,
to refer to a word itself as a word, or to indicate a foreign word or phrase, the writer would use
underlining in the typescript, which would signal the typesetter at the print shop to use italic font
for those words.

Even today, perhaps the simplest way to call attention to an otherwise unemphatic word or
phrase is to underline or italicize it.

Flaherty is the new committee chair, not Buckley.

This mission is extremely important for our future: we must not fail!

Because writers using computers today have access to a wide variety of fonts and textual effects,
they are no longer limited to underlining to show emphasis. Still, especially for academic
writing, italics or underlining is the preferred way to emphasize words or phrases when
necessary. Writers usually choose one or the other method and use it consistently throughout an
individual essay.

In the final, published version of an article or book, italics are usually used. Writers in academic
discourses and students learning to write academic papers are expected to express emphasis
primarily through words themselves; overuse of various emphatic devices like changes of font
face and size, boldface, all-capitals, and so on in the text of an essay creates the impression of a
writer relying on flashy effects instead of clear and precise writing to make a point.

Boldface is also used, especially outside of academia, to show emphasis as well as to highlight
items in a list, as in the following examples.

The picture that television commercials portray of the American home is far from realistic.

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The following three topics will be covered:

• topic 1: brief description of topic 1

• topic 2: brief description of topic 2
• topic 3: brief description of topic 3

Some writers use ALL-CAPITAL letters for emphasis, but they are usually unnecessary and can
cause writing to appear cluttered and loud. In email correspondence, the use of all-caps
throughout a message can create the unintended impression of shouting and is therefore
discouraged.

Punctuation Marks for Achieving Emphasis

Some punctuation marks prompt the reader to give a word or sentence more than usual emphasis.
For example, a command with a period does not evoke the same emphatic response as the same
command with an exclamation mark.

Watch out!

A dash or colon has more emphatic force than a comma.

The employees were surprised by the decision, which was not to change company policy.

The employees were surprised by the decision—no change in company policy.

The employees were surprised by the decision: no change in company policy.

Choice and Arrangement of Words for Achieving Emphasis

The simplest way to emphasize something is to tell readers directly that what follows is
important by using such words and phrases as especially, particularly, crucially, most
importantly, and above all.

Emphasis by repetition of key words can be especially effective in a series, as in the following
example.

See your good times come to color in minutes: pictures protected by an elegant finish, pictures
you can take with an instant flash, pictures that can be made into beautiful enlargements.

When a pattern is established through repetition and then broken, the varied part will be
emphasized, as in the following example.

Murtz Rent-a-car is first in reliability, first in service, and last in customer complaints.

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Besides disrupting an expectation set up by the context, you can also emphasize part of a
sentence by departing from the basic structural patterns of the language. The inversion of the
standard subject-verb-object pattern in the first sentence below into an object-subject-verb
pattern in the second places emphasis on the out-of-sequence term, fifty dollars.

I'd make fifty dollars in just two hours on a busy night at the restaurant.

Fifty dollars I'd make in just two hours on a busy night at the restaurant.

The initial and terminal positions of sentences are inherently more emphatic than the middle
segment. Likewise, the main clause of a complex sentence receives more emphasis than
subordinate clauses. Therefore, you should put words that you wish to emphasize near the
beginnings and endings of sentences and should never bury important elements in subordinate
clauses. Consider the following example.

No one can deny that the computer has had a great effect upon the business world.

Undeniably, the effect of the computer upon the business world has been great.

In the first version of this sentence, "No one can deny" and "on the business world" are in the
most emphasized positions. In addition, the writer has embedded the most important ideas in a
subordinate clause: "that the computer has had a great effect." The edited version places the most
important ideas in the main clause and in the initial and terminal slots of the sentence, creating a
more engaging prose style.

Sentence and Clause Arrangement for Emphasis

Sentence Position and Variation for Achieving Emphasis

An abrupt short sentence following a long sentence or a sequence of long sentences is often
emphatic. For example, compare the following paragraphs. The second version emphasizes an
important idea by placing it in an independent clause and placing it at the end of the paragraph:

For a long time, but not any more, Japanese corporations used Southeast Asia merely as a cheap
source of raw materials, as a place to dump outdated equipment and overstocked merchandise,
and as a training ground for junior executives who needed minor league experience.

For a long time Japanese corporations used Southeast Asia merely as a cheap source of raw
materials, as a place to dump outdated equipment and overstocked merchandise, and as a training
ground for junior executives who needed minor league experience. But those days have ended.

Varying a sentence by using a question after a series of statements is another way of achieving
emphasis.

The increased number of joggers, the booming sales of exercise bicycles and other physical
training devices, the record number of entrants in marathon races—all clearly indicate the

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growing belief among Americans that strenuous, prolonged exercise is good for their health. But
is it?

Arrangement of Clauses for Achieving Emphasis

Since the terminal position in the sentence carries the most weight and since the main clause is
more emphatic than a subordinate clause in a complex sentence, writers often place the
subordinate clause before the main clause to give maximal emphasis to the main clause. For
example:

I believe both of these applicants are superb even though it's hard to find good secretaries
nowadays.

Even though it's hard to find good secretaries nowadays, I believe both of these applicants are
superb.

Reverse Paramedic Method

The paramedic method is an editing exercise originally described in Richard Lanham’s Revising
Prose. The original exercise helps people recognize wordy sentences written in the passive
voice. This adaptation reverses one purpose of the activity and assists in recognizing and
implementing passive voice, which is often used in scientific writing. This reverse method
should still help writers make sentence less wordy and more concise.

Activity

Prepare for the activity by asking students to bring in a sample of their writing from a current
assignment, or provide students with the example below. Briefly explain the following grammar
concepts:

1. Preposition: A preposition is any word or group of words that relates a noun or pronoun to
another word in a sentence. Some common prepositions: about, after, among, behind, down up,
from, of, off, past, before, underneath, with, above, during, beyond, in, since, until, within,
according to, along, at beside, by except, into, on, through, up, without, across, amid, before,
besides, concerning, for, like, over toward, upon.

2. “To be” or “is” verbs: These words describe the “states of being” of people or things in a
sentence. Examples: is, was, has been, will be, are, become.

3. The “action” of the sentence: The action of the sentence describes what who is doing what to
whom. For example, in the following sentence, the action would be “placed:” The team placed
the gyroscope laterally.

4. Finding the subject: The subject of the sentence is the person or thing doing the action. In the
following sentence, the subject is “the team.” “The team placed the gyroscope laterally.”

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5. Windups: Windups are phrases, usually prepositional phrases, that set up an idea to be
expressed in a sentence. Some windups are necessary or important to the meaning of the
sentences they introduce, but others just make sentences wordy or unnecessarily complex.
Deciding whether a windup is necessary or not depends on the context.

Examples of windups:

• “According to the results...”

• “In the next part of the lab...”
• “In order to understand X concept...”

6. Redundancies: redundancies are patterns or words that are repeated in a sentence. Using
redundancies leads to awkward and lengthy sentences, which can make your sentences and your
ideas hard to understand. The following sentence contains redundancies (was conducted, with):

"The experiment was conducted at 1330 GMT and was conducted with an increased basal rate
with a double bolus."

Eliminating redundancies reduces word count and makes sentences easier to understand:

"The experiment was conducted at 1330 GMT using an increased basal rate and a double bolus."

7. Active and passive voice: Active voice is a structure of writing that emphasizes the doer and
uses active verbs rather than forms of the verb "to be" (see above). Here is an example of a
sentence written in active voice:

"Morgan Latour attended the baseball game."

The sentence above is constructed in the subject-verb-object pattern. Note that the doer (Morgan)
precedes the verb (went).

Passive voice does not emphasize the doer and may even use past tense. Passive voice is usually
used in scientific writing because the emphasis is placed on what was done rather than on who
did it. Here is an example of the same sentence written in passive voice:

"The baseball game was attended by Morgan Latour."

In some cases, the doer is not even mentioned in scientific writing:

"The experiment was conducted at 1330 GMT."

Once students appear to understand these basic concepts, get them started on the exercise. The
purpose of this exercise is to teach students to emphasize the experiment rather than the
researchers.

Procedure for the Reverse Paramedic Method

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 1. Circle the prepositions. Eliminate any unnecessary prepositions.
2. Identify any references to the researchers (the doer).
3. Replace references to the researchers with a passive construction that emphasizes the
experiment (what was done).
4. Eliminate any unnecessary slow wind-ups.
5. Eliminate any redundancies.

Example before applying the reverse paramedic method:

• Original: In the following experiment, we used the feline cell line, W9, to evaluate cell
growth in the presence of the growth factor.
• Revised: The female cell line W9 was used to evaluate cell growth in the presence of
growth factor.
• Original: During the procedure, we cultured the cells for 48 hours in media that we
modified with 78, 80, 90, and 110 ng/mL BMP.
• Revised: Cells were cultured for 48 hours in media modified with 78, 80, 90, and 110
ng/mL BMP.
• Original: At 48 hours, we harvested cells from the cell culture dish and counted. We used
a hemocytometer.
• Revised: At 48 hours, cells were harvested from the culture dish and counted using
hemocytometer.

Paramedic Method: A Lesson in Writing Concisely

Use the Paramedic Method (originally developed by Richard Lanham in Revising Prose) to edit
any kind of professional writing. Editing your professional writing using the Paramedic Method
will make your prose easier to read. Sentences that are easy to read are more persuasive and
more user-centered.

Professional writers understand the need for clear, concise prose. An industry standard for
helping workplace writers achieve user-centered, persuasive, and clear prose is the Paramedic
Method. When you use the Paramedic Method, you will reduce your word count by eliminating
unnecessary words. The Paramedic Method also helps you activate your sentences by
eliminating passive voice and redundancies. The Paramedic Method is an easy to learn,
systematic way to make your sentences more persuasive and more user-centered.

Follow the seven steps below to improve the readability of your sentences.

The Paramedic Method

1. Circle the prepositions (of, in, about, for, onto, into)

2. Draw a box around the "is" verb forms
3. Ask, "Where's the action?"
4. Change the "action" into a simple verb
5. Move the doer into the subject (Who's kicking whom)
6. Eliminate any unnecessary slow wind-ups

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 7. Eliminate any redundancies.

Image Caption: Paramedic Method Example

Now You Try

Use the Paramedic Method in the sentences below to practice.

Use the Paramedic Method in the sentences below to practice making your sentences more
concise. After you use the Paramedic Method on these sentences, check your results against the
sentences at the bottom of this handout.

1. The point I wish to make is that the employees working at this company are in need of a
much better manager of their money.
2. It is widely known that the engineers at Sandia Labs have become active participants in
the Search and Rescue operations in most years.
3. After reviewing the results of your previous research, and in light of the relevant
information found within the context of the study, there is ample evidence for making
important, significant changes to our operating procedures.

Example Concise Solutions:

1. Employees at this company need a better money manager. (Original word count: 26. New
word count: 10).
2. In recent years, engineers at Sandia Labs have participated in the Search and Rescue
operations. (Original word count: 24. New word count: 16).
3. After reviewing the results of your research, and within the context of the study, we find
evidence supporting significant changes in our operating procedures. (Original word
count: 36. New word count: 25).

On Paragraphs
What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. Learning to write
good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting and revision stages.
Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in following a piece of writing. You can

83 
 
have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas aren't presented in an organized fashion, you will lose
your readers (and fail to achieve your goals in writing).

The Basic Rule: Keep One Idea to One Paragraph

The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you begin to
transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph. There are some simple ways to tell if
you are on the same topic or a new one. You can have one idea and several bits of supporting
evidence within a single paragraph. You can also have several points in a single paragraph as
long as they relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the single points start to get long, then
perhaps elaborating on each of them and placing them in their own paragraphs is the route to go.

Elements of a Paragraph

To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity,

Coherence, A Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of these traits
overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will help you construct effective
paragraphs.

Unity

The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with a one focus or
major point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander within different ideas.

Coherence

Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. You can help
create coherence in your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges.

Logical bridges

• The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence

• Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form

Verbal bridges

• Key words can be repeated in several sentences

• Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences
• Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences
• Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences

A topic sentence

A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea or thesis the paragraph is
going to deal with. Although not all paragraphs have clear-cut topic sentences, and despite the
fact that topic sentences can occur anywhere in the paragraph (as the first sentence, the last

84 
 
sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy way to make sure your reader understands the
topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the beginning of the paragraph. (This is
a good general rule for less experienced writers, although it is not the only way to do it).
Regardless of whether you include an explicit topic sentence or not, you should be able to easily
summarize what the paragraph is about.

Adequate development

The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and adequately.
Again, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's purpose, but writers
should beware of paragraphs that only have two or three sentences. It's a pretty good bet that the
paragraph is not fully developed if it is that short.

Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:

• Use examples and illustrations

• Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
• Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
• Use an anecdote or story
• Define terms in the paragraph
• Compare and contrast
• Evaluate causes and reasons
• Examine effects and consequences
• Analyze the topic
• Describe the topic
• Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)

How do I know when to start a new paragraph?

You should start a new paragraph when:

• When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new paragraphs.
If you have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that
idea should have its own paragraph.
• To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a
debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference.
• When your readers need a pause. Breaks in paragraphs function as a short "break" for
your readers—adding these in will help your writing more readable. You would create a
break if the paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex.
• When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your
introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many
introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their content,
length, and the writer's purpose.

Transitions and Signposts

85 
 
Two very important elements of paragraphing are signposts and transitions. Signposts are
internal aids to assist readers; they usually consist of several sentences or a paragraph outlining
what the article has covered and where the article will be going.

Transitions are usually one or several sentences that "transition" from one idea to the next.
Transitions can be used at the end of most paragraphs to help the paragraphs flow one into the
next.

Paragraphing (Length Consistency)

Paragraphs are units of thought with one idea developed adequately. Listed here are some rules
of thumb to use when paragraphing. As your writing improves, you'll be able to break these
"rules" to meet your own needs. Until then, these suggestions can be helpful:

• Put only one main idea per paragraph.

• Aim for three to five or more sentences per paragraph.
• Include on each page about two handwritten or three typed paragraphs.
• Make your paragraphs proportional to your paper. Since paragraphs do less work in short
papers, have short paragraphs for short papers and longer paragraphs for longer papers.
• If you have a few very short paragraphs, think about whether they are really parts of a
larger paragraph—and can be combined—or whether you can add details to support each
point and thus make each into a more fully developed paragraph.

You can check on whether your paragraphs are balanced by looking at your paper.

Some balanced pages:

Image Caption: Paragraph Balance

Unbalanced pages with ideas not equally developed:

86 
 
Image Caption: Unbalanced Paragraphs

Use the following graphics as a tool to organize your paper with one main idea in each box.
Use as many pages and boxes as needed.

Appropriate Language: Overview

When writing, it is very important to use language that fits your the audience you are writing for
and the purpose you want to achieve. Inappropriate language uses can damage your credibility,
undermine your argument, or alienate your audience. This handout will cover some of the major
issues with appropriate language use: levels of language formality, deceitful language and
Euphemisms, slang and idiomatic expressions; using group-specific jargon; and
biased/stereotypical language.

The following is a short overview of the different aspects of using appropriate language. Review
the other sections of this handout for a more complete discussion.

1. Levels of Formality: Write in a style that your audience expects and that fits your
purpose is key to successful writing.
2. In-Group Jargon: Jargon refers to specialized language used by groups of like-minded
individuals. Only use in-group jargon when you are writing for members of that group.
You should never use jargon for a general audience without first explaining it.
3. Slang and idiomatic expressions: Avoid using slang or idiomatic expressions in general
academic writing.
4. Deceitful language and Euphemisms: Avoid using euphemisms (words that veil the
truth, such as "collateral damage" for the unintended destruction of civilians and their
property) and other deceitful language.

87 
 
 5. Biased language: Avoid using any biased language including language with a racial,
ethnic, group, or gender bias or language that is stereotypical.

Levels of Formality
The level of formality you write with should be determined by the expectations of your audience
and your purpose. For example, if you are writing a cover letter for a job application or a college
academic essay, you would write in a formal style. If you are writing a letter to a friend, writing
something personal, or even writing something for a humorous or special interest magazine when
informal writing is expected, you would use a more informal style. Formality exists on a scale—
in the example below, a letter of application to a known colleague can result in a semi-formal
style.

Here is an example:

Formal (Written to an unknown audience): I am applying for the receptionist position

advertised in the local paper. I am an excellent candidate for the job because of my significant
secretarial experience, good language skills, and sense of organization.

Semi-formal (Written to a well-known individual): I am applying for the receptionist position

that is currently open in the company. As you are aware, I have worked as a temporary employee
with your company in this position before. As such, I not only have experience and knowledge of
this position, but also already understand the company's needs and requirements for this job.

Informal (Incorrect): Hi! I read in the paper that ya'll were looking for a receptionist. I think
that I am good for that job because I've done stuff like it in the past, am good with words, and am
incredibly well organized.

Group Jargon

The term "jargon" refers to any in-group or specialized language used by small groups of like-
minded individuals. This terminology is usually specialized to the function of the group, and will
be used by and among group members as a sign of belonging, status, and for keeping out
outsiders.

For example, individuals who study linguistics will use words like quantifier, voiceless
labiodental fricative, diglossia, intensifier, minimal pair and metonymy. To non-linguists, these
words have different meanings or no meanings at all.

When making the choice of what vocabulary to use, you should first and foremost consider the
audience that you are addressing:

If you are writing for a general audience (even an general academic audience) you should avoid
using in-group jargon without explanations. Overloading your audience with words they do not
understand will not help you achieve your purpose.

88 
 
For example, if you are writing a paper explaining concepts in linguistics to an audience of non-
linguists, you might introduce and explain a few important terms. But you wouldn't use those
terms without an explanation or in a way your audience wouldn't understand.

If, however, you are writing to an in-group audience you will want to use group-specific jargon.
Not using the jargon when it is expected by your audience can signal to the audience that you are
not a member of that group or have not mastered the group's terminology. This will most likely
damage your credibility and interfere with your purpose in writing.

For example, if you are writing a conference paper for a group of linguists or a term paper for a
college-level linguistics course, you should use in-group jargon to help show that you understand
the concepts and can discuss them in ways other linguists can.

Slang and Idiomatic Expressions

You should avoid using slang (words like ya'll, yinz, cool) or idiomatic expressions ("pull
someone's leg", "spill the beans", and "something smells fishy") in formal academic writing.
These words make your writing sound informal, and hence, less credible. Furthermore, for non-
native speakers of English, these expressions may prove more difficult to understand because of
their non-literal nature.

Times do exist, however, when the use of slang and idiomatic expressions are appripriate. Think
about who your audience is, what they expect, and how the use of these words may help or
hinder your purpose. If you are writing a very informal or humorous piece, slang or idiomatic
expressions may be appropriate.

Deceitful Language and Euphemisms

Deceitful Language and Euphemisms

You should avoid using any language whose purpose is deceitful. Euphemisms are terms that
attempt to cover up that which is wrong, unethical, taboo, or harsh.

Here are some examples from the military:

• Pacification = The act of forcefully exerting outside government over a previously

autonomous people
• Friendly Fire = Being shot at (unintentionally) by your own allies
• Collateral Damage = Destruction of property and killing of innocent civilians during
war efforts
• Sunshine Units = A term for a power plant that is leaking radiation into the surrounding
areas

Complex or Confusing Language

89 
 
Language can also be deceitful if it is overly complex or confusing. Confusing language is
deliberately created complex and is used to downplay the truth or to evade responsibility. Here is
an example:

The acquisition of pollution permits by individuals and corporations that produce toxins has now
been allowed by the recently amended Clean Air Act of 1990. Institution of permits simplifies
and clarifies obligations for business and industry, making environmental protections more
accessible for these constituents. The government and the Environmental Protection Agency will
be greatly assisted in their endeavors by monitoring the release of all substances and having the
substances listed on one individual permit.

Although this paragraph makes it seem like this facet of the Clean Air act is helping the
environment, the EPA, and the federal government, in reality all it is doing is explaining the new
permit system that allows permit holders to release pollutants into the environment.

Group Terminology

Depending on your purpose, however, some terms that may be considered euphanisms may be
appropriate or even sanctioned by groups they affect. For example, it is more correct to say
"persons with disabilities" or "differently-abled persons" than to call someone "handicapped"
"crippled" or even "disabled." In these cases, it is important to use what is considered correct by
the group in question.

Stereotypes and Biased Language

Avoid using language that is stereotypical or biased in any way. Biased language frequently
occurs with gender, but can also offend groups of people based on sexual orientation, ethnicity,
interest, or race.

Stereotyped Language

Stereotyped language is any that assumes a stereotype about a group of people. For example,
don't assume a common stereotype about blonde women:

Incorrect: Although she was blonde, Mary was still intelligent.

Revised: Mary was intelligent.

Non-Sexist language

Writing in a non-sexist, non-biased way is both ethically sound and effective. Non-sexist writing
is necessary for most audiences; if you write in a sexist manner and alienate much of your
audience from your discussion, your writing will be much less effective.

The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) suggests the following guidelines:

Generic Use
90 
 
Although MAN in its original sense carried the dual meaning of adult human and adult male, its
meaning has come to be so closely identified with adult male that the generic use of MAN and
other words with masculine markers should be avoided.

• Original: mankind
• Alternatives: humanity, people, human beings

• Original:man's achievements
• Alternative: human achievements

• Original: man-made
• Alternatives: synthetic, manufactured, machine-made

• Original: the common man

• Alternatives: the average person, ordinary people

• Original: man the stockroom

• Alternative: staff the stockroom

• Original: nine man-hours

• Alternative: nine staff-hours

Occupations

Avoid the use of MAN in occupational terms when persons holding the job could be either male
or female.

• Original: chairman
• Alternatives: coordinator (of a committee or department), moderator (of a meeting),
presiding officer, head, chair

• Original: businessman
• Alternatives: business executive, business person

• Original: fireman
• Alternative: firefighter

• Original: mailman
• Alternative: mail carrier

• Original: steward and stewardess

• Alternative: flight attendant

• Original: policeman and policewoman

• Alternative: police officer

91 
 
 • Original: congressman
• Alternative: congressional representative

Historically, some jobs have been dominated by one gender or the other. This has lead to the
tendency for a person of the opposite gender to be "marked" by adding a reference to gender.
You should avoid marking the gender in this fashion in your writing.

• Original: male nurse

• Alternative: nurse

• Original: woman doctor

• Alternative: doctor

Appropriate Pronoun Usage

Because English has no generic singular—or common-sex—pronoun, we have used HE, HIS,
and HIM in such expressions as "the student needs HIS pencil." When we constantly personify
"the judge," "the critic," "the executive," "the author," and so forth, as male by using the pronoun
HE, we are subtly conditioning ourselves against the idea of a female judge, critic, executive, or
author. There are several alternative approaches for ending the exclusion of women that results
from the pervasive use of masculine pronouns.

Recast into the plural

• Original: Give each student his paper as soon as he is finished.

• Alternative: Give students their papers as soon as they are finished.

Reword to eliminate gender problems.

• Original: The average student is worried about his grade.

• Alternative: The average student is worried about grades.

Replace the masculine pronoun with ONE, YOU, or (sparingly) HE OR SHE, as

appropriate.

• Original: If the student was satisfied with his performance on the pretest, he took the
post-test..
• Alternative: A student who was satisfied with her or his performance on the pretest took
the post-test.

Alternate male and female examples and expressions. (Be careful not to confuse the
reader.)

• Original: Let each student participate. Has he had a chance to talk? Could he feel left
out?

92 
 
 • Alternative: Let each student participate. Has she had a chance to talk? Could he feel left
out?

Indefinite Pronouns

Using the masculine pronouns to refer to an indefinite pronoun (everybody, everyone, anybody,
anyone) also has the effect of excluding women. In all but strictly formal uses, plural pronouns
have become acceptable substitutes for the masculine singular.

• Original: Anyone who wants to go to the game should bring his money tomorrow.
• Alternative: Anyone who wants to go to the game should bring their money tomorrow.

An alternative to this is merely changing the sentence. English is very flexible, so there is little
reason to "write yourself into a corner:"

• Original: Anyone who wants to go to the game should bring his money.
• Alternative: People who want to go to the game should bring their money.

Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing

This handout is intended to help you become more comfortable with the uses of and distinctions
among quotations, paraphrases, and summaries. This handout compares and contrasts the three
terms, gives some pointers, and includes a short excerpt that you can use to practice these skills.

What are the differences among quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing?

These three ways of incorporating other writers' work into your own writing differ according to
the closeness of your writing to the source writing.

Quotations must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source. They must
match the source document word for word and must be attributed to the original author.

Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from source material into your own words. A
paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source. Paraphrased material is usually shorter
than the original passage, taking a somewhat broader segment of the source and condensing it
slightly.

Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the main
point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original source.
Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview of the source
material.

Why use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries?

Quotations, paraphrases, and summaries serve many purposes. You might use them to . . .

93 
 
 • Provide support for claims or add credibility to your writing
• Refer to work that leads up to the work you are now doing
• Give examples of several points of view on a subject
• Call attention to a position that you wish to agree or disagree with
• Highlight a particularly striking phrase, sentence, or passage by quoting the original
• Distance yourself from the original by quoting it in order to cue readers that the words are
not your own
• Expand the breadth or depth of your writing

Writers frequently intertwine summaries, paraphrases, and quotations. As part of a summary of

an article, a chapter, or a book, a writer might include paraphrases of various key points blended
with quotations of striking or suggestive phrases as in the following example:

In his famous and influential work On the Interpretation of Dreams, Sigmund Freud argues that
dreams are the "royal road to the unconscious" (page #), expressing in coded imagery the
dreamer's unfulfilled wishes through a process known as the "dream work" (page #). According
to Freud, actual but unacceptable desires are censored internally and subjected to coding through
layers of condensation and displacement before emerging in a kind of rebus puzzle in the dream
itself (page #s).

How to use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries

Practice summarizing the following essay, using paraphrases and quotations as you go. It might
be helpful to follow these steps:

• Read the entire text, noting the key points and main ideas.
• Summarize in your own words what the single main idea of the essay is.
• Paraphrase important supporting points that come up in the essay.
• Consider any words, phrases, or brief passages that you believe should be quoted directly.

There are several ways to integrate quotations into your text. Often, a short quotation works well
when integrated into a sentence. Longer quotations can stand alone. Remember that quoting
should be done only sparingly; be sure that you have a good reason to include a direct quotation
when you decide to do so. You'll find guidelines for citing sources and punctuating citations at
our documentation guide pages.

Annotated Bibliographies
Definitions

A bibliography is a list of sources (books, journals, websites, periodicals, etc.) one has used for
researching a topic. Bibliographies are sometimes called "references" or "works cited" depending
on the style format you are using. A bibliography usually just includes the bibliographic
information (i.e., the author, title, publisher, etc.).

An annotation is a summary and/or evaluation.

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Therefore, an annotated bibliography includes a summary and/or evaluation of each of the
sources. Depending on your project or the assignment, your annotations may do one or more of
the following:

• Summarize: Some annotations merely summarize the source. What are the main
arguments? What is the point of this book or article? What topics are covered? If
someone asked what this article/book is about, what would you say? The length of your
annotations will determine how detailed your summary is.

For more help, see our handout on paraphrasing sources.

• Assess: After summarizing a source, it may be helpful to evaluate it. Is it a useful source?
How does it compare with other sources in your bibliography? Is the information
reliable? Is this source biased or objective? What is the goal of this source?

For more help, see our handouts on evaluating resources.

• Reflect: Once you've summarized and assessed a source, you need to ask how it fits into
your research. Was this source helpful to you? How does it help you shape your
argument? How can you use this source in your research project? Has it changed how
you think about your topic?

Your annotated bibliography may include some of these, all of these, or even others. If
you're doing this for a class, you should get specific guidelines from your instructor.

Why should I write an annotated bibliography?

To learn about your topic: Writing an annotated bibliography is excellent preparation for a
research project. Just collecting sources for a bibliography is useful, but when you have to write
annotations for each source, you're forced to read each source more carefully. You begin to read
more critically instead of just collecting information. At the professional level, annotated
bibliographies allow you to see what has been done in the literature and where your own research
or scholarship can fit. To help you formulate a thesis: Every good research paper is an argument.
The purpose of research is to state and support a thesis. So a very important part of research is
developing a thesis that is debatable, interesting, and current. Writing an annotated bibliography
can help you gain a good perspective on what is being said about your topic. By reading and
responding to a variety of sources on a topic, you'll start to see what the issues are, what people
are arguing about, and you'll then be able to develop your own point of view.

To help other researchers: Extensive and scholarly annotated bibliographies are sometimes
published. They provide a comprehensive overview of everything important that has been and is
being said about that topic. You may not ever get your annotated bibliography published, but as a
researcher, you might want to look for one that has been published about your topic.

Format

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The format of an annotated bibliography can vary, so if you're doing one for a class, it's
important to ask for specific guidelines.

The bibliographic information: Generally, though, the bibliographic information of the source
(the title, author, publisher, date, etc.) is written in either MLA or APA format. For more help
with formatting, see our MLA handout or APA handout.

The annotations: The annotations for each source are written in paragraph form. The lengths of
the annotations can vary significantly from a couple of sentences to a couple of pages. The
length will depend on the purpose. If you're just writing summaries of your sources, the
annotations may not be very long. However, if you are writing an extensive analysis of each
source, you'll need more space.

You can focus your annotations for your own needs. A few sentences of general summary
followed by several sentences of how you can fit the work into your larger paper or project can
serve you well when you go to draft.

Annotated Bibliography Example

Elizabeth Thompson

Professor Stacks

English 102

20 August 2001

Stem Cell Research: An Annotated Bibliography

Holland, Suzanne. The Human Embryonic Stem Cell Debate : Science, Ethics, and Public
Policy. Boston: MIT Press, 2001.

This is the annotation of the above source. In this example, I am following MLA guidelines for
the bibliographic information listed above. If I was really writing an annotation for this source, I
would now be offering a brief summary of what this book says about stem cell research.

After a brief summary, it would be appropriate to assess this source and offer some criticisms of
it. Does it seem like a reliable and current source? Why? Is the research biased or objective? Are
the facts well documented? Who is the author? Is she qualified in this subject? Is this source
scholarly, popular, some of both?

The length of your annotation will depend on the assignment or on the purpose of your annotated
bibliography. After summarizing and assessing, you can now reflect on this source. How does it
fit into your research? Is this a helpful resource? Too scholarly? Not scholarly enough? Too
general/specific? Since "stem cell research" is a very broad topic, has this source helped you to
narrow your topic?

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Senior, K. "Extending the Ethical Boundaries of Stem Cell Research." Trends in
Molecular Medicine. 7 (2001):5-6.

Not all annotations have to be the same length. For example, this source is a very short scholarly
article. It may only take a sentence or two to summarize. Even if you are using a book, you
should only focus on the sections that relate to your topic.

Not all annotated bibliographies assess and reflect; some merely summarize. That may not be the
most helpful for you, but, if this is an assignment, you should always ask your instructor for
specific guidelines.

Wallace, Kelly. "Bush Stands Pat on Stem Cell Policy." CNN. 13 August 2001. 17 August
2001.

Notice that in this example, I have chosen a variety of sources: a book, a scholarly journal, and a
web page. Using a variety of sources can help give you a broader picture of what is being said
about your topic. You may want to investigate how scholarly sources are treating this topic
differently than more popular sources. But again, if your assignment is to only use scholarly
sources, then you will probably want to avoid magazines and popular web sites.

Notice that the bibliographic information above is proper MLA format (use whatever style is
appropriate in your field) and the annotations are in paragraph form. Note also that the entries are
alphabetized by the first word in the bibliographic entry. If you are writing an annotated
bibliography with many sources, it may be helpful to divide the sources into categories. For
example, if I was putting together an extensive annotated bibliography for stem cell research, I
may divide the sources into categories such as ethical concerns, scholarly analyses, and political
ramifications.

For more examples, a quick search at a library or even on the Internet should produce several
examples of annotated bibliographies in your area.

Annotated Bibliography Samples

Overview

Below you will find sample annotations from annotated bibliographies, each with a different
research project. Remember that the annotations you include in your own bibliography should
reflect your research project and/or the guidelines of your assignment.

As mentioned elsewhere in this resource, depending on the purpose of your bibliography, some
annotations may summarize, some may assess or evaluate a source, and some may reflect on the
source’s possible uses for the project at hand. Some annotations may address all three of these
steps. Consider the purpose of your annotated bibliography and/or your instructor’s directions
when deciding how much information to include in your annotations.

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Please note that to save space here, we have single-spaced the annotations. MLA and APA
require double space throughout their documents.

Sample MLA Annotation

Lamott, Anne. Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life. New York: Anchor Books,
1995.

Lamott's book offers honest advice on the nature of a writing life, complete with its insecurities
and failures. Taking a humorous approach to the realities of being a writer, the chapters in
Lamott's book are wry and anecdotal and offer advice on everything from plot development to
jealousy, from perfectionism to struggling with one's own internal critic. In the process, Lamott
includes writing exercises designed to be both productive and fun.

Lamott offers sane advice for those struggling with the anxieties of writing, but her main project
seems to be offering the reader a reality check regarding writing, publishing, and struggling with
one's own imperfect humanity in the process. Rather than a practical handbook to producing
and/or publishing, this text is indispensable because of its honest perspective, its down-to-earth
humor, and its encouraging approach.

Chapters in this text could easily be included in the curriculum for a writing class. Several of the
chapters in Part 1 address the writing process and would serve to generate discussion on students'
own drafting and revising processes. Some of the writing exercises would also be appropriate for
generating classroom writing exercises. Students should find Lamott's style both engaging and
enjoyable.

In the sample annotation above, the writer includes three paragraphs: a summary, an evaluation
of the text, and a reflection on its applicability to his/her own research, respectively.

For information on formatting MLA citations, see our MLA Formatting and Style Guide.

Sample APA Annotation

Ehrenreich, B. (2001). Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in America. New York: Henry
Holt and Company.

In this book of nonfiction based on the journalist's experiential research, Ehrenreich attempts to
ascertain whether it is currently possible for an individual to live on a minimum-wage in
America. Taking jobs as a waitress, a maid in a cleaning service, and a Wal-Mart sales
employee, the author summarizes and reflects on her work, her relationships with fellow
workers, and her financial struggles in each situation.

An experienced journalist, Ehrenreich is aware of the limitations of her experiment and the
ethical implications of her experiential research tactics and reflects on these issues in the text.
The author is forthcoming about her methods and supplements her experiences with scholarly

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research on her places of employment, the economy, and the rising cost of living in America.
Ehrenreich’s project is timely, descriptive, and well-researched.

The annotation above both summarizes and assesses the book in the citation. The first paragraph
provides a brief summary of the author's project in the book, covering the main points of the
work. The second paragraph points out the project’s strengths and evaluates its methods and
presentation. This particular annotation does not reflect on the source’s potential importance or
usefulness for this person’s own research.

For information on formatting APA citations, see our APA Formatting and Style Guide.

Sample Chicago Manual Style Annotation

Davidson, Hilda Ellis. Roles of the Northern Goddess. London: Routledge, 1998.

Davidson's book provides a thorough examination of the major roles filled by the numerous
pagan goddesses of Northern Europe in everyday life, including their roles in hunting,
agriculture, domestic arts like weaving, the household, and death. The author discusses relevant
archaeological evidence, patterns of symbol and ritual, and previous research. The book includes
a number of black and white photographs of relevant artifacts.

This annotation includes only one paragraph, a summary of the book. It provides a concise
description of the project and the book's project and its major features.

Our CMS Formatting and Style Guide is forthcoming. For information on formatting Chicago
Style citations, click here.

Avoiding Plagiarism
Overview and Contradictions
Research-based writing in American institutions, both educational and corporate, is filled with
rules that writers, particularly beginners, aren't aware of or don't know how to follow. Many of
these rules have to do with research and proper citation. Gaining a familiarity of these rules,
however, is critically important, as inadvertent mistakes can lead to charges of plagiarism,
which is the uncredited use (both intentional and unintentional) of somebody else's words or
ideas.

