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PLANNING
MANUAL
For
Cost-Effective Welding
International Standard Book Number: 0-87171-605-4
NOTE: Although care was taken in choosing and presenting the data in this guide, AWS cannot guarantee that it is error
free. Further, this guide is not intended to be an exhaustive treatment of the topic and therefore may not include all avail-
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ii
Contents
Section Page No.
4 Modular Construction..................................................................................................................................17
7 Fatigue Considerations.................................................................................................................................45
15 Fitting Aids..................................................................................................................................................109
iii
SECTION 1
Primary Concepts
of Weldability
Contents
Weldability ......................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Coordination of Expertise................................................................................................................................................. 4
Education............................................................................................................................................................................ 4
1
SECTION 1—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDABILITY
Major concerns about a fabrication project and its “Am I trained and qualified to perform the welding
weldability are expressed by those involved as follows: required?”
2
SECTION 1—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDABILITY
It is obvious, since the weldability of a metal inter- and how they can affect the safety of personnel and the
sects so many disciplines, that the solution to many weld- suitability of the part for service creates a desire by all in-
associated problems and the ultimate success of a project dividuals to follow requirements. Knowing the basics of
lies in a fabricator’s ability to coordinate its available welding engineering can prevent a company from exten-
expertise. sive rework or a customer’s refusal to accept a manufac-
There can be no question that people are still the most turer’s product.
important resource in the fabrication enterprise. Because
of this, it is recommended that a preacceptance bid re-
view group, including production as well as technical The Welder, Technician, and
personnel, be established to review projects prior to ac- Production Supervisor
ceptance. Formation of this group may be the single most
important action taken to ensure a successful and profit- The resolution of many welding problems requires
able completion for all parties involved. Unless the same much more than technical solutions. Welding problems
project is repeated over and over again, it is obvious that require practical solutions as well. For this reason, the
one person cannot resolve all the issues necessary for the practical expertise of the journeyman mechanic and his
project to be a success for all the participants. supervisor can never be overlooked. They are absolutely
essential if a company expects to remain profitable. It is
for this reason the use of welding engineering techni-
cians is quite common in larger companies. Technicians
Fundamentals of Welding Decisions frequently are trained individuals with journeymen pro-
One individual in a metals fabrication firm with a duction experience. A balance of welding engineers and
varying workload will find it difficult to make good welding engineering technicians is most desirable for re-
welding decisions for all of the firm’s needs. The com- solving most welding problems.
plexity of welding decisions is immense if the work var-
ies. If an individual makes enough welding decisions,
expertise will be required beyond that of filler metals, The 100% Quality Weld and Weld-
base metals, and welding processes. This expertise will
require a background in, and integration of the technical
Associated Failures
fields. Designers often mistakenly expect the welds they de-
sign to have properties that equal or exceed the desired
properties of the base metal. The major error in this logic
Coordination of Expertise is that the base metal and the weld metal do not perform
independently.
One person normally does not have expertise in all of Rarely does the weld improve the properties of the
the areas required to make sound welding decisions. It metal it joins. The base material, the weld, and the weld’s
will benefit a company to have a welding engineer to heat-affected zone are not homogeneous regions. They
handle the majority of the welding problems that will are, in effect, structural and metallurgical discontinuities
arise. However, this individual will find it necessary to within the weldment. This is due to the fact that the base
coordinate with other available expertise to make the best materials usually have undergone significant mechanical
decisions for the company. If a company is small, this and/or thermal treatments to optimize their properties,
may require hiring a part-time consultant. the weld usually performs its service in the as-cast condi-
tion, and the heat-affected zone has undergone widely
varying heating and cooling rates. In many cases a weld
Education joint lowers fatigue properties and lowers impact proper-
ties; in some cases a weld joint also lowers the tensile
There is no substitute for education of personnel in- and yield properties. However, large or complex struc-
volved in welding. Education is needed by the fabrica- tures must be welded with high joint efficiency, since
tion shop superintendents, the design engineers, the large monolithic cast or wrought structures cannot be
planners and estimators, the production supervisors, and made in most cases.
the welding mechanics. Each has different needs. Often, Since welds are usually located at changes of cross
a specification or procedural requirement will not be fol- sections (commonly associated with highly stressed
lowed unless there is an understanding of why the re- areas), the welds are often in areas where the structure
quirement is necessary. Understanding the importance of fails. These failures may be wrongly attributed to welds
preheats, postheat treatments, and filler metal selection that are perceived as inherently weak or flawed. These
3
SECTION 1—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDABILITY
failures are more likely caused by poor decisions on the • Recognize the cause of existing and potential produc-
part of engineers or company management due to a lack tion problems.
of knowledge or training.
Improperly selected joint designs, welding processes, • Properly utilize, coordinate, and develop cooperation of
locations of welds, and filler metals are frequently asso- available expertise to make sound welding decisions.
ciated with weld failures. The root cause of these types
Often weld-associated failures are caused by lack of
of failures is in the decision-making process and not in
knowledge about welding and its effect on the base mate-
the quality of the weld.
rials. These failures are wrongly viewed as resulting
from inherent weaknesses of welds. In most cases, with
Weldability Can Be Determined by proper utilization of available expertise, the failures
could have been avoided.
the Manufacturer
When a manufacturer designs and fabricates a weld-
ment, it can truly be said that the manufacturer deter- Bibliography/Recommended Reading
mines weldability. The manufacturer then controls most
of the variables that determine weldability. The weldabil-
List
ity of a metal, to a large extent, is determined by the Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding Technology
manufacturer’s ability to: (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
4
SECTION 2
Accepting Metal
Fabrication Projects
Contents
Background ........................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................ 7
5
SECTION 2—ACCEPTING METAL FABRICATION PROJECTS
The critical question asked by a metals fabricator for a (1) Not a repetitive project, even though a company
completed project to be considered successful is: Did the may have procedures that are applicable to the work.
project make a profit and was it completed on time? This includes work that the company has accomplished
When large or small companies have repetitive work, before but has not done for a long period of time.
they are usually quite successful. They also know the pit- (2) Any type of field work that is away from the com-
falls. They know what their minimum bid should be and pany’s home office, and involves a significant number of
what delivery or schedule times can be met. They proba- man hours. Field work limits the company’s flexibility for
bly have experienced the normal day-to-day items that scheduling work accurately. In addition, field work limits
threaten their profit and the quality of their work. Know- the company’s ability to combine work activities for eco-
ing these pitfalls, they can make allowances for them. nomical use of materials, man hours and equipment.
However, for a company to be successful when it (3) Any project that requires many different disci-
accepts work that can be defined as a special project plines from the same company to accomplish its task.
(meaning a different type of work for the company), the (4) Unusual or complex work requirements (includ-
engineer, the fabricator, and the welder need a funda- ing inspections, paperwork, and records).
mental understanding of the weldability of metals and the
basics of sound welding decisions. During the accep-
tance of work, many decisions that seem innocuous to
welding end up jeopardizing the weldability of materials
and the service suitability of the completed weldment.
Establish a Prebid Review Group
(Before Accepting Special Projects)
Since a special project is a nonrepetitive project that
may include multiple workshops having new or unusual
Defining Special Projects requirements, the acceptance of such work should be re-
The critical first step for a company is the ability to recog- viewed by a small prebid review group before accepting
nize a special project. Nearly all special projects require high special projects. It cannot be expected that a single per-
up-front costs. There are increased costs in determining: son who plans and estimates jobs can assemble and un-
derstand all the technical, quality, material, and process
• Should the company bid on the project?
requirements of unusual work. When the structure of a
• What should the bid be?
company permits, it is recommended that the member-
• To what extent are production instructions required?
ship of the preacceptance bid review group consist of
• What are the costs to establish these instructions?
comptroller, planner and estimator, design, production
• How and when to monitor the work in production?
lead shop, and quality assurance representatives.
• Are the company resources adequate?
A comptroller or planner and estimator should over-
• Do company equipment and personnel capabilities ad-
see this group. The primary goal of the group should be
equately meet project requirements?
to assess the company’s limitations and capabilities in re-
• What additional training/equipment is required to
gard to technical, quality, and special process require-
meet project objectives?
ments before accepting work. The group should also
Resolving these issues should be accomplished with determine the limitations and conditions that should be
small review groups with specific tasks in mind. placed on the project for bid acceptance.
6
SECTION 2—ACCEPTING METAL FABRICATION PROJECTS
Sometimes accepting a job just to keep the workforce chaired by engineering. After the production work starts,
busy can cost you the company. The company’s limita- similar meetings should be held with the lead production
tions and capabilities should be determined in regard to shop chairing the meeting, to enable them to receive fast
technical, quality, and special process requirements be- and direct technical resolution to unexpected fabrication
fore accepting special projects. If deemed necessary problems.
from this determination, the company should place limi- Internal quality reviews or audits should be planned
tations and conditions on the bid acceptance, or not ac- for as work progresses. The first review should take place
cept the work. early in the project. This ensures that the work in-
To determine whether the company should bid or how structions are adequate to accomplish the work, that con-
much it is willing to bid, the prebid review group should tract requirements are clear to the workforce, and
evaluate the following items: the material that is to be received is correct. Trying to re-
cover from incorrect material after a job has commenced
• Quality requirements (establishment of special proce-
is almost impossible without the company experiencing
dures, i.e., quality manual).
large material and labor losses. Therefore, the prebid re-
• Inspection requirements.
view group should also be responsible for material acqui-
• Record requirements (degree of detail).
sition recommendations. Any project is slated for failure
• Material requirements certification—receipt inspection.
where material requisitions are made haphazardly. Mate-
• Material and labor losses in production (rework). rial must be ordered properly and receipt inspected accu-
• Cleanliness and shipping requirements. rately, if a project is to progress within the preestablished
• Special process requirements (mockup testing or schedules. Simple, clear and concise job order instruc-
control samples). tions should be provided in the following areas:
• Personnel availability and special qualifications.
• Special welding equipment and fixtures required. • Specification (material and fabrication).
• Health and environmental considerations. • Fabrication documents.
• Quality requirements (receipt inspection included).
• Records.
Establish a Detail Planning Group • Inspection requirements.
(Prior to Issuing Job Orders) • Special process controls.
After a special project is accepted, a planning group is
needed for detailing the job requirements to the produc-
tion workforce. This detailed planning effort is neces-
sary, because the work is nonrepetitive, may involve Summary
multiple trades, and may have different quality require-
ments than the company normally uses. The greatest po- If a project has been determined (by a company’s def-
tential for noncompliance and error is when the project inition) to be a special project, a prebid review group
is nonrepetitive and has extensive quality and technical should examine all the job requirements. This group will
requirements. This detailed planning group should be determine whether the company wants to make a bid on
headed up by a design engineer, if possible. the project and what considerations and limitations
Once a special project is accepted by a company, should be placed with the bid. The group should consist
resources must be expended in advance planning. Work of a designer, a planner and estimator, a production shop
instructions should be clear, concise, and when practical, leader or project leader, and a quality assurance expert.
they should be listed as line items with specific direc- After the project has been accepted, a planning review
tions and accountability. The referencing of general spec- group needs to be established to provide clear and con-
ifications should be avoided where contract requirements cise work instructions. Job orders should provide details
are obscure and can be easily missed. Establishing this in areas that would be expected to cause production and
group early helps resolve many critical issues that make record problems. Details concerning the receipt of mate-
a project a success. It also establishes early ownership in rial, quality assurance requirements, and production shop
the project by the participants. It is crucial that this group requirements must be provided.
has authority to make and implement decisions. Early in the production cycle, work instructions and
During the planning and engineering time of the receipt inspection of material should be audited, or at
project, weekly or biweekly meetings should be held to least reviewed. During production, work surveillances
discuss the impact of technical requirements on produc- should be made of workmanship, inspection, and records
tion with shop supervision. These meetings should be to ensure work instruction compliance.
7
SECTION 3
Production Welding
Cost Analysis
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Rework.............................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Summary .......................................................................................................................................................................... 14
9
SECTION 3—PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS
10
SECTION 3—PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS
11
SECTION 3—PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS
In his discussion about estimating welding costs, in sary down time to replace the spooled filler metal contain-
the Design of Weldments (published by the James F. Lin- ers during the welding operation. Also, ordering filler
coln Arc Welding Foundation), Omer W. Blodgett states metal in large quantities, whether it be covered or bare
the following: electrodes, decreases the basic costs per pound. Proper
planning regarding future needs of specific electrode
“The cost of welding is directly affected by the types, and their proper storage is required here.
amount of weld metal required. Very few people re-
alize the great increase in weld metal and cost that
results from a slight increase in weld size.”
Automation/Mechanization of New or
Existing Thermal Joining Processes
Joint Designs Another aspect of controlling manufacturing/welding
costs, although it involves long-range preplanning with
In a further representation of Mr. Blodgett’s words, it
the possibility of only long-term payback on investment,
has been shown that a decrease of 30° in joint design bev-
is the introduction of automation or mechanization of
els can result in a savings of almost 50%, which includes
new/existing thermal joining processes. However, before
the welding time, reduction in filler metal and distortion!
serious consideration is given to automate (i.e., use of
In the inverse scenario, an increase in fillet weld sizes by
robots), or to mechanize specific welding processes
a factor of 50% will require a significant increase in all
(GMAW, FCAW), it is critical that fabrication projects
the above factors. For example, an increase in fillet weld
exist to support its development. Purchase of complex
sizes from l/4 in. to 5/8 in. (using 1/4 in. as 100%) will
equipment is a large capital cost, not including associated
increase the labor costs by a factor of 500%! This does
operator training, engineering support, or maintenance. A
not include the potential problem of weldment distortion
projected return must exist. As an example, at one naval
due to the additional welding.
shipyard, after a successful development program involv-
Another factor involving design decisions, or joint de- ing a new welding process (Flux Core—Twisted wire),
sign selections, involves the decision of when to utilize specific production applications were identified. Utiliza-
fillet or groove welds. There is obviously a significant dif- tion of this new process resulted in major labor savings
ference between these designs, and equally so in costs. over the previous welding method in reduced joint design
Based on deposited filler metal costs alone, it is evident preparation, and increased welding deposition rate. The
that for 1/2 in. plate, fillet welds are the cheapest design savings can be realized on future thick section weldments.
per foot, but as the plate thickness increases up to three In addition to the variables previously mentioned dur-
inches, a 45° double bevel groove joint design becomes ing the preplanning section regarding the utilization of
the least expensive. The responsibility of the design engi- welding processes, other variables need to be evaluated
neer is very significant in controlling welding or manu- prior to making decisions on adapting or purchasing
facturing costs. automated welding equipment. Additional criteria for
Following a review of joint designs, another “tool” that consideration are:
needs to be evaluated is the applicable welding proce-
dure/process to support fabrication. A welding procedure • Processing speed of parts per unit of time.
provides the welding foreman/welder with the essential • Economic requirements: initial investment and opera-
welding elements including required gas shielding/flow tion costs, and payback period.
rates, welding current, applicable preheat/interpass tem- • Location of the automated equipment should be as
peratures, and type of filler metals required. A careful re- close to the prospective work as possible.
view of available procedures/processes will afford an
• The path between the work area and control unit
opportunity to determine costs, etc.
should be unobstructed.
