Najla’s

Alevel Biology notes: Unit 4

Topic 5 (plants and biodiversity)

The structure of chloroplasts:

Function;
➔ Site of photosynthesis
◆ Thylakoid highly folded + many grana to provide large SA for reactions
◆ Thylakoid membrane contains photosystems and stroma contains enzymes
crucial to light-dependent and light-independent reactions respectively
◆ Arrangment of different photosynthetic pigments1 in the photosystems allows for
the maximum absorption of light energy
◆ Chloroplasts contain DNA and ribosomes to make proteins needed for
photosynthesis
◆ Phtosystems rich in light absorbing photosynthtic pigments such as Chlorophyll

Photosynthesis
The use of energy from the sun to split the bonds in water molecules2, store hydrogen in a fuel
by combining it with carbon dioxide and release oxygen into the atmosphere.

1
Which absorb different wavelengths (thus colours) of light
2
By photolysis
 Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Photolysis of water: 2H2O → 4H+ + 4e- + O2

Photosynthesis is broken up into two main types of reactions:

1. Light-dependent reactions
a. Photons of light hit photosystems I and II simultneously.3 The absorbed energy
from the light excites electrons4 in photsystem II causing them to move to the
primary reaction centre5.
b. The electrons are carried by a series of electron carriers6 through an electron
transfer chain. *Energy lost is used to pump hydrogen ions from the stroma into
the thylakoid space.
i. The electrons lost from photosystem ll are replaced by those gained from
the photolysis of water. Electrons lost by photosystem l are replaced by
those coming from photosystem ll.
c. Electrons from PS I pass down an ETC then combine with Hydrogen ions and
NADP+ in the stroma in the presence of NADP reductase to produce NADPH.
d. ATP Synthesis:
i. H+ ions move through ATP synthase enzyme in the membrane through to
the stroma.
ii. The energy of the protons causes part of the enzyme to rotate.
iii. The enzyme catalyses the PHOTOphosphorylation of ADP to make ATP.

3
Energy absorbed by chlorophyll triggering the release of excited electrons
4
Their energy levels rise and fall
5
Which contains chlorophyll a, b and accessory pigments
6
Present in the thylakoid membrane
 2. Light-independent reactions:

The Calvin Cycle

This is the process that produces glucose7 from carbon dioxide using energy from ATP and
NADPH. This hexose sugar is then used to produce amino acids and other carbohydrates.

1. Rubisco catalyses the reaction which combines CO2 and RuBP to make GP
2. Using ATP and NADPH, GP is reduced to make GALP
3. 2 of the GALP molecules are used to synthesize organic compounds

7
Carbon fixation: Process by which atmospheric carbon is converted to energy-rich molecules such as
glucose
 4. The other 10 GALP molecules are recycled and use energy from ATP to make 6
RuBP
molecules.

How GALP is used to make biological molecules:

The two molecules of GALP create a hexose, or glucose. This can either be used in
plant respiration or converted to other biological molecules. It can combine with
phosphates and nitrates in the soil to form nucleic acids. Glucose can be converted to
deoxyribose8 or combine with nitrates to form nitrogenous bases such as Adenine.
Glucose can also combine with sulfur and nitrates to make amino acids. Or form starch
or lipids.

Biomass: The mass of organisms in a given volume measred in KJ/m2.

8
By giving off CO2
Gross Primary Productivity: Total chemical energy in the form of biomass made by
primary producers including plant respiration.

Net primary productivity: The rate at which energy is incorporated into biomass or
organic matter in green plants.

R: The rate at which organic compounds made during GPP are lost (respiration).

NPP= GPP - R

Only about 10% of energy is passed on at each trophic level.