While some cultures may not insist so heavily on documenting sources of words, ideas, images,
sounds, etc., American culture does. A charge of plagiarism can have severe consequences,
including expulsion from a university or loss of a job, not to mention a writer's loss of credibility
and professional standing. This resource, which does not reflect any official university policy, is
designed to help you develop strategies for knowing how to avoid accidental plagiarism. For
instructors seeking a key statement on definitions and avoidance on plagiarism, see Defining and
Avoiding Plagiarism: The WPA Statement on Best Practices.

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(Purdue University students will want to make sure that they are familiar with Purdue's official
academic dishonesty policy as well as any additional policies that their instructors have
implemented.)

Intellectual Challenges in American Academic Writing

There are some intellectual challenges that all students are faced with when writing. Sometimes
these challenges can almost seem like contradictions, particularly when addressing them within a
single paper. For example, American teachers often instruct students to:

• Develop a topic based on what has already been said and written but write something
new and original
• Rely on opinions of experts and authorities on a topic but improve upon and/or disagree
with those same opinions
• Give credit to researchers who have come before you but make your own significant
contribution
• Improve your English or fit into a discourse community by building upon what you hear
and read but use your own words and your own voice

All Sections in Avoiding Plagiarism:

Is It Plagiarism Yet?
There are some actions that can almost unquestionably be labeled plagiarism. Some of these
include buying, stealing, or borrowing a paper (including, of course, copying an entire paper
or article from the Web); hiring someone to write your paper for you; and copying large
sections of text from a source without quotation marks or proper citation.

But then there are actions that are usually in more of a gray area. Some of these include using the
words of a source too closely when paraphrasing (where quotation marks should have been used)
or building on someone's ideas without citing their spoken or written work. Sometimes teachers
suspecting students of plagiarism will consider the students' intent, and whether it appeared the
student was deliberately trying to make ideas of others appear to be his or her own.

However, other teachers and administrators may not distinguish between deliberate and
accidental plagiarism. So let's look at some strategies for avoiding even suspicion of plagiarism
in the first place

When Do We Give Credit?

The key to avoiding plagiarism is to make sure you give credit where it is due. This may be
credit for something somebody said, wrote, emailed, drew, or implied. Many professional
organizations, including the Modern Language Association and the American Psychological
Association, have lengthy guidelines for citing sources. However, students are often so busy
trying to learn the rules of MLA format and style or APA format and style that they sometimes

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forget exactly what needs to be credited. Here, then, is a brief list of what needs to be credited
or documented:

• Words or ideas presented in a magazine, book, newspaper, song, TV program, movie,

Web page, computer program, letter, advertisement, or any other medium
• Information you gain through interviewing or conversing with another person, face to
face, over the phone, or in writing
• When you copy the exact words or a unique phrase
• When you reprint any diagrams, illustrations, charts, pictures, or other visual materials
• When you reuse or repost any electronically-available media, including images, audio,
video, or other media

Bottom line, document any words, ideas, or other productions that originate somewhere outside
of you.

There are, of course, certain things that do not need documentation or credit, including:

• Writing your own lived experiences, your own observations and insights, your own
thoughts, and your own conclusions about a subject
• When you are writing up your own results obtained through lab or field experiments
• When you use your own artwork, digital photographs, video, audio, etc.
• When you are using "common knowledge," things like folklore, common sense
observations, myths, urban legends, and historical events (but not historical documents)
• When you are using generally-accepted facts, e.g., pollution is bad for the environment,
including facts that are accepted within particular discourse communities, e.g., in the field
of composition studies, "writing is a process" is a generally-accepted fact.

Deciding if Something is "Common Knowledge"

Generally speaking, you can regard something as common knowledge if you find the same
information undocumented in at least five credible sources. Additionally, it might be common
knowledge if you think the information you're presenting is something your readers will already
know, or something that a person could easily find in general reference sources. But when in
doubt, cite; if the citation turns out to be unnecessary, your teacher or editor will tell you.

Safe Practices
Most students, of course, don't intend to plagiarize. In fact, most realize that citing sources
actually builds their credibility for an audience and even helps writers to better grasp information
relevant to a topic or course of study. Mistakes in citation and crediting can still happen, so here
are certain practices that can help you not only avoid plagiarism, but even improve the efficiency
and organization of your research and writing.

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Best Practices for Research and Drafting

Reading and Note-Taking

• In your notes, always mark someone else's words with a big Q, for quote, or use big
quotation marks
• Indicate in your notes which ideas are taken from sources with a big S, and which are
your own insights (ME)
• When information comes from sources, record relevant documentation in your notes
(book and article titles; URLs on the Web)

Interviewing and Conversing

• Take lots of thorough notes; if you have any of your own thoughts as you're interviewing,
mark them clearly
• If your subject will allow you to record the conversation or interview (and you have
proper clearance to do so through an Institutional Review Board, or IRB), place your
recording device in an optimal location between you and the speaker so you can hear
clearly when you review the recordings. Test your equipment, and bring plenty of backup
batteries and media.
• If you're interviewing via email, retain copies of the interview subject's emails as well as
the ones you send in reply
• Make any additional, clarifying notes immediately after the interview has concluded

Writing Paraphrases or Summaries

• Use a statement that credits the source somewhere in the paraphrase or summary, e.g.,
According to Jonathan Kozol, ....
• If you're having trouble summarizing, try writing your paraphrase or summary of a text
without looking at the original, relying only on your memory and notes
• Check your paraphrase or summary against the original text; correct any errors in content
accuracy, and be sure to use quotation marks to set off any exact phrases from the
original text
• Check your paraphrase or summary against sentence and paragraph structure, as copying
those is also considered plagiarism.
• Put quotation marks around any unique words or phrases that you cannot or do not want
to change, e.g., "savage inequalities" exist throughout our educational system (Kozol).

Writing Direct Quotations

• Keep the source author's name in the same sentence as the quote
• Mark the quote with quotation marks, or set it off from your text in its own block, per the
style guide your paper follows
• Quote no more material than is necessary; if a short phrase from a source will suffice,
don't quote an entire paragraph

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 • To shorten quotes by removing extra information, use ellipsis points (...) to indicate
omitted text, keeping in mind that:
o Three ellipsis points indicates an in-sentence ellipsis, and four points for an
ellipsis between two sentences
• To give context to a quote or otherwise add wording to it, place added words in brackets,
[]; be careful not to editorialize or make any additions that skew the original meaning of
the quote—do that in your main text, e.g.,
o OK: Kozol claims there are "savage inequalities" in our educational system,
which is obvious.
o WRONG: Kozol claims there are "[obvious] savage inequalities" in our
educational system.
• Use quotes that will have the most rhetorical, argumentative impact in your paper; too
many direct quotes from sources may weaken your credibility, as though you have
nothing to say yourself, and will certainly interfere with your style

Writing About Another's Ideas

• Note the name of the idea's originator in the sentence or throughout a paragraph about the
idea
• Use parenthetical citations, footnotes, or endnotes to refer readers to additional sources
about the idea, as necessary
• Be sure to use quotation marks around key phrases or words that the idea's originator
used to describe the idea

Maintaining Drafts of Your Paper

Sometimes innocent, hard-working students are accused of plagiarism because a dishonest

student steals their work. This can happen in all kinds of ways, from a roommate copying files
off of your computer, to someone finding files on a disk or pen drive left in a computer lab. Here
are some practices to keep your own intellectual property safe:

• Do not save your paper in the same file over and over again; use a numbering system and
the Save As... function. E.g., you might have research_paper001.doc,
research_paper002.doc, research_paper003.doc as you progress. Do the same thing for
any HTML files you're writing for the Web. Having multiple draft versions may help
prove that the work is yours (assuming you are being ethical in how you cite ideas in
your work!).
• Maintain copies of your drafts in numerous media, and different secure locations when
possible; don't just rely on your hard drive or pen drive.
• Password-protect your computer; if you have to leave a computer lab for a quick
bathroom break, hold down the Windows key and L to lock your computer without
logging out.
• Password-protect your files; this is possible in all sorts of programs, from Adobe Acrobat
to Microsoft word (just be sure not to forget the password!)

Revising, Proofreading, and Finalizing Your Paper

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 • Proofread and cross-check with your notes and sources to make sure that anything
coming from an outside source is acknowledged in some combination of the following
ways:
o In-text citation, otherwise known as parenthetical citation
o Footnotes or endnotes
o Bibliography, References, or Works Cited pages
o Quotation marks around short quotes; longer quotes set off by themselves, as
prescribed by a research and citation style guide
o Indirect quotations: citing a source that cites another source
• If you have any questions about citation, ask your instructor well in advance of your
paper's due date, so if you have to make any adjustments to your citations, you have the
time to do them well

Safe Practices: An Exercise

Read over each of the following passages, and respond on your own or as a class as to whether or
not it uses citations accurately. If it doesn't, what would you do to improve the passage so it's
properly cited?

1. Last summer, my family and I traveled to Chicago, which was quite different from the rural
area I grew up in. We saw the dinosaur Sue at the Field Museum, and ate pizza at Gino's East.

2. Americans want to create a more perfect union; they also want to establish justice, ensure
domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure
the blessings of liberty for everybody.

3. I find it ridiculous that 57% of high school students think their teachers assign too much
homework.

Numbers 4, 5, and 6 all refer to the following passage from Martin Luther King's "Letter from
the Birmingham Jail":

You deplore the demonstrations taking place in Birmingham. But your statement, I am sorry to
say, fails to express a similar concern for the conditions that brought about the demonstrations. I
am sure that none of you would want to rest content with the superficial kind of social analysis
that deals merely with effects and does not grapple with underlying causes. It is unfortunate that
demonstrations are taking place in Birmingham, but it is even more unfortunate that the city's
white power structure left the Negro community with no alternative.

4. Martin Luther King was certain that nobody would want to be contented with a surfacy type of
social analysis that concerns itself only with effects and doesn't deal with root causes.

5. Martin Luther King wrote that the city of Birmingham's "white power structure" left African-
Americans there "no alternative" but to demonstrate ("Letter from the Birmingham Jail" para. 5).

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6. In "Letter from the Birmingham Jail," King writes to fellow clergy saying that although they
"deplore the demonstrations taking place in Birmingham, your statement fails to express a
similar concern for the conditions that brought about the demonstrations."

7. My friend Kara told me that she loves living so close to the ocean.

8. Americans are guaranteed the right to freely gather for peaceful meetings.

All Sections in Avoiding Plagiarism: Safe Practices:

Best Practices for Teachers

Suspecting a student of plagiarism is never pleasant; proving a student has plagiarized is even
worse. It's common for teachers to feel offended and hurt when students have acted unethically
in their courses. But there are some things you, as a teacher, can do to minimize plagiarism in
your classes.

Developing a Strong Course Policy on Plagiarism

One can never be too direct in explaining to students what actions can be considered plagiarism
in their class. Writing and providing to students a course policy statement that includes a section
on plagiarism is an excellent first step. Be sure to include and cite any school policies that might
be suspect.

Here, for example, is a statement that Professor Irwin Weiser of Purdue University has used with
his Introductory Composition courses:

The following statement about honesty and the use of sources is from the Introduction to First-
Year Composition Courses:

When writers use material from other sources, they must acknowledge this source. Not doing so
is called plagiarism, which means using without credit the ideas or expressions of another. You
are therefore cautioned (1) against using, word for word, without acknowledgment, phrases,
sentences, paragraphs, etc., from the printed or manuscript material of others; (2) against using
with only slight changes the materials of another; and (3) against using the general plan, the main
headings, or a rewritten form of someone else's material. These cautions apply to the work of
other students as well as to the published work of professional writers.

Of course, these cautions also apply to information you find on the Internet, World Wide Web,
or other electronic or on-line sources. Since we will be discussing how to acknowledge and cite
sources, you should be able to avoid accidentally plagiarizing anyone else's work. If you are in
doubt, please ask me, since the consequences for plagiarism are severe. The university policies
about plagiarism include penalties ranging from failure of an assignment to expulsion from the
university. In this class, anyone who plagiarizes fails the course, and I will probably inform the
Office of the Dean of Students of the reason for the failing grade.

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Proofreading Your Writing
Where do I begin?
Though everyone has a unique proofreading process, there are some general strategies that can
be helpful to most writers. Begin improving your proofreading skills by trying out the guidelines
listed below.

General Strategies

• Take a break! Allow yourself some time between writing and proofing. Even a five-
minute break is productive because it will help you get some distance from what you
have written. The goal is to return with a fresh eye and mind.
• Leave yourself enough time. Since many errors are made and overlooked by speeding
through writing and proofreading, taking the time to carefully look over your writing will
help you to catch errors you might otherwise miss. Always read through your writing
slowly. If you read at a normal speed, you won't give your eyes sufficient time to spot
errors.
• Read aloud. Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read every little word.
• Role-play. While reading, put yourself in your audience's shoes. Playing the role of the
reader encourages you to see the paper as your audience might.
• Get others involved. Asking a friend or a Writing Lab tutor to read your paper will let
you get another perspective on your writing and a fresh reader will be able to help you
catch mistakes that you might have overlooked.

Personalizing Proofreading

In addition to following the general guidelines above, individualizing your proofreading process
to your needs will help you proofread more efficiently and effectively. You won't be able to
check for everything (and you don't have to), so you should find out what your typical problem
areas are and look for each type of error individually. Here's how:

• Find out what errors you typically make. Review instructors' comments about your
writing and/or review your paper with a Writing Lab tutor.
• Learn how to fix those errors. Talk with your instructor and/or with a Writing Lab tutor.
The instructor and the tutor can help you understand why you make the errors you do so
that you can learn to avoid them.
• Use specific strategies. Use the strategies detailed on the following pages to find and
correct your particular errors in usage, sentence structure, and spelling and punctuation.

Finding Common Errors

Proofreading can be much easier when you know what you are looking for. Although everyone
will have different error patterns, the following are issues that come up for many writers. When

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proofreading your paper, be on the lookout for these errors. Always remember to make note of
what errors you make frequently—this will help you proofread more efficiently in the future!

Spelling

• Do NOT rely on your computer's spellcheck—it will not get everything!

• Examine each word in the paper individually by reading carefully. Moving a pencil under
each line of text helps you to see each word.
• If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word is spelled correctly.
• Be especially careful of words that are typical spelling nightmares, like "ei/ie" words and
homonyms like your/you're, to/too/two, and there/their/they're.

Left-out and doubled words

Reading the paper aloud (and slowly) can help you make sure you haven't missed or repeated
any words.

Fragment Sentences

• Make sure each sentence has a subject. In the following sentence, the subject is
"students": The students looked at the OWL website.
• Make sure each sentence has a complete verb. In the following sentence, "were" is
required to make a complete verb; "trying" alone would be incomplete: They were trying
to improve their writing skills.
• See that each sentence has an independent clause; remember that a dependent clause
cannot stand on its own. The following sentence is a dependent clause that would qualify
as a fragment sentence: Which is why the students read all of the handouts carefully.

Run-on Sentences

• Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause.
• If there is more than one independent clause, check to make sure the clauses are separated
by the appropriate punctuation.
• Sometimes, it is just as effective (or even more so) to simply break the sentence into
separate sentences instead of including punctuation to separate the clauses.

Example run-on: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports all I know
about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Edited version: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports, and all I know
about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Another option: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports. All I know
about the subject is that I'm interested in it.

Comma Splices

• Look at the sentences that have commas.

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 • Check to see if the sentence contains two main clauses.
• If there are two main clauses, they should be connected with a comma and a conjunction
like and, but, for, or, so, yet.
• Another option is to take out the comma and insert a semicolon instead.

Example: I would like to write my paper about basketball, it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Edited version: I would like to write my paper about basketball, because it's a topic I can talk
about at length.
Edited version, using a semicolon: I would like to write my paper about basketball; it's a topic I
can talk about at length.

Subject/Verb Agreement

• Find the subject of each sentence.

• Find the verb that goes with the subject.
• The subject and verb should match in number, meaning that if the subject is plural, the
verb should be as well and vice versa.

Example: Students at the university level usually is very busy.

Edited version: Students at the university level usually are very busy.

Mixed construction

Read through your sentences carefully to make sure that they do not start with one sentence
structure and shift to another. A sentence that does this is called a mixed construction.

Example: Since I have a lot of work to do is why I can't go out tonight.

Edited version: Since I have a lot of work to do, I can't go out tonight.

Parallelism

Look through your paper for series of items and make sure these items are in parallel form.
Example: Being a good friend involves good listening skills, to be considerate, and that you
know how to have fun.
Edited version: Being a good friend involves knowing how to listen, being considerate, and
having fun.

Pronoun Reference/Agreement

• Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun.

• Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces.
• If you can't find any noun, insert one beforehand or change the pronoun to a noun.
• If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun.

Apostrophes

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 • Skim your paper, stopping only at those words which end in "s." If the "s" is used to
indicate possession, there should be an apostrophe, as in Mary's book.
• Look over the contractions, like you're for you are, it's for it is, etc. Each of these should
include an apostrophe.
• Remember that apostrophes are not used to make words plural. When making a word
plural, only an "s" is added, not an apostrophe and an "s."

Suggestions for Proofreading Your Paper

One of the most difficult parts of the writing process is proofreading. It is easy for us to see what
we want to see, not necessarily what our readers will see. These suggestions should help you take
a step back and view your writing more objectively.

Suggestions for Editing (Proofreading) your Paper

Read your Paper Aloud

Any time your text is awkward or confusing, or any time you have to pause or reread your text,
revise this section. If it is at all awkward for you, you can bet it will be awkward for your reader.

Examine your Paragraphs

Examine the overall construction of your paragraphs, looking specifically at length, supporting
sentence(s), and topic sentence. Individual paragraphs that are significantly lacking length or
sufficient supporting information as well as those missing a topic sentence may be a sign of a
premature or under-developed thought.

Track Frequent Errors

Keep track of errors that you make frequently. Ask your teacher or visit the Writing Lab for
assistance in eliminating these errors.

Revising for Cohesion

This material (adapted from Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace, by Joseph Williams) will
help students revise sentences for cohesion.

Two Principles

• Begin sentences with short, simple words and phrases that a) communicate information
that appeared in previous sentences, or b) build on knowledge that you share with your
reader.
• In a paragraph, keep your topics short and reasonably consistent.

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Exercise: Diagnosis, Analysis, Revision

Diagnosis

1. Underline the first few words of every sentence in a paragraph, ignoring short
introductory phrases such as "In the beginning," or "For the most part."
2. If you can, underline the first few words of every clause.

Analysis

1. Read your underlined words. Is there a consistent series of related topics?

2. Will your reader see these connections among the topics?
3. Decide what you will focus on in each paragraph.
4. Imagine that the passage has a title. The words in the title should identify what should be
the topics of most of the sentences.

Revision

1. In most sentences, make the topics the subject of verbs.

2. Put most of the subjects at the beginning of your sentences. Avoid hiding your topic by
opening sentences with long introductory clauses or phrases.

Sample Passage

Topics are crucial for readers because readers depend on topics to focus their attention on
particular ideas toward the beginning of sentences. Topics tell readers what a whole passage is
"about." If readers feel that a sequence of topics is coherent, then they will feel they are moving
through a paragraph from a cumulatively coherent point of view. But if throughout the paragraph
readers feel that its topics shift randomly, then they have to begin each sentence out of context,
from no coherent point of view. When that happens, readers feel dislocated, disoriented, and out
of focus.

Questions to Ask Yourself as You Revise

Sentences

Do your sentences "hang together?"

1. Readers must feel that they move easily from one sentence to the next, that each sentence
"coheres" with the one before and after it.
2. Readers must feel that sentences in a paragraph are not just individually clear, but are
unified with each other.

Does the sentence begin with information familiar to the reader?

Does the sentence end with interesting information the reader would not anticipate?

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Paragraphs

Will your reader be able to identify quickly the "topic" of each paragraph?

Note: it is easier to see coherence and clarity in other people's writing. Why? Because by the
time we reach a final draft, everything we write seems old to us. Improving on this takes
practice.

Steps for Revising Your Paper

When you have plenty of time to revise, use the time to work on your paper and to take breaks
from writing. If you can forget about your draft for a day or two, you may return to it with a
fresh outlook. During the revising process, put your writing aside at least twice - once during the
first part of the process, when you are reorganizing your work, and once during the second part,
when you are polishing and paying attention to details.

Use the following questions to evaluate your drafts. You can use your responses to revise your
papers by reorganizing them to make your best points stand out, by adding needed information,
by eliminating irrelevant information, and by clarifying sections or sentences.

Find your main point.

What are you trying to say in the paper? In other words, try to summarize your thesis, or main
point, and the evidence you are using to support that point. Try to imagine that this paper belongs
to someone else. Does the paper have a clear thesis? Do you know what the paper is going to be
about?

Identify your readers and your purpose.

What are you trying to do in the paper? In other words, are you trying to argue with the reading,
to analyze the reading, to evaluate the reading, to apply the reading to another situation, or to
accomplish another goal?

Evaluate your evidence.

Does the body of your paper support your thesis? Do you offer enough evidence to support your
claim? If you are using quotations from the text as evidence, did you cite them properly?

Save only the good pieces.

Do all of the ideas relate back to the thesis? Is there anything that doesn't seem to fit? If so, you
either need to change your thesis to reflect the idea or cut the idea.

Tighten and clean up your language.

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Do all of the ideas in the paper make sense? Are there unclear or confusing ideas or sentences?
Read your paper out loud and listen for awkward pauses and unclear ideas. Cut out extra words,
vagueness, and misused words.

Eliminate mistakes in grammar and usage.

Do you see any problems with grammar, punctuation, or spelling? If you think something is
wrong, you should make a note of it, even if you don't know how to fix it. You can always talk to
a Writing Lab tutor about how to correct errors.

Switch from Writer-Centered to Reader-Centered

Try to detach yourself from what you've written; pretend that you are reviewing some else's
work. What would you say is the most successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part
be made even better? What would you say is the least successful part of your paper? Why? How
could this part be improved?

Prewriting (Invention)
Introduction to Prewriting (Invention)
When you sit down to write...

• Does your mind turn blank?

• Are you sure you have nothing to say?

If so, you're not alone. Many writers experience this at some time or another, but some people
have strategies or techniques to get them started. When you are planning to write something, try
some of the following suggestions.

You can try the textbook formula:

1. State your thesis.

2. Write an outline.
3. Write the first draft.
4. Revise and polish.

. . . but that often doesn't work.

Instead, you can try one or more of these strategies:

Ask yourself what your purpose is for writing about the subject.

There are many "correct" things to write about for any subject, but you need to narrow down
your choices. For example, your topic might be "dorm food." At this point, you and your

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potential reader are asking the same question, "So what?" Why should you write about this, and
why should anyone read it?

Do you want the reader to pity you because of the intolerable food you have to eat there?

Do you want to analyze large-scale institutional cooking?

Do you want to compare Purdue's dorm food to that served at Indiana University?

Ask yourself how you are going to achieve this purpose.

How, for example, would you achieve your purpose if you wanted to describe some movie as the
best you've ever seen? Would you define for yourself a specific means of doing so? Would your
comments on the movie go beyond merely telling the reader that you really liked it?

Start the ideas flowing

Brainstorm. Gather as many good and bad ideas, suggestions, examples, sentences, false starts,
etc. as you can. Perhaps some friends can join in. Jot down everything that comes to mind,
including material you are sure you will throw out. Be ready to keep adding to the list at odd
moments as ideas continue to come to mind.

Talk to your audience, or pretend that you are being interviewed by someone — or by several
people, if possible (to give yourself the opportunity of considering a subject from several
different points of view). What questions would the other person ask? You might also try to
teach the subject to a group or class.

See if you can find a fresh analogy that opens up a new set of ideas. Build your analogy by using
the word like. For example, if you are writing about violence on television, is that violence like
clowns fighting in a carnival act (that is, we know that no one is really getting hurt)?

Take a rest and let it all percolate.

Summarize your whole idea.

Tell it to someone in three or four sentences.

Diagram your major points somehow.

Make a tree, outline, or whatever helps you to see a schematic representation of what you have.
You may discover the need for more material in some places. Write a first draft.

Then, if possible, put it away. Later, read it aloud or to yourself as if you were someone else.
Watch especially for the need to clarify or add more information.

You may find yourself jumping back and forth among these various strategies.

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You may find that one works better than another. You may find yourself trying several strategies
at once. If so, then you are probably doing something right.

Prewriting (Invention) General Questions

Beyond the strategies outlined in the previous section, these questions might help you begin
writing.

Explore the problem — not the topic

1. Who is your reader?

2. What is your purpose?
3. Who are you, the writer? (What image or persona do you want to project?)

Make your goals operational

1. How can you achieve your purpose?

2. Can you make a plan?

Generate some ideas

Brainstorm

• Keep writing
• Don't censor or evaluate
• Keep returning to the problem

Talk to your reader

• What questions would they ask?

• What different kinds of readers might you have?

Ask yourself questions

Journalistic questions

Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? So What?

Classical topics (patterns of argument)

Definition

• How does the dictionary define ____?

• What do I mean by ____?
• What group of things does ____ belong to?
• How is ____ different from other things?

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 • What parts can ____ be divided into?
• Does ____ mean something now that it didn't years ago? If so, what?
• What other words mean about the same as ____?
• What are some concrete examples of ____?
• When is the meaning of ____ misunderstood?

Comparison/Contrast

• What is ____ similar to? In what ways?

• What is ____ different from? In what ways?
• ____ is superior (inferior) to what? How?
• ____ is most unlike (like) what? How?

Relationship

• What causes ____?

• What are the effects of ____?
• What is the purpose of ____? - What is the consequence of ____?
• What comes before (after) ____?

Testimony

• What have I heard people say about ____?

• What are some facts of statistics about ____?
• Can I quote any proverbs, poems, or sayings about ____?
• Are there any laws about ____?

Circumstance

• Is ____ possible or impossible?

• What qualities, conditions, or circumstances make ____ possible or impossible?
• When did ____ happen previously?
• Who can do ____?
• If ____ starts, what makes it end?
• What would it take for ____ to happen now?
• What would prevent ___ from happening?

Tagmemics

Contrastive features

• How is ____ different from things similar to it?

• How has ____ been different for me?

Variation

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 • How much can ____ change and still be itself?
• How is ____ changing?
• How much does ____ change from day to day?
• What are the different varieties of ____?

Distribution

• Where and when does ____ take place?

• What is the larger thing of which ___ is a part?
• What is the function of ____ in this larger thing?

Cubing (considering a subject from six points of view)

1. *Describe* it (colors, shapes, sizes, etc.)

2. *Compare* it (What is it similar to?)
3. *Associate* it (What does it make you think of?)
4. *Analyze* it (Tell how it's made)
5. *Apply* it (What can you do with it? How can it be used?)
6. *Argue* for or against it

Make an analogy

Choose an activity from column A to explain it by describing it in terms of an activity from

column B (or vice-versa).

playing cards writing essays

changing a tire making peace
selling growing up
walking growing old
sailing rising in the world
skiing studying
plowing meditating
launching rockets swindling
running for office teaching
hunting learning
Russian roulette failing
brushing teeth quarreling

Rest and incubate.

(Adapted from Linda Flower's Problem-Solving Strategies for Writing, Gregory and Elizabeth
Cowan's Writing, and Gordon Rohman and Albert Wlecke's Prewriting.)

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More Prewriting (Invention) Questions
As a writer, you can begin by asking yourself questions and then answering them. Your answers
will bring your subject into focus and provide you with the material to develop your topic. Here
are twenty questions or "thought starters" that present ways of observing or thinking about your
topic. Each question generates the type of essay listed in parentheses after the question.

1. What does X mean? (Definition)

2. What are the various features of X? (Description)
3. What are the component parts of X? (Simple Analysis)
4. How is X made or done? (Process Analysis)
5. How should X be made or done? (Directional Analysis)
6. What is the essential function of X? (Functional Analysis)
7. What are the causes of X? (Causal Analysis)
8. What are the consequences of X? (Causal Analysis)
9. What are the types of X? (Classification)
10. How is X like or unlike Y? (Comparison)
11. What is the present status of X? (Comparison)
12. What is the significance of X? (Interpretation)
13. What are the facts about X? (Reportage)
14. How did X happen? (Narration)
15. What kind of person is X? (Characterization/Profile)
16. What is my personal response to X? (Reflection)
17. What is my memory of X? (Reminiscence)
18. What is the value of X? (Evaluation)
19. What are the essential major points or features of X? (Summary)
20. What case can be made for or against X? (Persuasion)

(Adapted from Jacqueline Berke's Twenty Questions for the Writer)

Using Fonts with Purpose

Using Fonts with Purpose
Does Type Font Matter?

It is easy to think that type font doesn’t matter. We read text all the time and have become very
accustomed to focusing on the content or message of the words themselves and not what the
words look like visually. In reality, the visual appearance of words themselves can (and should)
have just as much effect on how a document is received as the content itself. Fonts can create
mood and atmosphere. Fonts can give visual clues about the order a document should be read in
and which parts are more important than others. Fonts can even be used to control how long it
takes someone to read a document.

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The professional printing industry has recognized this fact for a long time. Since the 1500s, they
have used text called a “Lorem Ipsum” to demonstrate what a font will look like without having
the reader become distracted by the meaning of the text itself. Although the term resembles
ancient Latin, it is not actually intended to have meaning.

Image Caption: Times New Roman

Above is a font that is probably quite familiar to you - Times New Roman. Especially in
academic circles, Times New Roman is so popular that you almost have to use a Lorem Ipsum to
actually see the curves and spacing characteristics of the font itself.

Image Caption: Ariel

Here is another popular font called Ariel. Looking at the Times New Roman and Ariel fonts
together it’s possible to see some subtle differences. Perhaps the choice to use Times versus
Ariel won’t make the most drastic of differences; however, there are so many different fonts to
choose from that the point becomes much clearer once we move beyond more traditional
choices.

Image Caption: Chalkboard

Above is a lesser known font called Chalkboard. This font is so different that it shouldn’t be hard
to realize that a page full of text in Chalkboard would look and feel very different from the more
traditional Times or Ariel.

Understanding how type fonts work involves learning some new terminology and thinking about
the cultural codes behind words themselves. However, once you do so, font choice becomes
another highly effective way to fuse your documents with additional meaning and rhetorical
effectiveness.

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Font Features
Graphic designers have developed a large vocabulary of terms to discuss the makeup of a font.
Fortunately, learning just a few of these terms will greatly aid you in making choices about how
to use a font to communicate additional meaning beyond just the words themselves.

Font Types

1. Serif Fonts

One of the primary distinctions between font types is Serif fonts versus Sans-Serif fonts.
Although the exact derivation of the word “serif” is unknown, it may be easier to grasp the
concept if you think of them as feet. Since “sans” comes from the French for “with out” you can
see fonts as having feet or being with out feet.

Image Caption: Georgia

Above, the circled sections highlight some of the serifs in the font type called Georgia. The serifs
are little lines (or feet) at the end of particular line strokes.

Popular serif fonts include:

Image Caption: Popular Serif Fonts: Times, Century, Palatino, Garamond, and Bodoni

2. Sans-Serif Fonts

If serif-fonts have lines (or feet) at the end of particular strokes, then non-serif fonts are marked
by the absence of these features.

Image Caption: Ariel

Above is one of the most well known non-serif fonts. Notice how in comparison to the serif
fonts, the line strokes end cleanly without any additional flair.

Popular Sans-Serif Fonts include:

Image Caption: Popular Sans Serif fonts

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3. Decorative Fonts

Sometimes called script, novelty, or ornamental, decorative fonts stand out for their unique
shapes and personalities. These tend to have a stronger personality or character than traditional
serif or sans-serif fonts.

Some examples of decorative fonts include:

Image Caption: Decorative Fonts Blackmoore LET, Cracked, Papayrus, and Playbill

Tips

• Research has found that the difference in readability of serif vs. sans serif fonts is
negligible in print sources. However, in electronic or virtual contexts, sans-serif is a little
easier to read. Consider the rhetorical situation (purpose, audience, context of use) of
your communication when you choose your fonts.
• Sans-serifs are most typically used for headings and titles. In this use, they provide a nice
contrast with the serif font used for the extended text below them. Like all conventions,
this advice may change based on your audience. For example, European countries seem
to have a higher tolerance for sans-serif fonts in long blocks of text on paper.
• It’s a good rule to never mix two, different types of the same font category. In other
words, do not use a Times New Roman title over a text block of Palatino. Both are serif
fonts and will not mix well. The ideal situation is to pair one serif font with one sans-serif
font.

Image Caption: What to Do for Headings and Body Text

• Although there is no official rule, too many different fonts on one page can appear
chaotic and distracting. Figure out what message you’re trying to convey and decide how
to accomplish it with limited fonts.
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 • Use decorative fonts sparingly. Their unique features definitely make them unsuitable for
extended reading. They work well for headers and titles or to add a bit of emphasis to a
piece of text.

Image Caption: When Not to Use a Decorative Font

• When emailing or using fonts on the web, remember that not all computers will contain
the same font sets as yours. Either use more popular fonts or set up alternate fonts in the
page’s coding.

Font Personality
Although fonts are often classified by the typographical features of serifs, they can also be
described as having more human-like personalities. In other words, the appearance of the font
(regardless of what the words say) gives off a certain mood and feel which can alter the
effectiveness of your document. Learning to predict how your font choice might make your
audience feel is another way to ensure your document achieves the effect you are going for.
Although there is no firm equation (no Times New Roman always equals THIS specific mood),
you have grown up in the culture where these personality associations have developed; therefore,
much of the predicting may be based on awareness and instinct.

Let’s return to our Lorem Impsums, as to not become distracted by the meaning of the words.

Image Caption: Garamond

Above is a serif-font named Garamond. As a serif-font, it is good for long blocks of text. Its
smooth curves and simple serifs could be said to portray a classic and easy-going beauty. These
tend to be good feelings for long blocks of texts; therefore, Garamond can be an effective,
rhetorical choice.

Image Caption: Franklin Gothic

Above is the sans-serif font Franklin Gothic at a large size and at a much smaller size. We could
say it’s a fairly straightforward font. Its features are not very distracting. We can also see that it
maintains a high level of readability even when printed small. Once you know that this is a

121 
 
popular font choice for newspapers, you can see how it could be chosen to capitalize on these
exact features.

Beyond serifs and sans-serifs, the appearance of decorative fonts have the most potential to tap
into cultural associations. Although the Lorem Ipsum is useful to look at a font’s, basic
characteristics without word meaning, in practice, the meaning of the words are effected by the
font they are displayed in. Because of this fact, great care should be taken to match the font’s
personality with the sentiment and purposes of your document (especially when using the more
decorative options).

For example, look at these two possibilities for the heading of a greeting card:

Image Caption: Monotype Corsiva vs Bauhaus 93

The top example is in Monotype Corsiva. This is a font that mimics the effect of handwritten text
and reflects the heartfelt sentiment of the statement and card’s purpose. On the other hand, the
bottom example is displayed in a font called Bauhaus 93. Bauhaus 93 (as the name suggests) is a
cold, Modernist looking font perhaps best associated with fliers for graphic design shows. This
coldness is not appropriate for a greeting card expressing condolences and is therefore a poor
rhetorical choice. This does not mean Bauhaus 93 is a poor font all around. For example, it might
be completely appropriate for something like this:

Image Caption: Rhetorically Appropriate Use of Bauhaus 93

Matching font personality with the tone of the piece is sometimes subjective and certainly not an
exact science. A good technique to see if you’re choosing appropriate fonts is to use a font that
seems completely opposite of what you’re trying to convey. Seeing how “wrong” this can look
might help you pick a more appropriate font. Below there are two columns of words. Column A
tries to set an appropriate mood for the feeling suggested by the word. Column B tries to achieve
the opposite feeling. Do you think the columns are successful?

Image Caption: Fonts Should Match their Rhetorical Situation

All Sections in Using Fonts with Purpose: Font Personality:

Additional Tips for Using Fonts

The more you experiment with fonts the more flexibility and options you will find among the
available choices. Here are a few more tips to consider when attempting to use fonts with
purpose.