When considering the filler metal selection, thought
should be given to using the largest diameter suitable for • Past experiences with similar automated equipment.
the joint design, without violating heat input require- • Efficient material handling and fixturing equipment
ments, to improve the electrode deposition rate. Also, it requirements are important with a new process and
should be noted when purchasing bare filler metal higher production rates.
(spools) for Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Flux • Part programming is a critical time aspect, as there is
Cored Arc Welding (FCAW), or Submerged Arc Welding a need for a flexible software system. The necessary
(SAW) processes, that the largest available spool pound- coordination between the welding and actual opera-
age be considered if filler metal types do not need to be tion of the automated equipment is important to
frequently changed. This will obviously avoid unneces- achieve the desired weld quality.
12
SECTION 3—PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS
After review of the above criteria, one of the most cru- provides assurance that the quality level for the product or
cial decisions remains: is there a high degree of assurance weldment is being met for critical applications.
that utilization of the automated welding equipment or Specific definitions/applications of NDE are covered
new processes will bring about a positive rate of return on in another section, however, a brief overview of the six
the investment? available nondestructive inspection/testing methods in-
cludes the following: Visual Testing (VT), Eddy Current
(ET), Magnetic Particle (MT), Dye Penetrant (PT), Radio-
graphic (RT), and Ultrasonic Testing (UT).
13
SECTION 3—PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS
although more time consuming than MT. However, PT manent record as the radiograph, improved equipment
requires a better surface finish than MT for satisfactory provides computerized printouts for records.
inspection to be accomplished.
Summary
Radiographic Testing
With ever-shrinking budgets, and strong competition
Of the six NDE methods, radiographic inspection is from abroad, controlling costs in the public and private
the most expensive. This nondestructive method uses the industry is a major concern. As we have seen, there are
penetrating radiation of X-rays, or the gamma rays of a several variables to consider when welding and related
radioactive source, to penetrate a specific object to reveal nondestructive testing is involved. This section has at-
discontinuities. It is very labor intensive for the following tempted to describe some of the welding variables that
reasons: need to be considered. Table 3.1 is a condensed review. It
• High cost of equipment and film. is not intended to be all inclusive, rather a brief narrative
• Stringent controls of the radiation source. about some of the major subjects which should be re-
• Skilled personnel capable of producing exposed film. viewed. Table 3.2 is a check-off sheet of costs to remem-
• Required chemical processing of the exposed film. ber prior to the bid process.
• Trained personnel to review/interpret the film.
• Restriction of production efforts in the area of inspec-
tion, due to the presence of harmful radiation. Bibliography/Recommended Reading
This method can be used on most materials, and pro- List
vides a permanent record of most surface or internal de-
Blodgett, O. W. 1963. Design of Weldments. The James F.
fects or flaws. RT is widely utilized in inspection of pipe
Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio.
and structural butt welds.
Boyer, H., ed. 1976. ASM Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Fun-
damentals of Quality Control and Quality Assurance.
Ultrasonic Inspection ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio.
One of the most versatile NDE methods is ultrasonic
Cary, H. 1997. Modern Welding Technology. Englewood
inspection. UT has several advantages including location
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
of internal flaws in components, and ability to be used on
most materials. However, in terms of ease of operation, it Cooper, N., Davis, W. J., and Pandjiris, A. K. 1968. Know
is fairly complex, and requires the interpretative skills of costs then weld. Welding Journal 47(7): 561–568.
trained technicians. In regard to cost, one individual can
Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, sec. 12. 1973. The
operate the machine and interpret the ultrasound wave
Lincoln Electric Company, Cleveland, Ohio.
signals. This makes UT considerably less expensive than
RT. Because UT produces no radiation, inspection areas Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding Technology
need not be evacuated. Though unable to provide a per- (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
14
SECTION 3—PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS
Table 3.1
Review of Production Welding Costs
1. Job preplanning, definition of scope, and accurate scheduling are three critical and necessary steps that must be accomplished
prior to any project bid submittal or start of production.
2. Maintaining accountability of work accomplishments or inspections via the use of formal records is a necessary overhead cost
that must be factored into the bid.
3. If at all possible, it is preferable to accomplish the majority of fabrication or welding in the shop vs. in the field.
4. Increasing fillet weld sizes beyond what is required can be detrimental. Aside from raising the filler metal and labor costs, the
additional welding may contribute to serious distortion of the weldment.
5. Choosing the correct joint design for the particular plate thickness is very important. For example, for thicknesses over
1-1/2 in., the double bevel “T” joint design is more economical to employ than increasing the fillet weld size.
6. There are several factors that affect the efficient utilization of the many welding processes, i.e., deposition rates, joint geome-
try, fixturing, etc. Careful considerations must be made prior to utilizing a particular welding process or mode.
7. The selection of automated equipment requires a close review of several variables, including long-term preplanning and costs.
There must be a projected positive rate of return, which will justify the capital expenditures.
8. Fire/heat protection costs have significantly increased. It has been estimated that for every hour of welding time, an equal
amount of time is required for related fire/heat protection.
9. Weld procedure/personnel qualifications pose two problems. Both are expensive, and can require considerable time to accom-
plish. Early identification of specific needs is required.
10. Inexperienced welders or craftsman can affect the reject rates. Maintaining a skilled workforce should be a high priority.
11. Nondestructive testing during the manufacturing process has potential for increasing costs. However, it ensures that a quality
product is being produced, and may in the long run actually reduce costs.
12. The roles of the design engineer, welding engineer, supervisor, welder, etc., are all varied, with each being critical for success-
ful project accomplishment. Joint meetings to discuss particular attributes or suspected problem areas are necessary for uni-
fied direction. The results of these meetings will decrease costs and enhance the product quality.
15
SECTION 3—PRODUCTION WELDING COST ANALYSIS
Table 3.2
Checklist of Project/Welding Cost Variables
❒ Receipt inspection costs; i.e., issue instructions for base and filler metal inspections, etc.
❒ Costs for preparation prior to welding; i.e., base metal cleaning, joint designs, fitting, etc.
❒ Rigging or crane costs in the movement of the materials during and after the weldments are completed.
❒ Overhead costs (vacation, electric power, medical insurance, etc.) associated with labor and operation of the required equip-
ment for the fabrication of weldments.
16
SECTION 4
Modular
Construction
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Summary .......................................................................................................................................................................... 21
17
SECTION 4—MODULAR CONSTRUCTION
18
SECTION 4—MODULAR CONSTRUCTION
condition for the measured operation. Variations in con- system components are located by measurements from
ditions from the prior process or operation will affect the the nearest structure in lieu of the more traditional com-
productivity variables. Similarly, the following operation partment or ship centerline. In addition, forcing struc-
will be impacted by optimizing the evaluated process. tural block dimensional control, this now requires the
The quality value is a good example of the effect of matching blocks to consider the alignment of the distrib-
one operation on the other process steps. Each process- utive systems (i.e., electrical systems) in addition to the
ing operation must result in a satisfactory consistent level structural members.
of quality being passed to the following operation. Deviations from nominal values can become cumula-
Changes in the quality variable will skew the balance of tive and the larger block connections must be monitored
the three productivity value components and cause less- for dimensional accuracy to ensure proper alignment. In
than-optimum conditions. Starting with a poor-quality some cases, this will force the use of less than the tradi-
product prompts the allocation of additional resources to tional tolerances. Process control is necessary to ensure
meet schedule requirements; or when resources are not that a zone approach to outfitting is successful.
available, additional time is used to compensate for cor-
rection of quality deficiencies. Basically, each operation
Accuracy Control Program
of the production process will provide a final product to
the following operation. This process provides identi- An important tool for controlling process perfor-
fiable responsibility and accountability to individuals mance in structural fabrication is an accuracy control
completing incrementally completed segments. This program. With the use of statistical process controls,
customer-supplier relationship must be measured and variations in process parameters can be identified and the
controlled to maintain an optimum productivity value. causes evaluated.
Two of the more common methods of displaying the
data for accuracy control measurements are the histo-
Dimensional Accuracy (Process Control) gram and the process control chart. Each of these meth-
Successful preoutfitting is greatly dependent on struc- ods utilizes basic statistical analysis.
tural dimensional accuracy. Proper implementation of
these advanced concepts requires all structural members (1) Histogram. Figure 4.1 is a typical histogram. The
and platforms to be within predetermined tolerances. The data shown represent a series of actual measurements
19
SECTION 4—MODULAR CONSTRUCTION
taken over a period of time. By collecting the data in the sure that productivity is being improved and the effects
histogram format, the variations in the process can be on baseline performance can be determined.
collected and displayed to provide a meaningful analysis. An accuracy control program provides essential infor-
The histogram can be used to approximate a “bell mation for successful implementation of modular con-
curve.” The bell curve is a standard statistical representa- struction. When sequencing work by zones, it is essential
tion of predictable variations in a process. By utilizing that the systems continuing from one zone to another
the bell curve, normal process inconsistencies can be properly align at the boundaries. The structure must be
estimated and a process can be evaluated to determine accurate and within predefined tolerances to ensure that
the frequency and magnitude of deviation from perfor- the matching systems in two zones are within dimen-
mance to established tolerances. sional tolerances to allow for proper connections.
20
SECTION 4—MODULAR CONSTRUCTION
position welding and horizontal fillets. As this position- and zone approach to design. For example, with a zone
ing will allow greater use of mechanized and semi- approach to design, systems arrangement drawings can
automatic welding processes, labor will be reduced and be eliminated. Also, material lists can be generated to
productivity will be increased. Additionally, the quality support the zone construction method.
of the work will be enhanced. Advancements in the use of computer-aided design
By early zone planning, components can be identified (CAD) will soon permit a design to be made with the tra-
so that different types of work can be scheduled and kept ditional systems approach and then be converted to a
separate at the earliest manufacturing operation. This zone configuration. This will maintain the advantages of
will simplify the manning and scheduling problems asso- a system design methodology. From this base, the CAD
ciated with multiple-operation manufacturing. programming will enable a designer to define zones of a
Another objective is to schedule work in uncongested structure and the applicable portions of each system will
and more efficient work locations, rather than having op- be broken down into these zones. This will gain the ben-
erators perform their tasks in enclosed, high or narrow efits of a zone design concept without a large amount of
sites. Quality and productivity will be enhanced by this duplication of effort.
planning effort which incorporates important production
personnel needs to accomplish their work efficiently.
The time span for a production zone work package
can be reduced by scheduling multiple tasks, which are Summary
not in conflict with each other, to be performed at the To reap the benefits of this construction method,
same time. This objective must consider work area space changes in many areas must be considered:
allowances to ensure that craftsmen have sufficient room
to perform their tasks without interfering with other • The design effort must support a zone approach.
work. Similarly, compatible tasks can be scheduled to be • Planning must be directed toward a zone work pack-
performed in unison, and considerations of conflicting age that is producible, to ensure the proper balance of
efforts must be discouraged. For example, it is not effi- the key variables (time, resources, and quality).
cient to have a blast or paint operation being performed • An accuracy control program must be implemented to
in the same zone as a pipe-fitting operation. adequately monitor the fabrication process to ensure
that the blocks and distributive systems align properly.
Designing for Zone and Preoutfitting Some of the benefits of preoutfitting include:
Construction (1) A higher percentage of shop fabrication and
assembly.
Effective use of modular construction must incorpo- (2) Less congestion and worker interference for
rate design efforts that enhance zone definition for mate- structure installation.
rial and production planning. Design by system has value (3) Reduction in lost material.
in defining the capability of each functional individual
(4) Less on-site rigging and material handling.
system and in demonstrating the location and path of the
(5) Less on-site cleaning and reduction in fire
distributive systems. However, the optimum base of zone
hazards.
planning and work packages requires a zone approach to
(6) Improved working conditions on the assemblies.
design.
Implementation of preoutfitting will not be optimized If properly implemented, preoutfitting and modular
without the corollary design package. As stated in the construction will be cost effective and improve quality
introduction, there are differences between the systems and productivity.
21
SECTION 5
Welding Process
Selection
Contents
Common Welding Processes ........................................................................................................................................... 24
SMAW............................................................................................................................................................................... 26
GMAW .............................................................................................................................................................................. 27
FCAW ............................................................................................................................................................................... 28
SAW................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
GTAW ............................................................................................................................................................................... 30
23
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
Common Welding Processes cess the weld metal composition is an alloy combination
of filler metal and remelted base metal. Weld metal com-
The most common welding processes used in industry position varies with each process. It is difficult to predict
involve arc welding. The electric arc is a very effective weld metal composition since many elements are diluted
and portable heat source for melting most metals quickly. when crossing the welding arc.
When the base metal and filler metal become molten, Figures 5.1–5.5 describe the most common welding
they mix together then solidify to produce one solid processes and summarize their advantages and limitations.
piece. Most welding processes utilize a consumable elec-
trode, which conducts the welding current and melts as it
is continuously fed into the arc and deposited into the Process Selection
joint. The most common manual arc welding process is
When selecting a welding process for a specific appli-
the Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) process (see
cation, several factors that affect productivity and weld
Figure 5.1), in which a fixed length of electrode is hand
quality must be balanced. This can become a compli-
fed into the joint. Typical semi-automatic arc welding
cated decision, due to the number of conflicting advan-
processes include the Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
tages and disadvantages which each process possesses in
process (see Figure 5.2) and the Flux Cored Arc Welding
each situation.
(FCAW) process (see Figure 5.3), which automatically
Productivity is usually a very important consideration
feed a spooled electrode filler wire into the joint while
on most jobs. The deposition rate is a significant part of
the welder manipulates the torch manually. The Sub-
this factor. Each process can be ranked in terms of its dep-
merged Arc Welding (SAW) process (see Figure 5.4) is
osition rate in pounds of weld metal deposited per hour.
an automatic process whereby both filler wire and travel
However, there are other factors that must be considered.
speed are controlled by the machine which runs along a
For example, it usually takes time for a shop to become
preset track. The Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
familiar with a new welding process, new equipment, or
process (see Figure 5.5) uses a nonconsumable tungsten
even a new brand of filler metal. Until adequate training
electrode to establish an arc in the weld joint, and typi-
and acceptance by the shop personnel are accomplished,
cally, a separate hand-held filler wire is melted in the arc
the actual productivity rate will be less than the average.
and deposited in the joint.