*To calculate the efficiency of transfer = energy tranfered to next level ÷ total energy in x 100
Carbon
cycle

*One tree ring

forms per year.
The study of tree
rings is called

dendrochronology.
Carbon sink: A forest, ocean or other natural environment that has the ability to absorb
and store atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide can be reduced

 ● Using reforestation
○ Replanting trees increases carbon sinks --more co2 is removed from the
atmosphere and instead, used for photosynthesis
● Using biofuels
○ Using these instead of fossil fuels will reduce carbon emissions

Biotic and abiotic factors:

The numbers and distribution of organisms in a habitat are controlled by biotic and abiotic
factors.
-Abiotic factors: Non-living chemical and physical parts of the envirnoment which affect
living organims.
-i.e; Water availability, sunlight, humidity, edaphic factors9
● To measure oxygen concentration: take a sample of soil of water and use an
oxygen meter/probe
● To measure light: use a light metre/probe held at ground level
● To measure water calculate mass of soil sample before and after drying

-Biotic factors: Living factors which affect living organisms and their distribution in a
habitat.
-i.e; Mates, predators, prey, competition
-to measure numbers in rivers, collect water sample or use a net.

Concept of Niche
A niche is the specific role or function of an organism in its habitat which is a result of its
physical, anatomical and physiological adaptations.
Adaptations:
➔ Behavioral; The ways an organism acts
◆ I.e: bird calls, migration
➔ Physiological: processes that take place inside an organism’s body
◆ I.e: Making venom, secreting slime
➔ Anatomical: Structural features of an organism
◆ I.e: long beaks, sharp claws

Sucession is the gradual change in the species structure of an ecological community over time.
● Primary sucession:

9
To do with soil
 ○ starting point is bare ground --there is no soil to begin with
● I.e; formation of a new island by a volcanic eruption, retreat of
glacier

○ Pioneer species (often prokaryotes or prokcsysts) colonize the bare ground.

○ They break up fragments in the ground leading to the gradual development of
the soil and enabling non vascular plants and in turn, vascular plants.
○ Plants die and decay enriching the soil with organic matter
○ Thus the soil becomes more favourable for the growth of large plants and trees
as well as other animals.
○ Eventually, a climax community is reached. This is when the populations of
animals and plants remain stable and are in equilibrium with eachother and their
environments until it is destroyed by a natural or human disturbance (i.e; floods,
wildfires, logging).

●Secondary succession: Occurs following a less destructive disturbance in which the soil
is left intact. Same process as primary succession beyond that point.
*Ecological communities are ever changing, however, following disturbances, or when new,
bare ground is revealed, communities tend to take the same steps towards climax community.

Global warming
Increase in the average global temperature over time.

Causes
-Increased GHG10 emmissions due to

10
Carbondioxide, methane, water vapour
 -Fossil fuel combustion
-Deforestation
-Massive increase in cattle rearing
-Intensive rice farming

Effects
-Melting of ice caps and glaciers
-Rising sea levels and subsequent flooding
-Increased natural disasters
-changing rainfall patterns

Process of global warming:

Heat from the sun radiated on to Earth.
UV lights pass through the layer of GHG
Infrared radiation reflected from the Earth’s surface is trapped by the thickened GHG
layer.
Increase in temperatures around the world.

*Predictions can be made on future global temperatures using extrapolated data from graphs
and computer models. At times relationships show correlation only as there is no proof of
causation.

Effects of temperature rises on living organisms:

➔ Temperature effects enzyme activity which in turn affects the whole organism. Heat is converted
to kinetic energy which means the enzymes move faster and are more likely to collide with
substrate.A 10 degree increase in temperature will double the rate of an enzyme controlled
reaction. It could, however, cause enzymes to denature.
➔ Effects onset of seasons and, in turn, species distributions and life cycles.
◆ Warmer weather forces species to migrate northward
● I.e; increased prevalance of Malaria in Europe due to migration of musquitos
◆ Insects’ life cycles may finish quicker → ready to feed before plants mature

Evolution
Evolution is the theory that all living organisms are related through descent with
modification from common ancestoral stock. It is the gradual change in allele
frequency due to random gene mutations and in turn, natural selection or speciation.
 1. Geographical isolation of a population
2. New selection pressures
3. Random gene mutations --some are advantageous
4. Individuals with advantageous alelles11 are more likely to survive and reproduce
5. Alelle frequency (of advantageous alelle) in gene pool increases over
generations leading to the change in the heritable traits of a species → evolution.