• Some fonts look drastically different when displayed at smaller or larger sizes.
Readability should usually be the key factor. You may fall in love with a font, but if it
looks odd at the size you need it, consider trying another option.
• Italics and bolding may also affect the character of a font. In particular, sans-serif fonts
often don't have an italicized version that stands out particularly well (they often become

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 just slightly slanted). See if the italicized version still suits your needs or consider an
alternate method of emphasis.
• Despite all the font options available to you, there is nothing inherently wrong with using
a very traditional and well-known font. Popular fonts have often had centuries of
perfecting, and professional designers use them all the time for their reliability and
timelessness.
• There is a range of computer programs available for designing. Each one comes
preloaded with different font choices that the others might not contain. Familiarity with a
variety of programs will give you more design options.

Literary Theory and Schools of Criticism

Introduction

A very basic way of thinking about literary theory is that these ideas act as different lenses critics
use to view and talk about art, literature, and even culture. These different lenses allow critics to
consider works of art based on certain assumptions within that school of theory. The different
lenses also allow critics to focus on particular aspects of a work they consider important.

For example, if a critic is working with certain Marxist theories, s/he might focus on how the
characters in a story interact based on their economic situation. If a critic is working with post-
colonial theories, s/he might consider the same story but look at how characters from colonial
powers (Britain, France, and even America) treat characters from, say, Africa or the Caribbean.
Hopefully, after reading through and working with the resources in this area of the OWL, literary
theory will become a little easier to understand and use.

Disclaimer

Please note that the schools of literary criticism and their explanations included here are by no
means the only ways of distinguishing these separate areas of theory. Indeed, many critics use
tools from two or more schools in their work. Some would define differently or greatly expand
the (very) general statements given here. Our explanations are meant only as starting places for
your own investigation into literary theory. We encourage you to use the list of scholars and
works provided for each school to further your understanding of these theories.

We also recommend the following secondary sources for study of literary theory:

• The Critical Tradition: Classical Texts and Contemporary Trends, 1998, edited by David
H. Richter
• Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide, 1999, by Louis Tyson
• Beginning Theory, 2002, by Peter Barry

Although philosophers, critics, educators and authors have been writing about writing since
ancient times, contemporary schools of literary theory have cohered from these discussions and
now influence how scholars look at and write about literature. The following sections overview

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these movements in critical theory. Though the timeline below roughly follows a chronological
order, we have placed some schools closer together because they are so closely aligned.

Timeline (most of these overlap)

• Moral Criticism, Dramatic Construction (~360 BC-present)

• Formalism, New Criticism, Neo-Aristotelian Criticism (1930s-present)
• Psychoanalytic Criticism, Jungian Criticism(1930s-present)
• Marxist Criticism (1930s-present)
• Reader-Response Criticism (1960s-present)
• Structuralism/Semiotics (1920s-present)
• Post-Structuralism/Deconstruction (1966-present)
• New Historicism/Cultural Studies (1980s-present)
• Post-Colonial Criticism (1990s-present)
• Feminist Criticism (1960s-present)
• Gender/Queer Studies (1970s-present)

Moral Criticism and Dramatic Construction (~360 BC-

present)
Plato

In Book X of his Republic, Plato may have given us the first volley of detailed and lengthy
literary criticism. The dialog between Socrates and two of his associates shows the participants
of this discussion concluding that art must play a limited and very strict role in the perfect Greek
Republic. Richter provides a nice summary of this point: "...poets may stay as servants of the
state if they teach piety and virtue, but the pleasures of art are condemned as inherently
corrupting to citizens..." (19).

One reason Plato included these ideas in his Socratic dialog because he believed that art was a
mediocre reproduction of nature: "...what artists do...is hold the mirror up to nature: They copy
the appearances of men, animals, and objects in the physical world...and the intelligence that
went into its creation need involve nothing more than conjecture" (Richter 19). So in short, if art
does not teach morality and ethics, then it is damaging to its audience, and for Plato this
damaged his Republic.

Given this controversial approach to art, it's easy to see why Plato's position has an impact on
literature and literary criticism even today (though scholars who critique work based on whether
or not the story teaches a moral are few - virtue may have an impact on children's literature,
however).

Aristotle

In Poetics, Aristotle breaks with his teacher (Plato) in the consideration of art. Aristotle considers
poetry (and rhetoric), a productive science, whereas he thought logic and physics to be

124 
 
theoretical sciences, and ethics and politics practical sciences (Richter 38). Because Aristotle saw
poetry and drama as means to an end (for example, an audience's enjoyment) he established
some basic guidelines for authors to follow to achieve certain objectives.

To help authors achieve their objectives, Aristotle developed elements of organization and
methods for writing effective poetry and drama known as the principles of dramatic construction
(Richter 39). Aristotle believed that elements like "...language, rhythm, and harmony..." as well
as "...plot, character, thought, diction, song, and spectacle..." influence the audience's katharsis
(pity and fear) or satisfaction with the work (Richter 39). And so here we see one of the earliest
attempts to explain what makes an effective or ineffective work of literature.

Like Plato, Aristotle's views on art heavily influence Western thought. The debate between
Platonists and Aristotelians continued "...in the Neoplatonists of the second century AD, the
Cambridge Platonists of the latter seventeenth century, and the idealists of the romantic
movement" (Richter 17). Even today, the debate continues, and this debate is no more evident
than in some of the discussions between adherents to the schools of criticism contained in this
resource.

Formalism (1930s-present)
Form Follows Function: Russian Formalism, New Criticism, Neo-Aristotelianism

Formalists disagreed about what specific elements make a literary work "good" or "bad"; but
generally, Formalism maintains that a literary work contains certain intrinsic features, and the
theory "...defined and addressed the specifically literary qualities in the text" (Richter 699).
Therefore, it's easy to see Formalism's relation to Aristotle's theories of dramatic construction.

Formalism attempts to treat each work as its own distinct piece, free from its environment, era,
and even author. This point of view developed in reaction to "...forms of 'extrinsic' criticism that
viewed the text as either the product of social and historical forces or a document making an
ethical statement" (699). Formalists assume that the keys to understanding a text exist within
"the text itself," (..."the battle cry of the New Critical effort..." and thus focus a great deal on, you
guessed it, form (Tyson 118).

For the most part, Formalism is no longer used in the academy. However, New Critical theories
are still used in secondary and college level instruction in literature and even writing (Tyson
115).

Typical questions:

• How does the work use imagery to develop its own symbols? (i.e. making a certain road
stand for death by constant association)
• What is the quality of the work's organic unity "...the working together of all the parts to
make an inseparable whole..." (Tyson 121)? In other words, does how the work is put
together reflect what it is?
• How are the various parts of the work interconnected?

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 • How do paradox, irony, ambiguity, and tension work in the text?
• How do these parts and their collective whole contribute to or not contribute to the
aesthetic quality of the work?
• How does the author resolve apparent contradictions within the work?
• What does the form of the work say about its content?
• Is there a central or focal passage that can be said to sum up the entirety of the work?
• How do the rhythms and/or rhyme schemes of a poem contribute to the meaning or effect
of the piece?

Here is a list of scholars we encourage you to explore to further your understanding of this
theory:

Russian Formalism

• Victor Shklovsky
• Roman Jakobson
• Victor Erlich - Russian Formalism: History - Doctrine, 1955
• Yuri Tynyanov

New Criticism

• John Crowe Ransom - The New Criticism, 1938

• I.A. Richards
• William Empson
• T.S. Eliot
• Allen Tate
• Cleanth Brooks

Neo-Aristoteliansim (Chicago School of Criticism)

• R.S. Crane - Critics and Criticism: Ancient and Modern, 1952

• Elder Olson
• Norman Maclean
• W.R. Keast
• Wayne C. Booth - The Rhetoric of Fiction, 1961

Psychoanalytic Criticism (1930s-present)

Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalytic criticism builds on Freudian theories of psychology. While we don't have the
room here to discuss all of Freud's work, a general overview is necessary to explain
psychoanalytic literary criticism.

The Unconscious, the Desires, and the Defenses

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Freud began his psychoanalytic work in the 1880s while attempting to treat behavioral disorders
in his Viennese patients. He dubbed the disorders 'hysteria' and began treating them by listening
to his patients talk through their problems. Based on this work, Freud asserted that people's
behavior is affected by their unconscious: "...the notion that human beings are motivated, even
driven, by desires, fears, needs, and conflicts of which they are unaware..." (Tyson 14-15).

Freud believed that our unconscious was influenced by childhood events. Freud organized these
events into developmental stages involving relationships with parents and drives of desire and
pleasure where children focus "...on different parts of the body...starting with the mouth...shifting
to the oral, anal, and phallic phases..." (Richter 1015). These stages reflect base levels of desire,
but they also involve fear of loss (loss of genitals, loss of affection from parents, loss of life) and
repression: "...the expunging from consciousness of these unhappy psychological events" (Tyson
15).

Tyson reminds us, however, that "...repression doesn't eliminate our painful experiences and
emotions...we unconsciously behave in ways that will allow us to 'play out'...our conflicted
feelings about the painful experiences and emotions we repress" (15). To keep all of this conflict
buried in our unconscious, Freud argued that we develop defenses: selective perception, selective
memory, denial, displacement, projection, regression, fear of intimacy, and fear of death, among
others.

Id, Ego, and Superego

Freud maintained that our desires and our unconscious conflicts give rise to three areas of the
mind that wrestle for dominance as we grow from infancy, to childhood, to adulthood:

• id - "...the location of the drives" or libido

• ego - "...one of the major defenses against the power of the drives..." and home of the
defenses listed above
• superego - the area of the unconscious that houses judgement (of self and others) and
"...which begins to form during childhood as a result of the Oedipus complex" (Richter
1015-1016)

Oedipus Complex

Freud believed that the Oedipus complex was "...one of the most powerfully determinative
elements in the growth of the child" (Richter 1016). Essentially, the Oedipus complex involves
children's need for their parents and the conflict that arises as children mature and realize they
are not the absolute focus of their mother's attention: "the Oedipus complex begins in a late
phase of infantile sexuality, between the child's third and sixth year, and it takes a different form
in males than it does in females" (Richter 1016).

Freud argued that both boys and girls wish to possess their mothers, but as they grow older
"...they begin to sense that their claim to exclusive attention is thwarted by the mother's attention
to the father..." (1016). Children, Freud maintained, connect this conflict of attention to the
intimate relations between mother and father, relations from which the children are excluded.

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Freud believed that "the result is a murderous rage against the father...and a desire to possess the
mother" (1016).

Freud pointed out, however, that "...the Oedipus complex differs in boys and girls...the
functioning of the related castration complex" (1016). In short, Freud thought that "...during the
Oedipal rivalry [between boys and their fathers], boys fantasized that punishment for their rage
will take the form of..." castration (1016). When boys effectively work through this anxiety,
Freud argued, "...the boy learns to identify with the father in the hope of someday possessing a
woman like his mother. In girls, the castration complex does not take the form of anxiety...the
result is a frustrated rage in which the girl shifts her sexual desire from the mother to the father"
(1016).

Freud believed that eventually, the girl's spurned advanced toward the father give way to a desire
to possess a man like her father later in life. Freud believed that the impact of the unconscious,
id, ego, superego, the defenses, and the Oedipus complexes was inescapable and that these
elements of the mind influence all our behavior (and even our dreams) as adults - of course this
behavior involves what we write.

Freud and Literature

So what does all of this psychological business have to do with literature and the study of
literature? Put simply, some critics believe that we can "...read psychoanalytically...to see which
concepts are operating in the text in such a way as to enrich our understanding of the work and, if
we plan to write a paper about it, to yield a meaningful, coherent psychoanalytic interpretation"
(Tyson 29). Tyson provides some insightful and applicable questions to help guide our
understanding of psychoanalytic criticism.

Typical questions:

• How do the operations of repression structure or inform the work?

• Are there any oedipal dynamics - or any other family dynamics - are work here?
• How can characters' behavior, narrative events, and/or images be explained in terms of
psychoanalytic concepts of any kind (for example...fear or fascination with death,
sexuality - which includes love and romance as well as sexual behavior - as a primary
indicator of psychological identity or the operations of ego-id-superego)?
• What does the work suggest about the psychological being of its author?
• What might a given interpretation of a literary work suggest about the psychological
motives of the reader?
• Are there prominent words in the piece that could have different or hidden meanings?
Could there be a subconscious reason for the author using these "problem words"?

Here is a list of scholars we encourage you to explore to further your understanding of this
theory:

• Harold Bloom - A Theory of Poetry, 1973; Poetry and Repression: Revisionism from
Blake to Stevens, 1976

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 • Peter Brooks
• Jacque Lacan - The Ego in Freud's Theory and in the Technique of Psychoanalysis, 1988;
"The Agency of the Letter in the Unconscious or Reason Since Freud" (from Écrits: A
Selection, 1957)
• Jane Gallop - Reading Lacan, 1985
• Julia Kristeva - Revolution in Poetic Language, 1984
• Marshall Alcorn - Changing the Subject in English Class: Discourse and the
Constructions of Desire, 2002

Carl Jung

Jungian criticism attempts to explore the connection between literature and what Carl Jung (a
student of Freud) called the “collective unconscious” of the human race: "...racial memory,
through which the spirit of the whole human species manifests itself" (Richter 504). Jungian
criticism, closely related to Freudian theory because of its connection to psychoanalysis, assumes
that all stories and symbols are based on mythic models from mankind’s past.

Based on these commonalities, Jung developed archetypal myths, the Syzygy: "...a quaternion
composing a whole, the unified self of which people are in search" (Richter 505). These
archetypes are the Shadow, the Anima, the Animus, and the Spirit: "...beneath...[the Shadow] is
the Anima, the feminine side of the male Self, and the Animus, the corresponding masculine side
of the female Self" (Richter 505).

In literary analysis, a Jungian critic would look for archetypes (also see the discussion of
Northrop Frye in the Structuralism section) in creative works: "Jungian criticism is generally
involved with a search for the embodiment of these symbols within particular works of art."
(Richter 505). When dealing with this sort of criticism, it is often useful to keep and handbook of
mythology and a dictionary of symbols on hand.

Typical questions:

• What connections can we make between elements of the text and the archetypes? (Mask,
Shadow, Anima, Animus)
• How do the characters in the text mirror the archetypal figures? (Great Mother or
nurturing Mother, Whore, destroying Crone, Lover, Destroying Angel)
• How does the text mirror the archetypal narrative patterns? (Quest, Night-Sea-Journey)
• How symbolic is the imagery in the work?
• How does the protagonist reflect the hero of myth?
• Does the “hero” embark on a journey in either a physical or spiritual sense?
• Is there a journey to an underworld or land of the dead?
• What trials or ordeals does the protagonist face? What is the reward for overcoming
them?

Here is a list of scholars we encourage you to explore to further your understanding of this
theory:

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 • Maud Bodkin - Archetypal Patterns in Poetry, 1934
• Carl Jung - The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious. Vol. 9, Part 1 of Collected
Works. 2nd ed. Trans. R.F.C. Hull, 1968
• Bettina Knapp - Music, Archetype and the Writer: A Jungian View, 1988
• Ricahrd Sugg - Jungian Literary Criticism, 1993

Marxist Criticism (1930s-present)

Whom Does it Benefit?

Based on the theories of Karl Marx (and so influenced by philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
Hegel), this school concerns itself with class differences, economic and otherwise, as well as the
implications and complications of the capitalist system: "Marxism attempts to reveal the ways in
which our socioeconomic system is the ultimate source of our experience" (Tyson 277).

Theorists working in the Marxist tradition, therefore, are interested in answering the overarching
question, whom does it [the work, the effort, the policy, the road, etc.] benefit? The elite? The
middle class? And Marxists critics are also interested in how the lower or working classes are
oppressed - in everyday life and in literature.

The Material Dialectic

The Marxist school follows a process of thinking called the material dialectic. This belief system
maintains that "...what drives historical change are the material realities of the economic base of
society, rather than the ideological superstructure of politics, law, philosophy, religion, and art
that is built upon that economic base" (Richter 1088).

Marx asserts that "...stable societies develop sites of resistance: contradictions build into the
social system that ultimately lead to social revolution and the development of a new society upon
the old" (1088). This cycle of contradiction, tension, and revolution must continue: there will
always be conflict between the upper, middle, and lower (working) classes and this conflict will
be reflected in literature and other forms of expression - art, music, movies, etc.

The Revolution

The continuing conflict between the classes will lead to upheaval and revolution by oppressed
peoples and form the groundwork for a new order of society and economics where capitalism is
abolished. According to Marx, the revolution will be led by the working class (others think
peasants will lead the uprising) under the guidance of intellectuals. Once the elite and middle
class are overthrown, the intellectuals will compose an equal society where everyone owns
everything (socialism - not to be confused with Soviet or Maoist Communism).

Though a staggering number of different nuances exist within this school of literary theory,
Marxist critics generally work in areas covered by the following questions.

Typical questions:

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 • Whom does it benefit if the work or effort is accepted/successful/believed, etc.?
• What is the social class of the author?
• Which class does the work claim to represent?
• What values does it reinforce?
• What values does it subvert?
• What conflict can be seen between the values the work champions and those it portrays?
• What social classes do the characters represent?
• How do characters from different classes interact or conflict?

Here is a list of scholars we encourage you to explore to further your understanding of this
theory:

• Karl Marx - (with Friedrich Engels) The Communist Manifesto, 1848; Das Kapital, 1867;
"Consciousness Derived from Material Conditions" from The German Ideology, 1932;
"On Greek Art in Its Time" from A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy,
1859
• Leon Trotsky - "Literature and Revolution," 1923
• Georg Lukács - "The Ideology of Modernism," 1956
• Walter Benjamin - "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," 1936
• Theodor W. Adorno
• Louis Althusser - Reading Capital, 1965
• Terry Eagleton - Marxism and Literary Criticism, Criticism and Ideology, 1976
• Frederic Jameson - Marxism and Form, The Political Unconscious, 1971
• Jürgen Habermas - The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, 1990

Reader-Response Criticism (1960s-present)

What Do You Think?

At its most basic level, reader response criticism considers readers' reactions to literature as vital
to interpreting the meaning of the text. However, reader-response criticism can take a number of
different approaches. A critic deploying reader-response theory can use a psychoanalytic lens, a
feminists lens, or even a structuralist lens. What these different lenses have in common when
using a reader response approach is they maintain "...that what a text is cannot be separated from
what it does" (Tyson 154).

Tyson explains that "...reader-response theorists share two beliefs: 1) that the role of the reader
cannot be omitted from our understanding of literature and 2) that readers do not passively
consume the meaning presented to them by an objective literary text; rather they actively make
the meaning they find in literature" (154). In this way, reader-response theory shares common
ground with some of the deconstructionists discussed in the Post-structural area when they talk
about "the death of the author," or her displacement as the (author)itarian figure in the text.

Typical questions:

• How does the interaction of text and reader create meaning?

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 • What does a phrase-by-phrase analysis of a short literary text, or a key portion of a longer
text, tell us about the reading experience prestructured by (built into) that text?
• Do the sounds/shapes of the words as they appear on the page or how they are spoken by
the reader enhance or change the meaning of the word/work?
• How might we interpret a literary text to show that the reader's response is, or is
analogous to, the topic of the story?
• What does the body of criticism published about a literary text suggest about the critics
who interpreted that text and/or about the reading experience produced by that text?
(Tyson 191)

Here is a list of scholars we encourage you to explore to further your understanding of this
theory:

• Peter Rabinowitz - Before Reading, 1987

• Stanley Fish - Is There a Text in This Class?-The Authority of Interpretive Communities,
1980
• Elizabeth Freund - The Return of the Reader: Reader-Response Criticism, 1987
• David Bleich
• Norman Holland - The Dynamics of Literary Response, 1968
• Louise Rosenblatt
• Wolfgang Iser - The Implied Reader: Patterns of Communication in Prose Fiction from
Bunyan to Beckett, 1974
• Hans Rober Jauss

Structuralism and Semiotics (1920s-present)

Note: Structuralism, semiotics, and post-structuralism are some of the most complex literary
theories to understand. Please be patient.

Linguistic Roots

The structuralist school emerges from theories of language and linguistics, and it looks for
underlying elements in culture and literature that can be connected so that critics can develop
general conclusions about the individual works and the systems from which they emerge. In fact,
structuralism maintains that "...practically everything we do that is specifically human is
expressed in language" (Richter 809). Structuralists believe that these language symbols extend
far beyond written or oral communication.

For example, codes that represent all sorts of things permeate everything we do: "the
performance of music requires complex notation...our economic life rests upon the exchange of
labor and goods for symbols, such as cash, checks, stock, and certificates...social life depends on
the meaningful gestures and signals of 'body language' and revolves around the exchange of
small, symbolic favors: drinks, parties, dinners" (Richter 809).

Patterns and Experience

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Structuralists assert that, since language exists in patterns, certain underlying elements are
common to all human experiences. Structuralists believe we can observe these experiences
through patterns: "...if you examine the physical structures of all buildings built in urban
America in 1850 to discover the underlying principles that govern their composition, for
example, principles of mechanical construction or of artistic form..." you are using a structuralist
lens (Tyson 197).

Moreover, "you are also engaged in structuralist activity if you examine the structure of a single
building to discover how its composition demonstrates underlying principles of a structural
system. In the first example...you're generating a structural system of classification; in the
second, you're demonstrating that an individual item belongs to a particular structural class"
(Tyson 197).

Structuralism in Literary Theory

Structuralism is used in literary theory, for example, "...if you examine the structure of a large
number of short stories to discover the underlying principles that govern their
composition...principles of narrative progression...or of characterization...you are also engaged in
structuralist activity if you describe the structure of a single literary work to discover how its
composition demonstrates the underlying principles of a given structural system" (Tyson 197-
198).

Northrop Frye, however, takes a different approach to structuralism by exploring ways in which
genres of Western literature fall into his four mythoi (also see Jungian criticism in the Freudian
Literary Criticism resource):

1. theory of modes, or historical criticism (tragic, comic, and thematic);

2. theory of symbols, or ethical criticism (literal/descriptive, formal, mythical, and
anagogic);
3. theory of myths, or archetypal criticism (comedy, romance, tragedy, irony/satire);
4. theory of genres, or rhetorical criticism (epos, prose, drama, lyric) (Tyson 240).

Peirce and Saussure

Two important theorists form the framework (hah) of structuralism: Charles Sanders Peirce and
Ferdinand de Saussure. Peirce gave structuralism three important ideas for analyzing the sign
systems that permeate and define our experiences:

1. "iconic signs, in which the signifier resembles the thing signified (such as the stick
figures on washroom doors that signify 'Men' or 'Women';
2. indexes, in which the signifier is a reliable indicator of the presence of the signified (like
fire and smoke);
3. true symbols, in which the signifier's relation to the thing signified is completely arbitrary
and conventional [just as the sound /kat/ or the written word cat are conventional signs
for the familiar feline]" (Richter 810).

133 
 
These elements become very important when we move into deconstruction in the Postmodernism
resource. Peirce also influenced the semiotic school of structuralist theory that uses sign systems.

Sign Systems

The discipline of semiotics plays an important role in structuralist literary theory and cultural
studies. Semioticians "...appl[y] structuralist insights to the study of...sign systems...a non-
linguistic object or behavior...that can be analyzed as if it were a language" (Tyson 205).
Specifically, "...semiotics examines the ways non-linguistic objects and behaviors 'tell' us
something.

For example, the picture of the reclining blond beauty in the skin-tight, black velvet dress on the
billboard...'tells' us that those who drink this whiskey (presumably male) will be attractive
to...beautiful women like the one displayed here" (Tyson 205). Lastly, Richter states, "semiotics
takes off from Peirce - for whom language is one of numerous sign systems - and structuralism
takes off from Saussure, for whom language was the sign system par excellence" (810).

Typical questions:

• Using a specific structuralist framework (like Frye's mythoi)...how should the text be
classified in terms of its genre? In other words, what patterns exist within the text that
make it a part of other works like it?
• Using a specific structuralist framework...analyze the text's narrative operations...can you
speculate about the relationship between the...[text]... and the culture from which the text
emerged? In other words, what patterns exist within the text that make it a product of a
larger culture?
• What patterns exist within the text that connect it to the larger "human" experience? In
other words, can we connect patterns and elements within the text to other texts from
other cultures to map similarities that tell us more about the common human experience?
This is a liberal humanist move that assumes that since we are all human, we all share
basic human commonalities
• What rules or codes of interpretation must be internalized in order to 'make sense' of the
text?
• What are the semiotics of a given category of cultural phenomena, or 'text,' such as high-
school football games, television and/or magazine ads for a particular brand of
perfume...or even media coverage of an historical event? (Tyson 225)

Here is a list of scholars we encourage you to explore to further your understanding of this
theory:

• Charles Sanders Peirce

• Ferdinand de Saussure - Course in General Linguistics, 1923
• Claude Lévi-Strauss - The Elementary Structure of Kinship, 1949; "The Structural Study
of Myth," 1955
• Northrop Frye - Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays, 1957
• Noam Chomsky - Syntactic Structures, 1957; Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, 1965

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 • Roland Barthes - Critical Essays, 1964; Mythologies, 1957; S/Z, 1970; Image, Music,
Text, 1977
• Emberto Eco - The Role of the Reader, 1979

Post-Structuralism, Deconstruction, Postmodernism (1966-

present)
Note: Structuralism, semiotics, and post-structuralism are some of the most complex literary
theories to understand. Please be patient.

The Center Cannot Hold

This approach concerns itself with the ways and places where systems, frameworks, definitions,
and certainties break down. Post-structuralism maintains that frameworks and systems, for
example the structuralist systems explained in the Structuralist area, are merely fictitious
constructs and that they cannot be trusted to develop meaning or to give order. In fact, the very
act of seeking order or a singular Truth (with a capital T) is absurd because there exists no
unified truth.

Post-structuralism holds that there are many truths, that frameworks must bleed, and that
structures must become unstable or decentered. Moreover, post-structuralism is also concerned
with the power structures or hegemonies and power and how these elements contribute to and/or
maintain structures to enforce hierarchy. Therefore, post-structural theory carries implications far
beyond literary criticism.

What Does Your Meaning Mean?

By questioning the process of developing meaning, post-structural theory strikes at the very heart
of philosophy and reality and throws knowledge making into what Jacques Derrida called
"freeplay": "The concept of centered structure...is contradictorily coherent...the concept of
centered structure is in fact the concept of a freeplay which is constituted upon a fundamental
immobility and a reassuring certitude, which is itself beyond the reach of the freeplay" (qtd. in
Richter, 878-879).

Derrida first posited these ideas in 1966 at Johns Hopkins University, when he delivered
“Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences”: "Perhaps something has
occurred in the history of the concept of structure that could be called an 'event,' if this loaded
word did not entail a meaning which it is precisely the function of structural-or structuralist-
thought to reduce or to suspect. But let me use the term “event” anyway, employing it with
caution and as if in quotation marks. In this sense, this event will have the exterior form of a
rupture and a redoubling” (qtd. in Richter, 878). In his presentation, Derrida challenged
structuralism's most basic ideas.

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Can Language Do That?

Post-structural theory can be tied to a move against Modernist/Enlightenment ideas

(philosophers: Immanuel Kant, Réne Descartes, John Locke, etc.) and Western religious beliefs
(neo-Platonism, Catholicism, etc.). An early pioneer of this resistance was philosopher Friedrich
Nietzsche. In his essay, “On Truth and Lies in an Extra-moral Sense” (1873), Nietzsche rejects
even the very basis of our knowledge making, language, as a reliable system of communication:
“The various languages, juxtaposed, show that words are never concerned with truth, never with
adequate expression...” (248).

Below is an example, adapted from the Tyson text, of some language freeplay and a simple form
of deconstruction:

Time (noun) flies (verb) like an arrow (adverb clause) = Time passes quickly.

Time (verb) flies (object) like an arrow (adverb clause) = Get out your stopwatch and time the
speed of flies as you would time an arrow's flight.

Time flies (noun) like (verb) an arrow (object) = Time flies are fond of arrows (or at least of one
particular arrow).

So, post-structuralists assert that if we cannot trust language systems to convey truth, the very
bases of truth are unreliable and the universe - or at least the universe we have constructed -
becomes unraveled or de-centered. Nietzsche uses language slip as a base to move into the slip
and shift of truth as a whole: “What is truth? …truths are an illusion about which it has been
forgotten that they are illusions...” (On Truth and Lies 250).

This returns us to the discussion in the Structuralist area regarding signs, signifiers, and signified.
Essentially, post-structuralism holds that we cannot trust the sign = signifier + signified formula,
that there is a breakdown of certainty between sign/signifier, which leaves language systems
hopelessly inadequate for relaying meaning so that we are (returning to Derrida) in eternal
freeplay or instability.

What's Left?

Important to note, however, is that deconstruction is not just about tearing down - this is a
common misconception. Derrida, in "Signature Event Context," addressed this limited view of
post-structural theory: "Deconstruction cannot limit or proceed immediately to a neutralization: it
must…practice an overturning of the classical opposition and a general displacement of the
system. It is only on this condition that deconstruction will provide itself the means with which
to intervene in the field of oppositions that it criticizes, which is also a field of nondiscursive
forces" (328).

Derrida reminds us that through deconstruction we can identify the in-betweens and the
marginalized to begin interstitial knowledge building.

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Modernism vs Postmodernism

With the resistance to traditional forms of knowledge making (science, religion, language),
inquiry, communication, and building meaning take on different forms to the post-structuralist.
We can look at this difference as a split between Modernism and Postmodernism. The table
below, excerpted from theorist Ihab Hassan's The Dismemberment of Orpheus (1998), offers us a
way to make sense of some differences between modernism, dominated by Enlightenment ideas,
and postmodernism, a space of freeplay and discourse.

Keep in mind that even the author, Hassan, "...is quick to point out how the dichotomies are
themselves insecure, equivocal" (Harvey 42). Though post-structuralism is uncomfortable with
binaries, Hassan provides us with some interesting contrasts to consider:

Modernism vs Postmodernism
Modernism Postmodernism
romanticism/symbolism paraphysics/Dadaism
form (conjunctive, closed) antiform (disjunctive, open)
purpose play
design chance
hierarchy anarchy
mastery/logos exhaustion/silence
art object/finished work/logos process/performance/antithesis
centering absence
genre/boundary text/intertext
semantics rhetoric
metaphor metonymy
root/depth rhizome/surface
signified signifier
narrative/grande histoire anti-narrative/petite histoire
genital/phallic polymorphous/androgynous
paranoia schizophrenia
origin/cause difference-difference/trace
God the Father The Holy Ghost
determinacy interdeterminacy
transcendence immanence

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Post-Structuralism and Literature

If we are questioning/resisting the methods we use to build knowledge (science, religion,

language), then traditional literary notions are also thrown into freeplay. These include the
narrative and the author:

Narrative

The narrative is a fiction that locks readers into interpreting text in a single, chronological
manner that does not reflect our experiences. Postmodern texts may not adhere to traditional
notions of narrative. For example, in his seminal work, Naked Lunch, William S. Burroughs
explodes the traditional narrative structure and critiques almost everything Modern: modern
government, modern medicine, modern law-enforcement. Other examples of authors playing
with narrative include John Fowles; in the final sections of The French Lieutenant's Woman,
Fowles steps outside his narrative to speak with the reader directly.

Moreover, grand narratives are resisted. For example, the belief that through science the human
race will improve is questioned. In addition, metaphysics is questioned. Instead, postmodern
knowledge building is local, situated, slippery, and self-critical (i.e. it questions itself and its
role). Because post-structural work is self-critical, post-structural critics even look for ways texts
contradict themselves (see typical questions below).

Author

The author is displaced as absolute author(ity), and the reader plays a role in interpreting the text
and developing meaning (as best as possible) from the text. In “The Death of the Author,”
Roland Barthes argues that the idea of singular authorship is a recent phenomenon. Barthes
explains that the death of the author shatters Modernist notions of authority and knowledge
building (145).

Lastly, he states that once the author is dead and the Modernist idea of singular narrative (and
thus authority) is overturned, texts become plural, and the interpretation of texts becomes a
collaborative process between author and audience: “...a text is made of multiple writings, drawn
from many cultures and entering into mutual relations of dialogue...but there is one place where
this multiplicity is focused and that place is the reader” (148). Barthes ends his essay by
empowering the reader: “Classical criticism has never paid any attention to the reader...the writer
is the only person in literature…it is necessary to overthrow the myth: the birth of the reader
must be at the cost of the death of the Author” (148).

Typical questions:

• How is language thrown into freeplay or questioned in the work? For example, note how
Anthony Burgess plays with language (Russian vs English) in A Clockwork Orange, or
how Burroughs plays with names and language in Naked Lunch.
• How does the work undermine or contradict generally accepted truths?
• How does the author (or a character) omit, change, or reconstruct memory and identity?

138 
 
 • How does a work fulfill or move outside the established conventions of its genre?
• How does the work deal with the separation (or lack thereof) between writer, work, and
reader?
• What ideology does the text seem to promote?
• What is left out of the text that if included might undermine the goal of the work?
• If we changed the point of view of the text - say from one character to another, or
multiple characters - how would the story change? Whose story is not told in the text?
Who is left out and why might the author have omitted this character's tale?

Here is a list of scholars we encourage you to explore to further your understanding of this
theory:

Theorists

• Immanuel Kant - "An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?", 1784 (as a
baseline to understand what Nietzsche was resisting)
• Friedrich Nietzsche - “On Truth and Lies in an Extra-moral Sense," 1873; The Gay
Science, 1882; Thus Spoke Zarathustra, A Book for All and None, 1885
• Jacques Derrida - "Structure Sign and Play in the Discourse of Human Sciences," 1966;
Of Grammatology, 1967; "Signature Even Context," 1972
• Roland Barthes - "The Death of the Author," 1967
• Deleuze and Guattari - "Rhizome," 1976
• Jean-François Lyotard - The Postmodern Condition, 1979
• Michele Foucault - The Foucault Reader, 1984
• Stephen Toulmin - Cosmopolis, 1990
• Martin Heidegger - Basic Writings, 1993
• Paul Cilliers - Complexity and Postmodernity, 1998
• Ihab Hassan - The Dismemberment of Orpheus, 1998; From Postmodernism to
Postmodernity: The Local/Global Context, 2001

Postmodern Literature

• William S. Burroughs - Naked Lunch, 1959

• Angela Carter - Burning Your Boats, stories from 1962-1993 (first published as a
collection in 1995)
• Kathy Acker - Blood and Guts in High School, 1978
• Paul Auster - City of Glass (volume one of the New York City Trilogy), 1985 (as a
graphic novel published by Neon Lit, a division of Avon Books, 1994)
• Lynne Tillman - Haunted Houses, 1987
• David Wojnarowicz - The Waterfront Journals, 1996

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New Historicism, Cultural Studies (1980s-present)
It's All Relative...

This school, influenced by structuralist and post-structuralist theories, seeks to reconnect a work
with the time period in which it was produced and identify it with the cultural and political
movements of the time (Michel Foucault's concept of épistème). New Historicism assumes that
every work is a product of the historic moment that created it. Specifically, New Criticism is "...a
practice that has developed out of contemporary theory, particularly the structuralist realization
that all human systems are symbolic and subject to the rules of language, and the deconstructive
realization that there is no way of positioning oneself as an observer outside the closed circle of
textuality" (Richter 1205).

A helpful way of considering New Historical theory, Tyson explains, is to think about the
retelling of history itself: "...questions asked by traditional historians and by new historicists are
quite different...traditional historians ask, 'What happened?' and 'What does the event tell us
about history?' In contrast, new historicists ask, 'How has the event been interpreted?' and 'What
do the interpretations tell us about the interpreters?'" (278). So New Historicism resists the notion
that "...history is a series of events that have a linear, causal relationship: event A caused event
B; event B caused event C; and so on" (Tyson 278).

New historicists do not believe that we can look at history objectively, but rather that we
interpret events as products of our time and culture and that "...we don't have clear access to any
but the most basic facts of history...our understanding of what such facts mean...is...strictly a
matter of interpretation, not fact" (279). Moreover, New Historicism holds that we are hopelessly
subjective interpreters of what we observe.

Typical questions:

• What language/characters/events present in the work reflect the current events of the
author’s day?
• Are there words in the text that have changed their meaning from the time of the writing?
• How are such events interpreted and presented?
• How are events' interpretation and presentation a product of the culture of the author?
• Does the work's presentation support or condemn the event?
• Can it be seen to do both?
• How does this portrayal criticize the leading political figures or movements of the day?
• How does the literary text function as part of a continuum with other historical/cultural
texts from the same period...?
• How can we use a literary work to "map" the interplay of both traditional and subversive
discourses circulating in the culture in which that work emerged and/or the cultures in
which the work has been interpreted?
• How does the work consider traditionally marginalized populations?