Reject rates also have a significant impact on actual pro-
The molten weld pool created with all arc processes ductivity, since a considerable amount of time is required
must be shielded from oxidation and contamination dur- to remove defective weld metal, replace it, and reinspect
ing the welding process. SMAW electrodes have a thick it. Therefore, many factors must be taken into account be-
dry flux coating, which creates a gas shield and also pro- fore determining which is the best process for a specific
vides many of the alloying elements to the weld. The application. Process selection must be made by someone
SAW process obtains shielding and alloying with a simi- who is very familiar not only with the various processes,
lar type of dry flux in a granular form that covers the but more importantly with the shop’s capabilities and the
welding arc and molten pool. Spooled FCAW electrodes job requirements. As a minimum, the following items
also use a dry flux contained in the center of a tubular should be considered prior to selecting a welding process.
wire and typically obtain additional shielding from an
inert gas shield similar to the GMAW process. Both
Base Metal Type
GMAW and GTAW utilize inert shielding gases that flow
around the molten weld pool, while all alloying elements Some processes are better suited to certain base mate-
are supplied by the wire electrode alone. For each pro- rials than others. The maximum heat input must be
24
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
25
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
SMAW
Shielded metal arc welding is a manual arc welding
process. A covered electrode is used to deposit the filler
metal and supply shielding to the molten weld pool. The
12-in. to 18-in. long electrode has a dry flux coating that
decomposes in the arc to form a gas shield and a solid
slag covering on the cooled weld deposit. The flux coat-
ing often provides alloying and deoxidizing elements.
Advantages Limitations
All-position capability. Higher potential for weld contamination than for other
processes.
Many alloys are weldable.
Welding is frequently interrupted due to the short, fixed
Thick sections are weldable. length of electrodes.
Excellent for field and repair work. The process creates spatter and smoke fumes and leaves
a slag that must be removed before the next layer can be
Equipment is simple, low cost, low maintenance, and is deposited.
easy to set up.
Not suitable for thin material but is suitable for thin-wall
Good accessibility in space-restricted areas. repairs on thick material.
Arc visibility is good. Poor usability for aluminum and most bronzes.
The process is fairly tolerant of environmental conditions. Special electrode care is required since most flux coat-
ings absorb moisture.
Electrode travel, which helps to control heat input, is
required. Foreign material exclusion for nuclear applications is
poor.
26
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
GMAW
Gas metal arc welding is a semiautomatic or auto-
matic process. A small-diameter, continuous consumable
electrode is melted in the arc and deposited in the joint.
Shielding is provided by a gas that flows through the
weld torch. Depending on the amperage and wave form
used, four modes of metal transfer are possible: short cir-
cuiting, globular, pulsed spray, and spray transfer.
Advantages Limitations
High deposit rates (three times that of SMAW). Handling gas bottles for field work can be expensive.
All-position welding with some GMAW processes. Excessive weld spatter with CO2, shielding.
No slag removal and minimum interpass cleaning. Not used for thin metals except with pulsed spray and
short-circuit transfer welding.
Easily adapted to robotics.
Limited accessibility.
Good weld puddle visibility.
Spray transfer limited to the flat position.
27
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
FCAW
Flux cored arc welding uses equipment
similar to GMAW. The main difference is
that the electrode is a tubular wire with a
flux core. Some electrodes provide ade-
quate shielding with the flux core alone,
but others require the addition of gas
shielding.
Advantages Limitations
Self-shielded process is good for field work. Self-shielded process has lower-quality welds than exter-
nal gas shielded.
High deposition rates possible.
Flash burns easily obtained.
All-position welding possible.
Slag coating must be removed between layers.
Less joint preparation required than for SMAW and
GTAW. The flux core is susceptible to moisture pickup, which
may cause porosity and worm tracks.
Good penetration with gas shielding.
Equipment is bulky, and accessibility can be a problem.
28
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
SAW
Submerged arc welding is very similar to
GMAW except the weld pool is shielded,
deoxidized, and alloyed with a granulated
flux that melts in the arc. The flux is fed
through a hopper and a guide tube and de-
posited in the joint ahead of the welding arc.
Two or more electrode wires can be used in
tandem or metal powders can be added to in-
crease deposition rate to obtain optimum me-
chanical properties.
Advantages Limitations
Excellent weld quality. Limited to ferrous metals and high-nickel alloys (no age-
hardenable alloys).
No flash burns.
Best suited to long welds and thick sections.
Less angular weld distortion.
Special care required for the flux, since it absorbs mois-
Weld appearance excellent. ture easily.
Smoke and fume quantities are low. High toughness properties are hard to obtain.
Penetration is excellent. Joint fit-up and design are critical to penetration control.
29
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
GS SIELD
ILLER ETL
OLTEN RC SOLIDIIED
WELD ETL WELD ETL
Advantages Limitations
Wide range of thicknesses can be welded. Both hands must be used to hold the torch and filler wire,
which limits accessibility.
Very clean welds can be achieved with no significant slag,
spatter, or smoke. Shielding gas is easily disturbed by gusts of wind.
Excellent weld quality on most metals. Flash burns are easily obtained.
Amperage can be controlled by remote foot or hand Very limited for outdoor field work.
switches.
Difficult to monitor heat input.
The process can be used either manual or automatic.
30
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
Table 5.1
Process Comparison Chart
Process SMAW GTAW GMAW FCAW SAW
Arc Visibility and Filler Metal Placement Good Excellent Satisfactory Satisfactory Poor
31
SECTION 5—WELDING PROCESS SELECTION
32
SECTION 6
Primary Concepts
of Welding Design
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 34
What the Designer Should Know about Welding ......................................................................................................... 34
Service Requirements...................................................................................................................................................... 34
Base Metal Selection........................................................................................................................................................ 35
Welds Create a Discontinuity in the Base Material...................................................................................................... 35
Weld vs. Base Metal Properties ...................................................................................................................................... 35
Welds Rarely Improve upon Base Metal Properties .................................................................................................... 35
Keep Weldment Designs Simple ..................................................................................................................................... 35
Standardize Component Welding Design...................................................................................................................... 35
Minimize the Number of Welds...................................................................................................................................... 35
Location of Welds ............................................................................................................................................................ 36
Weld Deposit Mechanical Properties ............................................................................................................................. 36
Joint Designs—Amount and Type of Weld ................................................................................................................... 36
Partial Penetration Welds ............................................................................................................................................... 36
Full Penetration Welds .................................................................................................................................................... 38
Fillet Welds....................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Design Considerations for Change of Cross Sections................................................................................................... 39
Residual Stress—Fact or Fiction? .................................................................................................................................. 40
Summary for Improved Fabrication Design ................................................................................................................. 40
Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................... 43
33
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
34
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
35
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
or more pieces of plate together. Reducing the number of than the welding filler metal specification requirements.
component parts by improving the design or purchasing In production the weld metal properties are dependent
standard shapes is usually more economical than welding. upon the base metal chemistry, how much it has been di-
luted into the weld metal, and the rate of weld metal
cooling. The cooling rate of the weld can also affect the
Location of Welds mechanical properties of the weld and the heat-affected
zone. The cooling rate can be drastically affected by base
From a design point of view, a structure’s ability to metal type and thickness, the amount of weld deposit, the
carry service loads is only as good as the weakest part of technique used to deposit the filler metal, and the temper-
the structure. In most cases, the weakest link is the weld ature of the base metal prior to each weld pass (i.e., the
deposit and the localized effects on the structure (espe- preheat and interpass temperature). In general the de-
cially for fatigue applications). The allowable loads that signer should use the lowest possible yield strength filler
welds are permitted to carry are determined in many in- metal compatible with the design.
stances by a standard or code to which the item is fabri- Designers will frequently use filler metals that pro-
cated. Examples of such controlling codes are the AWS duce a deposit that exceeds base metal properties. Often
D1.1, Structural Welding Code—Steel, and the American these higher-strength deposits, in combination with the
Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Code. base metal HAZ, result in the weldment having:
Welds should be located according to the cost of mak-
ing the weldment, inspection requirements and the ser- • Decreased fatigue resistance.
vice requirements. • Decreased impact resistance.
Because welds represent a metallurgical notch and are • Increased distortion.
stress risers, welds should be kept in the lowest stressed • Increased base metal cracking.
areas as practical. When fatigue, impact, or creep is a pri- • Increased amounts of residual stress.
mary concern, the welds should be placed in low-stressed • Increased costs.
areas.
When possible, the designer should arrange for the
welds to be made in the flat position. The most economi- Joint Designs—Amount and Type of
cal, fastest and highest-quality weld is achieved in the
flat position with standard welding processes. Flat posi-
Weld
tion welding with simple designs allows high deposition The type and direction of loading of the weldment
rate mechanized, semiautomatic, or automatic welding will determine the type and amount of weld. The least
processes at substantial cost and time savings. amount of weld should be used to meet the necessary de-
The location of welds should always provide the sign service requirements. Specific weld joint design se-
welder easy and open access. The most costly welds to lection is discussed by another section of this manual.
make are predominately those where proper welding ac- However, it will suffice to say the primary reasons for se-
cess has not been provided for by the designer. If welding lecting a joint design are to provide the desired service
access is difficult, then Nondestructive Examination requirements (i.e., the ability to accommodate service
(NDE) will usually be difficult, as will any necessary fol- stress/strain and corrosion) and to accommodate welder
low up repairs. Snipes or “rat holes” should be as large as accessibility.
practical to provide access for welding and NDE. There are many other secondary factors that affect
Designs should avoid welding across flanges under joint design selection, such as available processes and
tension as drastic reductions to allowable service loads skill levels, cost, aesthetics, environmental conditions,
are imposed by most codes. system status, base metal thickness and properties, loca-
Avoid welds on edges of members subject to tensile tion of the weld, position of the weld, the number of
fatigue. Edges of members subject to tensile loads usu- welds, the schedule of the project, etc.
ally experience higher loads than the rest of the member
and, since a weld acts as a stress riser, premature failure
of a component could occur due to unanticipated loads. Partial Penetration Welds
A partial penetration weld is a weld that intentionally
Weld Deposit Mechanical Properties does not completely penetrate through the thickness of a
joint (see Figure 6.1). Partial penetration welds can often
The as-deposited mechanical properties of a weld in a be used for tension, compression, and shear stresses that
fabrication should always be considered to be different act parallel to the longitudinal axis of a weld and for
36
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
(1/2)
1/2
Figure 6.1—Partial Joint Penetration with(1/2)
Joint Geometry Optional
1/2
1 1/4
(1/2)
1/2
3/4
1 1/8
(1/2)
1/2 (1/2)
1/2
(1/2)
1/2
37
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
compression loads normal to a weld (see Figure 6.2). Full Penetration Welds
Making full penetration welds on very thick material for
these types of loads can cause higher residual stress than
A full penetration weld penetrates through the thick-
the anticipated service loads. In some cases, particularly
ness of a joint (see Figure 6.3). Groove welds are used on
on heavy sections, weld failures will be experienced dur-
butts, corners, and tees. Full penetration welds should be
ing fabrication before service loads are imposed. Often
used only where required by the design service require-
welds that are subject to shear stresses can be designed to
be 50% efficient, thereby allowing partial penetration ments. Services involving high shock, high temperatures,
joint designs or lower-strength welds to be used. axial or bending cyclic loading (fatigue), and pressure
vessels often require full penetration welds. Full penetra-
Welding defects that are placed in compression or
tion welds are expensive, often cause the largest distor-
shear while in service are much less critical than those
tion and have high residual stress. However, they are
placed in tension by service loads. In a practical sense,
permitted the highest allowable stresses for design ser-
partial penetration welds have crack starters and continu-
vice by all codes.
ous lack of fusion conditions at their roots. Open roots of
partial penetration welds may be subject to crevice corro- Full penetration welds on heavy sections require spe-
sion. They should not be used in corrosive environments cial joint design consideration to minimize residual stress
unless the metal is resistant to crevice corrosion. These and the possibility of cracking and lamellar tearing (see
joints have poor resistance to fatigue and impact loading, Figure 6.4). Mild steel structural plate has low ductility
and they should not be used when the weld roots are sub- through its thickness and it cannot accommodate high
ject to transverse cyclic tension or bending tension loads. through thickness strains. Lamellar tearing and cracking
Partial penetration welds are less expensive and cause of the base metal adjacent to the weld is a common result
less distortion than full penetration welds. of poor welding joint details on heavy structural steels.
38
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
NOTE OVERLAP
39
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
40
41
42
SECTION 6—PRIMARY CONCEPTS OF WELDING DESIGN
(9) Design for prefabricating the material in the shop (20) Use partial penetration welds for joints subject to
when practical. axial tension and compression loads.
(10) Use flat position welding. It’s cheaper, faster and (21) Do not use partial penetration welds when the
usually higher quality. weld root is subject to cyclic tension or impact loads.
(11) Avoid designs that require welding across tension (22) Base metal stiffness does not increase with in-
flanges. creasing yield strength. Additional stiffeners may need to
(12) Avoid corner welds or edge welds that are subject be added to a structure which uses high-strength material
to tensile fatigue. in order to decrease plate or section thickness.
(13) “As deposited” welds will have mechanical prop-
erties that are different from their specifications due to
base metal dilution. Bibliography/Recommended Reading
(14) Use the lowest yield strength filler metal compat- List
ible with the design. This reduces costs, residual stress,
American Welding Society. Design Handbook for Calcu-
distortion, and cracking.
lating Fillet Weld Sizes (FWSH). Miami, Fla.: Ameri-
(15) Use the least amount of weld metal necessary to
can Welding Society.
meet design requirements. A 1/8-in. fillet is typically the
smallest practical fillet size. ———. Structural Welding Code—Reinforcing Steel
(16) Use partial penetration welds in lieu of full pene- (D1.4). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
tration when the design permits (i.e., all compression
———. Structural Welding Code—Sheet Steel (D1.3).
loads, tension and shear loads that act parallel to the axis
Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
of the weld).