Evidence for evolution:

● Fossil fuel records
● DNA --proteomics; looks at all proteins produced from DNA
● Rapid changes in species such as peppered moths and bacteria can be
observed

Reproductive isolation and speciation:

Mechanisms of reproductive isolation prevent two organism from different species from
mating or producing fertile offspring. They are split into two categories; pre-zygotic and
post-zygotic.

Pre-Zygotic: Occur prior to the formation of a zygote12

● Temporal/habitat isolation:
○ Temporal: Organisms mate at different times
○ Habitat: Organisms prefer to mate in certain areas
● Behaviour isolation:
○ Mate selection; an example is how organisms attract mates in different
ways, different bird songs
● Mechanical isolation:
○ Physical inability of two organisms to mate
■ I.e; incompatible genital size
● Gamete isolation:
○ Fertilisation between two gametes cannot occur due to their differences
(i.e; no. of chromsomes may be different)

Post-zygotic: Occur following the formation of a zygote

● Zygote mortality
● Hybrid inviability:

11
From random gene mutations → these are heritable
12
Fertilised cell
 ○ Offspring has high mortality rate and cannot grow into a mature adult
● Hybrid sterility:
○ Offspring can grow into a mature adult but it will be infertile
■ I.e; Mules
If populations can no longer mate with each other (could be following a long period of
geographical isolation), genetic differences accumulate and give rise to a new species
(speciation).

Topic 6 (Infection, immunity and forensics):

Nitrogenous bases:
➔ Adenine (pairs with Thymine, or Uracil in RNA)
➔ Cytosine (pairs with Guanine)
➔ Guanine (pairs with Cytosine)
➔ Thymine (pairs with Adenine)

DNA and RNA

←Differences between the two

*DNA also contains Deoxyribose

sugar while RNA contains
Ribose sugar

DNA is a polynucleotide
composed of mononucleotides.
Adjacent mononucleotides are
joined by phosphodiester
bonds13 forming the sugar phosphate backbone and two strands are joined by hydrogen
bonds formed by complimentary base pairing.
*One mononucleotide is made of a phosphate joined to a deoxyribose and a nitrogenous base

Nature of the genetic code:

❖ Triplet code: The code is read in a sequence of three bases
● Triplets in DNA
● Codons in mRNA
● Anti-codons in tRNA
❖ Universal: Same triplet will code for the same amino acid in all beings.
❖ Non-overlapping: Successive triplets are read in order, as distinct triplits each
coding for an amino acid, and a deletion or insertion mutation causes a
frameshift because of this
❖ Degenerate: There are 64 codons and only 20 amino acids that can be made;
each codon codes for a single amino acid. More than one codon can code for a
single amino acid.

Protein synthesis:

13
Condensation reaction
Transcription:
1. DNA helix in the nucleus unwinds and is unzipped by DNA Helicase
2. RNA polymerase catalyses the addition of RNA nucleotides based on the
template DNA strand by complementary base pairing
3. The new single stranded mRNA detaches from the template strand and moves
out of the nucleus through a nucleopore

Translation:
1. mRNA binds to, or associates with ribosome sub units in the cytoplasm
2. Anti codons in tRNA form temporary base pairs with complementary codons on
mRNA
3. Two tRNA14 molecules can bind to a ribosome at once, the (specific) amino acids
on adjacent tRNA molecules form peptide bonds
4. The ribosome slides and a new tRNA binds to the next codon on mRNA, another
peptide bond forms adding to the growing polypeptide chain
5. A stop codon stops the process of
translation and releases the newly formed
polypeptide

The protein then folds to give it a three

dimensional structure.

14
Each tRNA molecule carries a single amino acid
Amino acids are connected by peptide bonds. This forms the primary structure of
proteins15. The secondary structure is the hydrogen bonding which takes place that
results in the formation of either an alpha helix or a beta sheet. The tertiary structure
forms the three dimensional shape of the protein. It is determined by the bonds which
take place including; disulfide bridges and ionic interactions between r groups.
Hydrophobic parts of the protein will be on the inside and the hydrophyllic on the
outside. The bonds that take place depend on the R groups in the primary structure.

Globular proteins: Spherical shaped proteins which are water soluble16. The have
primary, secondary, tertiary structures and, occasionally, quaternary structures.