Here is a list of scholars we encourage you to explore to further your understanding of this
theory:

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 • Michel Foucault - The Order of Things: An Archeology of the Human Sciences, 1970;
Language, Counter-memory, Practice, 1977
• Clifford Geertz - The Interpretation of Cultures, 1973; "Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese
Cockfight," 1992
• Hayden White - Metahistory, 1974; "The Politics of Historical Interpretation: Discipline
and De-Sublimation," 1982
• Stephen Greenblatt - Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare, 1980
• Pierre Bourdieu - Outline of a Theory of Practice, 1977; Homo Academicus, 1984; The
Field of Cultural Production, 1993

Post-Colonial Criticism (1990s-present)

History is Written by the Victors

Post-colonial criticism is similar to cultural studies, but it assumes a unique perspective on

literature and politics that warrants a separate discussion. Specifically, post-colonial critics are
concerned with literature produced by colonial powers and works produced by those who
were/are colonized. Post-colonial theory looks at issues of power, economics, politics, religion,
and culture and how these elements work in relation to colonial hegemony (western colonizers
controlling the colonized).

Therefore, a post-colonial critic might be interested in works such as Daniel Defoe's Robinson
Crusoe where colonial "...ideology [is] manifest in Crusoe's colonialist attitude toward the land
upon which he's shipwrecked and toward the black man he 'colonizes' and names Friday" (Tyson
377). In addition, post-colonial theory might point out that "...despite Heart of Darkness's
(Joseph Conrad) obvious anti-colonist agenda, the novel points to the colonized population as the
standard of savagery to which Europeans are contrasted" (Tyson 375). Post-colonial criticism
also takes the form of literature composed by authors that critique Euro-centric hegemony.

A Unique Perspective on Empire

Seminal post-colonial writers such as Nigerian author Chinua Achebe and Kenyan author Ngugi
wa Thiong'o have written a number of stories recounting the suffering of colonized people. For
example, in Things Fall Apart, Achebe details the strife and devastation that occurred when
British colonists began moving inland from the Nigerian coast.

Rather than glorifying the exploratory nature of European colonists as they expanded their
sphere of influence, Achebe narrates the destructive events that led to the death and enslavement
of thousands of Nigerians when the British imposed their Imperial government. In turn, Achebe
points out the negative effects (and shifting ideas of identity and culture) caused by the
imposition of western religion and economics on Nigerians during colonial rule.

Power, Hegemony, and Literature

Post-colonial criticism also questions the role of the western literary canon and western history
as dominant forms of knowledge making. The terms "first-world," "second world," "third world"

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and "fourth world" nations are critiqued by post-colonial critics because they reinforce the
dominant positions of western cultures populating first world status. This critique includes the
literary canon and histories written from the perspective of first-world cultures. So, for example,
a post-colonial critic might question the works included in "the canon" because the canon does
not contain works by authors outside western culture.

Moreover, the authors included in the canon often reinforce colonial hegemonic ideology, such
as Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness. Western critics might consider Heart of Darkness an
effective critique of colonial behavior. But post-colonial theorists and authors might disagree
with this perspective: "...as Chinua Achebe observes, the novel's condemnation of European is
based on a definition of Africans as savages: beneath their veneer of civilization, the Europeans
are, the novel tells us, as barbaric as the Africans. And indeed, Achebe notes, the novel portrays
Africans as a pre-historic mass of frenzied, howling, incomprehensible barbarians..." (Tyson
374-375).

Typical questions:

• How does the literary text, explicitly or allegorically, represent various aspects of
colonial oppression?
• What does the text reveal about the problematics of post-colonial identity, including the
relationship between personal and cultural identity and such issues as double
consciousness and hybridity?
• What person(s) or groups does the work identify as "other" or stranger? How are such
persons/groups described and treated?
• What does the text reveal about the politics and/or psychology of anti-colonialist
resistance?
• What does the text reveal about the operations of cultural difference - the ways in which
race, religion, class, gender, sexual orientation, cultural beliefs, and customs combine to
form individual identity - in shaping our perceptions of ourselves, others, and the world
in which we live?
• How does the text respond to or comment upon the characters, themes, or assumptions of
a canonized (colonialist) work?
• Are there meaningful similarities among the literatures of different post-colonial
populations?
• How does a literary text in the Western canon reinforce or undermine colonialist ideology
through its representation of colonialization and/or its inappropriate silence about
colonized peoples? (Tyson 378-379)

Here is a list of scholars we encourage you to explore to further your understanding of this
theory:

Criticism

• Edward Said - Orientalism, 1978; Culture and Imperialism, 1994

• Kamau Braithwaite - The History of the Voice, 1979
• Gayatri Spivak - In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics, 1987

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 • Dominick LaCapra - The Bounds of Race: Perspectives on Hegemony and Resistance,
1991
• Homi Bhabha - The Location of Culture, 1994

Literature and non-fiction

• Chinua Achebe - Things Fall Apart, 1958

• Ngugi wa Thiong'o - The River Between, 1965
• Sembene Ousman - God's Bits of Wood, 1962
• Ruth Prawer Jhabvala - Heat and Dust, 1975
• Buchi Emecheta - The Joys of Motherhood, 1979
• Keri Hulme - The Bone People, 1983
• Robertson Davies - What's Bred in the Bone, 1985
• Kazuo Ishiguro - The Remains of the Day, 1988
• Bharati Mukherjee - Jasmine, 1989
• Jill Ker Conway - The Road from Coorain, 1989
• Helena Norberg-Hodge - Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh, 1991
• Michael Ondaatje - The English Patient, 1992
• Gita Mehta - A River Sutra, 1993
• Arundhati Roy - The God of Small Things, 1997
• Patrick Chamoiseau - Texaco, 1997

Feminist Criticism (1960s-present)

S/he

Feminist criticism is concerned with "...the ways in which literature (and other cultural
productions) reinforce or undermine the economic, political, social, and psychological
oppression of women" (Tyson). This school of theory looks at how aspects of our culture are
inherently patriarchal (male dominated) and "...this critique strives to expose the explicit and
implicit misogyny in male writing about women" (Richter 1346). This misogyny, Tyson reminds
us, can extend into diverse areas of our culture: "Perhaps the most chilling example...is found in
the world of modern medicine, where drugs prescribed for both sexes often have been tested on
male subjects only" (83).

Feminist criticism is also concerned with less obvious forms of marginalization such as the
exclusion of women writers from the traditional literary canon: "...unless the critical or historical
point of view is feminist, there is a tendency to under-represent the contribution of women
writers" (Tyson 82-83).

Common Space in Feminist Theories

Though a number of different approaches exist in feminist criticism, there exist some areas of
commonality. This list is excerpted from Tyson:

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 1. Women are oppressed by patriarchy economically, politically, socially, and
psychologically; patriarchal ideology is the primary means by which they are kept so
2. In every domain where patriarchy reigns, woman is other: she is marginalized, defined
only by her difference from male norms and values
3. All of western (Anglo-European) civilization is deeply rooted in patriarchal ideology, for
example, in the biblical portrayal of Eve as the origin of sin and death in the world
4. While biology determines our sex (male or female), culture determines our gender
(masculine or feminine)
5. All feminist activity, including feminist theory and literary criticism, has as its ultimate
goal to change the world by prompting gender equality
6. Gender issues play a part in every aspect of human production and experience, including
the production and experience of literature, whether we are consciously aware of these
issues or not (91).

Feminist criticism has, in many ways, followed what some theorists call the three waves of
feminism:

1. First Wave Feminism - late 1700s-early 1900's: writers like Mary Wollstonecraft (A
Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792) highlight the inequalities between the sexes.
Activists like Susan B. Anthony and Victoria Woodhull contribute to the women's
suffrage movement, which leads to National Universal Suffrage in 1920 with the passing
of the Nineteenth Amendment
2. Second Wave Feminism - early 1960s-late 1970s: building on more equal working
conditions necessary in America during World War II, movements such as the National
Organization for Women (NOW), formed in 1966, cohere feminist political activism.
Writers like Simone de Beauvoir (Le deuxième sexe, 1972) and Elaine Showalter
established the groundwork for the dissemination of feminist theories dove-tailed with
the American Civil Rights movement
3. Third Wave Feminism - early 1990s-present: resisting the perceived essentialist (over
generalized, over simplified) ideologies and a white, heterosexual, middle class focus of
second wave feminism, third wave feminism borrows from post-structural and
contemporary gender and race theories (see below) to expand on marginalized
populations' experiences. Writers like Alice Walker work to "...reconcile it [feminism]
with the concerns of the black community...[and] the survival and wholeness of her
people, men and women both, and for the promotion of dialog and community as well as
for the valorization of women and of all the varieties of work women perform" (Tyson
97).

Typical questions:

• How is the relationship between men and women portrayed?

• What are the power relationships between men and women (or characters assuming
male/female roles)?
• How are male and female roles defined?
• What constitutes masculinity and femininity?
• How do characters embody these traits?

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 • Do characters take on traits from opposite genders? How so? How does this change
others’ reactions to them?
• What does the work reveal about the operations (economically, politically, socially, or
psychologically) of patriarchy?
• What does the work imply about the possibilities of sisterhood as a mode of resisting
patriarchy?
• What does the work say about women's creativity?
• What does the history of the work's reception by the public and by the critics tell us about
the operation of patriarchy?
• What role the work play in terms of women's literary history and literary tradition?
(Tyson)

Here is a list of scholars we encourage you to explore to further your understanding of this
theory:

• Mary Wollstonecraft - A Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792

• Simone de Beauvoir - Le deuxième sexe, 1972
• Julia Kristeva - About Chinese Women, 1977
• Elaine Showalter - A Literature of Their Own, 1977; "Toward a Feminist Poetics," 1979
• Deborah E. McDowell - "New Directions for Black Feminist Criticism," 1980
• Alice Walker - In Search of Our Mother's Gardens, 1983
• Lillian S. Robinson - "Treason out Text: Feminist Challenges to the Literary Canon,"
1983
• Camile Paglia - Sexual Personae: The Androgyne in Literature and Art, 1990

Gender Studies and Queer Theory (1970s-present)

Gender(s), Power, and Marginalization

Gender studies and queer theory explore issues of sexuality, power, and marginalized
populations (woman as other) in literature and culture. Much of the work in gender studies and
queer theory, while influenced by feminist criticism, emerges from post-structural interest in
fragmented, de-centered knowledge building (Nietzsche, Derrida, Foucault), language (the
breakdown of sign-signifier), and psychoanalysis (Lacan).

A primary concern in gender studies and queer theory is the manner in which gender and
sexuality is discussed: "Effective as this work [feminism] was in changing what teachers taught
and what the students read, there was a sense on the part of some feminist critics that...it was still
the old game that was being played, when what it needed was a new game entirely. The
argument posed was that in order to counter patriarchy, it was necessary not merely to think
about new texts, but to think about them in radically new ways" (Richter 1432).

Therefore, a critic working in gender studies and queer theory might even be uncomfortable with
the binary established by many feminist scholars between masculine and feminine: "Cixous
(following Derrida in Of Grammatology) sets up a series of binary oppositions (active/passive,
sun/moon...father/mother, logos/pathos). Each pair can be analyzed as a hierarchy in which the

145 
 
former term represents the positive and masculine and the latter the negative and feminine
principle" (Richter 1433-1434).

In-Betweens

Many critics working with gender and queer theory are interested in the breakdown of binaries
such as male and female, the in-betweens (also following Derrida's interstitial knowledge
building). For example, gender studies and queer theory maintains that cultural definitions of
sexuality and what it means to be male and female are in flux: "...the distinction between
"masculine" and "feminine" activities and behavior is constantly changing, so that women who
wear baseball caps and fatigues...can be perceived as more piquantly sexy by some heterosexual
men than those women who wear white frocks and gloves and look down demurely" (Richter
1437).

Moreover, Richter reminds us that as we learn more about our genetic structure, the biology of
male/female becomes increasingly complex and murky: "even the physical dualism of sexual
genetic structures and bodily parts breaks down when one considers those instances - XXY
syndromes, natural sexual bimorphisms, as well as surgical transsexuals - that defy attempts at
binary classification" (1437).

Typical questions:

• What elements of the text can be perceived as being masculine (active, powerful) and
feminine (passive, marginalized) and how do the characters support these traditional
roles?
• What sort of support (if any) is given to elements or characters who question the
masculine/feminine binary? What happens to those elements/characters?
• What elements in the text exist in the middle, between the perceived masculine/feminine
binary? In other words, what elements exhibit traits of both (bisexual)?
• How does the author present the text? Is it a traditional narrative? Is it secure and
forceful? Or is it more hesitant or even collaborative?
• What are the politics (ideological agendas) of specific gay, lesbian, or queer works, and
how are those politics revealed in...the work's thematic content or portrayals of its
characters?
• What are the poetics (literary devices and strategies) of a specific lesbian, gay, or queer
works?
• What does the work contribute to our knowledge of queer, gay, or lesbian experience and
history, including literary history?
• How is queer, gay, or lesbian experience coded in texts that are by writers who are
apparently homosexual?
• What does the work reveal about the operations (socially, politically, psychologically)
homophobic?
• How does the literary text illustrate the problematics of sexuality and sexual "identity,"
that is the ways in which human sexuality does not fall neatly into the separate categories
defined by the words homosexual and heterosexual?

146 
 
Here is a list of scholars we encourage you to explore to further your understanding of this
theory:

• Luce Irigaray - Speculum of the Other Woman, 1974

• Hélène Cixous - "The Laugh of the Medussa," 1976
• Laura Mulvey - "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema," 1975; "Afterthoughts on Visual
Pleasure and Narrative Cinema," 1981
• Michele Foucault - The History of Sexuality, Volume I, 1980
• Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick - Epistemology of the Closet, 1994
• Lee Edelman - "Homographies," 1989
• Michael Warner
• Judith Butler - "Imitation and Gender Insubordination," 1991

Academic Cover Letters

Academic Cover Letters
When you're applying for a faculty position with a college or university, the cover letter is your
first chance to make a strong impression as a promising researcher and teacher. Below you'll find
some strategies for presenting your qualifications effectively in an academic context.

Distinctions between Academic and Business Cover Letters

A cover letter for an academic job has a function similar to one for a business job, but the content
differs significantly in quantity and kind. While the general advice for business cover letters—
such as tailoring your letter for the specific job and selling your strengths—still applies, a cover
letter for an academic position should be long enough to highlight in some detail your
accomplishments during your graduate education in research, teaching, departmental service, and
so on. The typical letter is thus usually one and a half to two pages long, but not more than two—
roughly five to eight paragraphs.

The First Paragraph

In the opening of your letter you need to convey some basic information, such as what specific
position you are applying for (using the title given in the job notice) and where you learned of
the opening. Since a cover letter is a kind of persuasive writing (persuading a hiring committee
to include you on a list of candidates for further review), the first paragraph of your letter should
also make the initial claim as to why you are a strong candidate for the position.

Tailoring for Your Audience

In an academic context knowing your audience means reading the job notice carefully and
knowing the type of institution to which you are applying. Most graduate students have studied
a broad range of material within their discipline before specializing in a narrow field for the
dissertation project. Since it is rare to find a job notice specifying your exact qualifications, you

147 
 
need to emphasize those aspects of your graduate training that seem particularly relevant to the
position advertised.

• Job notice: If you've written a political science dissertation on populism in early

twentieth-century US national politics, you probably won't respond to a notice seeking a
specialist in international politics during the Cold War. But you may wish to apply for a
position teaching twentieth-century US political parties and movements. In this case you
would want to stress the relevance of your dissertation to the broad context of twentieth-
century US politics, even though the study focuses narrowly on the pre-World War I
period. You might also highlight courses taken, presentations given, or other evidence of
your expertise that corresponds to the job notice.
• Type of institution: Often the job notice will provide a brief description of the college or
university, indicating such factors as size, ownership (public, private), affiliation
(religious, nonsectarian), geography (urban, suburban, rural), and so on. These factors
will influence the kind of information emphasized in your letter. For example, for a job at
a small liberal arts college that focuses on undergraduate teaching, you would emphasize
your teaching experience and pedagogical philosophy early in the letter before
mentioning your dissertation. On the other hand, for a job at a large research university
you would provide at least one detailed paragraph describing your dissertation early in
the letter, even indicating your plans for future research, before mentioning your teaching
and other experience.

Other Advice

If you're still working on your dissertation, you should mention somewhere in the letter when
you expect to be awarded the Ph.D., even being as specific as to mention how many chapters
have been completed and accepted, how many are in draft version, and what your schedule for
completion is. Last-paragraph tips include the following:

• Mention your contact information, including a phone number where you can be reached
if you will be away during a holiday break.
• If you will be attending an upcoming major professional conference in your field, such as
the MLA convention for language and literature professionals, indicate that you will be
available for an interview there. Be sure to mention that you are available for telephone
or campus-visit interviews as well.
• If you have some special connection to the school, type of institution, or region, such as
having attended the school as an undergraduate or having grown up in the area, you may
wish to mention that information briefly at some point.
• Mention your willingness to forward upon request additional materials such as writing
samples, teaching evaluations, and letters of recommendation.

148 
 
Academic Cover Letter Sample
November 2, 1998

Dr. Naomi Sellers

Chair, English Search Committee
Box 58
Baxter College
Arcadia, WV 24803

Dear Dr. Sellers:

I am writing to apply for the position as assistant professor of English with an emphasis in
rhetoric and composition that you advertised in the October MLA Job Information List. I am a
graduate student at Prestigious University working on a dissertation under the direction of
Professor Prominent Figure. Currently revising the third of five chapters, I expect to complete
all work for the Ph.D. by May of 1999. I believe that my teaching and tutoring experience
combined with my course work and research background in rhetoric and composition theory
make me a strong candidate for the position outlined in your notice.

As my curriculum vitae shows, I have had excellent opportunities to teach a variety of writing
courses during my graduate studies, including developmental writing, first-year writing for both
native speakers and second language students, advanced writing, and business writing. I have
also worked as a teaching mentor for new graduate students, a position that involved instruction
in methods of composition teaching, development of course materials, and evaluation of new
graduate instructors. Among the most satisfying experiences for me as a teacher has been
instructing students on an individual basis as a tutor in our university Writing Lab. Even as a
classroom instructor, I find that I always look forward to the individual conferences that I hold
with my students several times during the semester because I believe this kind of one-on-one
interaction to be essential to their development as writers.

My work in the composition classroom has provided me with the inspiration as well as a kind of
laboratory for my dissertation research. My project, The I Has It: Applications of Recent Models
of Subjectivity in Composition Theory, examines the shift since the 1960s from expressive models
of writing toward now-dominant postmodern conceptions of decentered subjectivity and self-
construction through writing. I argue that these more recent theoretical models, while
promising, cannot have the liberating effects that are claimed for them without a concomitant
reconception of writing pedagogy and the dynamics of the writing classroom. I relate critical
readings of theoretical texts to my own pedagogical experiments as a writing teacher, using
narratives of classroom successes and failures as the bases for critical reflection on postmodern
composition theory. After developing my dissertation into a book manuscript, I plan to continue
my work in current composition theory through a critical examination of the rhetoric of
technological advancement in the computer-mediated writing classroom.

My interest in the computer classroom has grown out of recent experience teaching composition
in that environment. In these courses my students have used computers for writing and turning in

149 
 
notes and essays, communicating with one another and with me, conducting library catalogue
research and web research, and creating websites. I have encouraged my students to think and
write critically about their experiences with technology, both in my class and elsewhere, even as
we have used technology to facilitate our work in the course. Syllabi and other materials for my
writing courses can be viewed at my website: http://machine.prestigious.edu/~name. In all of my
writing courses I encourage students to become critical readers, thinkers, and writers; my goal
is always not only to promote their intellectual engagement with cultural texts of all kinds but
also to help them become more discerning readers of and forceful writers about the world
around them.

I have included my curriculum vitae and would be happy to send you additional materials such
as a dossier of letters of reference, writing samples, teaching evaluations, and past and proposed
course syllabi. I will be available to meet with you for an interview at either the MLA or the
CCCC convention, or elsewhere at your convenience. I can be reached at my home phone
number before December 19; between then and the start of the MLA convention, you can reach
me at (123) 456-7890. I thank you for your consideration and look forward to hearing from you.

Sincerely

First Lastname

Points to Remember

• Use the form of address and title of the contact person as they appear in the job notice.
• Refer to the job title as it appears in the notice, and state where you learned of the
position.
• Mention your major professor by name, especially if he or she is well known in your
field. Also, mention your expected completion date.
• Make a claim for your candidacy that you will support in the body of the letter.
• For a position at a small undergraduate college, emphasize teaching experience and
philosophy early in the letter.
• Describe your dissertation and plans for future research. Emphasize links between your
teaching and research interests.
• Mention specific teaching experience that is relevant to the job notice or is otherwise
noteworthy.
• Refer to relevant materials available on the web.
• State your willingness to forward additional materials and to meet for an interview.
• Mention any temporary changes in contact information.

Action Verbs to Describe Skills, Jobs, and

Accomplishments in Employment Documents
What is an Action Verb?
What is an Action Verb?
150 
 
An action verb expresses achievements or something a person does in a concise, persuasive
manner.

Why is it Important to Use Action Verbs in Workplace Writing?

You should use action verbs in workplace writing because they make sentences and statements
more concise. Since concise writing is easier for readers to understand, it is more reader-
centered. Because reader-centered writing is generally more persuasive, action verbs are more
convincing than non-action verbs. The following job description uses a non-action verb:

• Was the boss of a team of six service employees

The job description below uses an action verb:

• Supervised a team of six service employees

The job description using a non-action verb is less concise. It contains ten words, and it focuses
action on a form of the verb "to be" (was).

The job description using an action verb is more concise. It contains seven words, and it focuses
action on an action verb (supervised). Because concise writing is easier for readers to understand,
the job description using an action verb is more powerful and is more persuasive.

Use action verbs in resumes to describe all skills, jobs, or accomplishments. Using action verbs
will allow you to highlight the tasks you can do. Word choice is critical in order to describe what
you have done and to persuade potential employers to give you an interview.

In order to make a striking first impression, use action verbs as the first word of each bullet point
to emphasize job descriptions in your resume.

The following list is an example of action verbs in resume job descriptions:

• Accelerated introduction of a new technology, which increased productivity by 15%

• Organized consumer databases to efficiently track product orders
• Supervised a team of six service employees.

The next section of this handout contains a categorized list of action verbs and examples to make
concise and persuasive sentences, job descriptions, and/or lists of skills and accomplishments. In
addition, you may view a sample resume using several action verbs in the Work Experience
Section to see how these verbs work in employment documents.

151 
 
Categorized List of Action Verbs
Categorized List of Action Verbs

This categorized list contains only a few action verbs you can use to compose concise,
persuasive, reader-centered resumes, cover letters, or other types of workplace documents. The
examples are illustrations that overview the uses of action verbs in professional writing.

The link above takes you to a sample resume containing action verbs.

Communication Skills

• Negotiated price reductions of up to 30% with key suppliers

• Interpreted financial information from the companyís annual report
• Translated all relevant company information into three different languages

Other words: Advocated, Clarified, Corresponded, Encouraged, Interpreted, Negotiated,

Persuaded, Presented, Publicized, Solicited, Spoke, Translated

Creative Skills

• Created an interior design layout for a 500 square foot retail venue
• Introduced a new method of navigating through the A Software Program
• Presented a new research project to the managers at the location

Other words: Acted, Applied, Composed, Created, Established, Founded, Improvised,

Introduced, Navigated, Originated, Presented

Data / Financial Skills

• Computed and recorded inventory valuation on a monthly basis

• Documented inventory counts at the end of each working day
• Verified the amount owed to the creditor in the Accounts Payable account

Other words: Adjusted, Allocated, Budgeted, Compared, Computed, Counted, Documented,

Estimated, Forecasted, Inventoried, Invested, Predicted, Projected, Quantified, Recorded,
Retrieved, Verified

Helping Skills

• Assisted customers with choosing appropriate products

• Trained new employees in the plant through demonstration techniques
• Volunteered in the nursing home every weekend to serve the community

Other words: Aided, Assisted, Built, Demonstrated, Facilitated, Familiarized, Helped,

Performed, Represented, Solved, Supported, Trained, Upheld, Volunteered, Worked
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Management / Leadership Skills

• Administered a variety of surveys to collect data about the employees

• Implemented a safety communication program to promote safety awareness
• Recommended an alternative solution to one of the company's problems

Other words: Achieved, Administered, Assigned, Attained, Challenged, Coordinated, Decided,

Delegated, Established, Executed, Handled, Headed, Implemented, Incorporated, Intervened,
Launched, Led, Managed, Mediated, Motivated, Organized, Oversaw, Planned, Prioritized,
Recommended, Scheduled, Supervised, United

Efficiency Skills

• Eliminated unnecessary cost of each unit of production

• Maximized profits by 15% during the month of July
• Heightened the level of employee moral through program incentives

Other words: Accelerated, Allocated, Boosted, Centralized, Downsized, Edited, Eliminated,

Enhanced, Expanded, Expedited, Heightened, Lessened, Leveraged, Maximized, Merged,
Optimized, Outlined, Outsourced, Prevented, Prioritized, Reorganized, Reduced, Revised,
Simplified, Standardized, Stream-lined, Synthesized, Systematized, Upgraded

Research Skills

• Examined a new mechanism that may reduce sickness on the campus

• Identified a major defect in a microscopic organism last month
• Surveyed a group of Purdue students with regard to Product A

Other words: Analyzed, Collected, Compared, Controlled, Detected, Diagnosed, Evaluated,

Examined, Gathered, Identified, Investigated, Located, Measured, Organized, Reported,
Replicated, Researched, Reviewed, Searched, Surveyed, Wrote

Teaching Skills

• Defined a new product strategy and discussed how it would be implemented

• Instructed Department B on how to reduce inventory and raise net sales
• Prepared a tutorial manual for an English class last semester

Other words: Aided, Advised, Clarified, Communicated, Defined, Developed, Encouraged,

Evaluated, Facilitated, Fostered, Guided, Helped, Incorporated, Informed, Initiated, Instructed,
Lectured, Prepared, Supported, Supervised, Stimulated, Taught

Technical Skills

• Assembled an entire computer programming simulation for my CPT course

• Designed a new form of Widget C for a manufacturing facility

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 • Programmed three new computer programs tailored for a network system

Other words: Analyzed, Assembled, Built, Calculated, Computed, Conducted, Designed,

Devised, Engineered, Maintained, Operated, Programmed, Reengineered, Remodeled,
Transmitted

Sources/References:

Rosalie Maggio, How to Say It, Webster's Thesaurus.

Audience Analysis Overview

In order to compose persuasive, user-centered communication, you should gather as much
information as possible about the people reading your document. Your audience may consist of
different people who may have different needs and expectations. In other words, you may have a
complex audience in all the stages of your document's lifecycle—the development stage, the
reading stage, and the action stage:

Development Stage

• Primary author (you)

• Secondary author (a technical expert within your organization)
• Secondary author (a budget expert within your organization)
• Gatekeeper (your supervisor)

Reading Stage

• Primary audience (decision maker, primary point of contact, project lead, etc.)
• Secondary audience (technical expert within audience's organization)
• Shadow audience (others who may read your communication)

Action Stage

• Stakeholders (people who may read your communication, but more importantly, those
who will be affected by the decisions based on the information you provide)

Keep in mind that documents may not go through a clear, three-step process. Instead, the
lifecycle of your communication may consist of overlapping stages of evolution. User-centered
writing calls for close cooperation between those who are composing the documents, those who
will read and act upon the documents, and those who will be affected by the actions.

The Development Stage

Audience Analysis

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A helpful way of gathering information about your readers is to conduct an audience analysis.
Depending on the purpose and needs of your documents, you may perform a brief audience
profile or an in-depth audience analysis (or something in between). You may expand or contract
the following process to match your situation, but remember that the more you know about your
potential readers, the more persuasive and user-centered your documents may be.

Some key questions (adapted from Johnson-Sheehan's Technical Communication Today) to ask
about your readers are:

• Who are they?

• What do they need?
• Where will they be reading?
• When will they be reading?
• Why will they be reading?
• How will they be reading?

Meeting frequently (in person and/or virtually) with members of your audience to discuss their
needs and expectations will also help you compose your documents. The following reader
analysis chart (adapted from Johnson-Sheehan) is effective for investigating your audience:

Readers Needs Values Attitudes

Gatekeeper
Primary
Secondary
Shadow

How readers will use your documents is also important. This context analysis chart (adapted
from Johnson-Sheehan) is effective for determining how your audience will use your documents:

Physical Economic Political Ethical

Context Context Context Context
Primary
Readers
Readers'
Company
Readers'
Industry

In addition, determining where your audience sits in their organization may help you understand
readers' specific needs. Drawing a chart of your communication's lifecycle will help you gather

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this information about your audience. The following graphic illustrates the development stage
where you might be authoring a document with a team of people in your organization:

Image Caption: Development Stage

All Sections in Audience Analysis: The Development Stage:

1. Audience Analysis Overview

2. The Development Stage
3. Reading and Action Stage

Reading and Action Stage

Reading Stage

The following graphics illustrate the reading stage where your communication might be read by
a number of people including your primary audience, secondary audience, and shadow readers:

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Image Caption: Reading Stage

Image Caption: Reading Stage (Detailed)

Action Stage

The following graphic illustrates the action stage where your communication's information might
lead to decisions, which in turn, can lead to action that influences the lives of your stakeholders.
In a user-centered writing process, decision makers and stakeholders will provide feedback to
help you further revise your communication:

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Image Caption: Action Stage

References

Anderson, Paul V. Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach. 6th ed. Boston:

Thomson-Wadsworth, 2007.

Johnson-Sheehan, Richard. Technical Communication Today. New York: Pearson-Longman,

2005.

Business Letters: Accentuating the Positives

Your letters will be more successful if you focus on positive wording rather than negative,
simply because most people respond more favorably to positive ideas than negative ones. Words
that affect your reader positively are likely to produce the response you desire in letter-writing
situations. A positive emphasis will persuade the reader and create goodwill. In contrast,
negative words may generate resistance and other unfavorable reactions. You should therefore be
careful to avoid words with negative connotations. These words either deny—for example, no,
do not, refuse, and stop—or convey unhappy or unpleasant associations—for example,
unfortunately, unable to, cannot, mistake, problem, error, damage, loss, and failure.

When you need to present negative information, soften its effects by superimposing a positive
picture on a negative one.

1. Stress what something is rather than what it is not.

2. emphasize what the firm or product can and will do rather than what it cannot.
3. open with action rather than apology or explanation.
4. avoid words which convey unpleasant facts.

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Compare the examples below. Which would be more likely to elicit positive reader response?

Negative: In response to your question about how many coats of Chem-Treat are needed to
cover new surfaces: I regret to report that usually two are required. For such surfaces you should
figure about 200 square feet per gallon for a good heavy coating that will give you five years or
more of beautiful protection.
Positive: In response to your question about how many coats of Chem-Treat are needed to cover
new surfaces: One gallon is usually enough for one-coat coverage of 500 square feet of
previously painted surface. For the best results on new surfaces, you will want to apply two
coats.

Negative: Penquot sheets are not the skimpy, loosely woven sheets ordinarily found in this price
class.
Positive: Penquot sheets are woven186 threads to the square inch for durability and, even after
3-inch hems, measure a generous 72 by 108 inches.

Negative: We cannot ship in lots of less than 12.

Positive: To keep down packaging costs and to help customers save on shipping costs, we ship
in lots of 12 or more.

In addition, you should reemphasize the positive through embedded position and effective use of
space.

Embedded Position

Place good news in positions of high emphasis: at the beginnings and endings of paragraphs,
letters, and even sentences.

Place bad news in secondary positions: in the center of paragraphs, letters, and, if possible,
sentences.

Effective Use Of Space

Give more space to good news and less to bad news.

Evaluate the examples below to determine whether or not they present negative information
favorably.

1. To make the Roanoke more stable than other lamps of this size, our designers put six
claw feet instead of the usual four on the base and thus eliminated the need for weighting.
Claw feet, as you know, are characteristic of 18th-century design.
2. No special training programs are normally offered other than that of the College Graduate
in Training rotational training period. We do not expect our employees to continue their
education, but we do have an excellent tuition refund program to assist in this regard (see
Working with General Motors, page 8). Where an advanced degree is essential,

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 individuals are recruited with those particular advanced degrees. Both Butler and IUPUI
offer courses leading to an MBA degree.
3. With our rigid quality standards, corrections of Adidas merchandise run less than .02
percent of our total line. Because of an oversight in our stitching department, a damaged
needle was inadvertently used and caused the threads to come loose in these particular
bags. Since we now have a check on all our machine needles before work each day, you
can be assured that the stitching on our Adidas carrying bags will last the lifetime of the
bags. Thank you for calling our attention to the loose stitching.
4. We are sorry that we cannot furnish the club chairs by August 16.
5. I have no experience other than clerking in my father's grocery store.
6. ABC Dog Biscuits will help keep your dog from getting sick.

Cover Letter Workshop - Introduction

The following resources should help you conduct research and compose your cover letter (also
known as the job application letter).

What is the purpose of the cover letter?

A cover letter:

• introduces you and your resume to an employer

• explains why you are writing or applying for the job
• details why you are a good match for the organization and the position
• demonstrates your abilities and helps to establish your credibility
• draws your readers' attention to specific qualifications
• provides a sample of your written communications skills
• explains when you plan to contact your prospective employer.

Tailor your cover letter to:

• show specific needs of employers and how you meet them

• persuade that your goals align with the organization's goals (mission) and that your skills
align with the position requirements (also see our Effective Workplace Writing resource).

An effective cover letter:

• highlights the qualifications related to the position as laid out in the job criteria
• proves that you align well with the organization and that you meet the job requirements
• provides contact information and a plan for future contact.

Learning about the job

Your ability to learn the needs of your readers will help you write a cover letter effectively. You
should learn as much as you can about your audience (your potential employer) before writing
your cover letter. Your goal is to learn about the organization, its goals and needs. Then, you

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should learn about what kind of employee the organization needs and what an employee will be
expected to do.

After reading a job advertisement, ask as many questions as you can to learn what your
prospective employer wants. Lastly, think about who will be reading your job application
documents - human resources, prospective employers, etc. Think about how your document
many move through the organization you want to join (also see our Audience Analysis resource).

Some questions to begin with are:

• "What values and skills would a good match have for the prospective organization/job?"
• "What kind of personality do I have?"
• "What level of education do I need?"
• "What kind of work experience do I need?"

Read the job advertisement carefully. Most advertisements are divided into two sections, a
qualifications section, and an explanation of what duties the hired candidate will perform.

Contact the organization

Another way to learn about a good match for the organization and job is by contacting someone
with "inside information" (insiders).

Insiders include, but are not limited to:

• a professor
• your potential employer
• an expert in your field
• a person who holds the position you want at a different company.

Insiders may be able to tell you what a job entails, and what kind of person an employer is likely
to hire.

If you decide to call insiders, it is essential for you to be kind and truthful at all times. Being kind
will help you to avoid offending someone with whom you might work in the future. It is best for
you to see each contact with a company as an opportunity to make a good impression.

When calling insiders, try to plan the flow of your conversation ahead of time.

• Start by explaining who you are and why you are calling.
• Ask questions that will facilitate an informative, friendly conversation.
• Write questions before calling to avoid a lull in the conversation.

Questions such as the following will help you to start an effective conversation:

• "What are the organization's goals/missions?"

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 • "What kind of person is your company looking for?"
• "What qualifications are most important for this position?"
• "Is there anyone else I can contact to learn more about your company?"
• "Is there anything you think someone with my experience should do to improve my
qualifications?"

Try to keep the conversation rolling, and maintain a pleasant tone at all times. Also remember to
thank your contact for speaking with you, even if he or she was unable to provide you with
helpful information.

Read the organization's website

Another good way to do your audience analysis is by reading an organization's website.