(17) Use full penetration welds only when required by ———. Structural Welding Code—Stainless Steel (D1.6).
the service requirements. Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
(18) Use fillet welds when practical. Use single pass
———. Structural Welding Code—Steel (D1.1). Miami,
fillet welds where possible (5/16-in. to 3/8-in. maximum
Fla.: American Welding Society.
leg sizes depending on the welding process). Some stan-
dards require a two-layer minimum for leak tightness if ———. Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding
they are to be used for fluid containment. Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American Weld-
(19) Balance welding about the neutral axis. ing Society.
43
SECTION 7
Fatigue
Considerations
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Loading ............................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Stress Concentrations...................................................................................................................................................... 46
Inspection ......................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Peening.............................................................................................................................................................................. 48
Grinding ........................................................................................................................................................................... 49
45
SECTION 7—FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS
46
SECTION 7—FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS
Figure 7.1—Cracks
47
SECTION 7—FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS
area, typically associated with lack of fusion, cracks or loading, the rate of loading, or the number of cycles
slag, open to or very close to a weld surface, are most should be examined. Welds should be kept in low-
likely to progress into cracks if undesirable loading is stressed areas. Reverse cyclic loading (tension-compres-
present. Fatigue crack growth from the toes of welds will sion) should be avoided. High-yield base metals have lit-
typically progress from the edge of the weld and through tle advantage if reverse cyclic loading is experienced.
the heat-affected zone (HAZ) into the base metal at right
angles to the fluctuating primary stress in the weldment.
By proper examination of fatigue fracture surfaces, it
can be determined where the failure initiation sites were,
Surface Finishing to Improve Fatigue
and the direction and amount of primary stress. Life
Since surface shapes can directly affect fatigue life, it
is necessary to know how surface conditioning can im-
Inspection prove fatigue life. A simple example of this is that a
Fatigue cracks are difficult to find during the early finely finished smooth machined plate or shaft will have
stage of growth since they are tight and exhibit no defor- an improved fatigue performance (number of cycles and
mation. Visual inspection is of limited value during this stress limit) over base metal with mill scale. Also, plates
stage of crack growth. The magnetic particle (MT), pene- or shafts with mill scale will have considerably better fa-
trant (PT), and eddy current (ET) tests would be the best tigue resistance than the same base metal that has been
inspection processes for discovering fatigue cracks. subject to surface pitting by corrosion.
48
SECTION 7—FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS
The following weld geometry attributes are stress ris- gles is very beneficial for improving the fatigue life of a
ers that directly lead to a lower fatigue life (see Figure component. In every case, fatigue life should be expected
7.2). to be improved over the as-welded condition by proper
It is important to realize that the only thing that is grinding. Grinding that is properly accomplished can im-
being addressed here is the shape of the surface and not prove fatigue performance by at least 20%. However,
differences due to a weld deposit being present, such as grinding should not leave gouges or heavy grind marks.
residual stress or different mechanical properties. Reduc- Also, removal of weld reinforcement to nearly zero with-
tion in fatigue life due to these surface conditions would out creating a noticeable angle between the reinforce-
be present regardless of whether a weld were present or ment and the base metal improves fatigue life. Contour
not. If all base metal fatigue samples are machined into grinding of welds should be performed prior to stress re-
different shapes, such as increasing amounts of rein- lief on components, such as pressure vessels. Since con-
forcement or increasing re-entrant angles or machined in touring of welds is very expensive, and in some cases it
simulated weld ripples, the fatigue life will be decreased. is more expensive than making the weld, it should only
For example, if simulated undercut is machined into the be accomplished for critical applications, or where
surface of a plate it will reduce the fatigue life of the known service problems exist.
plate even though a weld is not present.
Thermal Fatigue
When a component is comprised of thick and thin sec-
tions and is subject to transient changes in temperatures,
high thermal strains can easily develop at abrupt changes
of the cross section without considering other external
loads. During the heat-up cycle the thin material will heat
up much more rapidly than the thick sections. The hot
thin sections must thermally expand, but will be re-
strained by the thicker cooler sections. During the cool-
down cycle, the thinner sections will cool-down much
more rapidly than the thick sections, causing high ther-
mal strains, again due to differences in temperature. Fur-
ther, thermal strains can be induced as a result of the
Figure 7.2—Surface Geometry Effects difference in thermal conductivity between materials
on Fatigue Life used in a given joint configuration.
49
SECTION 7—FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS
Checklist for Fatigue Considerations (13) Continuous fillet welds have better fatigue perfor-
mance than intermittent fillet welds.
(1) Keep welds in low-stressed areas. (14) Full penetration welds have better fatigue perfor-
(2) Keep the maximum stress and the number of mance than partial penetration welds.
cycles as low as is practical. (15) Avoid the use of welds on external cor-
(3) Avoid reverse cycles (tension and compression). ners or plate edges when practical for critical fatigue
(4) Avoid rapid or abrupt changes in cross-sectional applications.
thicknesses especially in weld-associated areas.
(16) Avoid welding transverse to primary tension fa-
(5) Keep weld reinforcement and re-entrant angles to
tigue stress (i.e., across tension flanges of beams).
a minimum.
(17) Flame-cut edges on heat-treatable base metal
(6) Contour grinding or peening will improve fatigue
should be ground to a smooth surface to remove peak
performance.
hardness residual/stresses and stress concentrations.
(7) Keep components painted; it improves fatigue
(18) Avoid forced alignment of flanged joints and
performance and minimizes surface corrosion.
weld joints, as this may result in fatigue cracks adjacent
(8) Reverse thermal strains are common in piping and
to welds during service.
machinery components where abrupt changes of thick-
ness are present or components’ piping systems are not
allowed to freely expand. These internal loads can be re-
duced by providing gradual changes in cross sections, Bibliography/Recommended Reading
flexible supports, sliding foundations or bends in piping List
systems to allow gradual strain distributions over larger
areas. American Welding Society. Structural Welding Code—
(9) When repairing a fatigue crack, be sure the crack Steel (D1.1). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
is completely removed. Contour grind the weld and in- ———. Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding
spect the weld for critical applications. Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American
(10) Unless the stress pattern, the rate of loading, the Welding Society.
number of cycles, or the basic design is changed, re-
paired fatigue cracks will redevelop (usually at a more Fatigue Assessment of Welded Joints Using Local Ap-
rapid rate). proaches. England: Abington Publishing. (Available
(11) Avoid the use of doubler or cover plates where through AWS.)
fatigue considerations are critical.
Fatigue Strength of Welded Structures, 2nd ed. England:
(12) For dissimilar metal welds involving thermal Abington Publishing. (Available through AWS.)
fatigue applications, the filler metal should have a ther-
mal expansion rate approximately midway between the Proceedings of the International Conference on Fatigue.
two base metals selected. Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
50
SECTION 8
Welding Safety
Considerations
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Design................................................................................................................................................................................ 52
Production ........................................................................................................................................................................ 53
51
SECTION 8—WELDING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
52
SECTION 8—WELDING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
(3) Provide direction on plans and instructions where found that the majority of fires have been caused by
known fire and safety hazards exist, i.e., tanks which portable equipment. Permanent weld stations are
have contained or presently contain flammable or health- made fire safe.
hazardous material and air-tight compartments or voids
• Do not weld on tanks that contain or have contained
which have been closed for long periods of time.
combustible material or liquids unless they have been
(4) Design assemblies to utilize automated systems
inerted according to IAW local instructions.
wherever possible.
• Do not weld when material or personnel are improp-
erly supported or staged.
53
SECTION 8—WELDING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
the base metal or the presence of volatile solvents in Use of Inert Gases
the air.
Due to the serious nature of the potential hazards as-
• Zinc and magnesium oxide inhalation. sociated with the use of inert and other gas mixtures re-
quired during welding, additional emphasis is warranted.
— Toxicity produces chills, fevers, nausea four to The use of nonflammable (inert) gases within structural
eight hours after exposure. enclosures, piping systems, etc., creates a potential per-
— Toxicity disappears almost invariably, within 24 sonnel hazard. The inherent danger in the use of inert
hours. gases is that sufficient quantities may be released into an
occupied compartment or space to reduce the oxygen
• Copper fumes toxicity. content of the atmosphere below that required to support
human life.
— Toxicity symptoms similar to zinc and magnesium Inert gases are used in many production methods in
except it is more severe, longer lasting and is pre- the building and repair of ships, argon (Ar) for purging
cipitated by less exposure. piping systems, nitrogen (N 2 ) for drying air piping,
• Nickel (1 mg per cubic meter), cobalt (0.1 mg per cubic helium (He) for some types of welding and carbon diox-
meter), and mercury (0.1 mg per cubic meter) are: ide (CO 2 ) for inerting tanks containing flammables, to
name a few.
— Strongly suspected of causing a chemical pneu- An atmosphere deficient in oxygen (O2) usually gives
monitis which may have severe or even fatal little or no warning, particularly if the gas that has dis-
results. placed the oxygen is odorless. A trained observer may
notice an increase in pulse or breathing rate in time to es-
• Cadmium oxide and beryllium oxide. cape; however, the average individual may fail to recog-
— These oxides produce severe fume pneumonitis. nize the lack of oxygen until he is too confused and weak
to save himself, especially when a considerable distance
— They are extremely dangerous. must be traveled to reach fresh air.
To minimize the hazards, the use of inert gas must be
• Iron and aluminum apparently do not cause a metal closely controlled. Positive exhaust systems must be in
fume fever although inhalation of very large amounts operation to reduce the possibility of an inert gas
of iron fumes for a period of years may cause a condi- buildup, should accidental leakage occur. Low areas
tion known as siderosis, a deposit of iron in the lungs. where heavier gases tend to accumulate require special
• Materials coated, even accidentally, with toxic materi- attention. In addition to general ventilation requirements
als such as lead, cadmium, mercury or paints contain- to reduce this hazard, local exhaust ventilation should be
ing toxic materials produce what is probably the installed in such a manner as to exhaust the inert gas.
greatest health hazard in welding or cutting. Any such Each opening from which the inert gas is flowing must
coatings should be removed prior to welding, or rigid have individual ventilation.
ventilation control measures should be established. Personnel using and/or having access to inert gas should
receive additional training about its potential hazards and
Welding on materials containing lead, or other toxic the appropriate methods for handling and working with it.
materials such as high-lead bronze, may produce a harm-
ful exposure, depending largely on the amount of such
material present and the amount of metal melted. Pro- Planning for Safety
fessional safety advice should be consulted prior to It is often the case during the planning and funding
welding. phase of a project, that safety is assumed to be a normal
Welding on materials containing Beryllium may pro- work practice and is just another unaccounted for ex-
duce an extremely dangerous condition. No such welding pense of completing a project. This can be a dangerous
should be undertaken until complete control of fumes has approach to doing business. This attitude or lack of
been provided. awareness of what is required to ensure the safety of the
Welding on tanks, pipelines or containers of any sort workers places an unnecessary burden on those produc-
from which the contents have not been completely re- tion people trying to meet the schedules. Not properly
moved may introduce a serious hazard by volatilization identifying and subsequently funding safety require-
or decomposition of the residue. This is particularly ments may cause production personnel, in their efforts to
true when halogenated materials or plating solutions are complete a job in a timely, cost-effective manner, to
involved. overlook serious safety considerations. Safe working
54
SECTION 8—WELDING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
conditions for your personnel are not an incidental part ———. Arc Welding Safely (AWS). Miami, Fla.: Ameri-
or expense of doing business. Staging, eye, ear, ventila- can Welding Society.
tion, respiration, skin, and fire protection add consider-
able cost to a job and must not be overlooked. ———. Effects of Welding on Health, vols. I-X (EWH).
Successful completion of any complicated task Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
requires thoughtful coordination of assets and per-
sonnel—usually from a variety of trades. The same
———. Fire Safety in Welding and Cutting (FSW). Miami,
can be said for thorough planning and funding of that
Fla.: American Welding Society.
task prior to the start of a complex job. Without careful
coordination between design, planning, and production
personnel, a costly lesson to be learned would be in the ———. Lens Shade Selector (F2.2). Miami, Fla.: Ameri-
making. Areas that require special safety considerations can Welding Society.
may be overlooked, resulting in a potential loss of both
human and material resources. ———. Safe Practices (SP). Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
Bibliography/Recommended Reading ———. Safety and Health Fact Sheets (SHF), 2nd ed.
List Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
American Welding Society. A Sampling Strategy Guide
for Evaluating Contaminants in the Welding Environ- ———. Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes
ment (F1.3). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society. (Z49.1). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
55
SECTION 9
Weld Joint Design
Considerations
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 58
Design................................................................................................................................................................................ 58
Accessibility...................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Temperature Control....................................................................................................................................................... 60
Base/Filler Material......................................................................................................................................................... 60
Summary .......................................................................................................................................................................... 61
57
SECTION 9—WELD JOINT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
58
SECTION 9—WELD JOINT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Joint efficiency is the ability of the weld joint to trans- (1) Minimize welding by using standard shapes.
fer stresses between the members being welded and the (2) Use partial-penetration joints when design
weldment. Weld joint efficiency requirements will, to a permits.
large extent, determine what type of weld joints are (3) Balance welding around the neutral axis. Use
needed. Welds joints can be put into two groups, full double “V” or “U” joints so that welds can be balanced
penetration and partial penetration. A full-penetration by welding alternately on either side of the plate.
joint has fusion through the entire cross section of the (4) Weld toward restraint.
weld. A partial-penetration joint allows an unfused area (5) Do not use excessive force to align joints for fit
within the joint cross section, and the weld does not com- up.
pletely penetrate the joint thickness. Keep in mind that (6) Preplace or preposition weld joints to accommo-
joint efficiency is not totally equated with weld size, but date weld joint shrinkage.
is largely dependent on factors including weld metal (7) Prestress weld joints to off set weld shrinkage.
properties and stress transfer. (8) Peen welds.
(9) Use processes that use the minimum total heat
Fatigue Resistance input to fabricate the joint.
(10) Use the least amount of total weld metal consis-
When designing a weld joint, fatigue resistance must tent with adequate design.
be considered. Any abrupt change in cross section or di- (11) Use subassemblies to accommodate distortion
rection along the path of stress flow will reduce the fa- shrinkage.
tigue life. To increase fatigue life, sharp corners should
be replaced with smooth transitions, simple butt joints
should be used instead of lap or “T” joints, and changes
in cross section should include a minimum 4:1 taper into
Accessibility
or out of a weld joint. Smoothly ground weld reinforce- Joint accessibility for the welder needs to be taken
ment will also increase the fatigue life. Weld discontinui- into consideration when issuing design instructions and
ties such as excessive reinforcement, undercut, overlap, drawings for assembly in the shop or field. Is the job new
59
SECTION 9—WELD JOINT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
construction or repair? Can component subassemblies be (4) What physical and chemical properties need to be
accomplished in the shop? Shop assembly increases ac- considered?
cessibility by permitting plates to be turned, and piping (5) What material types and thicknesses are available?
to be rolled. To assist in making sound design/planning (6) Are dissimilar metals to be joined? (Some filler
decisions, the design engineer should visit and review the metals are extremely crack sensitive depending on the
job site prior to issuing work instructions. base metal/filler metal combination.)