Fibrous proteins: elongated strand-like proteins which are insoluble in water and weak
acids. They only have primary and secondary structures. I.e; collagen and keratin

*enzymes are globular structures. Extremes of pH can lead to denaturation as the shape of the
active site is altered due to ionization of R groups. Affects enzyme-controlled reactions such as
respiration.

In most eukaryotic genes, coding regions (exons) are interrupted by noncoding regions
(introns). During transcription, the entire gene is copied into a pre-mRNA, which
includes exons and introns. During the process of RNA splicing17, introns are
removed by the splicesome and exons are joined to form a contiguous coding
sequence. Thus, a variety of different protein structures can be formed from
polypeptides synthesised using the same genes.
Post mRNA is different form Pre-mRNA.

Proteins present in a cell may be different from genes of cells because of this reason as
well as:
● Proteins may have been secreted out of the cell
● The cell may not actively be synthesizing protein
● There may have been a mistake during trnscription

15
Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
16
Hydrophobic parts on the inside, hydrophillic on the outside.
17
Post-transcriptional changes to mRNA
DNA Profiling:
Used to distinguish between individuals of the same species using only samples
of their DNA. It is also used in forensics to identify criminals.

DNA samples can be amplified using the Polymerase Chain Reaction;

DNA sample mixed with free nucleotides, DNA polymerase, DNA strands and primers then
placed into a PCR machine.
1. Original DNA sample heated to 95 degrees for 5 mins
i. Separates into two single strands as hydrogen bonds are broken
2. Solution cooled to 55 degrees; primers bind to single strands of DNA
i. Primers mark the starting point for DNA replication18
3. Solution heated to 70 degrees; DNA polymerase catalyses the synthesis of
complimentary strands for each of the single strands of DNA
i. Two identical DNA helices
4. The process is then repeated by changing temperature back to 95 degrees, then
55, then 70 and so on…
i. *The amount of DNA produced is doubled each time

DNA fingerprinting:
*Sources of DNA: Blood, saliva, semen hair roots and skin cells.
1. Restriction endonucleases cut strands of DNA into fragments at recognition sites
2. Gel electrophoresis19:
a. Fragments placed in agarose gel medium with a buffering solution
b. A dye which binds to DNA is added to the gel
c. An electric current is applied to it
d. Fragments of DNA move towards positive anode. The smaller fragments
travel faster
e. To compare two or more different DNA fingerprints the different DNA
samples are run side-by-side on the same electrophoresis gel20.

18
Primers work at lower temperatures
19
Form of chromotography
20
DNA ladders form
Analysing DNA fingerprints:21

➔ Compare to known samples from organisms

21
Could be a combination of DNA from more the one animal
 ➔ Look at the number of bands
➔ Look at size of bands
➔ Look at position of bands

Bacteria and viruses:

Structure of Bacteria:

● Cytoplasm: contains no membrane bound organelles and no nucleus

● Cell wall22: maintains shape of cell + protects contents
● Flagellum: propels cell to allow movement
● Necloid23: central coil of genetic material
● Plasmids: Small rings of DNA coding for specific aspects of phenotyope
● Glycocalyx: Glycoprotein cover, forms slime layer or capsule- protection against
dry conditions, covers cell markers which protects bacterium from phagocytosis
● Pili: Thread-like protein projections used for reproduction24 + attaching to host
cells
● Mesosome: foldings of the plasma membrane, site of respiration
● Small
free floating
ribosomes

Structure of
Viruses:

● Stran
d of nucleic

22
Made of peptidoglycan
23
Localised but not contained
24
Some bacteria exchange genetic material
 acid: DNA or RNA
● Capsid; protective protein coat
● Spikes: glycoprotein molecules; used in cell recognition, bind to receptors on
host cells
● Some have: envelope; lipid bilayer made from lipids/phospholipds derived from
host cell membrane
● Some have enzymes: i.e; Retroviruses have reverse transcriptase
Similar
ities to
bacteri
a:
➔ N
o
nucleu
s
➔ N
o
membr
ane
bound
organe
lles