Corporate/organization websites provide a good idea of what a company/organization values.

Look for words that describe the company and its employees. Words repeated throughout the
website reveal particularly important values. Some organization websites may even have a
"Mission Statement" you can read to learn about what they want to achieve. Use the language on
the website and in the missions statement to help guide your language in your cover letter.

Use college career centers

If you are in college, see what information is available at your university's career center. See if
the university has any connections to this company. Career centers should have any information
concerning upcoming visits of companies to career fairs. At Purdue University, the Center for
Career Opportunities (CCO) maintains a number of resources that are helpful for students
looking for internships and jobs.

Cover Letter Workshop - What to Include

Once you have collected information on the organization and the position, you should think
about what to include in your cover letter. This resources should help you do that.

How to relate your experience to the job advertisement

Begin by identifying key words you found during your audience analysis:

• Words that signal what an employer considers important or essential in hiring for a
position.
• Words that give you insight into the skills, accomplishments, personality traits, and levels
of education and experience your employer desires.

Consider this example:

A company posts the following job description. Can you identify the key words?

162 
 
"Looking for a highly motivated, customer oriented individual to work full-time at the customer
service desk."

Reading this advertisement for key words would help you see that the employer is looking for a
person who is highly motivated, with customer service skills.

To help you decide what information to include in your cover letter, you may want to try the
following exercise. Create a table with two columns. In the left column, write the mission and/or
goals of the organization. In the right column, list values and goals you share with the company
that align.

You can do the same thing with the position requirement. In the left column, write the
qualifications your potential employer desires, either from your job advertisement or from
information you've received from another person. Next, in the right column list examples that
support your claim that you have these qualifications.

After you have completed your tables, rank each qualification in order of importance according
to the job advertisement. Be sure to include proof of your qualifications you feel are most
important to the company in your cover letter.

Deciding which qualifications to include

In order to market your abilities in a cover letter, you must know not only what your prospective
employer needs, but also what you have to offer prospective employers. Think carefully about
your past. Ask yourself what skills you have used at school or work that can be used at your next
place of employment. Try to answer the question, how can I help the organization?

For example, if you have been successful working with people, you can show you have
interpersonal skills that may help you at your next job. Some transferable skills, skills that can be
used from job to job, include:

• Leadership qualities
• Ability to complete multiple tasks at the same time ("multi-tasking")
• Teamwork skills
• Ability to meet deadlines
• Interpersonal skills
• Initiative to complete projects without supervision ("ability to work independently")
• Written communications skills
• Verbal communications skills
• Computer skills

Important: Be specific when you describe these abilities - just using the terms will not help you.
Employers have seen them before. Be specific and try to discuss particular examples where these
abilities led to measurable positive results.

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For example, if you want to know whether you have strong written communications skills, think
about your experiences with writing. Have you done any writing at a previous workplace? If so,
what kind of writing? Memos, business letters, manuals, reports? Have you taken writing classes
at college? Have you won any writing awards?

Before deciding to highlight specific skills in your cover letter, it is essential for you to learn
which skills are most relevant to the job for which you are applying. You should include proof
that you have the most important qualifications for a position.

Afraid of not meeting the requirements?

You should apply for any job you want, within reason. Carefully consider your past
accomplishments and employment history, with the intention of discovering what skills you have
used at a previous place of employment that you can utilize at your next place of employment.
It's important to be honest with yourself and with your potential employers. Remember, you're
looking for a good match between your situation and the organization's situation.

Cover Letter Workshop - Formatting and Organization

The cover letter is one of the most challenging documents you may ever write: you must write
about yourself without sounding selfish and self-centered. The solution to this is to explain how
your values and goals align with the prospective organization's and to discuss how your
experience will fulfill the job requirements. Before we get to content, however, you need to
know how to format your cover letter in a professional manner.

Formatting your cover letter

Your cover letter should convey a professional message. Of course, the particular expectations of
a professional format depend on the organization you are looking to join. For example, an
accounting position at a legal firm will require a more traditional document format. A position as
an Imagineer at Disney might require a completely different approach. Again, a close audience
analysis of the company and the position will yield important information about the document
expectations. Let the organization's communications guide your work.

For this example, we are using a traditional approach to cover letters:

• Single-space your cover letter

• Leave a space between each paragraph
• Leave three spaces between your salutation (such as "Sincerely" or "Sincerely Yours")
and typed name
• Leave a space between your heading (contact information) and greeting (such as, "Dear
Mr. Roberts")
• Either align all paragraphs to the left of the page, or indent the first line of each paragraph
to the right
• Use standard margins for your cover letter, such as one-inch margins on all sides of the
document

164 
 
 • Center your letter in the middle of the page; in other words, make sure that the space at
the top and bottom of the page is the same
• Sign your name in ink between your salutation and typed name

Organizing your cover letter

A cover letter has four essential parts: heading, introduction, argument, and closing.

The heading

In your heading, include your contact information:

• name
• address
• phone number
• email address

The date and company contact information should directly follow your contact information. Use
spacing effectively in order to keep this information more organized and readable. Use the link at
the top of this resource to view a sample cover letter - please note the letter is double-spaced for
readability purposes only.

Addressing your cover letter

Whenever possible, you should address your letter to a specific individual, the person in charge
of interviewing and hiring (the hiring authority). Larger companies often have standard
procedures for dealing with solicited and unsolicited resumes and cover letters. Sending your
employment documents to a specific person increases the chances that they will be seriously
reviewed by the company.

When a job advertisement does not provide you with the name of the hiring authority, call the
company to ask for more information. Even if your contact cannot tell you the name of the hiring
authority, you can use this time to find out more about the company.

If you cannot find out the name of the hiring authority, you may address your letter to "hiring
professionals" - e.g., "Dear Hiring Professionals."

The introduction

The introduction should include a salutation, such as "Dear Mr. Roberts:" If you are uncertain of
your contact's gender, avoid using Mr. or Mrs. by simply using the person's full name.

The body of your introduction can be organized in many ways. However, it is important to
include, who you are and why you are writing. It can also state how you learned about the
position and why you are interested in it. (This might be the right opportunity to briefly relate
your education and/or experience to the requirements of the position.)

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Many people hear of job openings from contacts associated with the company. If you wish to
include a person's name in your cover letter, make certain that your reader has a positive
relationship with the person.

In some instances, you may have previously met the reader of your cover letter. In these
instances it is acceptable to use your introduction to remind your reader of who you are and
briefly discuss a specific topic of your previous conversation(s).

Most important is to briefly overview why your values and goals align with the organization's
and how you will help them. You should also touch on how you match the position requirements.
By reviewing how you align with the organization and how your skills match what they're
looking for, you can forecast the contents of your cover letter before you move into your
argument.

The argument

Your argument is an important part of your cover letter, because it allows you to persuade your
reader why you are a good fit for the company and the job. Carefully choose what to include in
your argument. You want your argument to be as powerful as possible, but it shouldn't cloud
your main points by including excessive or irrelevant details about your past. In addition, use
your resume (and refer to it) as the source of "data" you will use and expand on in your cover
letter.

In your argument, you should try to:

• Show your reader you possess the most important skills s/he seeks (you're a good match
for the organization's mission/goals and job requirements).
• Convince your reader that the company will benefit from hiring you (how you will help
them).
• Include in each paragraph a strong reason why your employer should hire you and how
they will benefit from the relationship.
• Maintain an upbeat/personable tone.
• Avoid explaining your entire resume but use your resume as a source of data to support
your argument (the two documents should work together).

Reminder: When writing your argument, it is essential for you to learn as much as possible
about the company and the job (see the Cover Letter Workshop - Introduction resource).

The closing

Your closing restates your main points and reveals what you plan to do after your readers have
received your resume and cover letter. We recommend you do the following in your closing:

• Restate why you align with the organization's mission/goals.

• Restate why your skills match the position requirements and how your experience will
help the organization.

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 • Inform your readers when you will contact them.
• Include your phone number and e-mail address.
• Thank your readers for their consideration.

A sample closing:

I believe my coursework and work experience in electrical engineering will help your Baltimore
division attain its goals, and I look forward to meeting with you to discuss the job position
further. I will contact you before June 5th to discuss my application. If you wish to contact me, I
may be reached at 765-555-6473, or by e-mail at jwillis3@e-mail-link.com. Thank you for your
time and consideration.

Although, this closing may seem bold, potential employers will read your documents with more
interest if they know you will be calling them in the future. Also, many employment authorities
prefer candidates who are willing to take the initiative to follow-up. Additionally, by following
up, you are able to inform prospective employers that you're still interested in the position and
determine where the company is in the hiring process. When you tell readers you will contact
them, it is imperative that you do so. It will not reflect well on you if you forget to call a
potential employer when you said you would. It's best to demonstrate your punctuality and
interest in the company by calling when you say you will.

If you do not feel comfortable informing your readers when you will contact them, ask your
readers to contact you, and thank them for their time. For example:

Please contact me at 765-555-6473, or by e-mail at jwillis3@e-mail-link.com. I look forward to

speaking with you. Thank you for your time and consideration.

Before you send the cover letter

Always proofread your cover letter carefully. After you've finished, put it aside for a couple of
days if time allows, and then reread it. More than likely, you will discover sentences that could
be improved, or grammatical errors that could otherwise prove to be uncharacteristic of your
writing abilities. Furthermore, we recommend giving your cover letter to friends and colleagues.
Ask them for ways to improve it; listen to their suggestions and revise your document as you see
fit.

If you are a Purdue student, you may go to the Writing Lab or CCO for assistance with your
cover letter. You can make an appointment to talk about your letter, whether you need to begin
drafting it or want help with revising and editing.

Click on the link at the top of this resource for a sample cover letter. Please note that this sample
is double spaced for readability only. Unless requested otherwise, always single space your
professional communication.

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Cover Letters 1: Quick Tips
What Is a Cover Letter?
A cover letter introduces you and your resume to potential employers or organizations you seek
to join (non-profits, educational institutions, etc). It is the first document an employer sees, so it
is often the first impression you will make. Take advantage of this important first impression and
prepare the reader for your application, stating why you are writing, why you are a good match
for the job and the organization, and when you will contact him or her.

Cover letters do more than introduce your resume, though. A cover letter's importance also
includes its ability to:

• Explain your experiences in a story-like format that works with the information provided
in your resume
• Allow you to go in-depth about important experiences/skills and relate them to job
requirements
• Show the employer that you are individualizing (tailoring) this job application
• Provide a sample of your written communication skills

The following resources are a compilation of tips and strategies to guide you throughout the
writing of your cover letter. Please refer to the sample cover letters for a picture of the finished
product.

Good luck writing!

Cover Letters 2: Preparing to Write a Cover

Letter
How can I learn what will impress prospective employers?
In order to impress prospective employers when writing a cover letter, you must first know what
they are looking for in candidates. Learning more about the company itself—and what they
value—can help you do this. Here are some suggestions:

• Read the job advertisement carefully

• Research the corporate website, read and try to understand their mission statement
(sometimes an organization's mission may not be overtly stated)
• Call "insiders" (people that work with the company)
• Refer to your university's career center if you are at college

Information about each suggestion are covered in the sections that follow.

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How do I read job advertisements carefully?
One way to learn about a company and what it values is to carefully read the job ad. Job
advertisements describe the qualifications and skills a company is looking for in a candidate.
Therefore, they are good resources to learn what a company values...they spell it out for you.

Here are some tips to help you pull important information from a job ad:

• Identify and circle key words in the ad, words that signal what an employer considers as
important.
• List how you can meet those skill qualifications and perform the required duties.
• List your proofs of specific skills by describing an experience in which you gained/used
that skill.

Example: What are the key words in this job description?

"Looking for a highly-motivated, customer-oriented individual with excellent communication

skills and multi-tasking ability to write public relations material."

Key words: highly motivated, customer-oriented (customer service), communication, multi-task,

public relations material

Proof you can offer to meet these keywords:

• I have kept a 3.8 GPA while being treasurer of the Liberal Arts Honors Council and
tutoring other students (motivated, communication, multi-task).
• I have worked as a waiter and as a sales manager at a computer store (customer service,
communication).
• I have written brochure, catalog, and newsletter copy for various communication classes
(public relations, communication).

As you can see, the key words include implications about the skills, accomplishments,
personality traits, and levels of education/experience your employer desires. Once you know
what the company wants, you can start that list and be one step closer to your cover letter!

How do I research corporate websites?

One way to learn about a company (or non-prof/educational institutions) and their values (in
their employees and their work results) is to read the company's website. Here are some tips on
how and what to research:

• Use a search engine (like google.com) if you do not know a company's web address
• Type the name of the company into the search bar, and it should take you to the site
• Look for key words describing the company and its employees (progressive, innovative,
caring, conservative)

169 
 
 • Remember that repeated words reveal particularly strong values (you might want to talk
about these values in your cover letter)

Once you find examples of the skills and qualifications the company values, you know what
skills to describe in your cover letter. As with the job ads, a corporate website only gives you the
key words. You now have to supply your cover letter with proof that you possess some of these
"key words" by describing a few experiences.

How do I talk to insiders of the company?

Talking to actual employees ("insiders") of a company is an excellent way to learn what the
company looks for in candidates. There are a couple of ways to go about this:

• Talk to someone you know in the company (friend, relative, etc.).

• Call the company to ask for more information (yes, you're allowed to do this!).

Start by explaining that you plan to apply for a job and would like to know more about the
company. They may send you information in brochures and letters. Then, you can read these
documents for key words, just as with job ads and corporate websites. If, however, the contact is
willing to answer questions, here are some ideas on what to ask:

• "What kind of person is your company looking for?"

• "What qualifications are the most important for this position?"
• "Is there anyone else I can contact to learn more about your company?"
• "Is there anything you think someone with my experience should do to improve my
qualifications?"

Once you have a list of the values and skills a company looks for, you will have a better idea of
how to focus your own cover letter.

How do I refer to my university's career center?

One way to learn about a company and what it values is to refer to your university's career
center. Most universities have a career center to help their student population with the transition
to the business world. Because of their connections to different businesses and industries, a
career center may be a good place to ask about a company's values.

There are really two connections to search for:

• Ask if the employees at the career center know anything about the company you are
interested in.
• Ask if the university has connections with that company (does it visit the career fairs?).

Even if the career center has no connection with the company, they may be able to point you in
the right direction to learn more and prepare to write your cover letter.

170 
 
What if I do not have a qualification the employer is
seeking?
First of all, do not panic. Then, go ahead and apply.

You may decide to not apply for jobs because you feel you lack an important qualification,
whether it is the amount of experience or familiarity with a computer program. But you may be
hired for another skill you do have!

You also may not realize that you do have a particular qualification. Remember to look at your
past accomplishments and employment history. Chances are, you have a skill similar to what the
company desires, you just might call it something different.

Example: You want to apply to a job that asks for retail experience, but you have never worked
in retail. But...do you possess the kinds of skills someone with retail experience would have? If
you have strong oral communication skills (from teamwork, presentations, etc.), you have at
least one skill in common!

Consider this list of transferable skills (skills commonly found in most job descriptions) before
deciding you are not qualified:

• Ability to meet deadlines

• Ability to work independently
• Computer skills
• Interpersonal skills
• Leadership qualities
• Multi-tasking ability
• Oral communications skills
• Teamwork skills
• Written communications skills

Cover Letters 3: Writing Your Cover Letter

What do I include in my cover letter's heading?
The heading provides your contact information, the date you are writing, and the address of the
company to which you are applying.

For your contact information, you will want to include the following:

• Your name
• The address where you can be reached (if you live at college, will it be more accessible to
include the local address or your permanent address?)
• Phone number

171 
 
 • Fax number (if applicable)
• E-mail address

Then, you will skip a line and write the full date (month, day, year). Follow this by skipping a
space and writing the contact information for the person to whom you are writing:

• Name of the specific person

• Title of that person (if available)
• Address of the company

The reason you write your phone/fax number and email address is to make it easy for the
company to contact you. You do not need to put this information down for the company itself.

Example:

Craig M. Leroix
2987 W. Taylor Dr.
Portland, OR 45720
890-372-1262
cmleroix@anywhere.com

February 2, 2005

Amy Kincaid, Human Resource Director

Western Electric, Inc.
387 Collier Lane
Atlanta, Georgia 30051

To whom do I address my letter?

Whenever possible, address your letter to a specific individual, usually the person in charge of
interviewing and hiring. Doing so will give you a greater chance of having your application
packet read and not filed away automatically.

Here are some ideas on how to get the name of a specific person:

• Look in the job ad for the contact person.

• Call the company for more information.
• Research the company's website for the person in charge of the department you are
applying to, or a person in Human Resources.

If you cannot find the name of that person, you may address your letter to a group. For example:

Dear Hiring Professionals:

Dear Selection Committee:

172 
 
If you find the name, but cannot decipher the gender of the person, you may greet that person
using their full name instead of their last name. For example:

Dear Ms. Kincaid, (For Amy Kincaid)

Dear Pat Thompson, (For Pat Thompson)

What do I include in my introduction?

The introduction of your cover letter should begin with a greeting to a specific person ("Dear Ms.
Kincaid"), followed by a statement of who you are and why you are writing (why you are a good
candidate).

Please refer to the resource section "To Whom Do I Address My Letter" for more information
about the greeting of a cover letter.

How to catch the attention of the reader.

As the purpose of your introduction is to catch the reader's attention and make you stand out, you
need to be as specific as possible in this section. Here are some tips on how to start your
introduction:

• State the university you attend, your major, and what position you are applying for (if
you are a student).
• Mention where you heard about the job.
• Mention the name of a professor or other contact who has a positive connection with the
company.
• Bring up any previous conversations you have had with your reader (i.e., at a job fair).

Some examples:

As a Purdue University junior in Electrical Engineering, I would like to fill the position of
Engineering Internship advertised on General Electric's website.
Professor Gene Smith speaks highly of Western Electric, and he urged me to write directly to
you.
I have been thinking about our conversation at Purdue's Career Fair on January 26. I agree that a
team spirit and strong work ethic are vital for success, and I believe I can bring these qualities to
your company.

How to make a strong claim for yourself.

After gaining the initial attention of the reader, you must make a strong claim about your
candidacy and that you match the needs of the job and the company. Clearly state two-three
qualifications you have that match the company/position. These qualifications will then be the
focus of your body paragraphs and arguments. Some examples:

173 
 
I agree that a team spirit and strong work ethic are vital for success, and I believe I can bring
these qualities to your company.
I believe that my production experience, design skills, and enthusiasm for writing make me a
strong candidate for the Production/Design Internship.

What do I include in my argument/body?

In the body of your cover letter (the argument), you should describe the most important
qualifications to show why you are a good match for the job and the company.

You should focus your cover letter's body around the two-three qualifications you mention in the
introduction. In each paragraph you can concentrate on one quality, seeking to answer the
following two questions:

1. How can I show I am qualified for this position and that I am a good match for the
organization?
2. What have I done that illustrates these qualifications?

How can I show I am qualified for this position and that I am a good match for
the organization?

You do not want to only mention the skills that you possess; you also have to show that you
possess them! When writing about your skills, you can think of it as telling a story. You should
describe the experiences of how you received and grew your skills, mentioning specific places
you worked and positions you held. For example:

My communication skills in the workplace have grown because of my internships. When I was
an intern at Newberry & Jones, I wrote memos and letters to customers and colleagues on a daily
basis. This experience taught me to write professionally and to-the-point.

What have I done that illustrates these qualifications?

Along with explaining your skills, you want to describe how your experience with that skill is
unique. Many people may have communication skills, but have you won an award or scholarship
for technical writing? Be specific and match this information to your resume

Here are some ideas about what might set you apart:

• Special projects
o Explain course work that gives you a type of professional experience.
• Awards
o Show that others have recognized the high quality of your work.
o Include only those awards that relate to the position you desire.
• Accomplishments
o Demonstrate how you improved efficiency/productivity at work or school.

174 
 
 o Include what you did at school that proves your skills.
o Explain how you set a goal and reached it.

For example:

While at Purdue University, I participated in a collaborative web-consulting project for a

Technical Writing class. With two peers, I served as a web consultant for a local business,
Patters' Painters. In order to make feasible recommendations for revisions, additions, and
deletions to Patters' Painters' website, we conducted interviews, observed the workplace, and
completed multiple web analyses...I believe these experiences match the requirements you
outline in the job description.

What do I include in my closing?

A closing sums up your qualifications and reveals what you plan to do after your readers have
receive your application packet (resume, cover letter, etc.)

Here are our recommended tips for closing your cover letter:

• Close with a strong reminder of why you are a good match for the job position and the
organization.
• Request an interview in some way.
• Provide contact information.
• Thank them!
• Sign your name and print it underneath.

For example:

I am eager to speak with you and discuss my possible contribution to Country Press, as I feel my
experiences in communication and customer service will be an asset to the company. I will be in
touch with you within a week, and if you need to reach me, you can call 423-512-1143, or email
me at anyone@anywhere.com. Thank you for your time and consideration.

Stating that you will contact the potential employer will cause them to read your application
materials with more interest. Therefore, you have a better chance that your materials will not be
filed away. By following up, you can achieve three goals:

• Inform the employers that you are still interested.

• Prove you can take the initiative to call.
• Discover where you are in the hiring process.

If you do not feel comfortable informing your readers when you will contact them, you may
simply delete that part of the closing. For example:

I am eager to speak with you and discuss my possible contribution to Country Press, as I feel my
experiences in communication and customer service will be an asset to the company. Please

175 
 
contact me at 423-512-1143, or email me at anyone@anywhere.com. Thank you for your time
and consideration.

If you say you will call, though, do not forget to do so.

Effective Workplace Writing

Rhetorical Awareness and User-Centered Design
In the last twenty years, two important ideas have developed that help professionals compose
effective workplace writing:

• Rhetorical awareness
• User-centered design (also known as the reader-centered approach).

Rhetorical Awareness

The idea of rhetorical awareness for workplace writing includes the following concepts:

• Workplace writing is persuasive. For example, when a writer composes a résumé, the
persuasive goal is to get a job interview. Similarly, a report writer may need to persuade a
client to take action to improve work conditions ensuring employee safety and timely
production
• Workplace writing, since it's persuasive, must consider the rhetorical situation:
o Purpose (why the document is being written, the goals of the document
o Audience (who will read the document, includes shadow readers-unintended
audiences who might read your work)
o Stakeholders (who may be affected by the document or project)
o Context (the background of and situation in which the document is created).

Through rhetorical awareness, professional communication has shifted from a genre-based

approach, which focused on learning and reproducing forms or templates of documents, to
thinking about the goals and situations surrounding the need to write. While professional writing
still uses reports, white papers, etc., authors should approach these texts considering the
rhetorical situation rather than considering documents as isolated work.

User-Centered Design

Concepts

The idea of user-centered design includes the following concepts:

• Always consider and think about your audience

• Consider your readers based on:

176 
 
 o their expectations. What information do your readers expect to get? What can be
provided to your readers?
o their characteristics. Who, specifically, is reading the work? Is the audience part
of the decision making process? Will stakeholders read the work? Or is the
audience a mixture of decision makers, stakeholders, and shadow readers? What
organizational positions does the audience hold and how might this affect
document expectations?
o their goals. What are your readers planning to accomplish? What should be
included in your documents so that your readers get the information they need?
o their context. For what type of situation do the readers need this information?
• Identify information readers will need and make that information easily accessible and
understandable
o User-centered documents must be usable, so consider how the document will be
used rather than just how it will be read. For example, if a writer wants
information regarding MLA formatting for an essay, s/he needs this information
quickly in order to start work. The MLA information must be easily accessible, so
the author can find, read, and understand it to begin writing
• Make your documents persuasive (see Rhetorical Awareness above).

By adopting user-centered design, workplace writing focuses on the expectations, goals,

situations, and needs of the readers.

See our Audience Analysis handout for more information on researching your readers.

Application
User-centered design works in all levels of your documents: document design, information
design, and sentence design.

Document Design

User-centered documents should be easy to navigate. User-centered documents contain a clear,

usable table of contents, visible section headers and page numbers, informative headings, and a
well-formatted index. In addition, user-centered documents should contain pages that use plenty
of white space and that integrate text and visual elements together to convey ideas. These
structural elements help users find and understand information quickly.

See the HATS Methodology Powerpoint presentation for more information on page design.

Information Design

User-centered documents should be easy to understand. User-centered documents should move

from general to specific information, beginning with abstracts or executive summaries and
introductions that forecast and overview main ideas and conclusions. Informative headings and
topic sentences will help readers understand what information is contained in the following text.
Paragraphs should move from general to specific details.

177 
 
Sentence Design

User-centered documents should be easy to read. This does not mean dumbing down
information, but rather, communicating with audience needs in mind. As a technical expert, you
may not always be communicating with other experts. You may have to present ideas to decision
makers outside your area of expertise. These decision makers must understand your complex
ideas. So avoid using jargon and provide glossaries for technical terms.

In addition, user-centered documents should contain sentences based on the BLUF and SVO
methodologies. You don't want to BLUF your audience, so place the Bottom Line Up Front.
Authors should also organize sentences moving from Subject to Verb to Object. The following
examples illustrate the difference between sentences that are difficult to read and sentences that
incorporate the user-centered approach:

It was decided by the team, after the processor testing procedures, that the cause of the problem
was not in the hardware, but in the user/application interface.

The sentence above is difficult to read because it uses a complex structure and because the point
of the idea comes at the end.

After testing the processor, the team found that the user/application interface was the problem,
not the hardware.

The sentence above is more user-centered because the main idea falls toward the beginning and
because the sentence structure is less complex.

See Paramedic Method for more information on composing concise, user-centered sentences.

Glossary and References

Glossary

Decision Makers: Readers who rely on information in your documents to make choices.

Genre-based Professional Communication: The idea that documents, such as reports, white
papers, etc., should be taught and written as fixed and unchanging forms or templates isolated
from the rhetorical situation.

Rhetorical Awareness: Analyzing and understanding the purpose, audience, stakeholders, and
context of the situation in which you are writing in order to make your documents persuasive and
user-centered.

Rhetoric: "The art of persuasion by the available means" (Aristotle). "The use of language as a
symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols" (Kenneth
Burke).

178 
 
Shadow Reader: Unintended audience members you must consider when composing
documents. The likelihood of shadow readers is much higher now considering global access to
online information.

Stakeholders: People who may be affected by decision-makers' choices based on information in

your documents.

User-Centered (Reader-Centered) Design: The idea that authors must always think about and
consider the needs of the audience/users/readers. For user-centered design, "...the emphasis is on
people, rather than technology, although the powers and limits of contemporary machines are
considered in order to...take that next step from today's limited machines toward more user-
centered ones" (Robert R. Johnson).

References

Anderson, Paul V. Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach. 6th ed. Boston:

Thomson-Wadsworth, 2007.

Johnson, Robert R. User-Centered Technology: A Rhetorical Theory for Computers and Other
Mundane Artifacts. Albany: SUNY Press, 1998.

Johnson-Sheehan, Richard. Technical Communication Today. New York: Pearson-Longman,

2005.

Email Etiquette
Email Etiquette
How do I compose an email to someone I don't know?

There are a few important points to remember when composing email, particularly when the
email's recipient is a superior and/or someone who does not know you.

• Be sure to include a meaningful subject line; this helps clarify what your message is
about and may also help the recipient prioritize reading your email
• Just like a written letter, be sure to open your email with a greeting like Dear Dr. Jones,
or Ms. Smith:
• Use standard spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. THERE'S NOTHING WORSE
THAN AN EMAIL SCREAMING A MESSAGE IN ALL CAPS.
• Write clear, short paragraphs and be direct and to the point; professionals and academics
alike see their email accounts as business. Don't write unnecessarily long emails or
otherwise waste the recipient's time
• Be friendly and cordial, but don't try to joke around (jokes and witty remarks may be
inappropriate and, more commonly, may not come off appropriately in email)

179 
 
What are some guides for continuing email conversations?

Once you have exchanged emails with a person on a given subject, it is probably OK to leave
greetings out of your follow-up emails. Here are some other points to consider about continuing
conversations over email:

• Try to respond within a reasonable time frame, though "reasonable" will depending on
the recipient's expectations and the subject being discussed
• Trim back the old messages: most email clients will keep copying older messages to the
bottom of an email. Delete older messages so as to keep your message size from getting
too large, and to keep your messages looking clean.
• If someone asks a lot of questions, it may be OK to embed your answers into the sender's
message copied at the bottom of your email. However, if you're going to do this, be sure
to say so at the top, and leave generous space, for example:

> How long are you staying?

Less than two weeks.
>Will you have time to visit with us?
I'm really hoping to, but my schedule will be pretty tight. Let me get back to you about
that after the weekend.

What sorts of information shouldn't be sent via email?

Most people do not realize that email is not as private as it may seem. Without additional setup,
email is not encrypted; meaning that your email is "open" and could possibly be read by an
unintended person as it is transmitted to your reader. With that in mind, never send the following
information over email:

• Usernames and passwords

• Credit card or other account information

Additionally, avoid sensitive or information that could be potentially damaging to someone's

career and/or reputation, including your own. Beyond email's general lack of security and
confidentiality, your recipient can always accidentally hit the Forward button, leave her email
account open on a computer, or print and forget that she's printed a copy of your email.

What about sending attachments?

The ease of transmitting files to a particular person makes email very attractive. However, there
are some guidelines you should follow:

• Never send an attachment to someone you don't know the first time you contact them
(unless, of course, the contact has posted a job ad requesting a resume in a Word
document). They (or their computers) might think it is spam or a virus, and delete your
message.

180 
 
 • Avoid unnecessarily large file sizes. Digital photos especially: most digital photos come
off the camera much larger than can be viewed on screen. Learn how to resize your
digital photographs.
• When you must send a large file or set of files, do the recipient the courtesy of sending an
email telling them what you'll be sending and why.
• Be sure to have anti-virus software installed on your computer to scan all of your
outgoing and incoming messages for viruses.

Email Listservs and Discussion Groups

Poor email behavior is always cropping up on email listservs and discussion groups. Here are
some common mistakes to avoid:

• Double-check the To: area of your email when you reply. Too many people have
intended to reply to a message poster alone when, in fact, their reply went to the entire
list—much to their embarrassment. If you want to be extra-careful, start a new email and
type the single recipient's address.
• Do not air your grievances or beefs about your school, colleagues, or employer on a list.
Personal attacks should also be avoided. Such postings make the organization you are
associated with look bad, while also making you sound like a gossip and whiner.
Particularly on large lists, you also may not know who else is on it. Be professional, and
likewise avoid piling onto discussions about who's got it worst at work, school, etc.
• If you are new to a discussion list, you should "lurk" for awhile—that is, just be a reader
to get the sense of what the group talks about, how it talks about it, and what types of
behaviors are expected from list members. Only when you have gotten that sense should
you initiate a post.

Note: this resource was posted during a day-long workshop for Norfolk State University in the
development of their OWL. Purdue OWL Webmaster Karl Stolley and the Purdue OWL wish
them great success.

IELTS - Tips for the Writing test

Actually sit and write out tasks 1 and 2 while practising. It is very tempting to think of what you
would write and not do the actual writing. You will appreciate the importance of using a
structured format and avoiding being repetitive only if you practise writing.

Start by reading the How to prepare for IELTS - Writing test manual at the Hong Kong City
University site to familiarize yourself with the test and to get useful hints.

Task 2 carries more marks. Spend more time on it. Twenty minutes on task 1 and 40 minutes on
task 2 would be a good balance.

Since task 2 is more important, it may be a good idea to do task 2 first and task 1 later. However,
make sure you write for each task in the allotted area since the answer sheet has separate areas
designated for each task.

181 
 
For both writing tasks, it is a good idea to jot down your ideas on the question sheet so that you
know the outline of what you will be writing. It may take 2 or 3 minutes but the time spent is
worth it.

Writing task 1 requires you to describe a graph / table / diagram in AT LEAST 150 words. I had
practised on a lot of graphs but the task we had was to describe the data in a table! So practise
describing all kinds of graphs / tables. See how much of your writing is 150 words. If you write
less that 150 words, you lose marks. If you write more, you are likely to make more mistakes.
Try and stick to around 150 words.

For task 1, first spend some time looking at the graph / table and understanding the information
given. Don't start writing immediately. Make sure you know what each axis of the graph
represents and in what units. The following structure is suggested for writing:

A sentence describing what the graph / table shows.

Another sentence describing the broad / important trends shown.

Description of the data. It may not be possible to describe all the data as there may be too much
data presented. Describe the relevant and most important parts. If there is more than one graph /
chart, describe any comparisons or trends that can be made out.

A concluding sentence which sums up the data / trends.

Practise using a variety of phrases to avoid being repetitive.

The best practice for task 2, which asks you to present an argument, is to read newspaper
editorials and magazine articles on current topics. This will help you develop your ideas. A
suggested structure for writing is:

1. Introduce the topic and state your stand, whether you agree or disagree.
2. Give arguments in support of your viewpoint supported by relevant examples.
3. State the contrary viewpoint and give reasons why you don't agree with it.
4. Conclude with a short concluding paragraph.
5. If there is time left at the end, revise your answers and correct any spelling or
grammatical mistakes.

Ten Steps to Effective Listening

1. Face the speaker and maintain eye contact.
2. Be attentive.
3. Keep an open mind to what you are hearing.
4. Try to picture what the speaker is saying.
5. Don't interrupt or impose your "solutions" on the speaker.
6. Wait for the speaker to pause to ask clarifying questions.

182 
 
 7. AAsk clarifyingg questions, not challengging questions. Wait unttil discussionn time to raisse
your point off view.
8. Try
T to feel an nd understand what the speaker is feeeling.
9. Demonstrate
D you are payiing attentionn to what is being
b said byy providing feedback
thhrough nodd
ding your heaad or saying "Uh huh."
10. Pay attention to what isn't said—to feeelings, faciaal expressionns, gestures, posture andd
otther nonverbbal cues.

IELTS
Listeningg
Module
Written by
b Rad Daneesh
Tuesday,, 24 April 20
007
The Listening mod
dule of the IELTS
I consis
sts of a tota
al of 40 ques
stions.

There arre four sectio

ons:

1. Social Needs
s – Conversa
ation betwee
en two spea
akers
2. Social Needs
s – Speech by
b one speaker
3. Educational or
o Training – Conversattion between up to fourr speakers
4. Educational or
o Training – Speech by
y one speak
ker

Main Ideas
Importan nt words and main idea as in converrsation are ones
o that wiill come up again and
again. Listen carefully for any word
w or words that com me up repeattedly. What words com me up
y every state
in nearly ement made e? These woords with high frequenc cy are likely to be in the
e
main ideea of the con
nversation. For example e, in a conv
versation about class siz ze in the
businesss departmen nt of a colleg
ge, the term
m 'class size' is likely to appear in nearly
n everyy
statemen nt made by either spea aker in the discussion.
d

Voice Ch hanges
IELTS exxpects you to t be able too recognize and interpret nuances of speech. Be on the alert
for any changes
c in voice,
v whichh might register surprise, exciteme ent, or anoth her emotion n. If
a speake er is talking in a normal monotone voice and suddenly
s raiises their vo
oice to a hig
gh
pitch, that is a huge e clue that something
s critical is being stated. Listen
L for a speaker to
change their
t voice and
a understaand the meaning of wh hat they are saying.

e:
Example
Man: Lett’s go to Wa
al-mart.
Woman: There’s a Wal-mart
W in this small town?
t

oman’s state
If the wo ement was higher pitchhed, indicating surprise and shock, then she
probablyy did not exp
pect there to be a Wal-mart in thatt town.

Specificcs
Listen ca
arefully for specific
s piec
ces of informmation. Adje
ectives are commonly
c asked about in
IELTS quuestions. Tryy to remember any main adjective es that are m
mentioned. Pick out
adjective
es such as numbers,
n co
olors, or size
es.

183 
 
Example:
Man: Let’s go to the store and get some apples to make the pie.
Woman: How many do we need?
Man: We’ll need five apples to make the pie.

A typical question might be about how many apples were needed.

Interpret
As you are listening to the conversation, put yourself in the person’s shoes. Think about
why someone would make a statement. You’ll need to do more than just regurgitate the
spoken words but also interpret them.