Fabricated components, throughout their life span,
may have to be weld repaired. The designer should keep
Environmental Conditions this in mind for weldability and welding access in the
A job site and work condition review will assist in se- field. Components that will be weld repaired or replaced
lection of weld process and associated joint design. Ad- often should be designed for ease of welder access and
verse weather conditions and contaminates such as water, ease of weldability (i.e., process to be used, base material
paint, and oil in or near an existing weld joint are factors type, and joint design).
to consider when designing new weld joints, or specify-
ing repairs and welding processes. Windy conditions re-
quire additional sheltering if a gas-shielded welding Pipe Welding Considerations
process is selected.
Pipe Joint Design
Design criteria for welded pipe joints are set forth in
Temperature Control specifications. These criteria are dependent upon the
Heat transfer from the welding process into the weld piping system. The designer is guided in selection of a
and the adjacent base metal can cause damage to compo- particular joint design by one or more of the following
nents. When welding a component with finished ma- factors:
chined surfaces control of temperatures before, during (1) Contractual requirements.
and after welding has to be addressed so as to keep dis- (2) System application (pressure, temperature, corro-
tortion of those surfaces to an acceptable level. There sion, erosion, etc.).
may be paint that needs to be protected on the inaccessi- (3) Piping material.
ble backside of a component that requires weld repair. (4) Piping wall thickness.
Material thickness and maximum temperature the paint (5) Specifications.
can withstand have to be known before welding. A (6) Classification of joint (i.e., consumable insert,
mock-up of the job may have to be done. backing ring, socket, or square butt).
O-ring seating surfaces located near weld repair areas (7) Availability of fittings.
require heat input control for distortion protection. Some (8) Welding accessibility for butt or socket joints vary
considerations for controlling heat to a desired area can with location. Butt welds usually require greater working
be done by preheat and interpass temperature restric- space.
tions, limiting length of weld bead, joint design, size of (9) Butt weld joints are more difficult and generally
welding electrode, number of weld passes, and forced more expensive to make than socket welds.
cooling (air or water). (10) Butt weld fittings may be joined directly to one
another, requiring only one joint.
(11) A length of pipe between two socket fittings re-
Base/Filler Material quires two weld joints.
Base metal and filler material selection can determine A piping designer should take into consideration that
what weld joints can be used. When choosing base/filler any joint in any piping system could be subject to failure
materials the designer has to be aware of conditions that under a given combination of adverse circumstances, and
may affect the final selection such as: must therefore be accessible for repair. Designers must
also consider that repairs may be necessary in the field
(1) Is the project new construction, rework, or repair? and not under ideal conditions. Consequently, whenever
(2) What is the form of the base material (wrought, a welded joint can be eliminated in design, it automati-
forged, or cast)? cally eliminates a source of possible future failure. This
(3) What service environment will the material be could be done by designing bends instead of welded
subjected to? joints into a given piping system.
60
SECTION 9—WELD JOINT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
61
SECTION 10
Weld Distortion
and Control
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 64
63
SECTION 10—WELD DISTORTION AND CONTROL
Introduction
UNWELDED PLATE
Control of distortion during fabrication is essential.
Weld distortion is evident on practically all weldments. It
is readily visible on thin plate and sheet metal when
welded. In addition to lowering stress-carrying capabili-
ties, distortion can make it extremely difficult to fit sub- ARC IS STRUCK
assembly parts together to complete a fabrication. Weld
distortion can be extremely expensive to correct and it is
easier to prevent than to correct for critical applications.
Fabrication distortion is caused by:
HEATED PORTION
• Volumetric shrinkage of molten metal solidifying to EXPANDS
ambient temperature.
• Thermal shortening of metal adjacent to a weld.
• Filler metal with higher yield strengths than their base
metals. ARC IS
EXTINGUISHED
The metallurgical and mechanical properties of the
base metal greatly influence the degree of distortion ex-
perienced. Because of their different mechanical and
CONTRACTING
metallurgical properties, different base metals exhibit SHAPE WITH
varying amounts of distortion for the same amount of COOLING
heat input. The following base metals are listed in order
of increasing distortion problems: HY-100, HY-80, high-
strength steel, mild steel, Monel®, copper-nickel and 300 RESOLIDIFIED
Series stainless steel. WITH RESIDUAL
STRESS
64
SECTION 10—WELD DISTORTION AND CONTROL
ited weld metal) adjacent to the weld is heated under cation can result in distortion. It should be noted that as
restricted expansion (compression). The metal is only the temperature increases, the strain to cause yielding
free to thermally expand and plastically deform in the (permanent deformation) decreases. As one inch of base
through thickness dimension of the base metal (perpen- metal is heated, it must thermally expand (volumetri-
dicular to the weld surface). The end result is that the cally) to accommodate this increased energy; and since it
nonuniformly heated area adjacent to a weld is generally cannot thermally expand in its length because of restraint
thicker, narrower in width, and shorter in length than (ideal), the metal experiences compressive strains.
base metal outside the heated area (see Figure 10.1). At low temperatures these strains are elastic (no per-
manent deformation). As the temperature is increased,
Restricted Expansion during Heating Cycle the compressive strains become so high that they reach
When base metal is heated in a plate by a single pass the compressive yield strain of the base metal, and any
of weld metal, the base metal being heated adjacent to increased temperature results in plastic deformation. By
the weld thermally expands as the temperature rises subtracting the yield strain curve from the thermal ex-
while the base metal a short distance away from this pansion curve, the resulting curve represents the perma-
heated area is much cooler. The cooler base metal re- nent deformation (shortening) of the one-inch length of
strains thermal expansion in the plane of the plate. This base metal after it has been subjected to temperatures
places the heated area adjacent to the weld under high higher than approximately 180°F.
compressive strain. The yield strain of the base metal By developing these curves for different base metals
being heated decreases with increasing temperature from published data and then comparing them, increased
while that of the adjacent cooler base metal remains information can be gained as to what temperatures are
stronger due to its lower temperature. As the adjacent necessary to initiate deformation under ideal conditions
metal continues to be heated to higher temperatures as a with single axial restraint. Under ideal conditions very
result of thermal conduction from the deposited weld, it small changes of temperature are required to reach base
reaches yield point. The heated area adjacent to the weld metal yield points and to cause plastic flow.
yields (or plastically flows) perpendicular to the plate or
weld surfaces (see Figure 10.1).
Metal Properties Affecting Distortion
Cooling Cycle
Each component brings its own manufacturing history
As the heated area adjacent to the weld cools off, the of residual stress to the fabrication assembly. Castings
area that is plastically deformed is always at a lower tem- have solidification stresses, and plates are stressed by
perature than the center of the weld. This causes retained rolling and cooling operations. Each metal’s properties
increased thickening or deformation that was formed (thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, elasticity,
during the heating cycle in this peripheral weld area. yield strength, its structural shape) influence the severity
During the cooling cycle, the periphery area (this may be of manufacturing stresses and resultant weld distortion.
previously deposited weld metal or the base metal) has a
higher yield strength than the weld, due to its lower tem- Thermal Expansion
perature. The average thickness at ambient temperature
of this plastically flowed area is greater than it was prior The coefficient of thermal expansion is used to ex-
to heating. This thickening can only be accommodated press the amount of expansion and contraction of metal
by shortening of dimensions in the plane of the base with temperature change. The higher the coefficient, the
metal. In other words, the thermally upset base and weld more expansion and contraction is predicted for a given
metal now have a shorter length and shorter width in the temperature change. 300 Series stainless steel, copper-
plane of the plate. The end result of this shortening in nickel, and Monel® all have high thermal expansion rates
width and length and increased thickness is high elastic and this, in conjunction with relatively low yield strains,
and plastic deformation of the weld and the base metal makes them subject to considerable distortion.
adjacent to the weld metal. This results in weld distortion
and high residual stress. Thermal Conductivity
Metals with low thermal conductivity will experience
Theoretical Shortening under Ideal increased distortion due to a greater temperature gradient
between the weld and base metal. The reason for this is
Conditions that when weld metal is deposited, the base metal cannot
The nonuniform heating and cooling of the weld conduct the heat of welding away rapidly and a large
metal and the surrounding base metal during weld fabri- difference in temperature is created in a narrow zone,
65
SECTION 10—WELD DISTORTION AND CONTROL
causing large thermal expansion in this localized area. • A double “V” groove requires less welding than a sin-
Plastic flow occurs in this restricted expansion area, re- gle “V” in the same plate thickness and will help bal-
sulting in distortion. Stainless steel has much lower ther- ance angular distortion.
mal conductivity than mild steel and this is partially why • Use partial penetration joints whenever possible.
it is much more susceptible to distortion than mild steel.
• Use smallest weld size possible to meet the strength
requirements. Oversized welds increase distortion.
Modulus of Elasticity
• Use flanged corners instead of welded corners.
Modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of a • Use intermittent welds to reduce welding where prac-
metal. A material with a higher modulus is more resistant tical (see Figure 10.2).
to distortion, since increased stress is required to strain or
stretch the material. However, it should be noted that the Balance Welding
mild steel and most alloy steels have nearly the same
modulus of elasticity. Weld in a sequence that offsets one shrinkage stress
against a previously deposited weld on the opposite side
Yield Strength/Strain (see Figure 10.3). However, the resultant shrinkage of the
second weld will not equal the distortion of the first weld.
Yield strength or yield strain is an indication of the Distortion is best controlled by welding both sides simul-
metal’s resistance to permanent deformation. A lower taneously such as double fillet welds where practical.
yield strength filler metal accommodates some of the dy-
namic weld joint stresses by stretching rather than creat-
Joint Design
ing distortion. Conversely, base metals with high yield
strain are less susceptible to distortion due to their in- Joint designs should have minimum root openings and
creased strength. bevel angles, yet provide adequate joint access for good
fusion for the welding process used. Joint designs need
Manufacturing Residual Stresses to be selected that will balance welding (see Figure
10.4).
Components have their own residual stress patterns
that can affect the resultant distortion of the finished
product after welding. Because of different cooling pat- Restraint
terns, castings, plate, and shapes have varying residual Reduce distortion by restraining assemblies in fixtures
stress patterns that directly affect distortion. For exam- or to other assemblies. When practical weld toward max-
ple, the flanges of rolled I-beams are typically under ten- imum restraint; weld away from edges; weld toward the
sion, while the webs are under compression, because centroid or the center of gravity when practical.
during manufacture the thinner cross section of the webs
cool first followed by the flanges. The cooling and short-
Neutral Axis
ening of the flanges place the webs under compression.
Position weld joints at a neutral axis to provide less
leverage for shrinkage forces, or balance welding around
Considerations for Minimization of the neutral axis.
Weld Distortion
Structural Tacks
Minimize Welding Structural tacks help force the welds to deform rather
Avoid welding when practical. Use standard shapes or than distorting the base metal. Structural tacks are usu-
rolled sections, use castings or break/roll material into ally a minimum of two inches long and are often two lay-
different shapes rather than welding several pieces ers thick. These tacks will restrain the root opening from
together. closing during welding and will help force the root weld
pass to deform instead of pulling the plates together. It
• Minimize root openings and bevel angles of full pene- should be kept in mind that any restraint that can be
tration joints. However, adequate access for the weld- placed on hot weld metal will be very effective, due to its
ing process and operator must be provided. low yield strength at high temperatures. The structural
• A “J” or “U” groove requires less welding than a tacks need to be thick enough so that they cannot be
bevel or “V” groove and will result in less distortion fused through by subsequent passes, as this will reduce
of thicker metals. some of their effectiveness.
66
SECTION 10—WELD DISTORTION AND CONTROL
67
SECTION 10—WELD DISTORTION AND CONTROL
Preset
Figure 10.3—Sequence Welds
Alignment of the joint is set up out of position to
allow for anticipated shrinkage during welding to bring
the assembly to the desired position (see Figure 10.6).
Use mockup test assemblies to estimate amount of preset
necessary as the amount of preset will vary with each
welding process and the parameters used.
α
Overwelding
Weld convexity increases shrinkage but does not in-
crease strength. Use intermittent welds or partial penetra-
tion welds where practical. Do not oversize fillet welds.
Excessive distortion can result from oversizing small fil-
β let welds by one size on thin material.
68
SECTION 10—WELD DISTORTION AND CONTROL
OGRESS
N OF WELD PR 4
DIRECTIO 3
2
1
The shrinkage of a cooling weld applies stress to the ———. Welding Processes and Practices (WPP). Miami,
weld metal and surrounding base metal. These stresses Fla.: American Welding Society.
69
SECTION 11
Checklist for
Sound Welding
Decisions
Contents
The Intended Service Requirements.............................................................................................................................. 72
71
SECTION 11—CHECKLIST FOR SOUND WELDING DECISIONS
No item has a greater effect on weldability than ❒ Tensile and compressive stresses and strains (axial/
the common everyday decisions made by the designer, bending).
welding engineer, shop supervisor, and the journeyman ❒ Corrosion resistance.
mechanic. ❒ Erosion resistance.
Before making a welding decision, there are three ❒ Abrasion resistance.
basic areas that should receive consideration: ❒ Impact resistance (stress and temperature dependent).
❒ Creep resistance.
• The intended service requirements. ❒ Temperature (high- or low-temperature physical
• The base metal and weld metal properties. properties).
• The fabrication conditions imposed. ❒ Fatigue resistance (thermal and mechanical).
❒ Aesthetics (color match, anodizing, and appearance).
As an aid, to make sure you have checked items that
can affect weldability, a Sound Welding Decisions
Checklist is provided in this section. This list is not all Base and Weld Metal Properties
inclusive and may be added to depending upon the indi-
vidual’s specific experience. However, it is a list of spe-
cific areas that deserve attention in avoiding the majority
Welding Engineering Cognizance
of serious welding problems. The effects on the HAZ and weld metal properties
Once a problem or potential problem area is identi- due to the maximum welding temperature reached
fied, it should be referred to or coordinated with the per- and the rate of change of temperature are of pri-
son having technical cognizance, i.e., the designer, mary importance. They can result in weld defects,
welding engineer, or the production supervisor. It should metallurgical notches and drastic changes in base
be noted that: metal properties.