Differences:
➔ Viruses do not have cytoplasm
➔ Bacteria have DNA, viruses can have DNA or RNA25
➔ Bacteria have cricular DNA whereas viral DNA/RNA is straight
➔ Viruses are considered non-living as they do not carry out life process and
depend on host cells to replicate
➔ Viruses do not have cell walls, plasma membranes, plasmids, mesosomes or
flagella

25
Retroviruses such as HIV have RNA
HIV structure:

● Has RNA instead of DNA

● Has single-stranded RNA
● has an envelope
● has gylcoprotein spikes
● Has enzyme reverse transcriptase

Entry route of pathogens:

● Breathing in microbes
● Consuming contaminated foods or
drinks
● Infection through wounds
● Sexual transmission

Barriers protecting the body from infection:

➢ Mucuous membranes in the mouth, nose, ear, etc…
○ Trap bacteria and allow them to be taken out of the body
○ Lysoyme in tears fights bacteria
○ Earwarx has a bactericidal effect on some strains of bacteria
➢ Long urethra in men and acidic environment in vagina makes it difficult for
bacteria to survive
➢ Hydrochloric acid in the stomach destroys ingested microorganisms
➢ Skin is a physical barrier to microorganisms *Due to presence of keratin
➢ Peristalsis and cell shedding in the gut help remove harmful bacteria
○ Bile, pancreatic enzymes and intestinal secretions can also kill bacteria
➢ Skin flora: Non-pathogenic bacteria living on the skin26
○ Compete with harmful pathogens for nutrients and space
○ Secrete anti-microbial chemicals that change pH//are harmful to
pathogenic bacteria
■ Pathogens cannot survive

HIV

26
Mainly in areas with many sebacious glands
HIV gradually destroys the immune system by attacking and killing a type of white blood cell
called a CD4 cell. The HIV virus is a retrovirus. A retrovirus is one that inserts its own genome
into the hosts genome. In this way, it becomes part of your cells.
Their virions contains a protein called reverse transcriptase that converts their RNA genome
into DNA under the process of reverse transcription.27

Stages of HIV infection:

1. Acute HIV syndrome:
a. Fevers, headaches, fatigue
b. HIV antibodies in the blood
2. Chronic infection/asymptomatic stage:
a. No symptoms
b. CD4 t-helper cells infected, some secondary infections
3. Symptomatic stage: aids
a. T-helper
cell count falls drastically
b. Weight
loss, fatigue
4. Advanced Aids:
a. T-helper
cell count falls further
b. Severe
symptoms; dementia,
cancers…
5. Death:
a. Caused
by secondary infection
(i.e; TB, Pneumonia) due
to damaged immune
system, lack of t helper
cells

27
Body cells do not differentiate between viral genome and its own genome during protein
transcription and translation.
Tuberculosis:

Infection:
● Infection is intitiated following inhalation of myobacteria in aerosol droplets
Stages of infection:
1. Primary infection:
a. Macrophages engulf the bacteria
b. Bacteria manage to survive
c. Inflammatory response brings other defensive cells to the area
d. The cells form a granuloma (core of infected macrophages inclosed by other cells
of the immune system)
2. Latent (dormant) infection28:
a. Macrophages are killed while bacteria become dormant
b. Chronic asymptomatic stage
c. Non-contagious

3. Recrudecsent disease: Active tuberculosis

a. Bacteria is reactivated, replicates and escapes from the granuloma and spreads
across the lungs causing steady damage to them and the eventual breaking
down of alevoli into inefficient air spaces.
i. Chronic cough with blood and sputum
ii. fever
iii. Organ failure
b. Through the lymphatic system, the infection can spread to other parts of the
body leading to milliary tuberculosis
c. If left untreated, this can cause death due to respiratory failure and the
supression of the immune system29 as T cells are targetted by Myobacteria. It is
the main cause of death in HIV patients.