Example:
Woman: I think I’m sick with the flu.
Man: Why don’t you go see the campus doctor?
Sample Question: Why did the man mention the campus doctor?

Answer: The campus doctor would be able to determine if the woman had the flu.

Find the Hidden Meaning

Look for the meaning behind a statement. When a speaker answers a question with a
statement that doesn’t immediately seem to answer the question, the response probably
contained a hidden meaning that you will need to recognize and explain.

Man: Are you going to be ready for your presentation?

Woman: I’ve only got half of it finished and it’s taken me five hours just to do this much.
There’s only an hour left before the presentation is due.

At first, the woman did not seem to answer the question the man presented. She responded
with a statement that only seemed loosely related. Once you look deeper, then you can find
the true meaning of what she said. If it took the woman five hours to do the first half of the
presentation, then it would logically take her another five hours to do the second half. Since
she only has one hour until her presentation is due, she would probably NOT be able to be
ready for the presentation. So, while an answer was not immediately visible to the man’s
question, when you applied some logic to her response, you could find the hidden meaning
beneath.

Memory Enhancers
You have scratch paper provided to you while taking the test. This can be a huge help.
While you listen, you are free to make notes. If different people are talking, use short hand
to describe the main characteristics of each speaker. As you hear main adjectives that you
think might be hard to remember, jot them down quickly in order that you can refer to them
later during the question stage. Use your notes to help you remember those hard to
remember facts. Don’t end your test without making use of your scratch paper ally.

Example:
Speaker 1: I’m Bob Thomas, and I’m majoring in business development.
Speaker 2: I’m Matt Smith, and I’m majoring in chemical engineering.
Speaker 3: I’m John Douglass, and I’m majoring in speech therapy.

Your short hand might read:

Bob – Bus.
Matt – Chem. E

184 
 
John – Sp. Th.

On subsequent questions about the characters, you’ll be able to remember these basic facts
and answer more accurately. However, don’t spend so much time making notes that you
miss something on the tape. You won’t be able to rewind it and catch what you miss. The
idea is that the notes should only supplement your memory, not replace it.
 

IELTS Speaking tips that helped Phuong get Band 7

Doan Hung Phuong, Band 7 student, shares with us his secrets to success in the Speaking test.

Speaking tips

Speaking is a weakness of analytic learners (who learn English from books and tapes).
Moreover, in countries where English is not a first language, improving your speaking in English
is really difficult. Therefore, I don’t have much experience in practicing speaking. Here are some
tips that I got from my teachers and some suggestions that I think they might be helpful for you.

Pronunciation is the most important feature in speaking. If you speak correctly, academically and
interestingly, but no one understands what you are talking about, you certainly lose your points.

One of my teachers, who is fluent in 5 languages, shares his experience that pronunciation is the
key of learning a language. It might be true since native English speakers can pronounce a
unfamiliar word correctly but don’t know how to spell it. Because English is a combination of
many languages, there are no totally general rules for pronunciation. As a result, you must
remember everything.

So how to pronounce the words correctly?

- Firstly, listen and learn what native English speaker said. As I mentioned, listening can help
you in speaking. You can correct yourself in basic words if you listen a lot. Moreover, listening
can also help you to learn how to stress important words, how to speak naturally and even how to
organize your speech.

- Secondly, if you learn a new word, you must know how to pronounce it first. Typically, when
people want to learn new words, they revise these words again and again, and write it down so
many times. But now, to improve your speaking and listening, you must hear electronic
dictionary pronouncing and repeat after it again and again.

- Thirdly, make sentences with new vocabulary. Everybody might know how to pronounce
words correctly, but when they combine them all together, they cannot pronounce correctly
anymore, or even if they do, their sentence may sound unnatural. The reason is they lack of
intonation. Listening might solve this problem.

185 
 
- Fourthly, practice pronunciation every week (3-4 times a week) by reading out loud a short
passage. At first, you practice to pronounce all the words in that passage correctly. Then read the
whole passage slowly and correctly (pay attention to ending sound).

Afterward, increase reading speed in each sentence (’read’ here means you must speak out the
words, not read in your mind). If you speak quickly but start to pronounce wrongly, that means
you reach your limit, don’t speak faster than that. And finally, you read the whole passage again
at normal speed, or may be a bit faster than normal a little bit, but you MUST include intonation.

To find material for practicing this exercise, you can visit this website:
http://www.breakingnewsenglish.com. There are hundreds of short news and audio files spoken
by a native speaker. I guarantee if you practice this kind of exercise gradually, you pronunciation
will improve a lot. (Note: this is the exercise of my teacher, who speaks 5 languages, as I
mentioned before)

Now, to prepare for IELTS Speaking test, you should practice some more exercises:

- Pick a topic and stand in front of mirror to practice speaking test. You should go through all
three parts of the real speaking test. Standing in front of mirror will help you improve your body
language and also your pronunciation. You might find it strange that mirror can correct your
pronunciation. In fact, there are some vowels and consonants that you can’t pronounce correctly
if you don’t know how to do that (not just simply remember the pronunciation).

- Try to speak naturally. You are advised to speak fast with intonation (the previous reading
exercise will certainly help you). You should learn and apply some verb phrases, idioms and
slang expressions. This is not the key part of speaking test, but it is better if you know, not only
for your test but also for you speaking skill. If you want to get 7.0, you must master
pronunciation, accuracy and intonation.

Important tip #1
When you practice in speaking, you must pay attention to the ending sound. But when you take
the real test, don’t do that, because it will affect your fluency. In the real test, it is the time you
show examiner what you got, not the time you can show them how good you can correct
yourself. Using experience you gained from practicing to prove your speaking skill.

Important tip #2
Another wonderful way to practice speaking is to speak English in your dream. If you never do
that, you do it now. I have already spoken English in my dreams even before my teacher advice
me to do so. I just watch cartoons in English, films in English and listen to songs in English. As a
result, I naturally dream in English. Actually, I can control my dreams, lol, it is very interesting,
try to do that. By doing that, I can think quickly in my mind, but I still have problems when
speaking my ideas out. So, you must do 2 previous exercises in order to improve speaking.

IELTS Listening tips that Phuong used to get Band 7

186 
 
Doan Hung Phuong, the winner of October results competition, shares his tips for success in
IELTS Listening:

To succeed in the IELTS test, the key is practice. Never dream you will gain anything without
any efforts. The fact is I had to do a great number of practice tests in a month before taking the
real test. I did approximately one test a day, including reading and listening. Sometimes I
practiced Writing and Speaking Tests at home.

Remember, you MUST do Listening, Reading and Writing Tests continually. In the real test,
there will be no time for you to have a break. They officially say that you will have 5 minutes
between each part, the fact this is not always so. Therefore, you must practice to cope with
extremely high tension and pressure in the real test.

Practicing writing and speaking at home is not actually a good way. You need someone to check
your writing and give advices in your speaking. However, I myself don’t have that advantageous
condition as well, so I just simply do the test at home. Regardless of disadvantages, practicing at
home will certainly help you deal will limited time and improve your organization in both
writing and speaking in short times. Moreover, it also helps you get familiar with difficult
questions and be well prepared for the up-coming exam.

I spent 3 months preparing for the IELTS test, 2 months to gain back basic English knowledge in
English centers and 1 month to constantly do practice tests. It is the best if you have long-term
plan for your exam , including improving vocabulary, revising grammar, learning and applying
strategies for each type of question in IELTS test as well as improving 4 skills.

Now I will go into details about my way of studying and I think it will help your English
improve:

Listening tips

This is considered to be the hardest skill to improve for most people. In reality, it is one of my
weaknesses. To improve listening, you have no choice but to practice every day, practice as
much as you can.

There are a lot of English channels where you can listen and try to understand what they are
talking about. If you’ve got difficulty in understanding these universal channels, perhaps you
need to learn more daily vocabulary and try to practice some easy listening books. The key here
is just main idea. As long as you still understand what they are talking about, you will be fine.
The purpose of this way is that you can familiarize with English and correct your pronunciation
in basic words (the words you have known). Therefore, this is also an excellent way to prepare
for speaking.

However, you MUST avoid BBC. There is absolutely nothing you can learn from BBC. If your
level of English is good enough to understand BBC, you don’t need to come here and seek for
advices; just do practice tests, it will save your time.

187 
 
When doing Listening Practice Tests, you also have to catch the main ideas as well. However,
this time you must practice listening to details too. The main ideas will help to you determine
what the key words are and focus on important section. Stress and intonation are also helpful.
Sometimes, a lot of unnecessary details make you confused and then you can’t catch the key
words.

To sum up, the key for listening is Listen to English as much as you can.

9 Academic IELTS Writing tips from Phuong on how to get

Band 7
This is the last article from Phuong, Band 7 in IELTS, and here he shares secrets to success in
the Writing test.

Writing tips

This isn’t, in fact, my weakness. But this skill is difficult to self-study. You need to go to English
center where there are teachers who are willing to check your writing. Here are some suggestions
I can think of, it maybe can’t help you out. But do your best, you will be fine.

1. Before writing an essay, you must know its basic structure. A book about essay writing might
show you this.

2. Do task 2 first, because it is worth more mark and easier

3. Don’t waste too much time on Task 1. Learn all specific writing structure for each type of task
1. In the real test, you just have to apply that structure with new data and suitable verb tenses.
Read sample essays and take note good structure to have a wide range of academic structures for
task 1. Some structure might be used in task 2 as well.

4. You must complete both tasks. I don’t care how difficult the test is, I don’t care how little time
you got. You MUST complete your test at any cost. If you don’t, you will be penalized very
heavily.

5. Again, practice writing. Do both 2 tasks in one hour. You can focus only on task 1 or task 2,
but before the test, you should practice writing both tasks to familiar with time limit.

6. Practice makes perfect. In writing, this statement is completely true. But it is better if there is
someone to check writing for you and you can learn from your mistakes.

7. Writing requires wide academic vocabulary. You also have to buy a vocabulary book to work
on and enrich your vocabulary.

188 
 
8. Avoid all informal ways of writing. There are some rules of writing you should follow. For
example: no abbreviations, no 1st and 2nd pronoun or possessive (I, you, me, my, your), except
in conclusion where you have to state your opinion.

9. Each body paragraph has to include: topic sentence, supporting sentences (2-3 sentences),
development sentences (evidence: example, experience, data). In many languages (English
included), there are many ways to develop a body paragraph, which results that topic sentence is
not the first sentence. But you are advised to put topic sentence at the beginning of each body
paragraph. Don’t be creative in this case.

That is all I can think of. I hope you will be lucky in your exam and what I wrote will help you in
one way or another. But REMEMBER, to reach success, you MUST make an effort. You should
have a clear motivation and a strong will to overcome difficulties. When I did practice tests, I
was exhausted. But no success comes easily. Practice is the only way to gain success. Don’t just
wait for lucky break, it will never come if you don’t know how to grab it.

And the final point I want to mention is:

Relax before the test!

Attempting to do one or two practice test before the real test won’t help you increase your score.
In return, it will make you feel stressed and unconfident.

I took IELTS 2 times:

First time: no relaxing, I tried to do more practice tests right before the test day. As a result, I
couldn’t concentrate on the test. and the result is: L:5.5 ; R:7.0 (don’t mention about W and S
here because it depends mostly on examiners)

Second time: 2 weeks after the first time, that means when I received the first result, I had to
take the test the day after. But this time I felt relaxed since I knew I got 6.5 overall in the first
test. And here is the second result: L:6.5 ; R:7.5

I believe in a short period of time (two weeks), I couldn’t improve that much. Moreover, the
second test was considered to be more difficult. So what makes the difference is the relaxation.
There are more examples I could mention to prove this point, but it would be wasting your time.

In brief, you must relax before any tests. Forget about them to relax, and believe in yourself.

IELTS Reading tips from Phuong - how he got Band 7

Doan Hung Phuong, who got Band 7 in IELTS, shares with us his secrets to success in the
Reading test.

Reading tips

189 
 
I must say that this skill based on intelligence very much. I was advised that reading various type
of articles is the best way to prepare for IELTS. In reality, I have never done that, simply because
I don’t have time. I hate reading. But the fact is that is the skill I got the highest score. I have no
idea why, not because I am intelligent man, but maybe, just maybe because I can understand the
main idea very well.

Reading requires a great deal of vocabulary. But when my friends tell me that I got the high
score because I have a good range of vocabulary, I totally disagree. Vocabulary is important, but
you don’t need to know every word. You should only know keywords, the words that can change
completely the answers.

Pay a particular attention to the grammar structure. You may see various types of grammar
structures, but try to understand them all, they will be helpful for your writing. We all don’t
know much vocabulary, but if you are weak at grammar, you don’t know what the text refers to,
and obviously, you lose main idea. As a result, you can’t guess the meaning based on context.

Catching main idea in reading is also important. You must have known that skimming and
scanning are 2 essential tools in reading. Both rely on understand main ideas. Therefore, if you
can’t catch main ideas in short time, you will suffer. But how to practice getting main ideas in
brief time? I must say that reading various articles in this case is helpful (even though I’ve never
done so). But I tried to do reading tests every day, and tried to understand the main idea of every
passages.

Another way to practice Reading is Speed Reading. I have known this method at English centers
but to many people, maybe this is still a strange way. You choose a short easy passage (about
500 words) and then read quickly (for both main idea and details). Please note that the passage
you choose must be easy. If there are more than 5 words that completely new to you, perhaps it
is not the good one for speed reading. in addition, read as quickly as possible is NOT the key. If
you read so fast that you have to read again, there are no benefits gained from this practice. The
key here is main ideas, and next is details. Besides understanding all main points, you should try
to remember as much details as you can. In speed reading exercises, there are 10 true/false
question for you to do in the back. These questions will measure your accurate comprehension.

Besides skimming and scanning, I found that reading intensively is also important in IELTS test,
especially to understand tough questions. Some questions or particular sentences, you need to
read and try to understand every single word. Especially with true/false/not given (or yes/no/not
given) questions, only one word can change the whole meaning.

After doing reading practice test, you MUST check all wrong answers, try to explain why you
wrong (you may need someone which has good level of English to help you) and think of
another way to answer faster those questions. You will gain necessary experience by doing this
before the real test.

In brief, guessing is the key for reading. You must guess logically and academically. Pay time to
practice reading, you will see that your reading skill will improve in just a short period of time.”

190 
 
 

Short facts on Vietnam

Location: South East Asia

Full Country Name: Socialist Republic of Vietnam,

Total Area: 329,566 sq. km (128, 527 square miles).

Population: More than 80 million (Growth Rate 1.2%).

Capital City: Hanoi (population 4 million).

People: 85% ethnic Vietnamese, 3% ethnic Chinese, also Khmer, Cham (a remnant of the once
great Indianised Champa Kingdom) and members of some 55 ethno-linguistic groups.

Languages: Vietnamese, French, Chinese, English and a variety of Mon-Khmer and Malayo-
Polynesian local dialects.

Religions: Buddhism is the principal religion but there are also sizeable Taoist, Confucian, Hoa
Hao, Cao Dai, Muslim and Christian minorities.

President: Mr. Nguyen Minh Triet.

Prime Minister: Mr. Nguyen Tan Dung

A Brief History of Kings, Dynasties and the Name of Vietnam;

At the beginning of the Bronze Age, the Viet tribe groups had settled in the North and North-
Centre Vietnam. There were about 15 groups of Lac Viet tribesmen living mainly in the northern
highlands and delta, and a dozen Au Viet groups living in Viet Bac, the northern region of old
Vietnam. At that time, the two ethnic tribes of the Lac Viet and Au Viet lived together in many
areas with other inhabitants.

191 
 
Due to the increasing needs to control floods, fight against invaders, and exchange culture and
economy, these tribes living near each other tended to gather and integrate into a larger mixed
groups. Among these Lac Viet tribes was the Van Lang, also the most powerful tribe. The leader
of this tribe joined all the Lac Viet tribes together to found Van Lang Nation, addressing himself
as Hung King.

The next generations followed in their father’s footsteps and kept this appellation. Based on
historical documents, researchers correlatively delineated the location of Van Lang Nation to the
present day regions of North and North-Central Vietnam, as well as, the South of present-day
Kwangsi (China). The Van Lang Nation lasted approximately from the beginning of the first
millennium B.C. to the 3rd century B.C.

In 221 BC, Tan Thuy Hoang, King of Tan (China), invaded the land of the Viet tribes. Thuc
Phan, the leader of the alliance of Au-Viet tribes was respected as the chief of the resistance war
against the Tan enemy that later, in 208 BC, was forced to withdraw. With his imposing power,
Thuc Phan nominated himself as King An Duong Vuong and founded Au Lac Nation with
groups of Lac Viet and Au Viet tribes.

In 179 BC, Trieu Da, King of Nam Viet (China), invaded Au Lac country. The resistance of An
Duong Vuong failed soon after this invasion. As a result, the northern feudalist took turns
dominating the country over the next seven centuries, establishing their harsh regime in the
country and dividing the country into administrative regions and districts with unfamiliar names.
However, the country’s name of Au Lac would not be erased from the people’s minds or their
everyday life.

In the spring of 542, Ly Bi rose up in arms and swept away the Chinese administration,
liberating the territory. He declared himself King of Van Xuan Kingdom in February 544,
acknowledging the national superiority complex of the independent spirits to live in eternal
peace. However, the existence of Ly Bi’s administration was very brief. He was defeated by the
Chinese imperial army, and the country returned to feudal Chinese domination again in 602. The
name Van Xuan was restored only after the victory over the Han army at the Bach Dang River
led by General Ngo Quyen in 938. This victory marked the end of the Chinese domination period
in Vietnam.

In 968, Dinh Bo Linh defeated the twelve lords and unified the country. He declared himself
King and named the country Dai Co Viet. This name remained throughout the Dinh dynasty
(868-979), Pre-Le dynasty (980-1009) and the beginning of Ly dynasty (1010-1053).

In 1054, a flaming bright star appeared in the sky for many days, which was considered a good
omen. As a result, the Ly King changed the name of the country to Dai Viet. This name
remained until the end of Tran dynasty.

In March 1400, Ho Quy Ly usurped the throne of King Tran Thieu De, founded the Ho dynasty
and changed the country’s name to Dai Ngu, meaning peace in the ancient language. This name
only lasted for very short time, until April 1407, when the Minh enemy invaded Dai Ngu and
defeated the Ho dynasty.

192 
 
After 10 years of resistance against the Ming (Chinese) occupation (1418-1427), Le Loi had
achieved a victorious triumph. In 1428, Le Loi declared himself King of Le dynasty and changed
the name of the country back to Dai Viet. At this time, the territory of Vietnam had expanded to
the region of present-day Hue. The name Dai Viet remained under the Le dynasty (1428-1787)
and the Tay Son dynasty (1788-1810).

In 1802, Nguyen Anh claimed his coronation to become the first Nguyen King, starting the
Nguyen dynasty and changing the country’s name to Vietnam. This name was officially
recognized in many diplomatic missions in 1804. However, the words "Vietnam" had already
appeared very early in history.

First, in the 14th century, in a book of code entitled "Vietnam The Chi", edited by Doctor Ho
Tong Thoc. Then in the book by scholar Nguyen Trai entitled "Du Dia Chi" at the beginning of
15th century, the words "Vietnam" were repeated several times. Doctor Trinh Nguyen Binh
Khiem (1491-1585) had written on the first page of his work "Trinh Tien Sinh Quoc Ngu" the
following: "... Vietnam has constructed its foundation..." The words "Vietnam" were also found
in some carved stelae of the 16th - 17th century in Bao Lam Pagoda, Haiphong (1558), in Cam
Lo Pagoda, Ha Tay (1590), in Phuc Thanh Pagoda, Bac Ninh (1664), etc. In particular, in the
first sentence on the stele Thuy Mon Dinh (1670) at the landmark on the border at Lang Son, it
was written: "This is the gateway of Vietnam that guards the northern frontiers..."

In terms of meaning, there are many theories that prove the words "Vietnam" are created by
combining two racial and geographic elements, which is understood as "Viet people from the
south". During the reign of King Minh Mang (1820-1840), the name of the country was changed
to Dai Nam, but Vietnam was still widely used in many literary works, civil business affairs, and
social relations.

Following the triumph of the August Revolution on August 19, 1945, which had entirely swept
away Vietnamese feudal and French colonial oppression and began a new era in the country,
President Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the nation’s independence and the national name Democratic
Republic of Vietnam was born on September 2, 1945. Although Vietnam suffered from war and
separation in the following 30 years, the sacred words "Vietnam" were very popularily used from
the north to the south, and were deeply imprinted in the hearts of the Vietnamese people.

Following the liberation of Southern Vietnam on April 30, 1975, the entire country of Vietnam
was completely unified. In the first meeting of the national assembly of the unified Vietnam on
July 2, 1976, the assembly decided to name the country The Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The
constitution of 1980, and 1992, continued its affirmation of the country’s official name, legally
and actually.

Music and Cultural Performances in

Vietnam

193 
 
Music has played an essential role in the lives and history of the Vietnamese culture and people.
Music in Vietnam has been used in battle as a way to encourage and motivate. It is heard in the
fields bringing even more life to the fertile soil and lightening the difficult work. Music is used to
education children of traditions and national sentiment. The Vietnamese use music to
communicate with the invisible, and to sublimate their aspirations for a happy life.

When in Vietnam you can't help yourself but to be surrounded by music. You may not
understand what the song's meaning is but trust that the music means something. You will hear
songs that are lullabies, children songs, ritual songs, festivity songs, songs used for work and
courtship, riddle songs, and others that narrate a traditional poem or teaching.

Vietnamese Quan Ho Folk Song

Our folk-song Quan Ho, a very rich and beautiful musical storehouse of our people, has a very
long lasting history. During all its existence, successive creations have unceasingly changed the
type of the folk-song Quan Ho.
Today, there are "Quan Ho dai", "New Quan Ho", "the renovated Quan Ho". This shows that
there may be some kinds of Quan Ho that are not real Quan Ho. Thus, from what epoch has the
tradition of Quan Ho dated?
One of the traditional polular tales narrates as following: Once upon a time, Lung Giang village
(Liem village) and Tam Son village (Tu Son), both in Bac Ninh province, were in very good
relations. Every year, on the 13th of the first Lunar month, Tam Son village held a singing party
at the communal house and invited five or six elderly men and five or six elderly women
together with a great number of young singers of Lung Giang to come to join them. At the
festival came into being a form of dialogue. Alternately, each time the young man of one of the
villages had sung, the girls from the other village would reply in singing. Such singing
competitions lasted all night until the morning of the following day. However, it's asserted that
only under the Ly dynasty (1009-1225) did the Quan Ho begin to develop strongly and become
joyful festivals lasting as much as half a month.
Annually, on the 13th of the 1st Lunar month, on the Lim hills or in the Lim pagoda's park,
among the blossoming peony bushes, the pilgrims come from every corner of the country and
distinguished and smart young men and young girls of the region gather for sight seeing,
contemplating blossoming flowers, encountering and making acquaintance with each other and
listening together to recitals of songs, or sing Quan Ho songs.
Coming festival of Lim in groups of young men or women, Quan Ho singers are dressed in their
very best clothes, men carry with them an umbrella of black silk, women a fan under a cartwheel
palm-leaf hat tucked under their arms. A female group may be the first to go up to a male group
and offer betel quids, thus striking up an acquaintance. A dialogue begins in the form of songs.
In any event, courliness is the rule. The men call themselves "Your younger bothers" and address
the women as " Our elder sisters"; conversely, the latter call themselves "Your younger sisiters"
and address the former as" Our elder brothers". Female duets keep up the conversation by
exchanging songs with male duets.

Hanoi Vietnam Information

194 
 
 Vietnam's most charming city, Hanoi is home to
about 4 million people. Less vibrant and more
reserved than its cousin to the south, Hanoi is a
great place to explore on foot. If Ho Chi Minh
City is defined by hustle and bustle and people
on the move, Hanoi's trademark is green parks
and tranquil lakes.

the city is divided into districts, many of which take their name from a lake within the
district's boundaries. Each district has its own charms.Perhaps the most interesting district,
is that of Hoan Kiem. At its center is Ho Hoan Kiem (Lake of the Restored Sword). A broad path
encircles the lake, attracting residents to its shores throughout the day. At dawn you'll find young
and old walking, jogging, practicing Tai Chi and playing badminton. After dark, young couples
walk hand-in-hand or seek privacy under the trees and on the numerous park benches at the
water's edge.

To the north and west of the lake is Hanoi's famed old quarter with its confusing maze of narrow
cobblestoned streets. Home to numerous guest houses, mini-hotels, art galleries, restaurants and
shops, the old quarter is worth a day of aimless wandering and discovery. Many visitors,
particularly backpackers, choose this area as their base in Hanoi.

South and east of the lake, the wide tree-lined boulevards of the old French quarter offer a stark
contrast to the confusion of the old quarter. The French colonial influence, obvious throughout
the city, is particularly evident here. Many colonial villas are now home to embassies, upscale
hotels and restaurants.

Those spending more than a couple of days in Hanoi will want to explore other areas of
the city as well. Ba Dinh District, west of Hoan Kiem, is the up-and-coming business
center and home to the posh Hanoi Daewoo Hotel. Scenic Ho Tay District to the north is
dominated by Ho Tay (South Lake) and boasts numerous historic sites and temples.

Hanoi awakes early, with activity in the parks beginning before sunrise and winding
down by 7 a.m. Most offices, stores and museums open around 7:30 am, closing for
lunch between 11 and 1, and reopening again until 5 p.m. Most restaurants stop serving
at10 p.m.

Hanoi has four distinct seasons. Winters can actually be quite chilly; although snow is
foreign to Hanoi residents. Summers are hot and rainy. Probably the best time to visit is
spring and fall.

Related information:

• Hanoi Travel Pictures  
• Hanoi Tours  
• Hotels in Hanoi  

195 
 
 Hue Imperial city
Destination Information
Hue is one of the most popular destinations for
visitors to Vietnam. Straddling the Perfume River,
this mysterious, somber city is a historian's dream
come true, with numerous 19th century ruins, royal
tombs and an excellent museum.

The Imperial City of Hue was the capital of Vietnam during the reign of the Nguyen dynasty,
the last dynasty in Vietnam. Even today, the Vietnamese regard Hue with awe and respect. Hue
also has the distinction of being one of the rainiest cities in Vietnam, receiving more than 120
inches each year.

Hue is dominated by The Citadel, a moated, walled fort, constructed during the early 19th century. 
Within these walls lies the forbidden Purple City, former home of the royal family. The Citadel was also 
the scene of brutal fighting and staggering casualties during the 1968 Tet Offensive, when the North 
Vietnamese held the fort for 26 days before being driven out by American forces. The damage inflicted 
to the architecture is still being repaired and the Citadel may never be fully restored. In somewhat 
better shape are the various royal tombs of the Nguyen emperors, which can easily be reached by boat, 
car or motorbike. The historical museum is one of the best in the country.  
The Vietnamese regard Hue as the pinnacle of Vietnamese fashion, language and cuisine. The women 
of Hue, wearing the traditional ao dai and non bai tho, are reputed to be the most beautiful in all of 
Vietnam. The Hue accent is regarded as the most distinct and pleasing to the ear. The food, including 
local dishes such as banh khoai, is said to be the tastiest. Some of this is surely legend rather than fact, 
but who am I to argue?  

You won't be alone when you visit Hue. At any time of the year this small city is bustling with
tourists. Hue is on almost every tour itinerary and it is the northern terminus of the infamous
"open tour" bus route. Lots of tourists also means lots of hawkers, cyclo drivers and children
selling chewing gum. It sometimes seems impossible to walk more than 10 feet without being
accosted by someone wanting to sell you something. Smile a lot, say thank you (preferably in
Vietnamese) and go about your business and you will be left alone.

Hue can easily be visited as a day trip from Danang, or as an overnight stop on the way to
Hanoi or before returning to Saigon. The best time to visit Hue is from May to August, when it
tends to be dryest. Bring a raincoat anyway, as it's still likely to rain.

Related information:

• Hue Travel Pictures  
• Hotels in Hue  

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Responsible Travel: Culture
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Cultural Etiquette

Traveling in Vietnam is not always relaxing. Often, It can be unpredictable, intense and
frustrating, but it is always rewarding. Being demanding and loud will get you nowhere.
Remember the importance of ‘saving face’ - the subtle but important quality of personal dignity
in Asian countries.

Try to learn about the culture before you travel and broaden your
experience behoy the guidebook. Guidebooks can make or break a
guesthouse or hotel by concentrating people in certain places.
Guidebooks are also out of date by the time they are distributed. Be
willing to try alternative options.

Learn some of the local language, even the basics such as ‘hello’,
‘good bye’ and ‘thank you’. All attempts will be appreciated!

Respect the cultural differences and do not look down on, or try to
change them.

Be careful when showing affection in public. Relationships in

Vietnamese society are fairly traditional, so in general, it is best to limit affection to holding
hands- especially in the rural areas.

Avoid patting or touching people on their heads, it is the symbolic high point in Asia.

Be aware of the importance of the ancestral shrine in Vietnam. Avoid backing up to, pointing
your feet at or changing your clothes in front of it.

Appropriate Dress

To be sure you are not causing offense, it is best to respect local dress standards and dress
modestly, especially in the countryside.

In Vietnam, there are no areas where nude or topless swimming or sunbathing is appropriate.

Women should try to avoid wearing low - cut or tight sleeveless tops and brief, clinging shorts.
It is advisable to wear a bra at all times. Men should avoid walking around bare-chested.

At religious sites, do not wear shorts or sleeveless tops, and remember to remove your shoes.

Questions, privacy and humor

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 Vietnamese concepts of privacy are very different from those of
Westerners, as they are accustomed to living and sharing in a close-
knit community and in crowded conditions.

Don’t be offended by the very Vietnamese fascination with your

personal details; How old are you? Are you married? Do you have
children? How much money do you make? etc. - questions that you
may consider private. You may find the answer ‘not yet’ (chua) to the
question of marriage or children a useful one.

Don’t be taken aback if people are intrigued by your size, especially if

you are tall, well built, or husky. The Vietnamese are a small, slight
race and may openly display their amazement at Western bulk.
Remember this when selecting your clothing!

Talk to the locals and make friends. The people of Vietnam are friendly and hospitable. They
love it when they hear a foreigner try to speak their language.

Photography

Vietnam is a photographer’s dream - from the vivid greens of the rice

paddies and cloud-shrouded mountains to the bustle of open-air
markets and street life, there are endless opportunities. However,
nobody enjoys being followed by a camera, so remember to ask
permission before taking photographs and respect a refusal.

Don’t hound men and women in traditional ethnic dress for the ‘perfect
shot’ if they appear shy or avoid your camera, and remember that
videos are even more intrusive.

Try not to get into the situation of paying for the right to take photos,
as it encourages a begging mentality.

If you promise to send back a photo, make sure you are sincere in your offer.

Just say no

It’s in your own interests to respect local regulations and practices concerning drug and alcohol.
Drugs are illegal in Vietnam and their possession or usage carry harsh penalties.

Be careful about alcohol consumption, especially when visiting rural and ethnic minority areas,
where as a tourist you may enjoy privileged status.

Remember that tourism can fuel the demand for alcohol and drugs, and lead to increased
consumption by locals, encouraging social evils.

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 Getting personal

Be aware that in some communities it may be taboo to conduct an

intimate relationship with a local.

Don’t assume that what is acceptable at home is acceptable

everywhere. Vietnam is still a largely traditional society, and getting
involved with a local may cause offense.

Remember also that the recipient of a foreigner’s attentions can be seriously affected within
their local communities in terns of their well being, social standing and reputation.

Responsible Travel: Environment

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Be an environmental ambassador 

Home to one tenth of the world's mammal, bird and fish species, Vietnam has a unique and
diverse environment. Scattered throughout the country are around 100 protected areas which
encompass a huge variety of ecological systems that include coral reefs, islands, beaches and
dunes, wetlands, mountains, forests of every description, limestone landscapes and caves, river
deltas and lakes. Among these protected areas are 11 national parks, managed by the Forest
Protection Department, which represent some of the jewels of Vietnam' s natural heritage.
Vietnam's 11 national parks are Ba Be, Ba Vi, Bach Ma, Ben En, Cat Ba, Cat Tien, Con Dao,
Cuc Phuong, Tam Dao, Tram Chim and Yok Don. In addition to these 11 national parks, the
country has 4 UNESCO World Heritage Sites - the Ancient Capital at Hue (12/94), Ha Long
Bay (12/94), Hoi An (1/99) and one UNESCO/MAB Biosphere Reserve named Can Gio
Mangrove.

Numerous flora and fauna species are also unique to Vietnam - 40 percent
of Vietnam' s plants grow nowhere else - while seven of the 12 large
mammals, which have been described in the last century, were discovered in
Vietnam.

Sadly, the environment is under threat. In 1943, natural forest covered and
estimated 43% of the country. At the end of 2000, total forest coverage,
including both natural forest and plantation, had dwindled to 33.2%.

Tourism provides an economic reason for conserving natural resources and

if sustainable, can encourage the protection of the country's bio-diversity.

Helping to conserve Vietnam's precious bio‐diversity 

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Many species of Vietnam's wild fauna and flora are under threat from both domestic
consumption and the illegal international trade. Though it maybe ‘an experience’ to try wild
meat such as bear, muntjac, bat, monkey and python, ordering these foods will indicate your
acceptance of these products and add to their demand.

Be careful consuming wild products such as bush meat and traditional medicine as these may
have come from endangered or threatened species. When offered wild meat, be sure that it is
derived from sustainable management practices that can, in fact, contribute to the conservation
of wild animals and rural development. In case of doubt, the best policy is to politely refuse.

In the case of tourist souvenirs, do not buy products made from endangered plants or animals,
such as elephant ivory, tortoise shell, and wild animal skins. Again, unless you are certain the
species is not endangered, never buy live or stuffed animals, however tempting, and forgo the
coral you will no doubt see on sale in the markets. Vietnam’s coral and ornamental fishes are
being severely depleted by destructive harvesting practices.

Remember that virtually all countries in the world are parties to the CITES Convention which
regulates the trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora. Accordingly, importing many
wildlife products without special permit is illegal and you could be severely fined in your own
country.

Rubbish, waste & energy use 

Environmental awareness in Vietnam is generally low. You can help change this subtly by
example - for instance, not dropping litter even if someone tells you it’s okay to do so. By
setting a quiet example, practicing the 3 R’s: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle - and explaining the
reasons for your actions to others, you can play a positive role in protecting the natural and
cultural resources of Vietnam.

Make sure you properly dispose of any rubbish you generate. There are few public rubbish bins
in Vietnam, so this may mean carrying it with you for a while.

If no toilet is available, make sure you bury your waste, and avoid sites near
waterways. Burning or carrying toilet paper and hygienic items out of
natural areas is a must.

Carry a toilet roll and a couple of airtight plastic bags with you in case you
need to take your rubbish with you.

Never use shampoo or soap in rivers, lakes or the sea. Vietnam’s waterways are precious
resources, and in some of the country’s drier areas water is a very scarce commodity.

Please turn off your air conditioner, fans, lights and other electrical appliances when you leave
your hotel or guesthouse.

Try to reduce the use of air conditioners in cars and encourage drivers to turn off the engine

200 
 
when stationary.

Coral reefs and limestone caves 

Vietnam is home to a large expanse of stunning limestone landscape - of which Halong Bay in
the North is the most famous - and coral reefs, both of which have suffered severe damage in
recent years. Coral reefs in particular have been damaged due to dynamite fishing, boat
anchorage, mining for concrete production and sale to tourists.

When visiting coral reefs do not touch live coral, as this hinders growth. Some species, such as
‘fire corals’ are also able to cause a harmful sting.

Do not anchor boats on the coral reefs. If your tour operator / captain does this, try to convince
him or her to anchor in a sandy area. Indicate that you are willing to swim the extra distance to
the coral.

When exploring limestone caves, don’t touch the formations as it hinders growth and turns the
limestone black. Never break off stalactites and stalagmites in limestone caves. They take
lifetimes to regrow.

Walking and trekking in natural areas

Whilst walking and trekking are preferable to vehicles as a means of

exploring national parks and other protected areas, the constant flow of
tourists can still have a negative impact on the fragile ecological balance of
these places. Remember that you are just one in thousands who will visit
and impact an area.