72
SECTION 11—CHECKLIST FOR SOUND WELDING DECISIONS
73
SECTION 12
Defects and Discontinuities
of Welding
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 76
Weld Acceptance Standards ........................................................................................................................................... 76
The Cause of Welding Defects ........................................................................................................................................ 76
Weld Discontinuities ........................................................................................................................................................ 77
Cracking ........................................................................................................................................................................... 77
Delayed Cracking—Hydrogen Embrittlement ............................................................................................................. 83
Techniques for Allowing Hydrogen to Escape from Welds.......................................................................................... 84
Minimizing the Available Amount of Hydrogen to the Weld Deposit......................................................................... 84
Welding Processes and their Available Hydrogen ........................................................................................................ 84
Summary of Rules to Minimize Hydrogen Embrittlement Cracking ........................................................................ 85
Slag Inclusions ................................................................................................................................................................. 85
Lack of Fusion or Incomplete Fusion ............................................................................................................................ 85
Lack of Penetration ......................................................................................................................................................... 86
Porosity ............................................................................................................................................................................. 87
Undercut (Including Root Undercut) ............................................................................................................................ 88
Tungsten Inclusions ......................................................................................................................................................... 88
Arc Strikes........................................................................................................................................................................ 89
Spatter .............................................................................................................................................................................. 90
Crater Pit.......................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Burn-Through .................................................................................................................................................................. 91
Incomplete Insert Melting .............................................................................................................................................. 91
Root Centerline Crease ................................................................................................................................................... 91
Melt-Through................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Oxidation .......................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Root Concavity................................................................................................................................................................. 91
Root Convexity................................................................................................................................................................. 92
Bibliography/Recommended Reading List ................................................................................................................... 92
75
SECTION 12—
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
Weld acceptance standards are usually written for the Base Metal Selection and Properties
worst case. They may not be reasonable in all cases. En-
gineering evaluation and judgement may be necessary to The specific properties of a base metal can make it
prevent unnecessary expenditures of resources to repair a much more prone than other base metals to certain weld
defect that would not affect the service of a weldment. defects such as:
The designer/owner that imposes acceptance standards • Quench and tempered and heat-treatable steels are
should always keep in mind that in some cases a weld re- very susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement and de-
pair just to meet acceptance standards may cause a com- layed cracking of the weld and the heat-affected zone
ponent to become less useful, or in some cases useless. A (HAZ).
pore of porosity that does not meet the acceptance stan- • Tin bronzes are susceptible to intergranular cracking
dard and is deep within a casting wall would frequently (hot shortness).
be better left as found rather than attempting repair. The • Copper-nickel alloys are prone to incomplete fusion
reason for this is that when the casting is repaired, it will and porosity.
have: a nonuniform metallurgical structure (cast metal
• Inconel ® alloys are subject to oxide inclusions, and
has been replaced with weld metal); high residual stress;
centerline cracking on concave bead shapes.
lower fatigue performance; micro shrinkage in the adja-
• Aluminum alloys are susceptible to porosity and in-
cent cast metal may develop into micro casting tears; se-
complete fusion.
rious distortion problems may develop; and frequently,
• Mild steel is very susceptible to lamellar tearing in
corrosion resistance properties are lowered.
heavy sections with high through thickness stresses.
76
SECTION 12—
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
weld is made in the field or the shop. Some field environ- Cause
mental conditions that increase weld rejects are:
Cracking occurs when the metal under stress exhausts
• Out of position welding. its ductility and does not have the ability to elastically or
• Restricted access welds. plastically flow without fracturing.
• Mirror welds.
• Wind, rain, cold, etc. Service Impact
• Wet systems to purge.
Cracking is one on the most serious discontinuities,
since it usually requires the least amount of energy to
progress into a failure. Any cracking that exists transverse
Weld Discontinuities to primary stress in fatigue or is subject to impact loading
The common discontinuities found on completed must be considered hazardous, unless the base material is
welds are: specifically designed for energy absorption under these
types of conditions. However, because a crack is present
• Crater cracks.
or exists does not mean that the weldment is unsuitable
• Face cracks. for service. When cracks are left in service they must be
• Heat-affected zone cracks. evaluated for suitability based upon orientation, location,
• Lamellar tears. loading and the base metal properties.
• Longitudinal cracks.
• Root cracks. Hot Cracking
• Root surface cracks.
• Throat cracks. This cracking occurs at elevated temperatures and
• Toe cracks. generally travels in grain boundaries between the grains
• Transverse cracks. of crystalline metal. If fracture surfaces are exposed to
• Underbead cracks. air during hot cracking they frequently will exhibit tem-
• Weld interface cracks. per colors. Hot cracking is most common in bronze and
• Weld metal cracks. brass alloys, copper-nickels and base metals that are high
• Lamination. in elements such as lead, tin, zinc, phosphorous, and sul-
fur. Welds that experience galvanize (zinc) contamina-
For the location of the above-listed discontinuities in tion or are made on free machining metals are also
weld joints and the associated base metal, see Table 12.1 subject to hot cracking.
and Figures 12.1–12.6.
Solidification Cracking
This cracking mechanism is commonly witnessed in
Cracking deep penetrating welds which may have long solidifying
surfaces that have a chevron shape as is often seen with
Definition submerged arc, flux cored arc and electroslag welding. It
A linear rupture of base and/or weld metal. It has a is generally caused by insufficient liquid weld metal nec-
high length-to-width ratio and is characterized by a sharp essary to accommodate a restrained, contracting volume
tip. of solidifying weld metal. When grain growths from each
side of a weld are nearly parallel to each other, as in deep
Shape penetrating welds, they close off a finite amount of liquid
metal to accommodate weld metal shrinkage or contrac-
Usually a tight linear separation of metal that can be tion (see Figure 12.8). The last metal to freeze will most
very short (microscopic) to very long indications extend- likely be higher than the rest of the weld in low melting
ing the full length of a weld. constituents like sulfur, phosphorous, tin, lead, or zinc,
which also increases its crack susceptibility.
Location
Crater Cracking
Cracking takes place in the weld, the weld-base metal
fusion line or the weld heat-affected zone (HAZ). Weld- The craters that appear at weld bead termination sites
ments of age hardened or brittle metal may sometimes are common areas of cracking (see Figure 12.9). This
crack several inches away from the weld. Figure 12.7 weld metal is the most rapidly cooled metal of the entire
exhibits potential crack locations. weld. It is being cooled in all directions after the welding
77
SECTION 12—
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
Porosity
Uniformly scattered 1a 12.2, 12.6 W Weld only as discussed herein
Cluster 1b 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.5, 12.6 W Weld only as discussed herein
Inclusions
Slag 2a 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 W
Incomplete fusion 3 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5 W At joint boundaries or between passes
Inadequate joint 4 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5 W Root of weld preparation
penetration
Undercut 5 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 HAZ Junction of weld and base metal at
surface
Overlap 7 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 W/HAZ Junction of weld and base metal at
surface
Laminations 8 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 BM Base metal, generally near
midthickness of section
Delamination 9 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 BM Base metal, generally near
midthickness of section
Seams and laps 10 12.1, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 BM Base metal surface, almost always
longitudinal
Transverse 12b 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 W, HAZ, Weld may propagate into HAZ and base
BM metal
Crater 12c 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 W Weld, at point where arc is terminated
Throat 12d 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 W Weld axis
Toe 12e 12.1, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 HAZ Junction between face of weld and base
metal
Root 12f 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 W Weld metal, at root
Underbead and 12g 12.1, 12.2, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 HAZ Base metal, in HAZ
heat-affected zone
78
SECTION 12—
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
79
SECTION 12—
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
80
SECTION 12—
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
Figure 12.5—Combined Groove and Fillet Welds in T-Joint (See Table 12.1)
81
SECTION 12—
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
1
11 12
1
1 2 1
82
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
Cold Cracking
Cold cracking generally occurs below 400°F. Marten-
sitic base metals are subject to high stresses and have a
microstructure that is susceptible to low-temperature
cracking. Cold cracks are predominately transgranular,
occurring across metal grains, while hot cracking usually
occurs between grains or interdendritically.
Lamellar Tearing
Some mild steel base metals are subject to cracking
adjacent to welds due to their inability to withstand high
through-thickness stresses, because their through-thick-
ness ductility is low. This low ductility is the result of
non-metallic inclusions that developed during the initial
pouring of the ingot to make the material. These inclu-
sions are in the form of oxides, silicates, sulfides, etc.
When the plates are rolled, some of these inclusions are
rolled out into thin, lamellar plate inclusions lying paral-
lel to the plate surface at different depths throughout the
thickness of the material. When high through-thickness
stresses are placed on the plate by welding, cracking oc-
curs by shearing from one inclusion in the plate to an-
other inclusion within the base metal. This cracking
pattern has a stair-step appearance in the base metal (see
Figure 12.11). Corner welds that involve welding across
the end of both members and butt welded joints, mini-
mize through-thickness strains and are most desirable be-
cause in some applications they place the metal under
through-thickness compression. TEE welds are examples
of unavoidable through-thickness stresses. In these cases,
the most successful remedy is clad welding the plate in
the area of the groove’s reinforcement fillet or fillet weld
or peen each weld pass.
Recommendations to prevent lamellar tearing are:
(1) Select weld joints that minimize through-thickness
stresses.
(2) Peen all weld layers.
(3) Keep weld sizes down.
(4) Use low-strength filler metals.
(5) Use thin plate (less than one half inch).
(6) Provide for slight root openings under “T” welds.
(7) Select fine-grain steels with stabilized inclusions
than cannot be rolled out into lamellar inclusions.
Figure 12.11—Examples of
Lamellar Tearing
Delayed Cracking—Hydrogen
Embrittlement
The presence of hydrogen can develop tremendous presence and the effects of hydrogen during welding can
stress when present in welds and their heat-affected cause cracking of the base metal (under-bead cracking)
zones in low-alloy steels (heat treatable) such as HY-80, or weld metal immediately or several days after the weld
HY-100, AISI-4130, AISI-8630, and AISI-4340. The was completed. Thus comes the term delayed cracking.
83
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
The presence of hydrogen causes a drastically localized 200°F minimum preheats and interpass temperatures are
loss of ductility in ferritic welds and their heat-affected not suitable for all base metals.
zones. Classical cracks are transverse across the weld de-
posit. Hydrogen may also contribute to other types of Hold the Weld at Interpass Temperature
cracks such as longitudinal cracks and localized cluster
cracks depending on the restraint and environmental con-
after Welding
ditions. Techniques and procedures that a welder must The weld and the adjacent base metal should be held
use to minimize cracks are: near the maximum interpass temperature for at least one
(1) Minimize the amount of hydrogen available to the hour after welding; and on heavy sections, 24 hours is
molten weld metal. highly desirable to permit hydrogen to diffuse from the
weld without developing cracks.
(2) Allow hydrogen to escape from the weld and the
HAZ.
84
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
Summary of Rules to Minimize ing, paper, wood, grease, and paint will all contribute to
slag formation if they are allowed to contaminate the
Hydrogen Embrittlement Cracking weld joint.
(1) Good housekeeping and proper handling of weld-
ing materials. Cause
(2) Use thin weld beads.
(3) Allow time for hydrogen to escape between weld By far the most common reason for slag inclusions is
passes. incomplete de-slagging of the previous weld layer, leav-
(4) Maintain interpass temperature for up to 24 hours ing slag at sharp re-entrant angles and at the edges of
after welding. weld beads. When an SMAW deposit is made, slag may
(5) Use welding processes that will minimize the tightly adhere to both the start and stop areas, leading to
amount of available hydrogen. slag inclusions. Slag entrapments can be caused by a
number of reasons: lack of operator skill; amperage too
low; improperly prepared weld joints; improper back
gouging; erratic progression; weave too wide; electrode
Slag Inclusions too large; and improper bead placement. There is also a
common misconception by welders that tightly adhering
Definition slag, which is difficult to remove, can be burned out by
A slag inclusion is a non-metallic solid inclusion the next pass by turning up the amperage. This practice is
trapped within weld metal, between weld passes, or be- extremely risky, unreliable, and should not be attempted.
tween the weld metal and the base metal.
Service Impact
Shape Most acceptance standards allow some slag to be con-
Slag inclusions are usually elongated globular shapes. tained within weld deposits but it is limited in size and
However, slag can be found in stringers and in thin or frequency. It is not considered nearly as severe a defect
very thick layers. Slag inclusions can be microscopic in as a crack, since slag is usually globular in shape. It is
size or very much larger, extending through the entire more closely allied to porosity in its effects on service,
thickness of a weld or across a complete layer of weld (as except that slag, when its area becomes significant or its
can be found in submerged arc welds). shape is not globular, will probably affect fatigue perfor-
mance to a greater degree than porosity.
Location
The most common area for slag entrapment is in the Lack of Fusion or Incomplete Fusion
first layer and between the root layer and the second
layer. Slag is also found at sharp re-entrant angles be-
tween weld passes and between weld passes and the base
Definition
metal. Overhead welding is most prone to slag inclusions, This condition exists when there is incomplete fusion
due to the quick freezing slag of smaller weld beads. between the weld metal and a preceding weld deposit or
the weld metal and base metal (fusion that is less than
Sources of Slag complete). Frequently, incomplete fusion appears as
metal-to-metal contact with a thin line between beads
The major source of slag is the flux and electrode
with no metallurgical bonding.
coating used in SMAW, FCAW, and SAW processes.
However, GMAW and GTAW processes may contain
slag inclusions due to metal and silicon oxides. As the Shape
amount of oxygen increases in GMAW shielding gases, On weld cross sections, lack of fusion is usually a
the amount of slag produced increases. Slag can also curved line. On a radiographic image, lack of fusion will
occur with GTAW process, when the molten end of the frequently appear to have a straight portion with a curved
filler metal is removed from the shielding gas and oxides end (a tail).
are formed. The oxides are introduced into the weld pud-
dle when the filler metal is added. Another source of slag Location
is the base metals themselves, since nonmetallic oxides
and nitrides are available to form slag from these materi- Lack of fusion occurs between weld passes, or be-
als. Shop dirt in the form of oxides of burning and goug- tween weld passes and the base metal (see Figure 12.12).