28
If not diagnosed early enough or patient is old or suffers from HIV or is taking immunosupressant
drugs, they are more likely to progress to the next stage and potentially, die.
29
Opportunistic infections such as pneumonia arise
Immunity

Types of immunity:

● Active immunity:
○ Natural: Through the specific immune response triggered by infections
○ Artificial: Vaccination
■ Safely exposes individuals to weakened or dead strains of bacteria or
viruses which stimulates a primary response against the antigens without
causing symptoms of the disease.
● Passive immunity:
○ Natural: Through breast milk or during pregnancy
■ Certain antibodies are passed on from the maternal bloodstream to the
fetal bloodstream (via placenta).
● Important as it provides temporary protection until the new
born’s immune system develops
○ Artificial: Injection of antibodies
■ This type of immunization is short-lived

Non-specific immune response:

Inflammation: *Localised response

1. Skin is damaged.
2. Mast cells found in connective tissue below skin and around blood vessels
release histamines.
3. Histamines cause arterioles to dilate (vasodilation) + increase permeability of
blood vessels
a. Increased blood flow to the area raises temperature and causes redness.
b. Near by capillaries release protein rich fluids + phagocytes and
lymphocytes causing swelling
4. Locally raised temperature reduces reproduction rate of pathogens.
Fever:
Hypothalamus raises body temperature → reduces reproductive ability of pathogens +
increases the metabolism of cells to make them hel faster
Bacterial infections; steady rise in temp.
Viral infections: Temp. spikes

Interferons:
1. Cell invaded by virus
2. Infected cell produces interferons
3. Interferons bind to uninfected cell’s interferon receptors on membrane surface
4. Production of anti-viral proteins is signalled
5. Cells switch to a virus resistant state in the event of viral invasion → virus cannot
infect host cells and in turn, replicate
6. Virus can more easily by destroyed by phagocytosis
*Chemicals can also interfere with viral replication by inhibiting viral enzymes.

Phagocytosis:
1. Antibodies produced by lymphocytes mark bacteria by attaching to antigens30
2. Phagocytes engulf the bacteria
3. Ingested bacteria (phagosome) fuses with lysosome which contains the enzyme
lyzosyme which destroys bacterial cell walls
4. Bacteria is digested and waste materials are discharged by exocytosis
*Unlike macrophages, neutrophils self-destruct following phagocytosis and form pus

Specific immune response:

Humoral stage: (disabling and destroying foreign substances)

T helper stage:
➔ CD4 macrophage becomes antigen presenting following phagocytosis
➔ T helper cell with CD4 receptors binds to the cell
➔ T helper cell duplicates itself
➔ T helper cells continue to divide and some differentiate into t memory cells

The effector stage:

➔ B cells engulf pathogens and become APCs
➔ Matching t helper cells bind to the cells
30
Antibodies have two antigen binding sites and one for macrophages
 ➔ T helper cells release cytokines which trigger B cells to divide by mitosis
➔ B cells differentiate into plasma cells and B memory cells

Cell mediated response: (recognizes infected body cells and destroys them)
T killer cells bind to infected body cells and release perforin causing lysis and, in turn,
apoptosis, as pores form allowing water to enter the cell.

Roles of cells in specific response

Antibodies:
 ❖ Opsonisation: antibodies’ ability to enhance phagocytosis
❖ Agglutination: Antibodies combine with the surfaces of microorganisms and
cause them to clump together, reducing the number of infectious units and
easing phagocytosis.
❖ Toxin neutralization: Antitoxin antibodies block toxin interactions with target
cells

Bacteriostatic and bacteriocidal antibiotics:

➔ Bacteriostatic: antibiotics which stop bacterial populations from growing
➔ Bacteriocidal: antibiotics which directly kill bacteria
◆ Stopping uncontrolled bacterial growth enables the hosts immune system
to overcome the bacterial infection with ease through mechanisms like
antibody mediated responses.

Evolutionary race between pathogens and their hosts:

Pathogens such as the Myobacterium tuberculosis are known to have evolved into drug
resistant strains. When tb patients do not take the full course of antibiotics as is
prescribed, some of the more resistant bacteria survive and produce offspring that are
resitant to the prescribed drugs. This raises a major issue as resistant strains of serious
infectious disease develop and spread across communities making antibiotics
ineffective.

MRSA is another example of an infection which has developed due to underuse or

excessive or unneccessary use of antibiotics.

Moreover, HIV-1 has evolved to utilize a number of strategies to overcome the antiviral
effects of the host innate immune system. “One possible mechanism by which HIV-1
manages to avoid immune encounter of the host is that HIV-1 can modify its PAMPs by
altering or hiding its nucleic acids in the viral capsid in order to mimic the cellular
proteins. The ability of genetic variability of HIV-1 is one of the major immune evasion
strategies for the virus.”