Keep to designated trails when out walking, both for your safety and the
protection of the environment. There are reasons why certain trails are used.

Follow the rules and regulations of the protected area you are visiting. For example never make
fires, avoid making unnecessary noise and do not take samples from nature (flowers,
mushrooms, frogs, seeds...).

Pay particular attention to the guidelines for rubbish discussed above. Do not dispose of rubbish
or cigarette butts in the wild as they may take many years to break down (if ever), can
pootentially harm the animals, and are not pleasant to look at.

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Ethical Travel: Vietnam

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201 
 
Buying local 

By using locally produced goods and services, you can contribute financially to the community
you are visiting and help turn tourism to the country’s benefit.

Drink and eat local food when you can.

Use local transport and local shops.

Offer to repay hospitality in cash or in kind, to avoid exploiting the

goodwill of others. At the same time, try to avoid paying for simple
acts of kindness in cash - for example, being given directions.

Hire a local guide when visiting protected areas or historical sites.

This way you will contribute to the local economy, learn more about
the area, and have the opportunity to meet local people.

Giving money or gifts 

Giving money away to both children and adults promotes a begging

mentality and culture. It also highlights the income gap and strips
away people’s self esteem. By avoiding cash handouts you can play a
part in discouraging the development of a society which equates every human action as a
potential money making scheme.

Avoid giving children money or gifts, it is better to pay for a postcard, map, or a shoeshine.

Giving chocolate or sweets is a bad idea, as many people do not have access to dentists and
knowledge of dental hygiene is poor.

The hard sell 

Vietnam is developing country, and one that has experienced a long period of war so poverty is
obvious and unavoidable. Be prepared to be approached by street
sellers, shoe shiners, etc., or followed by empty cyclos expectantly
awaiting your patronage, especially in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City.

If a street seller approaches you, be firm but polite and calm in

turning them away, even if you are irritated by a day filled with
similar approaches.

Take a cyclo when you can, as they are a great way to see a city and
view street life at close quarters. Cyclos today are losing out to taxis
and xe om (motorbike taxis), so you’ll also be supporting a
threatened trade. And one that is enironmentally friendly.

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Negotiate prices in advance before accepting either goods from street sellers, or getting on a xe
om or into a cycle. It will benefit you when you reach your destination and it is time to pay.

The sex trade 

In Asia, prostitution is an unfortunate fact of life. The link between tourism and prostitution is
undisputed. Be aware that prostitution is illegal in Vietnam. Be careful not to act in any way
that could be seen as encouraging this, especially where children are concerned.

Don’t buy sexual services, remember that the relationship between tourists and prostitutes is
almost always unequal and tends to be exploitative.

The sexual exploitation of children is a significant problem right across Asia. However, several
countries now have laws which enable the trial at home of tourists who have committed crimes
of paedophilia abroad. If you observe anyone known to you involved in child prostitution, you
might consider reporting them to the police when you get home.

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Danang history 
In the middle of the 16th century, when Hoi An was a busy
center of the south, Danang was only a small port for goods
in transit and ship repair. It gradually developed into a
commercial port replacing Hoi An in the early 18th century,
when European shipbuilding was improved and large deep
draught vessels could easily enter Danang Bay.

In 1835, after King Minh Mang ordered: “European vessels

are not allowed to anchor to do trade at any harbours except
for Han Port”, Danang became the largest commercial port in the central region. The local
small-scale industries, including shipbuilding, preliminary processing of agricultural, forestry
and fishery products, and trade, services prospered accordingly.
The French colonists, after establishing their domination of the whole of Vietnam in 1889,
separated Danang from Quang Nam Province and renamed the city Tourane and under the
control of the Governor General of Indochina.

In the early 20th century, Tourane was developed on a European model, which focused on
social infrastructure and manufacture technology. Many kinds of economic activity took shape
and thrived, such as agricultural production, small-scale industries, export product procesing
(tea, food, beverages, ice, alcohol, fish sauce, dried fish), ship building and repair, and
services. Together with Hai Phong and Sai Gon, Tourane became an important trading center
of the country.

In 1950, French gave the authority over the city to the Bao Dai government. In March 1965,
American marine units landed and started to set up a big military complex. The city was

203 
 
defined as a centrally governed city in 1967, and accordingly American troops and the Saigon
government built up Danang into a political, military and cultural center of the 1st and 2nd
tactical zones. Military bases and such infrastructure as the airport, ports, warehouses, roads,
public works, communication stations, and banks were constructed. Industries flourished,
resulting in the substitution by industrial zones of handicraft workshops. For example, Hoa
Khanh Industrial Zone was used for oxygen, acetylene and detergent production, grind and
textiles industries. However, the devastating war made thousands of rural people flee in
refugee camps. Urban slums appeared, social evils increased and production came to a
standstill.

In 1975, after gaining complete independence, Danang

(temporarily under Quang Nam – Da Nang Province)
began to overcome the war’s severe consequences.
Regardless of difficulties, the city’s rehabilitation and
development had some results, especially after the
renovation in 1986.

On 6 July 1996, the tenth session of the 9th National

Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam passed
a Resolution separating Quang Nam – Danang Province into Quang Nam Province and Danang
city, which was directly responsible to the central government. The new city of Danang
consisted of the previous Danang, Hoa Vang Rural District and Hoang Sa Island District.
Other  

Geographic Location 

Danang lies between latitudes 15055’ and 16014’N. and longitudes

107018’ and 108020’E. It borders Thua Thien – Hue Province to the
north, Quang Nam Province to the south and west, and looks out on the
Eastern Sea to the east.

The city is in the middle of the country on the north – south road, rail,
sea and air routes. It is 764km south of Hanoi Capital and 964km north
of Ho Chi Minh City. In addition, Danang is in the central point of the
three well –known world cultural heritages, including Hue ancient
capital, Hoian ancient town and My Son holyland.

On the regional and international scale, Danang is considered one of the important gateways of
the Central Highlands of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand and Myanmar to the sea and
Northeast Asian nations via the East-West Economic Corridor linking Tien Sa Seaport as an
ending point. Situated in one of the international sea and air routes, Danang City has a very
advantageous geographic location for quick and sustainable socio-economic development.

Danang population  

Administrative units  Year

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 1999 2001 

Population Population
Population Population 
density density
(person)  (person) 
(persons/km2) (persons/km2)

Danang City  684846 545,15 728786  580,13

Hai Chau District  189297 7863,13 200722  8339,09

Thanh Khe District   149637 16084,81 155743  16746,56

Son Tra District  99344 1634,89 10503 0  1728,32

Ngu Hanh Son District  41895 1146,61 46713  1278,38

Lien Chieu District  63464 763,87 67598  813,65

Hoa Vang Rural District  141209 191,47 152980  207,44

Hoang Sa Island District  ... ... ...  ...

 

Other  

▪   Population of Hoa Vang district and its communes  

▪   Some basic demographics  

▪   Population of Hai Chau district and its wards  

▪   Population of Lien Chieu district and its wards  

▪   Population of Ngu Hanh Son district and its wards  

▪   Population of Son Tra district and its wards

 

▪   Population of Thanh Khe district and its wards  

Land resources 

Danang has an area of 1,255.53 square kilometers.

Mountains and hills cover most of the territory including
Hoang Sa Island district with an area of 305 square
kilometers. There are various kinds of soil including
sand dunes, white, saline, aluminous, alluvium, arid
brown, brown, black, basaltic and humus basaltic.
Alluvium on the coastal plains is suitable for rice,
vegetable and flower cultivation while basaltic land in
mountainous areas is used for long-term cash crops,
special crops, medicinal plants, cattle raising and is stable for construction.

Types of land are as follows:

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- Forest land: 514.21 km2 of which natural land covers 367.29 km2

- Agricultural land: 117.22 km2.

- Functional land (for industry, construction, irrigation, storage, and military use): 385.69 km2.

- Residential land: 30.79 km2. Of this urban land covers 17.06 km2.

- Unused land, rivers, mountains: 207.62 km2 .Of this, arable land covers 18.1 km2 and unused
hill land is 49 km2.
Other  

▪   Forest resources  

▪   Mineral resources  

▪   Water resources 

Danang infrastructure 

Danang has a network of road, rail, sea and air routes.

The city has a total of 382,583 kilometers of roads, including

70,865 kilometers of national routes; 99,716 kilometers of
provincial routes; 67 kilometers of rural roads and 8,181,672
kilometers of inner-city roads. The roads are 8 m wide on
average. Road density varies from: 3 km/km2 in central city
areas to 0.33 km/km2 in rural areas.

30 kilometers of the north – south railway crosses the city with the stations of Danang, Thanh
Khe, Kim Lien, Hai Van Nam. Of these, Danang station is one of the biggest ones in Viet
Nam.

Located in the central part of the country, Danang has advantages in sea transport with
shipping routes to most large domestic and international ports. With a favorable location,
modern equipment and highly skilled workers, the two ports of Danang, Tien Sa and Han
River, always ensure cargo transport to many international ports.

Danang International Airport with an area of 150 ha, including two 3,048 meter long and 45
meter wide runways, can accommodate modern planes such as B747, B767, and A320. There
are 84 domestic flights and 6 international ones to Hong Kong and Thailand weekly.

The water and electricity supply system is being upgraded to better serve the people’s daily
lives, production and trading activities in the city.

Post and telecommunications has been developed and modernized, making Danang the
country’s third biggest center of this field.

206 
 
Other  

▪   The Danang post-telecommunication network  

▪   Road system  

▪   Airport network  

▪   Port network  

▪   Rail system 

▪   Water supply  

▪   Power supply system  

Other

Danang Tourist zones

Visitors can choose a place for relaxation and recreation in Danang, a sunny and ventilated tropical area
with primeval forests rich in floras and faunas, beautiful sandy beaches, fresh water and wide roads
looking out on the Han River.

Coming to Danang, they can enjoy wonderful moments on mountain, in forests or by rivers and seas.
International standard services are available at the city resorts. Danang has aimed to become a service
and tourist center in central Vietnam, and moreover nationally, regionally and internationally. Many
resorts have been built, including 4 - 5 star luxurious resorts of Furama, Sandy Beach and eco-tourism
ones of Luong Stream, Ba Na and Son Tra.

Even the pickiest visitors will satisfy with green, calm and beautiful views in Danang.

Danang - a picturesque city by rivers and seas

Talking about Danang City, tourists may quickly think

that this is a picturesque city by the Han river, by the coast
of the Eastern Sea with distinctive attractiveness compared
with other sea cities...

Danang is favored by nature, situated in the middle of the

three world cultural heritage sites including the ancient
capital Hue, the ancient town Hoi An and the holy land
My Son. Such the position highlights the Danang's role in
Central Vietnam. This is the place for welcoming, serving
and being the entrepot for tourists. Not only at the central point of the three world cultural
heritages, Danang City has also lots of attractive spots which tourists feel unforgettable after
visiting the city.

Danang has the high and dangerous Hai Van pass with full of perilous obstacles, engraved
“the most grandiose beauty spots in the world”, Son Tra peninsula - an ideal rendez-vous for
tourists. Surrounding Son Tra peninsula are Da stream, Bai But, Bai Rang, Bai Bac, Bai Nom
- the beautiful alluvial plains which make interesting feeling for tourists on being ingulfed in
splendid of dawn and the quietness of crepuscle in a picturesque land. The eco-tourism resort

207 
 
 Ba Na - Mo Stream is considered as Dalat, Sapa of Central Vietnam and the legendary
Marble Mountains - 'a beautiful landscape of the southern heaven and earth'. Mentioning
Danang, tourists can not forget the poetic Han river and its bridge - the first swing one in
Vietnam. This is the pride of Danang people. The Han River bridge - the symbol for new
vitality and the developing desire of the city- was built with the contribution of all the city's
people. It seems that all poetic features of the Han River can be only expressed deeply in the
space of Han river bridge with full of wind and ventilation. It not only facilitates transport
and potentials for tourism, awaking economic potentials of a vast area in the eastern city but
is a cultural spot of Danang people today left behind for the future generations.

Danang is also endowed with sea - the vast tourist source of inspiration. In addition to
beautuiful and clean stretching beaches, Danang seaport is one of the most well-known
seaport in Vietnam.

Danang City by Han river - a poetic and beautiful sea city plus the hospitability of the city
people make it a frequent destination for domestic and international tourists.
More 

▪   Marble mountains  

▪   Ba Na, Chua Mountain, Mo Stream  

▪   Son Tra Peninsula  

▪   The Hai Van Pass ‐ Hai Van Gate  

▪   The Hai Van Pass ‐ Hai Van Gate  

▪   Beautiful beaches of Danang City  

Marble mountains 

Marble Mountains are seemingly familiar to everybody who heard of

there or has been to Danang City. There are so well known as to be a
symbol of the area. The subtle, lyric and poetical ambience of
pagodas, grottoes, trees, bushes, sounds the mixed of pagoda bells
and murmuring waves and the mysterious legends of sea are all that
are not far from the city center, making the mountains a fairy land for
tourists for ages.

Almost two hundred years ago, King Minh Mang came here. He
named the mountain, grottoes and pagodas. Nobody knows why
names such as Ngu Hanh Son, Huyen Khong, Hoa Liem, Lang Hu,
Tang Chan, Van Nguyet, Thien Long put King deep in thought,
despite of dwelling on to national development, the King kept in his
mind the picturesque landscape of the mountains as the pride of the beautiful southern land.

Cultural and historical stamps can be seen on every pagoda and tower built in the 19th
century, and on Champa sculptures of the 14th and 15th century. There are written-on-stone

208 
 
 poets of the Le and Tran Dynasty, a grave of Capital Tran Quang Khai’s mother, a temple
worshiping Ngoc Lan princess (Minh Mang King’s younger sister) and such evolutionary
relics as Da Chong tunnel, Ba Tho cave, Kim Son mount, Am Phu cave, etc… All are
persuasive evidences to the legendary Marble Mountain and the land endowed with the people
of great talent.

Like other landscapes, these mountains have many different mysterious legends. The poetical
ambience plus echoes of my mysterious legends gives mountains their own characters that it
is difficult to find on other places. In ancient oriental philosophy; metal, wood, water, fire,
earth were five elements that created the universe. Five is the paramount important number in
thinking and lives. The coincidence of the five peaks: metal, wood, water, fire, earth still
keeps them mysterious.

The natural grottoes and pagodas on the mountains combine

both heaven-endowed and man-made to create the
harmonious beauty. The feature the attractive characters that
keep tourists surprised and emotional on the way traveling.

On hot summer days, let us imagine you and your friends

going up the 108 steps to Ling Ung pagoda, sitting at Vong
Giang tower to look to green Truong Giang murmuring
slightly in the sunset or standing on Vong Hai tower to look
far to sandy beaches flirted by the sea waves. In the late
afternoon, city dwellers rush to the seaside, fishermen group by group patiently push their
boats offshore, and on the greasy paths leading to the grottoes and inside pagodas the
sandalwood exhales its fragrance. One day staying at the in Marble Mountains makes life
more beautiful and meaningful.

Ba Na, Chua Mountain, Mo Stream 

Located in Hoa Vang province, apart from Danang 40

kilometers to southwest, Ba Na – Mount Chua is 1,487 meters
high over the sea level. Average temperature is from 17 to 20
degree Celsius.

In Ba Na, there are four seasons in a day: spring in the morning,

summer at noon, autumn in the afternoon, winter in the evening.
For light rains, it is not as wet as in Da Lat. Although it rains
around the mountain, the top is dry; furthermore, it is cloudless,
and fresh. Compared with Tam Dao, Da Lat, the territory has a precedence of panoramic view.
From the top of the mountain, one can have a vast view of sea, Danang city, rice fields spreading
to the horizon.

While months from May to August are the hottest period (up to 32oC) in seaside Central Viet
Nam, temperature at the territory fluctuates from 17 to 20 degree Celsius, 22-25oC in maximum.
It drops down to 15oC at night. With temperate climate, murmuring rivers, fluttering trees, Ba

209 
 
Na is as attractive as Tam Dao, Da Lat, etc. The Ba Na natural reservation zone has 544 sorts of
high-level flora, 256 types of animals, in which there are 6 flora and 44 fauna of being precious
recorded in Vietnamese Redbook.

One seems to be lost in clouds and smoke. For different factors and reasons, people have
different judgments on Ba Na but all think that it is Ba Na that is the best place for relaxing.

With its wonderful advantages, French chose the territory as a relaxing resort and constructed
hundreds of castles, villas, pleasure house and buildings here. Though natural calamities and
enemy inflicted destruction for half of century sweep some traces of these ancient houses and
buildings, there remains generosity of nature: primitive forests, temperate and fresh climate,
fluttering sounds of pine hills mixed with songs murmured by rivers flowing over granites and
then smoothly towards the forest.

Some villas currently restored and upgraded with modern

equipments are available. Especially comfortable telepheric
system drives tourists from Vong Nguyet post, soaking in
clouds, bypassing the beneath primitive forest to the center
of Ba Na tourist site.

Ba Na – a romantic site thanks to the beauty of nature

embellished by human hands. Looking down to Danang
from the top of Ba Na, one seems to have the feelings that
one is living in a different life with different emotions and
different happiness. Feelings one can never gain from life in
noisy urban areas.

In connection with Ba Na – Mount Chua, Mo River is a famous tourist site. In direction of

southwest about 27 kilometers from Danang, in Hoa Vang district, the site is most occupied in
summer. There is Toc Tien Fall (Fairy’s Hair Fall) with 9 levels. The fall is called Toc Tien
because looking up from the fall foot, it looks like a fairy’s beautiful hair.

Son Tra Peninsula 

Son Tra is a special gift of the god to Danang. It can be

seen from every places of the city. With its sea-oriented
appearance, Son Tra acts as a giant screen protecting
Danang from storms and cyclones coming from the sea.

10-km northeast of the city center is Son Tra Peninsula. It

looks like a mushroom with its peak 693m above sea level.
The cap of the mushroom is Son Tra Mountain and its
stalk is the white sandy beach that affords an ideal area for
bathing, playing sports, fishing and swimming.

Son Tra mountain is natural preservation area with various kinds of plants and animals. On this
mountain, there still remain more than 30sq. kilometers of natural forests, nearly 300 types of
210 
 
plants and several hundred kinds of fauna, including rare animal. The scenery is very
attractive, it is said that fairies usually chose this place for landing, singing, dancing and
playing chess. The name Tien Sa (Tien: Fairy, Sa: landing) is rooted from that.

From the top of the mountain, we can see the view of our
beloved city, Marble Mountains, Ba Na – Mount Chua. It
is an enjoyable and peaceful vista.

Suoi Da stream lies by the side of the foot of the mountain,

fine sandy surfaces run round the peninsula, several breaks
of waves are running steadily up and down and washing up
on the stones heaped up around the seaside. There it is
quiet Bai But with groups of small, nice-looking houses,
where people can sit for hours to hear the thunder of waves
and view the slanginess on the far mount cliffs.

At the mount foot, there are colorful and graceful coral beaches where diving tourism can
develop.

It is so majestic and it is so romantic, it is so wide and it is really beautiful. In one-day stay at

Son Tra, we can enjoy living in the resplendent flow of dawn and the quietness of twilight on
this fascinating landscape. And that is a time for us to realize the value of each and every
moment and the true calling of our hearts.

* Some pictures of Sontra peninsula

Other  

▪   Visiting the Son Tra Peninsula

 

Son Tra Peninsula is a low mountainous area fully covered by

forest . It is one of the city’s lung. Son Tra Peninsula and the Hai
Van Pass embrace the Han River and form a wide closed bay.
From the air, the Son Tra Peninsula looks like a fish fairy swimming
to the Eastern Sea. From the sea, you can see three mountain
  peaks: Co Ngua, Nghe and Mo Dieu. The highest peak is 693m
above the sea level.
 
‐ Updated: 12/18/2006 (GMT+7) 
 

▪   Thousand villa peninsula 

211 
 
 At present and in the future, Son Tra will be a peninsula with 1,000
modern villas owned by individuals and travel companies. The
purchase of ready-built villas or land lots interests many people
nationwide thanks to the peninsula's preserved nature, and high-
grade recreational and convalescence services to be provided by
on-the-spot tourism projects by 2007.
 
‐ Updated: 6/23/2006 (GMT+7) 
 

▪   Son Tra Peninsula – a major magnet

 

The Son Tra Peninsula was woken up with projects worth

VND2,000bil after the Danang People's Committee approved
tourism development in the area. It has proven to be a precinct with
potential on the Danang coastal tourist route from the Hai Van Pass
  to Marble Mountains. 

The Hai Van Pass - Hai Van Gate

On a journey through the land, Hai Van is always an

attractive landscape. Hai Van is highest pass in the country,
full of perilous obstacles and is the last spur of the Truong
Son Range reaching to the sea. In “Phu Bien Tap Luc”, Le
Qui Don, the Viet Nam scholar who lived in the XVII
century wrote that Hai Van with its foot standing in the sea
surface and its summit covered with clouds. The pass
standings as a borderline divide Thuan Hoa and Quang Nam
provinces.

On the top of the pass are the vestiges of long ago, a fortified gateway. The gate facing to Thua
Thien province is inscribed with the three words “Hai Van gate” and the other gate looking
down on Quang Nam province is engraved “the most grandiose gateway in the world”. In the
XVI century this land belonged to Cham Kingdom and was given to the Dai Viet as an
engagement present for the Princess Huyen Tran of the Tran Dynasty. The old story is only a
memory, old vestiges covered with green moss, among vast spaces vast of plants and trees,
tourists are filled with the emotions of the past.

Hai Van means winds and clouds. Winds like a herd of horses galloping a number of miles,
clouds like pouring from haven. Cao Ba Quat, the poet living in the XVII century only
respected apricot blossom (Nhat sinh de thu bai mai hoa) was surprised when he was before the
landscape: Nhat bich ngung vi gioi – Trung van nhieu tac thanh. On the summit of Hai Van
pass, a panorama of the Danang city, Tien Sa port, Son Tra peninsular, Cu Lao Cham and a
long white sandy beach can be seen.

212 
 
Whatever endowed by nature, time by time and by hands of man will be something of
humanitarian values. Coming to Hai Van is to come to the sanction of two land, to satisfy the
peak-conquering philosophy, to mix ourselves in to echo of heroic songs of Vietnamese
ancients when they went to find new lands to be emotional to prolong past of the Center region
where suffering a lot of losses in the course of finding and protecting the nation.

* Some pictures of Haivan pass - Haivan gate

Other  

▪   Visiting Hai Van Pass and Hai Van Gate 

- Location: National Highway 1A, connecting Thua Thien – Hue

Province and Danang. The pass is 20km long, lying on the
mountain and facing the sea. The scenery is glorious and romantic.
Destinations for visitors include:
   
‐ Updated: 12/18/2006 (GMT+7) 

▪   Hai Van Pass  

On the north – south nation highway, the Hai Van Pass is an

impressive landscape. This is the highest pass in Vietnam (500m
above sea level). This rugged pass is the final section of the Truong
Son Range stretching to the sea. In Phu Bien Book, Le Quy Don
said that Hai Van with its foot close to the sea and its head touching
  the sky is the border of Thuan Hoa and Quang Nam regions. Over
six centuries ago, the land belonged to the O and Ri counties of the
Cham Kingdom and was given as a wedding present by King Che
Man to princess Huyen Tran of the Tran dynasty. Hai Van Pass is
 
now the border of Thua Thien – Hue Province and Danang City.
 

Beautiful beaches of Danang City 

Danang has a coastline of 30 kilometres long, famous for many

beautiful seashores stretching from the north to the south such
as Nam O, Xuan Thieu, Thanh Binh, Tien Sa, Son Tra, My
Khe, Bac My An, Non Nuoc... in which international tourists
came for convalescence and relaxation, recognised as the most
ideal beaches of the region.

Danang has calm seas with green water during four seasons,
not being polluted with 60% salination and high safety. Some
seashores have coral, abundant plants and creatures along bankside and under sea. Especially,
most beaches are next to the city centre, in roads easy to come and by various means of transport.
The sea water is cool with little wave so tourists can bath all year's round, especialy in summer

213 
 
from May to August. The beaches in Danang City have hotels, pleasure-house, and various
abundant services, creating favourable conditions for tourists to relax on the seashores. Most
beaches are convenient for development of kinds of services for tourists such as fishing, water-
skiing, diving, yatch race.

The safeguard team of Danang seashores work from 5 a.m to 8 p.m every day to ensure safety
for tourists to bath and relax on the seashores.

* Some pictures of Danang beaches

Historical and cultural relics in Danang City - the glorious pages in history 

Like other localities, Danang has passed through many ups and
downs in its development process. Remain relics are evidence of
the resilient and heroic past of the land.

Danang people are deeply attached to everybody, showing their

belief in spiritual life, spirit world and the fair and protest of
God and land. As a result of that, the ancient communal houses
are conserved with high respect and deepest sympathy. Time
went by, the remains are a few but maintaining skilful carvings
of artists in the past plus double-tile roof covered with full of
moss and the solemn and secluded and quict atmosphere of
place of worship.

Danang people always show their respect to the past, gratitude

to the ancestors, preserving the stele of Long Thu pagoda - the
vestige of the old, Dien Hai citadel, Iphanho cemetery, K20 historical relic and many other
relics - the evidence of fire and sword, heart-breaking but heroic time of the land. The Danang
generations continue to make the most glorious pages about the beloved city. This is also the
desire for peace, songs of triumph and unwordable pains, with the heroes devoting their whole
lives and passing forever sleep under the land such as Ong Ich Khiem tomb, heroes buried at
Khuê Trung cemetery, Phuoc Ninh cemetery where they passed a vey sound sleep so that the
city starts a new life.
Other  

The Dien Hai citadel was formerly known as Dien hai Fortress, built in 1813 in the twelfth year
of Gia Long’s reign by Danang’s estuary.

It was renamed in 1835, the fifteenth year of Minh Mang’s reign, after it was moved inland and
rebuilt in brick on a high mount in 1823, the fourth year of Minh Mang’s reign.

In 1840, Deputy Minister of Labour Nguyen Cong Tru inspected the defences of Danang and
commanded a more powerful system for Dien Hai and An Hai Citadels.

In 1847, the seventh year of Thieu Trij’s reign the perimeter of Dien Hai was expanded to 556
meters with a wall 5 meters high surrounded by a ditch 3 meters deep. The citadel was designed

214 
 
with two gates, the main one opening to the south and the other to the east. In side, there was
Hanh Cung (the royal step-over place), Ky Dai (high flagpole platform), a storehouse for food
and ammunition and 30 large canon emplacements. The citadel was built in brick in the square
Vauban style of architecture.

Dien Hai citadel, bearing the stamp of tradition of the struggle of Danang people and the nation
in the persistent war against the French colonialists to protect national independence and
territory, made an important contribution to the defeat of the French invaders in Danang in 1858-
1860. A majestic statue of General Nguyen Tri Phuong was built up for memory to a
magnanimous period of the city’s history.

Dien Hai Citadel was classified as a national historical relic by the Ministry of Culture and
Communication on 16th November 1998 and a stele was permitted to be erected on 25th August
1998.

Ancient villages and occupational villages in suburban areas of Danang City

Danang looks like Phu Dong growing days by days with

high-rise buildings, streets with wind from the sea. Beside
bustle of the city center, there are ancient villages and
traditional trade villages hiden by the range of bamboos in the
city's suburban areas.

With no chaos and bustling, beside soothing green of plants,

ancient villages and occupational vilages are places which
revive past years of Danang people. They desire to keep the
city traditional features - modest and ancient beauty for life.
Outside the city, Phong Nam ancient village, Tuy Loan ancient village have a vast view of rice
fields, small paths under bamboo shade and sometimes feeling peaceful atmosphere of hens'
sound in the afternoon. In the village, there still remains the old-aged communal houses
through ups and downs of the city history. However, there are sacred holy atmosphere but to be
very close to the spirit of Quang Nam and Danang people.

Each village or occupational village bear distinctive feature of Danang City. The Non Nuoc art
stone village has statues made by talented artists by their intelligence and cleverness. They put
their soul in stones, waking thousand-year sleep of nature to put it in life with people.
Inhabitants of Cam Ne mat village make pieces of mat with flavour of plants, softness as wave
of rice trees, making good sleep of many human generations. If you have a chance to come to
Cam Ne village, paying a visit to Cam Le sesame cake village to bring cake packages as gifts.
This is a kind of crispy biscuits, sweet of medium rare sugar of sugar-cane fields by Cam Le
river.

Over many years, the villages and occupational villages of Danang City remain modest and
simple features. The senior, the talented artists are very keen on jobs their ancestors generated,
many human generations by many generations make living not only for daily income but the
belief for the land which brought up them.

215 
 
Non Nuoc fine art village 

Perhaps no one comes to the Five Marble Mountains without paying

a call on the Hoa Hai Fine Arts Village, where nationwide and
worldwide famous marble handicraft works are produced.

Mr. Le Ben, an over-70-year-old craftsman, told us that the trade

village of his country has a three or four-hundred-year history. This
is affirmed by some steles which still remain at some ancient
pagodas in the Quang Nam area. Currently, there is a temple of the
“Marble Fine Arts Founders” at the well-known spot of the Five
Marble Mountains, and many ancestor anniversary activities take place largely in this village on
the sixth day of the first lunar month every year.

Many gardens of statues have their back to the mountains. So, the overall artistic spaces of these
gardens are arranged skillfully thanks to the outside landscape. Visitors will be very interested in
and surprised by the artistic stone works exhibited here.

Polished statues, lively toy animals, and petite and sophisticated presents with both traditional
and modern motives that were produced here have been taken to most parts of the world by
visitors.

Lifeless stone has become a lively thing with the human spirit imbued into it by the craftsmen of
the Non Nuoc Fine Arts Village. It is certain that this process takes place in many work stages,
including extremely difficult ones. The happiness with the completed works, the admiration of
connoisseurs and also the benefits from the job have united the people of this fine arts village in
their careers.

The annual traditional festivals of Danang City

Danang people as well as tourists to Danang City - a

beautiful city by the Han river are very keen on participating
in the city traditional festivals. It is an opportunity for
everybody to come to dedicate their prayers for good weather
to facilitate the argricultural seasons and to be more loser, for
the ancestors' support and to pray for for good luck to their
close relatives and friends.

Danang festivals have a lot in common with those of the

coastal areas in Central Vietnam but bear lots of specific features and distinctive beauty of the
region. In the festive days, with the whole colorful area and thrilling songs of praying peace,
ardent rhythm of "bai choi". The festivals in Danang City were originated long time ago,passed
from generations to generations such as Cau Ngu festival, Avalokitecvara festival, Hoa My
village festival, An Hai village festival etc. Time went by, many festivals were not generated
such as "Pastor festival" - a very special one for pastors only, naughty children with muddy
legs and bareheaded.

216 
 
Not only preserving the traditional festivals, Danang people make a new festival by themselves
depending on the traditional features of boat race. It is annually held on the September 2nd
National Day in the Han river with tens of racing teams of localities inside and outside the city.
This is really the homeland festive day and of man's heart.
Other  

Avalokitecvara festival 

Avalokitecvara festival is celebrated every year at the

Beautiful landscape of the Marble Mountains of Danang
city. It was first celebrated in 1960 on the opening of Bo Tat
Quan The Am statue in Hoa Nghiem cavern, Thuy Son
mountain, the west of Ngu Hanh Son. After 2 years, the
festival was celebrated on the opening of Avalokitecvara
pagoda, Quan Am cavern where they found a stalactite
whose shape is like Avalokitecvara. After that, due to some
reasons, the festival was not celebrated for a long time until
the Avalokitecvara spirit anniversary on 19th February, 1991 (Tan Mui Year). After that, the
festival is held on the 19th February (Lunar Calendar) every year with a bigger size and better
content.

Avalokitecvara festival lasts for 3 days including: PHAN LE VA PHAN HOI

PHAN LE: Buddha features....

- Le ruoc anh sang: It is often held in the evening of the 18th including torch parade, sedan chair
parade, lion dance, dragon dance to pray for the leading of the light which means bright mind in
Buddhism. The bright mind will accompany with good soul and personality and help people do
more charities.

- Le khai kinh: it is often held in the early morning of the 19th to pray
for the peaceful and prosperous life.

- Le trai dan chan te: it is often held in the morning of the 19th to pray
for the peace of the soul and worship the ten creatures. The Buddhists
often send the list of their dead relatives to the pagoda to pray for the
peace of their souls. There must be a Buddhist with high position to
carry out the ceremony.

-The lecture about Bodhisattva Avalokitecvara and the people: it is often

held in the morning of the 19th to praise the good soul of Bodhisattva
Avalokitecvara and to pray for the peaceful and prosperous life.

217 
 
- Avalokitecvara's statue parade: It is often held after the above ceremony at 10am, 19th. There
are 4 persons who carry the sedan chair with the Buddha’s statue go first and the Buddhists
follow them. The sedan chair is carried from the pagoda to the small boat on Cau Bien river (one
branch of Co Co river. The main aim of he ceremony is to pray for the safety and prosperity of
the fishermen. Apart from the above ceremony, there is also a spring ceremony to worship the
wood, water genies to pray for the peaceful and prosperous life. It is often held in the evening in
the 18th. During this ceremony, the old men of the Hoa Hai ward, Hoa Quy district in the formal
clothes carrying flags, torches, lanterns go first and the music band with drums and gongs
follows them. After the ceremony and the funeral oration, the old men will lead the parade to
Cau Bien riverbank to open the light festival and then from Avalokitecvara pagoda, they go
around the streets and Non Nuoc villages to Non Nuoc tourism resort and return to the ceremony
stand after 2 km walk.

PHAN HOI: There are many traditional and modern cultural-sport activities such as disguise
festival, folk songs, chest, painting, music, sculpture competition, "tu linh" dance, tuong, etc.
There are also many cultural activities such as calligraphy and Chinese ink painting museum, the
eloquence contest about the Marble Mountains, vegetarian diet cooking competition, etc.

The festival held at good natural place has attracted many pilgrimage and the tourists from many
different regions to the west of the Marble Mountains. On the village common, people play the
traditional game called "keo co". You can also hear the shouting of the people who joined the
regattas in Co Co River. When the night falls, the festival is more attractive with many colors
and sounds. After the performance “Ngu Hanh Son legend" at the main stage is the torch parade
across the main streets of Ngu Hanh Son district. The Buddhists put their wishes into the small
light lanterns and drop them onto the river to pray for the long lasting bright mind. With many
traditional culture and sport activities, Avalokitecvara festival is the religious one but very
popular in the people's life. It has restored and developed the traditional characteristics of the
Vietnamese.
Avalokitecvara festival is held to pray for the peaceful and prosperous life and to give people the
opportunity to live better in the summer atmosphere.

Danang museums 

There are four museums in Danang. Each of them tells a story

about the city.

The Cham Museum has old statues and idols that date back to
the long-standing culture of the Champa

Kingdom. It is the only museum dedicated to Cham culture  

worldwide, so its value is accredited internationally.

The Museum of the Fifth Military Zone and the Historical  

Museum display hallmarks of the city construction and
protection over the ages, especially in the two resistance wars against French and American
invaders.

218 
 
The Ho Chi Minh Museum attracts many visitors coming to pay respect to the national hero. The
museum has a replica of President Ho’s home in Hanoi with fishpond, house on stilts, garden and
other relics. The facsimile creates a sacred but warm atmosphere as though President Ho is
present.

The General Scientific Library on the Han River bank is an option for those wanting to have an insight 
into Danang.  
 

Champa museum 

When visiting the Champa museum in Danang, whether in the

morning or in the afternoon, on rainy or sunny days, visitors
still perceive an individual atmosphere particular to this place,
the reverie of reminiscences.

Built in July 1915 with the support of the Far-East

Archaeological Research Institute in Hanoi, the Champa
Museum now has nearly 2000 large and small sculptures. Of
these, 288 are on display inside the museum, 187 objects in the
garden and more than 1.200 objects are reserved in the storehouse. Most of the sculptures in the
museum are original and mainly of three kinds of materials, including sandstone, terracotta and
bronze. The majority of these sculptures from the 12th to the 15th century are made of sandstone
with different art styles.