85
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
INCO LETE
FUSION
86
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
INCO LETE O INT E NET ATION INCO LETE O INT E NET ATION
Cause
Lack of penetration is most commonly caused by im-
proper weld joint selection for the weld process used, or
the use of improper welding parameters such as: welding
amperage too low, improper travel speeds, improper po-
larity, improper filler metal selection, improper filler
metal manipulation, or improper backgouging. Another
error is sometimes just forgetting to weld the opposite
side of a weld joint. Weld joint designs must be properly
selected for the base metal, filler metal, and welding pro-
cess used. The welding arc penetration and the weld pud-
dle fluidity depend on these conditions. Unlike mild
steel, low-alloy steels, and stainless steels, high-nickel
and copper alloys do not spread or wet easily.
Figure 12.14—Locations of Porosity
Service Impact
Few codes permit lack of penetration when a full pen-
etration weld is required. Lack of penetration is a very se-
rious discontinuity when fatigue is involved (particularly
when the axis of the discontinuity is transverse to primary Location
stress). Lack of penetration has resulted in a large per-
Porosity is always located within the weld deposit.
centage of service failures involving ship hulls, piping
Lack of visual porosity on a weld surface is not an indi-
systems, pressure vessels, and machinery components.
cation of a porosity-free weld.
Lack of fusion that is totally enclosed within a weld is not
nearly as hazardous as lack of penetration open to a joint
surface (i.e., a one-sided joint weld). However, when Cause
properly selected for service, partial penetration joints
welded from one side are desirable joint designs. Porosity is caused when there is not enough time for
the gas bubble to escape the molten weld metal before
the puddle solidifies. Porosity can be formed by any vol-
Porosity atile material being trapped within molten metal; gas
evolving out of the weld from elements that were in solu-
Definition tion at a higher temperature; the reduction of metal ox-
ides or nitrides; chemical reactions that create sulfur
Porosity is a void or gas pocket contained within a dioxide or carbon monoxide gas; and entrapment of
weld. The gas is entrapped within the weld during the so- shielding gas. In some metals like aluminum, gaseous el-
lidification process (see Figure 12.14). ements (most likely hydrogen) will come out of solution
near the solidifying dendrites growing into the liquid
Shape metal. The liquid metal cannot keep the element in
The most common shape is spherical; however, poros- solution as the puddle cools and solidifies, so the element
ity can be elongated and extend from one weld pass into collects into a gas pocket. Hydrogen is 20 times more
another. soluble in molten aluminum than in solid aluminum.
87
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
88
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
Service Impact
Tungsten is considered to have a similar effect on ser-
vice as porosity. Service failures associated with tungsten
are rare, even where the amounts on tungsten exceeded
the acceptance standard. Tungsten inclusions are usually
accepted to the same standard as porosity.
Arc Strikes
Definition
An arc strike is caused by unintentional melting or
heating of a finished weld or base metal surface by an
electric current. It results in a localized weld and heat-
affected zone (HAZ). Figure 12.17—Arc Strikes
89
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
Cause
Arc strikes may be caused by improper manipulation
of the electrode, loose ground clamps, and low amperage
that causes sticking and dragging of the welding elec-
trode. Even magnetic particle inspection prods can cause
arc strikes, if improperly used.
Service Impact
Arc strikes are critical on heat-treatable steels. An arc
strike area creates a hardened weld and HAZ due to the
extremely rapid quenching caused by the surrounding
metal. Arc strikes should not be permitted on high-speed Figure 12.18—Spatter
rotating shafts particularly if they are made of quench-
hardenable steel. Some standards may require that all arc
strikes and associated HAZ be removed by grinding.
Arc strike protection of the base metal adjacent to the
weld joint is a good practice and should be maintained
for critical applications. Service Impact
Excessive spatter could mask a defect during weld in-
spections and in those areas it must be removed. Some
Spatter standards exclude the presence of weld spatter. Spatter
should be considered similar to arc strikes for highly
hardenable heat-treatable metals that are subject to severe
Definition fatigue loads, such as high-speed rotating shafts.
Globular metal particles that are ejected from the
welding arc area. Weld spatter does not form an inten-
tional part of the weld.
Crater Pit
Shape
Spatter is usually spherical or globular in shape.
Definition, Shape, and Location
A crater pit is usually a circular-shaped depression. It
is a cavity that extends down into a weld at its termina-
Location
tion site (weld stop).
Weld spatter may or may not attach or weld itself to
the existing weld or the adjacent base metal (see Figure
12.18). Cause
Crater pits are caused by a volumetric contraction of
Cause molten metal during solidification and lack of filler metal
to fill the void. It is usually the result of abruptly remov-
The most frequent causes of weld spatter include: ex- ing the welding arc or not using current decay with
cessive welding current; arc length too long; or short cir- GTAW. It may be minimized by gradually reducing the
cuiting the welding arc causing a high surge of welding weld current (current decay) at the weld stop, increasing
current that will expel weld spatter. Some spatter is nor- the travel speed, gradually withdrawing the welding arc,
mal with most welding processes except submerged arc or adding additional filler metal at the termination site of
welding and gas tungsten arc welding. GTAW welds.
90
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
Burn-Through Melt-Through
A root surface or base metal irregularity on a consum-
A void or hole fused and extending into the surface on
able insert or closed root full penetration joint resulting
the back side of a consumable insert weld, a backing
in fusion completely through a localized region without
strap weld, or open root weld. Droplets of metal may
development of a void or opening. The melt-through may
stick out from this burn-through area.
or may not be associated with the weld root.
Root Concavity
A root surface depression or concavity that may be
ORIGINAL INSERT due to gravity (weld segment in the overhead position),
NOT MELTED surface tension, or too high of an internal purge pressure
on the molten metal. Also, distortion caused by subse-
quent weld passes can cause concavity of the root pass. It
is controlled by using the proper joint design, the correct
INSERT NOT
COMPLETELY MELTED
91
SECTION 12—DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES OF WELDING
Root Convexity
Root weld reinforcement (convexity) that is beyond
the base metal surface which may be due to gravity (weld
segment in the flat position), surface tension, or low in-
ternal purge pressure effects on molten metal (see Figure
12.21). Also, distortion caused by subsequent weld passes
can cause convexity of the root pass. It is controlled by
using the proper joint design, the correct size consum-
able insert, and proper welding parameters (i.e., amper-
age, travel speed, and purge pressure).
Figure 12.21—Convexity
References/Recommended Reading
List
American Welding Society. Guide for Nondestructive In- ———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Visual In-
spection of Welds (B1.10). Miami, Fla.: American spection and Weld Discontinuities (PHB-2). Miami,
Welding Society. Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Guide for Visual Inspection of Welds (B1.11). ———. Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding
Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society. Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American Weld-
ing Society.
———. Practical Reference Guide for Radiographic In-
spection Acceptance Criteria (PRG). Miami, Fla.: ———. Welding Inspection (WI-80). Miami, Fla.: Amer-
American Welding Society. ican Welding Society.
———. Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing of ———. Welding Inspection Technology (WIT). Miami,
Welds (B4.0). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society. Fla.: American Welding Society.
92
SECTION 13
Nondestructive
Examination
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 94
93
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
Introduction repair, base metal defect repair, and other repair welding
should be inspected prior to welding. A nondestructive
The field of Nondestructive Examination (NDE) pro- test of the repair area and surrounding material can be
vides methods to measure or detect soundness criteria used to determine the extent of defects and ensure part
placed on material by design requirements. soundness before repair welding begins.
NDE gathers this information through testing, in such
a way as to not adversely affect the serviceability of the Finished Product Inspection
material; hence, the term nondestructive testing.
Quality cannot be inspected into a material; however, With the proper selection and application of various
NDE can ensure that the material has acquired quality at- NDE methods, NDE can provide overall quality assur-
tributes. The proper selection and application of NDE to ance of the finished product.
key phases of fabrication or assembly can save time, ma-
terial, and money, as well as provide assurance that de-
In-Service Inspection
sign requirements are met. Maintenance inspection can be scheduled to meet the
service needs of a product. Monitoring of known and
suspected wear and stress areas with NDE can determine
When Should NDE be Performed? the frequency of service required.
When to perform an inspection can be as important as
selecting an NDE method. After a designer has com-
pleted the selection of materials and determined an as- Nondestructive Test Methods
sembly design, it becomes the fabricator’s responsibility There is a wide variety of NDE methods available to-
to meet those requirements. To do this, inspection mile day. More than one may be used on the same weldment.
markers are essential. The various test methods do not necessarily compete
with each other. For detailed military requirements see
Receipt Inspection
MIL-STD-271 and MIL-STD-278. The following sec-
Raw materials that meet specification requirements tions present a brief overview of major NDE methods.
are essential for high-quality fabrication. Various NDE
methods often provide a quick and relatively inexpensive Visual Inspection Testing (VT)
way to verify the material’s properties or identification.
VT provides important information about weld con-
When material problems or discrepancies are caught at
formance and practical quality control. VT uses trained
this stage, rather than during fabrication or in service,
observation and attention to requirements as the primary
savings of time and money can be immense.
inspection criteria. Although visual inspection is exclu-
sively a surface application, experience and training can
In-Process Inspection
reveal discontinuities such as surface porosity and some
During fabrication, visual inspection of the joint de- types of surface cracks, weld bead contour and rough-
signs, weld preparations, and the deposited weld metal ness, bead placement, residual slag and oxide films, un-
provides evidence of a quality product. In-process in- dercut, joint misalignment, and other indicators of
spection ensures that quality is built into an assembly and potential inferior quality. Adequate lighting, cleaning of
can reduce final inspection requirements. Welding appli- inspection area, and specific inspection standards are re-
cations that involve weld buildup for corrosion or wear quired to effectively ensure quality. See Table 13.1.
94
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
95
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
Applying Penetrant
After the cleaners have evaporated, a liquid penetrant
is applied and allowed time to penetrate discontinuities
by capillary action (see Figure 13.2). Both color contrast
dye, which can be seen with visible light, and fluorescent
dye, which can only be seen with ultraviolet light, are
commonly used, depending on the specific application.
Applying Developer
The developer is evenly applied on the test surface.
Adequate time is allowed for it to act as a “blotter” for
the discontinuity (see Figure 13.4). The test surface is
then examined with visible light, when color contrast
dyes are used, or with ultraviolet light, when fluorescent
dyes are used.
Postcleaning
After the test surface has been evaluated, it is cleaned
(usually with isopropyl alcohol) to remove the developer Figure 13.4—Visible Indication after
and any remaining penetrant. Application of Developer
96
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
Precleaning
Usually grinding or “needle gunning” to remove
paint, slag, and scale is sufficient precleaning. The iron
particles must be allowed to migrate freely across the in-
Figure 13.6—Throat Crack in a
spection surface.
Fillet Weld Root
Applying the Magnetic Particles
The iron oxide particles are applied to the surface of
the test area while the electrical current is still producing
the magnetic field. There are two widely used methods of
doing this:
(1) Dry Method—in which a thin, even coat of dry
iron oxide particles are sprinkled or dusted onto the sur-
face. There are a choice of colors available to provide a
color contrast on the test surface.
(2) Wet Method—in which iron oxide particles are
suspended in water, kerosene or a petroleum distillate.
The liquid is allowed to flow onto the test surface. Flo-
rescent coatings are usually added to the particles to en-
hance their visibility.
97
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
Table 13.3
Magnetic Particle Testing
Advantages Disadvantages
98
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
99
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
Table 13.4
Eddy Current Testing (ET)
Ultrasonic Testing ET is a NDE method whereby a coil, energized with
high-frequency alternating current, produces an alter-
Advantages Disadvantages nating magnetic field which is introduced into the test ma-
Modern equipment is High initial cost for equipment terial (see Figure 13.11). The field induces alternating
highly sensitive, and training. currents (eddy currents) in the metal. The eddy currents, in
programmable and turn, produce a weaker, alternating magnetic field which
portable. Equipment is complex and opposes the primary field. A second coil, used as a refer-
fragile. ence, is electrically “bridged” (i.e., inserted into a com-
Results are obtained
immediately. Considerable operator skill and mercial Wheatstone induction bridge configuration) with
experience is required to the primary coil. As the primary coil is moved across the
Internal discontinuities in interpret the results. test material, the bridge electrically “compares” both coils.
the proper orientation are If the eddy current field moves within range of a disconti-
easily detected. The test surface must physically nuity or change in material properties, the magnitude and
conform to the search unit
Accurate location of the contact surface, grinding and direction of the eddy currents are altered. This change of
discontinuity. paint removal may be necessary. eddy current density changes the inductive reactance of
the primary coil. These variations are registered on an out-
Access is required from Poor surface and near-surface put device and, depending on the sensitivity of the electri-
one side only. resolution. cal instrumentation, can be used to locate discontinuities
Excellent sensitivity. Linear discontinuities lying or variations in the test material. Due to the “skin effect”
parallel to the plate surface are of both the eddy currents and the primary current, the coil
Process can be automated readily detected. is limited to detecting surface and near-surface parameters.
for rapid inspection of The depth of effective penetration is determined by the pri-
plate and bar stock. No easily recordable permanent mary coil power output and frequency. See Table 13.5.
record.
Linear discontinuities
lying perpendicular to the Large grain metal castings
plate surface are readily (i.e., 300 series stainless) can be
detected. difficult to inspect.
100
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
Limitations
Applications
The application of RT for weld inspection is largely
ET can be used to identify and classify materials by dependent on the location of the joint in the weldment,
comparing them to a standard. Thickness measurements the joint configuration, and section thickness. These fac-
of thin sheet materials and nonconductive coatings are tors may combine to limit the best use of RT and favor
also common. Surface and subsurface discontinuities can another method. One of the primary limitations of RT is
also be detected which may be related to welding or its difficulty in detecting cracks or other closed disconti-
other fabrication processes. nuities which are not aligned with the source beam. Mul-
tiple shots at various angles can be used to detect most
Advantages
The primary advantage of ET over other methods is
that it can be completely automated and produce accurate
results at high speeds without ever contacting the part
being tested. ET is, therefore, especially well suited to
continuous production lines. Another advantage is that
the signal generated by ET is often proportional to the
size of the discontinuity detected.