Antibiotics prescription an infection prevention:

“Superbugs' are commonly found in places where antibiotic use is highest and during
surgery where the protective layer of the skin is breached (like hospitals) and are known
as hospital-acquired infections. MRSA and C. difficile are two of the most common
hospital-acquired infections in the UK.

Infection Prevention and Contol Guidelines:

1. antibiotics should be used carefully and every course of antibiotics should be

finished. Avoid multi-drug therapy with antibiotics as it can also lead to faster evolution
of some bacteria.

2. Hygiene measures: washing hards, using alcohol-based gels between patients and
not wearing long ties or white coats can prevent cross-infection.

3. Isolation of patients: patients with signs or symptoms of the infection should be

isolated as quickly as possible from the other patients.

4. Prevention of infection coming into the hospital: all patients coming in to the hospital
for any procedure should be tested or screened for common infections.

5. Monitoring levels of healthcare-acquired infections: hospitals should keep records of

all infections so more targets can be set for the following years.”

Decomposition and forensics:

Initially, the body’s own enzymes break it down. Then microgorganisms such as
bacteria and fungi begin to digest the body resulting in the production of gases and
decomposition fluids31. The body becomes bloated due to the gases released.

Decomposers feed off dead tissue and obtain energy from proteins, fats and nucleic
acids and respire anaerobically and aerobically. They do this by releasing digestive
enzymes on to dead matter and absorbing the soluble products of this extracellular
digestion.
Decomposition is a major part of the carbon cycle. As decomposers respire, they relase
large amounts of CO2 into the environment. Microorganisms also improve the quality of
soil and add humus to it.

How to determine time of death:

31
Frequently expelled from the mouth, nose, ears...
 ❖ Extent of decomposition
❖ Stage of succession: *used along with looking at insect life cycles
➢ First anaerobic bacteria thrive in the oxygenless and acidic conditions
➢ Then flies, such as blowflies, arrive, they are attracted to the moisture and smell. These
flies then lay eggs on the carcass
➢ The eggs hatch and maggots eat the skin and tissue of the body, this liquidises certain
parts which then the adult flies feed on.
➢ Beetles then are attracted to the carcass, they lay eggs
➢ Parasitic wasps then lay eggs in the beetle and fly larvae
➢ Eventually the body dries out and species such as cheese flies and coffin flies are more
prevelent.
➢ Dehydration continues and maggots cant survive any longer, beetles with strong
mandibles move in and eat the remaining muscles and connecting tissues.
➢ Finally moth larvae feed on the hair
➢ Forensic entomomlogists can see what species are living in the body and therefore know
how long down the line of succesion of insects the body is. Using this they can estimate a
time of death.
❖ Body temperature: falls slowly after death32. Reaches room temperature by 18
hours.
❖ Degree of muscle contraction:
➢ Rigor mortis: stiffening of the body as muscles cannot relax because there
is no oxygen and therefore no ATP
➢ Begins 2-4 hours after death. Takes full effect is about 6-8 hours later

Key words

Accuracy: The difference between the measurement and the part's actual value

Reliability: is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent
results. → can be ensued by repeating an investigation and obtaining means

Precision: The variation you see when you measure the same part repeatedly with the
same device

Validity: How well a scientific test or piece of research actually measures what it sets
out to, or how well it reflects the reality it claims to represent. → can be ensured by
controlling other variables

Ecology

32
Affected by ambient temperature, physical activity of person before death, body fat, body cover...
● Habitat: Where an organism lives.
● Environment: Biotic and abiotic factors which make up an area or habitat.
● Biome: Large community of flora and fauna occupying a distinct region defined
by its unique climate and vegetation.
● Ecosystem: Biological community of interacting organisms and their physical
environment.
● Community: An interacting group of various species in a common location.
● Population: A group of organisms of the same species which interbreed and
living in an area.
● Species richness: The number of different species in an area.
● Species evenness: Looks at how close in number different species are in an
area.
● Species abundance: Number of individuals per species.