The sculptures displayed here almost have the same drifting life as the very destiny of the once-
glorious culture that generated them. Through the ruins of time, war and even the oblivion, such
original Champa sculptures were hardly collected and brought here by many human generations.
And in this systematic collection, these works of the ancient Champa artists again have a new
life.

Coming to visit the museum, it seems that we see again the glorious time of the past of a nation
for whom both the passion for art and the creative talent were already at a very high level. The
mysterious world of deities, the pictorial legends, the religious symbols, the curving lines of the
bodies of dancing girls, the features of full swelling breasts, the smiles of a vague time… all of
these are shown very lively and in much in details.

Despite profoundly influenced by the architecture and sculpture of the Indian civilization, the
ancient Champa, nevertheless, has a vision of life and religion according to their own feeling.
Such refraction brought to their world of art a really distinct beauty. It is spiritual though it is
very close; it has unique though it is familiar. It is a subtle and distinctive beauty.

The moment of relaxation and entertainment 

219 
 
After hard-working days, Danang people often make the habit of
relaxing at the entertainment areas in the city. March 29th Park
and Water Park are the two familiar places of Danang people. The
whole family can walk along the shady streets, enjoying fresh air
right at the heart of the city or bathing in fresh water in hot days.
People who like the adventure can enjoy strong feelings on spiral-
shaped high speed sliding condiut at the Water Park.

At night, the cinemas such as Le Do, Danang, Tran Phu No.86 are
full of people. These are the places for not only watching fascinating films but the wholesome
rendez-vous for couple of lovers. People who like to watch the traditional art genres can drop in
the Nguyen Hien Dinh classical drama theatre. At the Trung Vuong theatre, the major and
modern performances also attract a large number of audiences.

In addition, Danang people are often very keen on gathering in karaoke shops, bars, discotheques
or coffee shops, mixing with exciting atmosphere in order to forget daily tiredness for starting a
new day overflowed with joy which life brings in.

Specialities of Danang 

Danang is considered the center for good dishes of northern,

southern and central Vietnam. The dishes came to Danang in
many ways but mainly by those who resettled in the area. They
have undergone certain changes to suit the taste of the Quang
Nam - Danang people and are filled with sour, spicy, salty and
sweet tastes, reflecting various nuances of live.

As with 'phở' (rice noodles served with beef soup) of the north
and 'hủ tiếu' (rice noodles served with pork soup) of the south, 'mì quảng' (rice noodles serve
with every kinds of meat without soup) is indispensable in the menu of visitors to Danang. The
local people use 'mì quảng' at any time of the day, both in main meals and snacks.

Two other specialities of Danang are 'bánh tráng' (a thin, large, round steamed rice flour cake)
and Cau Mong rare beef. Visitors will never forget the taste of thin slices of excellent pork
rolled in 'bánh tráng' or pieces of delicious rare beef.

Danang is endowed with long sandy beaches and an abundance of seafood. You can enjoy
dishes made from raw fish and vegetables, unripe jack-fruit cooked with flying fish, jellyfish
salad and Nam O fish sauce prepared by skillful coastal people.

Danang specialities have their own flavours and have been recorded on the menu of notable
Vietnam cuisine.
Other  

Shopping 

220 
 
Visitors can choose a place for relaxation and recreation in Danang, a sunny and ventilated tropical area
with primeval forests rich in floras and faunas, beautiful sandy beaches, fresh water and wide roads
looking out on the Han River.

Coming to Danang, they can enjoy wonderful moments on mountain, in forests or by rivers and seas.
International standard services are available at the city resorts. Danang has aimed to become a service
and tourist center in central Vietnam, and moreover nationally, regionally and internationally. Many
resorts have been built, including 4 - 5 star luxurious resorts of Furama, Sandy Beach and eco-tourism
ones of Luong Stream, Ba Na and Son Tra.

Even the pickiest visitors will satisfy with green, calm and beautiful views in Danang.

International English Language Testing System (IELTS)

1. What is the meaning of your name?

2. Does your name affect your personality?
3. Tell me something about your hometown.
4. What are the differences in accent between your hometown and Hanoi?
5. What is the character of the people like in your hometown?
6. What is people's favourite food in the region where you live?
7. Do you think that people have enough time for leisure now?
8. Are there any historic monuments in your region?
9. Describe your Job? How do you spend your typical day?
10. Tell me something about the Hue Festival.
11. How have weddings changed in recent years?
12. Tell me something about the <Holi> Festival. <change with the festival name of your
country>
13. Describe a traditional wedding ceremony.
14. Name a person whom you admire? Why? What influence does he / she has on your life?
Would you like to become like him / her in future?
15. Are there any traditions concerning the birth of a baby?
16. How do you like <The test city> Compare it to your hometown. How did you get to this
place?
17. What place do you like best in Hanoi?
18. What places in Delhi should a foreigner visit?
19. What places would you recommend a visitor to go to in your region/hometown?
20. If you had the choice, where would you choose to live in India?
21. Which parts of India would you recommend a foreigner to visit?
22. Tell me something about your family.
23. Which is your favourite colour?
24. Do you think colours influence our life? How?
25. Which is the best place you've been to in India?
26. Who does most of the household chores in your family?
27. Are the traditional sexual roles within the family changing?
28. Why is the divorce rate increasing so rapidly? Is it a problem?
29. What is your opinion of the planning family policy?
30. How do you discipline your child?
31. Is it acceptable for couples to live together without marrying?

221 
 
32. If you had the choice, would you have a son or a daughter?
33. Are you going to bring your child up any differently to the way your parents did?
34. What hopes do you have for your child? (if you are married)
35. Do women still have too heavy a burden in their day to day life?
36. Is the increasing influence of the West largely a positive or negative thing?

37. Are you looking forward to anything in particular in Australia / UK / USA ?

38. What do you do in your leisure time?
39. What will you do if you fail the IELTS?

40. Who should bear the responsibility for payment of tuition fees?
41. What can be done to improve education in rural areas?
42. Have recent changes affected your job in any way?
43. Do you agree with private education? Why?
44. What can be done to close the gap between urban and rural areas?
45. If you had the power, what changes would you carry out within education?
46. Describe a typical working day for you
47. How do you see yourself in ten years time?
48. If you had the opportunity to change your job, what would you do instead?
49. If you had one million dollars, what would you do with it?
50. If you could start your life again, would you do anything differently?
51. What ambitions do you have?
52. Which country/place would you most like to visit?
53. What changes do you think India will see in the next few years?
54. Will any possible future changes affect your job in any way?
55. How do you think you will cope abroad?
56. How does it feel to go abroad for the first time?
57. Are you looking forward to anything in particular in Australia / UK / USA ?
58. What do you do in your leisure time?
59. What will you do if you fail the IELTS?
60. Why are you giveing IELTS? What course / job do you intend to pursue after IELTS.?

Plagiarism: Self-destruction
Written by: msdude98

Why do so many people use planetpapers.com simply to plagiarize other people's writing? Is it
even possible that someone cannot write their own essay, or that someone cannot read a book of
any length? If you plagiarize, aren�t you sentencing yourself to failure? And if you cannot
gather information, aren�t you opening yourself to attacks from the System?

I know many students who use sites such as planetpapers.com to �gather research� - steal
other people�s ideas and papers. Yet it still amazes me that people could be so na�ve and lazy.

222 
 
Think about it: in high school, you are already expected to know whatever material you�ve
been taught (hopefully). If you cannot get through high school without cheating, how well will
you do in college? Professors check whether you have cheated, and you are required to write
lengthy papers based on detailed research, which is not present on many Internet paper mills and
notes sites. If you cannot read, write, and think on your own, you are doomed. Maybe not now,
maybe not during your high school career, but eventually, you will flunk a class or get expelled
for cheating. If your job requires you to write essays or gather information, and you �cheat�
(gather information without citing it and getting permission) you will be sued and fired.

During high school and college, you are more likely to hurt your grade than to get into serious
trouble. (However, if your paper sounds too well written, or if a teacher finds that you stole
information, you can still be expelled.) Let�s face it: Cliffs Notes aren�t the Holy Grail of
research. If you read Cliffs Notes or Monarch Notes or planetpapers.com' essays, you are bound
to miss important details. Any decent teacher will check whether you read a book, and to do so,
he will ask you details and concepts from the work that you did not read. Cliffs Notes,
shortchange you; there are few concepts and almost no details in those. Monarch Notes only
have concepts. And most planetpapers.com essays are written by high-schoolers, filled with
typos and inaccuracies, and non-scholarly. (That is not to say, however, that there aren�t some
expertly-written papers on planetpapers.com.)

For the lazy, Cliffs Notes, Monarch Notes, and planetpapers.com are an easy way to avoid work,
practice, and thought. However, for the scholar or anyone who wants to be more successful in
school, these resources should be just that - resources. They are intended to supplement reading,
not to replace it. When students read from these works to better understand what they have
already read, they are preparing themselves for the real world. And when they enter it, they will
be more successful than cheaters.

The Crucible
Written by: Unregistered

In the play "The Crucible" by Arthur Miller, Miller displays how easily people can be fooled by
the innocence of youth. He also exposes the gullibility of common people, even people such as
Danforth and Hathorne, who play the role of the "wise" judges. A single girl, Abigail, causes the
downfall of the whole society. Abigail scares the younger part of the society into submission.
The people who must decide the fate of the rest of the society, see only her innocence and
truthfulness.

Abigail seeks the affection of John Proctor, a farmer who is respected and feared by most of the
townspeople. Proctor makes a foolish mistake when he has an affair with Abigail. Later on he
regrets having this affair, and he wants Abigail to forget that it ever happened. Abigail does not
want to let him go, she wants him to decide between his wife, Elizabeth Proctor or her, Abigail.
Abigail is deprived of attention and she seeks it from the community.

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Abigail's parents were killed when she was younger, and her uncle, Reverend Parris, does not
pay very much attention to her. She attempts to give people the impression that she is a very
tough person. John Proctor and Elizabeth Proctor know what she is really like and wants to have
nothing to do with her. In Act One she says, "I saw Indians smash my dear parents' heads on the
pillow next to mine, and I have seen some reddish work done at night, and I can make you wish
you had never seen the sun go down." From this we get the impression that she might be a little
bit mentally disturbed. The way that she acts in front of John Proctor reveals that she is not as
sure of herself as she would like us to believe.

Mary Warren decides to confess to the fact that they are all lying, and that she never saw any
spirits. In front Abigail, however, she breaks down and returns to her side. When Judge Danforth
calls for Abigail to be summoned to court he is told that she has stolen her uncle's money and left
the town. Despite this fact Judge Danforth does not think ill of it. Judge Danforth feels so secure
in his position that he will not accept the fact that he can be wrong.

Racism In America
Written by: sentiencenerd

There is surely no nation in the world that holds "racism" in greater horror than does the United
States. Compared to other kinds of offenses, it is thought to be somehow more reprehensible.
The press and public have become so used to tales of murder, rape, robbery, and arson, that any
but the most spectacular crimes are shrugged off as part of the inevitable texture of American
life. "Racism" is never shrugged off. For example, when a White Georgetown Law School
student reported earlier this year that black students are not as qualified as White students, it set
off a booming, national controversy about "racism." If the student had merely murdered someone
he would have attracted far less attention and criticism.

Racism is, indeed, the national obsession. Universities are on full alert for it, newspapers and
politicians denounce it, churches preach against it, America is said to be racked with it, but just
what is racism?

Dictionaries are not much help in understanding what is meant by the word. They usually define
it as the belief that one's own ethnic stock is superior to others, or as the belief that culture and
behavior are rooted in race. When Americans speak of racism they mean a great deal more than
this. Nevertheless, the dictionary definition of racism is a clue to understanding what Americans
do mean. A peculiarly American meaning derives from the current dogma that all ethnic stocks
are equal. Despite clear evidence to the contrary, all races have been declared to be equally
talented and hard- working, and anyone who questions the dogma is thought to be not merely
wrong but evil.

The dogma has logical consequences that are profoundly important. If blacks, for example, are
equal to Whites in every way, what accounts for their poverty, criminality, and dissipation?
Since any theory of racial differences has been outlawed, the only possible explanation for black
failure is White racism. And since blacks are markedly poor, crime-prone, and dissipated,

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America must be racked with pervasive racism. Nothing else could be keeping them in such an
abject state.

All public discourse on race today is locked into this rigid logic. Any explanation for black
failure that does not depend on White wickedness threatens to veer off into the forbidden
territory of racial differences. Thus, even if today's Whites can find in their hearts no desire to
oppress blacks, yesterday's Whites must have oppressed them. If Whites do not consciously
oppress blacks, they must oppress them Unconsciously. If no obviously racist individuals can be
identified, then societal institutions must be racist. Or, since blacks are failing so terribly in
America, there simply must be millions of White people we do not know about, who are working
day and night to keep blacks in misery. The dogma of racial equality leaves no room for an
explanation of black failure that is not, in some fashion, an indictment of White people.

The logical consequences of this are clear. Since we are required to believe that the only
explanation for non-White failure is White racism, every time a non-White is poor, commits a
crime, goes on welfare, or takes drugs, White society stands accused of yet another act of racism.
All failure or misbehavior by non-Whites is standing proof that White society is riddled with
hatred and bigotry. For precisely so long as non-Whites fail to succeed in life at exactly the same
level as Whites, Whites will be, by definition, thwarting and oppressing them. This obligatory
pattern of thinking leads to strange conclusions. First of all, racism is a sin that is thought to be
committed almost exclusively by White people. Indeed, a black congressman from Chicago, Gus
Savage, and Coleman Young, the black mayor of Detroit, have argued that only White people
can be racist. Likewise, in 1987, the affirmative action officer of the State Insurance Fund of
New York issued a company pamphlet in which she explained that all Whites are racist and that
only Whites can be racist. How else could the plight of blacks be explained without flirting with
the possibility of racial inequality?

Although some blacks and liberal Whites concede that non-Whites can, perhaps, be racist, they
invariably add that non-Whites have been forced into it as self-defense because of centuries of
White oppression. What appears to be non-White racism is so understandable and forgivable that
it hardly deserves the name. Thus, whether or not an act is called racism depends on the race of
the racist. What would surely be called racism when done by Whites is thought to be normal
when done by anyone else. The reverse is also true.

Examples of this sort of double standard are so common, it is almost tedious to list them: When a
White man kills a black man and uses the word "nigger" while doing so, there is an enormous
media uproar and the nation beats its collective breast; when members of the black Yahweh cult
carry out ritual murders of random Whites, the media are silent (see AR of March, 1991).
College campuses forbid pejorative statements about non-Whites as "racist," but ignore
scurrilous attacks on Whites.

At election time, if 60 percent of the White voters vote for a White candidate, and 95 percent of
the black voters vote for the black opponent, it is Whites who are accused of racial bias. There
are 107 "historically black" colleges, whose fundamental blackness must be preserved in the
name of diversity, but all historically White colleges must be forcibly integrated in the name of...
the same thing. To resist would be racist.

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"Black pride" is said to be a wonderful and worthy thing, but anything that could be construed as
an expression of White pride is a form of hatred. It is perfectly natural for third-world
immigrants to expect school instruction and driver's tests in their own languages, whereas for
native Americans to ask them to learn English is racist.

Blatant anti-White prejudice, in the form of affirmative action, is now the law of the land.
Anything remotely like affirmative action, if practiced in favor of Whites, would be attacked as
despicable favoritism.

All across the country, black, Hispanic, and Asian clubs and caucuses are thought to be fine
expressions of ethnic solidarity, but any club or association expressly for Whites is by definition
racist. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) campaigns
openly for black advantage but is a respected "civil rights" organization. The National
Association for the Advancement of White People (NAAWP) campaigns merely for equal
treatment of all races, but is said to be viciously racist.

At a few college campuses, students opposed to affirmative action have set up student unions for
Whites, analogous to those for blacks, Hispanics, etc, and have been roundly condemned as
racists. Recently, when the White students at Lowell High School in San Francisco found
themselves to be a minority, they asked for a racially exclusive club like the ones that non-
Whites have. They were turned down in horror. Indeed, in America today, any club not
specifically formed to be a White enclave but whose members simply happen all to be White is
branded as racist.

Today, one of the favorite slogans that define the asymmetric quality of American racism is
"celebration of diversity." It has begun to dawn on a few people that "diversity" is always
achieved at the expense of Whites (and sometimes men), and never the other way around. No
one proposes that Howard University be made more diverse by admitting Whites, Hispanics, or
Asians. No one ever suggests that National Hispanic University in San Jose (CA) would benefit
from the diversity of having non-Hispanics on campus. No one suggests that the Black
Congressional Caucus or the executive ranks of the NAACP or the Mexican-American Legal
Defense and Educational Fund suffer from a lack of diversity. Somehow, it is perfectly
legitimate for them to celebrate homogeneity. And yet any all-White group - a company, a town,
a school, a club, a neighborhood - is thought to suffer from a crippling lack of diversity that must
be remedied as quickly as possible. Only when Whites have been reduced to a minority has
"diversity" been achieved.

Let us put it bluntly: To "celebrate" or "embrace" diversity, as we are so often asked to do, is no
different from deploring an excess of Whites. In fact, the entire nation is thought to suffer from
an excess of Whites. Our current immigration policies are structured so that approximately 90
percent of our annual 800,000 legal immigrants are non-White. The several million illegal
immigrants that enter the country every year are virtually all non-White. It would be racist not to
be grateful for this laudable contribution to "diversity." It is, of course, only White nations that
are called upon to practice this kind of "diversity." It is almost criminal to imagine a nation of
any other race countenancing blatant dispossession of this kind.

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What if the United States were pouring its poorest, least educated citizens across the border into
Mexico? Could anyone be fooled into thinking that Mexico was being "culturally enriched?"
What if the state of Chihuahua were losing its majority population to poor Whites who
demanded that schools be taught in English, who insisted on celebrating the Fourth of July, who
demanded the right to vote even if they weren't citizens, who clamored for "affirmative action" in
jobs and schooling?

Would Mexico - or any other non-White nation - tolerate this kind of cultural and demographic
depredation? Of course not. Yet White Americans are supposed to look upon the flood of
Hispanics and Asians entering their country as a priceless cultural gift. They are supposed to
"celebrate" their own loss of influence, their own dwindling numbers, their own dispossession,
for to do otherwise would be hopelessly racist.

There is another curious asymmetry about American racism. When non- Whites advance their
own racial purposes, no one ever accuses them of "hating" another group. Blacks can join "civil
rights" groups and Hispanics can be activists without fear of being branded as bigots and hate
mongers. They can agitate openly for racial preferences that can come only at the expense of
whites. They can demand preferential treatment of all kinds without anyone ever suggesting that
they are "anti-white."

Whites, on the other hand, need only express their opposition to affirmative action to be called
haters. They need only subject racial policies that are clearly prejudicial to themselves to be
called racists. Should they actually go so far as to say that they prefer the company of their own
kind, that they wish to be left alone to enjoy the fruits of their European heritage, they are
irredeemably wicked and hateful.

Here, then is the final, baffling inconsistency about American race relations. All non-whites are
allowed to prefer the company of their own kind, to think of themselves as groups with interests
distinct from those of the whole, and to work openly for group advantage. None of this is thought
to be racist. At the same time, whites must also champion the racial interests of non-whites. They
must sacrifice their own future on the altar of "diversity" and cooperate in their own
dispossession. They are to encourage, even to subsidize, the displacement of a European people
and culture by alien peoples and cultures. To put it in the simplest possible terms, White people
are cheerfully to slaughter their own society, to commit racial and cultural suicide. To refuse to
do so would be racism.

Of course, the entire non-white enterprise in the United States is perfectly natural and healthy.
Nothing could be more natural than to love one's people and to hope that it should flourish.
Filipinos and El Salvadorans are doubtless astonished to discover that simply by setting foot in
the United States they are entitled to affirmative action preferences over native-born whites, but
can they be blamed for accepting them? Is it surprising that they should want their languages,
their cultures, their brothers and sisters to take possession and put their mark indelibly on the
land? If the once-great people of a once-great nation is bent upon self-destruction and is prepared
to hand over land and power to whomever shows up and asks for it, why should Mexicans and
Cambodians complain?

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No, it is the White enterprise in the United States that is unnatural, unhealthy, and without
historical precedent. Whites have let themselves be convinced that it is racist merely to object to
dispossession, much less to work for their own interests. Never in the history of the world has a
dominant people thrown open the gates to strangers, and poured out its wealth to aliens. Never
before has a people been fooled into thinking that there was virtue or nobility in surrendering its
heritage, and giving away to others its place in history. Of all the races in America, only whites
have been tricked into thinking that a preference for one's own kind is racism. Only whites are
ever told that a love for their own people is somehow "hatred" of others. All healthy people
prefer the company of their own kind, and it has nothing to do with hatred. All men love their
families more than their neighbors, but this does not mean that they hate their neighbors. Whites
who love their racial family need bear no ill will towards non-whites. They only wish to be left
alone to participate in the unfolding of their racial and cultural destinies.

What whites in America are being asked to do is therefore utterly unnatural. They are being
asked to devote themselves to the interests of other races and to ignore the interests of their own.
This is like asking a man to forsake his own children and love the children of his neighbors,
since to do otherwise would be "racist."

What then, is "racism?" It is considerably more than any dictionary is likely to say. It is any
opposition by whites to official policies of racial preference for non-whites. It is any preference
by whites for their own people and culture. It is any resistance by whites to the idea of becoming
a minority people. It is any unwillingness to be pushed aside. It is, in short, any of the normal
aspirations of people-hood that have defined nations since the beginning of history - but only so
long as the aspirations are those of whites.

Teenage Homosexuality
Written by: Unregistered

Of the many emotions a gay man or woman feel, perhaps the most powerfully pervasive is fear.
The fear of being found out is real enough, but the worry does not end there. There also lurks the
fear of being called names, being assaulted, perhaps even killed. For adults these fears are
horrible enough. For a lesbian and gay teenager, who lack experience and life skills to cope with
them, such fears can be overwhelming. Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth face many problems as
they realize they are homosexual. Often they don't know even one other homosexual person and
feel very alone and misunderstood. They see very few role models, no one to identify with. No
one knows their secrets, no one shares their pain. No one will stop others from name calling if
the name calling is about homosexuality. Who would dare to speak up?

No one speaks up, not in junior high and high school. College, perhaps; pride events are more
easily seen then, but in high school no one speaks up. Imagine dearly loving someone else and
having to keep it totally secret because if you don't you will be punished -- cast out of your home
by your family, ostracized by your friends, perhaps losing your job. This is the world of the
lesbian and gay young person.

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The feelings homosexual youth face are only the beginning of the problem. As they recognize
that they are different and discriminated against, they lose self esteem and become depressed.
Many become suicidal and develop a feeling of extreme depression and helplessness. Those who
don't commit suicide live an adolescence of silence and oppression, rarely being able to speak up
without being struck down by peers. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
(DHHS) Task Force on Youth Suicide issued a report in January of 1989 concluding that lesbian
and gay youth may constitute "up to thirty percent of completed suicides annually" and that
"homosexuals of both sexes are two to six times more likely to attempt suicide than are
heterosexuals. Homosexual youth can not speak up because of fear and misunderstanding. And
when no one speaks up for them, no one stops the pain, many teens can not handle it and commit
suicide. This is the meaning of the commonly known phrase, "Silence equals death."

Not only do they face unrestricted discrimination and harassment at school, they often face
similar or worse homophobia at home. Parents, unaware of their children's sexual orientation,
often make cutting remarks about homosexual television characters, community members, or the
orientation in general. They may not even recognize their comments, but the child (or children)
is hanging on to every word, looking for at least a tiny bit of acceptance from family. Many
times they find hate instead of acceptance, sometimes to the point of being kicked out of the
house at age 14 or 15 when a homophobic parent does find out. This leaves them with nowhere
to turn.

Many of these teens are themselves suffering from the same prejudices that the rest of their
family may share. Or perhaps they've gotten past that, and started to forge a new identity, where
being gay or lesbian is something of which they can be proud.

Sometimes, what makes it so especially hard for gay teens is the very thing that protects them,
their invisibility. What African-American parent would be making jokes about black people at
the kitchen table? What Jewish family would sit around casually commenting on how God
condemns the Jews? But the lesbian, gay or bisexual teen, sitting there in their cloak of presumed
heterosexuality, laughs outwardly, or joins in expressing shared disgust, while yet another chunk
of their self-esteem has been chiseled away.

Homosexual teens can not confide in parents, friends, or often even the church. Most Christian
churches condemn homosexuality and back up their beliefs with the Bible. However, the major
references to homosexuality in the Bible are badly mistranslated. Nowhere does the Bible
mention same-sex love negatively; it only mentions prostitution, specifically in reference to local
cults.

More information can be found at the URL http://cent1.lancs.ac.uk/lgb/eight.html which is a

detailed retranslation of eight major Bible passages used to condemn homosexuality.
Homosexual youth often go to church with family as expected, only to hear the condemnation of
themselves echoed by the entire church. Where is the loving God the church is supposed to be
echoing? What love exists in condemning people for who they love? Each youth sits there
listening to parents, siblings, friends, and religious leaders tear apart their feelings of love and
self esteem, not speaking up out of fear for emotional and often physical safety.

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The more discriminating the place, the more dangerous it is to speak up, but how much more
dangerous is it to let a teen live in constant depression and fear? Obviously it is extremely
dangerous, since as quoted earlier homosexual teens are up to six times more likely to commit
suicide than heterosexual teens. Not only do homosexual youth hear discrimination and fear from
home, church, and the community, they also are exposed to a subtler form of it at school. Though
it isn't obvious, the extreme lack of proper information is a very big discriminating factor at most
schools. Parents and Boards of Education still fight to keep homosexuality-debate, discussion,
even it's mere mention-out of schools. Nurses and librarians still fail to offer resources to timid
young people with agonizing questions. In a 1993 study performed by the San Francisco
Department of Public Health, ninety percent of youth (ages twelve to twenty five) with AIDS are
gay or bisexual men, while those under age thirty comprise sixteen percent of AIDS cases. Given
the lengthy incubation period, virtually all were infected as teenagers. Newt Gingrich has
pledged to hold Congressional hearings on withdrawing federal funds from school districts that
mention gays and lesbians in curricula services, a punitive and financially disastrous measure
similar to the Robert Smith-Jesse Helms amendment that passed the Senate in August 1994 but
then expired in the committee.

These amendments would efectivley ax the very few school based programs that teach tolerance
and foster self-acceptance. If homosexuality is mentioned at all, it is usually skimmed over and
brushed off as something that "no one here actually needs to know about." It is assumed that the
entire class is heterosexual and should not need to know what homosexuality and homophobia
really are. However, according to popular statistics about 10% of the population is homosexual.
In a class of 20 students, that's 2 people. If the class size is 30, it's 3 or even 4 students. Up to 3
or 4 students must listen to how everyone else's sexual and emotional feelings are natural, but
theirs are never mentioned. Rather than providing proper information on how homosexuals are
often discriminated against, and what homophobia means and how it hurts, the class barely even
mentions the subject if it does at all.

If a homosexual youth is lucky enough to find their way to the Internet, they are eventually
greeted by a bit of a LBG-supportive environment. Several sites exist to help homosexual youth
realize that they are normal, lovable, and can be successful. The sites also have many tips on
coming out, especially to parents and family. However, many sites with very useful information
for homosexuals are restricted to adults (age 18). Many of these sites do not contain sexually
explicit material above what shows on prime time TV. The information directed at adults
(announcements of pride events, etc.) is also of use to youth, and restricting the entire site to
adults prevents youth from reaching useful pieces of information. The youth also need to know
about adult same sex relationships; they have no or few role models available locally, and often
the only way that they can learn that same sex relationships can last like marriage does is to read
about it over the net. Keeping all information about adult same sex relationships away from
youth prevents them from seeing the permanent, loving aspect of what their lives could be.

As homosexual youth enter college and begin to explore the world on their own, many begin to
find the support groups that were so lacking in high school. Large universities sometimes have
official student organizations for homosexual students. Books are much more available, and
often many people are publicly "out" on campus. This environment begins to help homosexuals
understand themselves better. Some become very active and public, to help pave the way for

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people who may be having a harder time than they have. Many homosexual people gain the
courage and independence to come out to their family, sometimes because it is the first time their
physical safety is not in danger by doing so.

As homosexual youth mature and begin to develop adult relationships, they must integrate their
feelings and attitudes into their normal life. They also usually overcome most of the homophobia
that they grew up with. Often a part of the integration of growing up is that the person is able to
stop focusing on their own homosexuality, becoming more open to same sex and opposite sex
relationships without thinking about whether their homosexuality is showing or not. Homosexual
people in this stage have begun to really be able to accept themselves without feeling obsessive
or afraid of issues surrounding homosexuality. The details vary between people, but the overall
change is toward self acceptance and comfortableness within society. This change is needed for
proper social interactions, with friends and lovers. It most often happens in the late teens and
early adulthood, because a lot of self inspection and independence occur then.

Homosexual teen suicide, discrimination from all areas of life, and misunderstanding of
homosexuality, both from the heterosexual community and from the homosexual youth who
have not have access to information, would greatly reduce, or nearly disappear, if proper
education was given in the public schools to combat homophobia. "Liberty is the right not to lie."

Homosexual youth should not have to lie to hide their orientation from their parents, friends, and
the rest of the community, just to stay alive.

Even one teacher taking a stand for proper homosexual information in schools can make a
difference. That one teacher may be the role model one or several students needed to see to make
them feel worthwhile and not suicidal. Too often though a teacher who stands up for equal rights
and protection is cut down by the school administration and parents. However, even then a
student may feel better that at least one person understands them and wants to fight for their
rights. It can be the difference between total destitute and a bit of hope. Whether the teacher
gives positive information in the classroom, or stops cutting remarks, or simply discreetly helps
one or two students find a support hotline, it can often make the difference between life and
death for despairing teens.

As more teachers, administrators, social workers, and other people speak up, the deadly silence
and invisibility of homosexual youth begins to diminish. If silence equals death, then proper
communication and information is the one way to insure life.

A COMPARISON OF BORCHESTER AND ROWBOROUGH AS A STUDY LOCATION 

Rowborough is a large industrial city with a population of one and a half million, whereas Borchester is 
an old city with a much smaller population. These basic differences determine their suitability as centres 
for a university course. 

Rowborough can offer a wider range of leisure facilities but Borchester has a quieter character. 
Rowborough may have a worse climate, being cool even in summer and wet in winter, while winters in 
Borchester are less cold, though the summers tend to be wet. 

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Rowborough is hillier than Borchester, which might be a drawback for cyclists. However, Rowborough 
does have a better public transport system, which may compensate for the hills. Borchester also has a 
rather remote campus, which might involve a lot of travelling. It is also likely to be more expensive in 
terms of accommodation, and is rather distant from the capital. On the other hand, some areas in 
Rowborough suffer from high crime rates. 

Clearly, each city has its advantages: Borchester is more likely to suit a student looking for peace and 
quiet, who can tolerate some inconvenience, while Rowborough would be suitable for someone keen to 
economise and wanting a more lively atmosphere. 

A COMPARISON OF CLASSROOM LEARNING WITH INTERNET‐BASED TEACHING 

Introduction 

Since the late 1990s internet‐based teaching (also known as e‐education) has emerged as a potential 
rival to traditional classroom learning. The former normally involves having access to a secure site on the 
internet where a graded series of lessons is available, which have assignments sent and returned by 
email. Although online courses are now offered by many institutions, it is by no means clear that they 
offer real advantages compared with classroom education. Little research has been done so far on their 
effectiveness, but this essay sets out to examine the arguments on both sides and attempts to draw 
conclusions from them. 

The benefits of online study 

Two main advantages of internet use in education are put forward. Firstly, it is seen as more 
economical, in that once a course is prepared, it can be used by large numbers of students. The savings 
made by not having to employ so many teachers should be reflected in cheaper course fees. The second 
benefit is convenience; instead of having to attend classes at fixed times and places, students are free to 
study when they choose and progress at their own pace. Furthermore, in studying from home there is 
no need to travel to the college or university, which saves both time and money. A student living in a 
small town in China, for example, can now study a course at an American college without the worry of 
travelling, accommodation or homesickness.  

The continuing popularity of classroom education  

Despite the considerations mentioned above, classroom learning shows no signs of being replaced by e‐
learning. It seems that face‐to‐face contact with a teacher is still regarded as the best way for students 
to make progress, despite the expense and inconvenience involved. Not only the personal contact with a 
teacher but also the support and encouragement gained from being part of a class may be reasons for 
this. Membership of a group may also create a useful spirit of competition, which stimulates learning. 

Discussion 

Given the increasing pressure on university places in many countries, internet‐based teaching is widely 
seen as a convenient development. However, e‐learning eliminates personal contact and travel from 
education, which are possibly the aspects many students value. Sitting at home working on a computer 
may be economical, but clearly cannot replace the social experience of attending courses. However, 

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there are many people who are unable, through either work or family commitments, or owing to lack of 
funds, to go to classes, and who would clearly find internet learning beneficial. Online courses can also 
be used to support taught courses, for instance by providing access to extra materials. In many ways 
these kinds of courses are similar to ‘universities of the air’, such as Britain’s Open University, which 
have developed distance learning so successfully in the last forty years. 

Conclusion 

Faced by growing demand for university places, many institutions are likely to develop online courses, 
but the apparent benefits of e‐learning may be less than first appear. Students seem to value the 
personal contact of the classroom highly, despite its cost and inconvenience. There may be a role for 
internet‐based courses to supplement teacher‐taught ones, and certainly for people with other 
commitments they will be the only practical option. There is an urgent need for research on the 
effectiveness of this type of learning, which should help maximise its advantages in the future.  

(Approximately 550 words) 

EDUCATION IS THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT – DISCUSS 

Introduction 

‘National development’ is a rather vague term that could mean the growth of a sense of national 
identity, or the development of a country’s economy. This essay will use the second definition, since this 
is more commonly seen as a function of education provided by the state. Many European countries, 
such as Germany, began providing primary education for all in the late nineteenth century, in the phase 
of early industrialisation.  

Education must be considered on several different levels, so that today most western countries are 
concerned with provision from nursery to higher education, whereas developing countries attempt to 
deliver basic education (e.g. reading and writing) to their people.  

This paper attempts to evaluate the importance of these varying levels of educational provision in 
encouraging economic growth, compared with other factors such as national culture, natural resources 
and government. The role of education in fostering development will be examined first, and then other 
factors that affect growth will be considered. 

The impact of education 

At its simplest, education sets out to teach literacy and numeracy. People who can read and count are 
capable of being trained for many roles in the industrial or service sectors, as well as learning by 
themselves. Even in the simplest economies, dependent on agriculture, the education of women has 
been shown to lead to dramatic improvements in family welfare. In more developed economies further 
skills are required, such as languages, engineering and computing. Good education does not merely 
teach people how to function passively, but provides them with the skills to ask questions and therefore 
make improvements. At university level, education is closely involved in research that leads to technical 
and social advances.  

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The limits of education 

Education does not operate in a vacuum: cultural, religious, legal and other factors all influence the rate 
of economic growth. Soviet Russia, for example, had an advanced educational system, but many 
graduates were under‐employed owing to the restrictions of the political system. Similar situations exist 
in many countries today because of the failure of the economy to expand fast enough to create 
sufficient jobs. Clearly, then, development requires efficient and honest government to encourage a 
dynamic economy. 

A strong work ethic, as found in the USA, Japan and Germany, also aids growth. In such societies 
children are brought up to believe that both the individual and society will benefit from hard work. 
Natural resources such as oil are another consideration. Brunei, for example, previously a poor country 
reliant on fishing, today has one of the highest per capita GDPs in the world. 

Discussion and conclusion 

Education alone may have little effect on a nation’s development. The world’s first industrial revolution, 
for instance, occurred in eighteenth‐century Britain, when the majority of people were still illiterate 
(some pioneer industrialists themselves could not read or write). It seems that the availability of capital 
and a secure political and legal environment were more crucial in this case. 

However, given the presence of some of the factors mentioned in the previous section, education 
clearly has an important part to play in developing the skills and abilities of the people. Ultimately, they 
are the most important resource a country possesses, and their education is a priority for all successful 
states. 

(Approximately 550 words) 

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