Limitations
Surface cleanliness is important for accurate results,
since any magnetic particles on the surface may cause
nonrelevant indications. The major limitation of ET is
that the primary coil design must be compatible with the
part geometry and defect or attribute type being investi-
gated. Care must also be used when calibrating the ET
equipment with a reference standard as this will deter- Figure 13.12—Orientation of Radiation
mine the accuracy of the results. Another limitation is the Source, Test Plate, and Radiographic Film
101
SECTION 13—NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
102
SECTION 14
Information
for the Welder
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Welding Department Required Information Facilitated by the Design Engineer/Technical Support .................. 105
103
SECTION 14—INFORMATION FOR THE WELDER
104
SECTION 14—INFORMATION FOR THE WELDER
available electrode, all can influence the process selec- dimension required. When hardfacing materials or
tion and determine the end product cost. The job may re- corrosion-resistance materials are being applied to im-
quire cleanliness levels to the point that flux and other prove service performance, the minimum material thick-
leftover items cannot be tolerated, e.g., work inside a nu- ness should be specified.
clear plant. A high-quality, but slower welding process
can sometimes be more productive than the faster weld-
ing process that requires rework. The welding instruction Distortion Control
should specify the welding process or specify that the
process is the choice of the welding department. All welding creates distortion, which is caused by
shrinkage of the weld nugget during solidification. Weld-
ing shrinkage cannot be eliminated, but it can be con-
trolled, through design and fabrication methods. The
Quality Control and Quality assembly must be designed to allow for the weld shrink-
Assurance age that will occur. Weld sequencing and restraints can
be used to control the shrinkage in a desired direction.
Quality control and quality assurance can be confus-
Different welding processes will produce a different
ing to the welder. The quality assurance requirements are
amount of shrinkage. In general, the faster the welding
usually specified in some corporate document that is ref-
process and the more weld produced per pass, the less
erenced on the engineering instructions. Because of this,
shrinkage and distortion will occur. Also a smaller joint
the welder gathers quality control information mostly by
design cross section reduces shrinkage. A square butt
word of mouth. It is rare that a welder will spend his time
joint, with no bevel, and welded with the submerged arc
reviewing documents to determine the quality control
process would produce the least amount of shrinkage.
and quality assurance requirements. The welder will usu-
ally seek the information from a person that he knows is
familiar with the work. Surprisingly, this system works
quite well. However, the process can be improved a great Standards and Specifications
deal by providing this information via the work instruc- Specifying standards, specifications, and applicable
tion. Information as to what inspections are required and revisions on the engineering instructions can be helpful in
when, and what documents need to be completed will solving problems and answering unanticipated questions;
help the job progress and avoid costly rework. For qual- also, providing phone numbers of persons or departments
ity control and quality assurance, the more detailed the that have technical authority helps to resolve problems
information to the specific task and the easier it is for a quickly. Most standards cover a variety of work, so it is
welder to understand, the better the job will progress. wise to spell out the category the work fits, i.e., high pres-
Preferably, the welder is given a sheet of specific instruc- sure and temperature piping or low temperature and pres-
tions to accomplish the desired work. The welder should sure piping, such as pressure vessel category. See Figure
also know whether he is qualified to the appropriate stan- 14.1.
dards to perform the work required.
105
SECTION 14—INFORMATION FOR THE WELDER
106
SECTION 14—INFORMATION FOR THE WELDER
(10) Base material mechanical requirements (special ———. Suggested Filler Materials for Welding Struc-
cases). tural Steels (chart). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
(11) Base material post weld heat treat requirements. Society.
(12) Filler material. ———. Suggested Preheat Temperatures for Welded
(13) Joint type and weld penetration requirement. Structural Steel Materials (chart). Miami, Fla.: Ameri-
(14) Inspection requirements and when inspection is can Welding Society.
to be performed. ———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Arc Welding
(15) Acceptance criteria. Steel (PHB-1). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
(16) Documentation (record) requirements, and who is Society.
required to record and/or certify. ———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Gas Metal
(17) Specify the responsible office of the design engi- Arc Welding (GMAW) and Flux Cored Arc Welding
neer, welding engineer, and job specialist. (FCAW) (PHB-4). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
(18) Standards applicable to this job. Society.
(19) Whom to contact when questions arise. ———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Gas Metal
Arc Welding (GMAW) of Aluminum (PHB-8). Miami,
Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Shielded
Bibliography/Recommended Reading Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) (PHB-7). Miami, Fla.:
List American Welding Society.
American Welding Society. WELDPERFECT: The Easy ———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Visual In-
Guide to Perfect Welding (WPERF). Miami, Fla.: spection and Weld Discontinuities—Causes and Rem-
American Welding Society. edies (PB-2). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Joint Weld Terminology and Standard Welding ———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook for Visual In-
Symbol Interpretation (textbook). Miami, Fla.: Amer- spection of AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code—
ican Welding Society. Steel, Fabrication and Welding Requirements (PHB-6).
Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Lens Shade Selector (F2.2). Miami, Fla.: Ameri- ———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook on Metric Prac-
can Welding Society. tices for the Welding Industry (PHB-5). Miami, Fla.:
———. Prequalified Joint Details in AWS D1.1, Struc- American Welding Society.
tural Welding Code—Steel (chart). Miami, Fla.: Amer- ———. The Everyday Pocket Handbook on Welded Joint
ican Welding Society. Details for Structural Applications (PHB-3). Miami,
Fla.: American Welding Society.
———. Standard for Welding Procedure and Perfor-
mance Qualification (B2.1). Miami, Fla.: American ———. Welding Symbols (chart). Miami, Fla.: Ameri-
Welding Society. can Welding Society.
107
SECTION 15
Fitting Aids
Contents
Background .................................................................................................................................................................... 110
109
SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS
110
SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS
Figure 15.4—Pulldown
111
SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS
112
SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS
113
SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS
Figure 15.12—Chainfall
Figure 15.14—Magnetic Saddle
structure for straddling and holding ferrous metal parts Strongbacks (Figure 15.16)
together. This device is used in conjunction with a screw
and thread or hydraulic ram for applying pushing force. Strongback, any number of devices used to restrain
applied forces and/or hold alignment. These devices may
Fitting Magnet, a device employing an electrically in- be welded or mechanically fastened and are used with
duced magnetic field(s) for drawing ferrous metals together. many other tools for applying forces to parts.
114
SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS
Figure 15.16—Strongback
115
SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS
Figure 15.18—Stay
Figure 15.19—Cable
Figure 15.21—Fixture
116
SECTION 15—FITTING AIDS
117
SECTION 16
Welding Metallurgy:
Practical Aspects
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 120
119
SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
120
SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
High-strength low-alloy steels have similar micro- 6. What Special Treatments or Actions are Necessary
structures and chemistries as mild steel and they are to Maintain Base and Weld Metal Properties
strengthened by a fine-grained (small) crystal structure
There are no special routine treatments of these steels
created from small additions of elements such as vana-
other than when heavy sections are cut and welded. Due
dium, nickel, chromium, or molybdenum and frequently
to the rapid cooling rate of heavy sections, preheating in
receive normalizing heat treatment. This process consists
the range of 150°F to 200°F is sometimes advisable.
of heating the steel to approximately 1550°F and air
These steels are typically only stress relieved for machin-
cooling.
ing dimensional stability or when required by fabrication
Mild steels such A-36 or OS typically will have yield codes for pressure vessels or other designs where cyclic
strengths below 50 ksi, and the high-strength steels such fatigue is a major concern.
as HS, those steels that contain a grain-refining element
such as vanadium will have yield strengths of 50 ksi or 7. Detrimental Elements that Reduce Weldability
more. Typical applications are ships, bridges, buildings,
towers, automobiles, tanks, boilers, pressure vessels, Some mild steels have lead or sulfur additions to im-
home utensils, appliances, etc. prove machining operations. These steels are frequently
called free machining steels. These additions may cause
porosity and/or develop low melting temperature constit-
2. Corrosion Resistance of Mild Steel
uents that cause hot short cracking. Welding is not rec-
All of these steels have relatively poor resistance to ommended and should be avoided if at all practical, but if
corrosion unless they are thermal sprayed with aluminum welding must be accomplished, use of low-hydrogen
or zinc, or are painted or galvanized. Sometimes these shielded metal arc filler metals may reduce cracking and
steels are alloyed with a small amount of copper which porosity.
causes a tightly adhering oxide scale that retards the nor-
mal rate of corrosion. Steels alloyed with copper may be Low-Alloy Steel with Quench Hardening
used without painting. and Tempering Heat Treatment before
Welding (High-Strength Steels T-l, HY-80,
3. Welding Effects on Mild Steels Base Metal HY-100, HY-130, and ASTM A 514)
Mechanical Properties
1. Base Metal Strengthening Mechanisms of
Welding has very little effect on the mechanical prop-
Quenched and Tempered Steel
erties of OS and HS base metals. There is increased hard-
ness in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) but the depth of Quenched and tempered steels such as HY-80 have
hardening is not found to the extent that is present in the moderately high hardenability. They are alloyed to pro-
quenched and tempered low-alloy steels. The HAZ’s duce weldments with high yield strengths with good duc-
maximum hardness is limited by its carbon content. Mild tility and high toughness at low temperatures without
steel is the most readily welded of all the steels. post-weld heat treatment. Postheat treatment is rarely
accomplished after welding. When postheat is accom-
4. Welding Effects on Base Metal Corrosion Resistance plished, it is usually for dimensional stability and re-
quires special procedures. These steels receive their
There is no loss of corrosion resistance of the base primary yield and tensile strength from the micro-
metal due to welding. structure of tempered bainite and/or martensite, which
are typically created by quenching the material from ap-
5. How Filler Metals Obtain Metal Strengthening proximately 1550°F and tempering (reheating) at 1100°F
and Corrosion Resistance or higher. The carbon content is kept low to improve
weldability and eliminate the need for post-weld heat
Recommended weld metals have higher tensile and treatment. Depending on the alloy, maximum carbon con-
yield strengths than mild steel or high-strength structural tents are usually in the range of 0.12 to 0.23%. Alloying
base metals. This is primarily due to the presence of man- elements are typically less than 6 percent and may be
ganese, silicon and other deoxidizers in the filler metals comprised of elements such as manganese, nickel, chro-
which are used to improve the welding characteristics mium, molybdenum, silicon, vanadium and boron. The
and weld quality. These weld metals do not have signifi- function of these elements is to increase strength, harden-
cantly better corrosion resistance compared to base met- ability, and toughness at low levels of carbon content (im-
als. They require similar protection as the base metal proved weldability). Each base metal specification has
(usually galvanizing, thermal spraying, or painting). well defined mechanical properties. Typical applications
121
SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
are pressure vessels, bridges, ballistic protection, ships, similar to those of the base metal. Filler metal carbon
mining, penstocks, and buildings. contents are typically less than 0.12%.
The designer should keep in mind that if mild steel or
grain-refined mild steel will meet the service require- 6. What Special Treatments or Actions are Necessary
ments, they should be used since they are easier and to Maintain Base and Weld Metal Properties?
more economical to fabricate.
Strict adherence to the manufacturer’s recommenda-
tions or code requirements is essential if the desired
2. Base Metal Corrosion Resistance of Quenched and properties of these base metals are to be preserved. Pre-
Tempered Steels before Welding heat and interpass temperatures that are too low during
The quenched and tempered steels have only slightly the welding process can result in base metal and weld
better corrosion resistance than mild steel. They are rou- metal cracking. Probably the most frequent cause of
tinely painted for corrosion protection. Improved corro- cracking of these metals while welding is lack of ade-
sion resistance of these steels comes from the small quate preheat. When preheats are required they should be
amount of alloying elements present. They are rarely gal- soaking preheats. Preheat is frequently required to pre-
vanized probably due to their susceptibility to hydrogen vent restraint cracking on heavier sections. Soaking pre-
embrittlement. heats can be verified by measuring the preheat on the
opposite (back side) of the weld joint.
3. Welding Effects on the Base Metal Properties of Preheats that are too high will produce undesirable
Steels that are Quenched and Tempered before nonuniform microstructure. Preheat and interpass tem-
Welding peratures that are too high will result in low impact prop-
erties. This can cause a drastic loss in the ability to arrest
Welding can have drastic effects on the mechanical crack propagation during impact loading particularly at
properties of the base metal and their heat-affected zone low temperatures.
(HAZ). The heat-affected zone is the unmelted base Heat input that is too high is detrimental for good im-
metal area next to the weld having any noticeable effects pact resistance. Excessively high preheats, high interpass
from the heat of welding. These effects may include temperatures, high amperage, and slow travel speeds can
changes in mechanical properties. These steels are some- cause a retarded cooling rate. All in-process welding
what difficult to weld and special precautions must be conditions causing excessive heat input result in the same
observed if the yield strength, impact resistance and duc- outcome: a retarded cooling rate from peak welding tem-
tility are to be maintained. Improper welding techniques peratures. Retarded cooling rates cause a heterogeneous
can result in hidden cracks and cracking that may not microstructure that is more susceptible to fracture on im-
occur until many hours after welding is complete (hydro- pact loading.
gen embrittlement cracking). Welding heavy sections
without preheat and/or low interpass temperatures can Heat Input (J/in.) = Volts × Amps × 60
result in extensive HAZ/fusion line cracking. Welding Travel Speed (ipm)
with excessive preheat and interpass temperatures can re-
The maximum heat inputs should be in accordance
sult in a loss of impact toughness.
with the applicable code, standard or qualified welding
procedure. A serious loss of the metal’s ability to absorb
4. What Effects Does Welding have on the Base Metal energy without cracking can result if excessive heat in-
Corrosion Resistance? puts are permitted. Stringer beads (straight-line progres-
Welding has little effect on the corrosion resistance of sion) having higher travel speeds than weaving beads
the base metal. (oscillating progression) are preferred, since this reduces
the heat input into the base metal and previously depos-
ited weld metal. It is important to protect the weld metal
5. How Welds Develop their Mechanical Properties
properties. One of the most limiting factors in welding
Filler metals typically have chemical compositions these quenched and tempered steels is the marginal abil-
similar to base metals except they are not micro alloy ity of weld metal to match base metal toughness.
hardened by elements such as boron. They are frequently Stress relief as previously mentioned is generally not
alloyed with elements such as nickel, chromium, molyb- recommended. However, it is sometimes accomplished
denum and manganese. The carbon content is kept much for dimensional stability of weldments that are to receive
lower than the base metal carbon content. This is because close tolerance machining. Stress relief should only be
the weld metal goes through an extremely rapid quench accomplished if permitted by the manufacturer or the
and would be susceptible to cracking at carbon contents governing code or standard. The manufacturer’s or code
122
SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
requirements should be strictly followed. Usually this in- improve hardenability (the depth of hardening). These
volves stress relieving the part 50°F below the tempering metals often do not have mechanical property require-
temperature, if known, and sometimes it requires forced ments in their applicable base metal specification. Vary-
cooling to minimize the loss of fabrication impact prop- ing mechanical properties can be selected by the user and
erties. Also, it is essential that the weld metal contain less are achieved by varying the heat treatment. These alloys
that 0.05% vanadium or the weld will be subject to seri- are used for machinery applications such as gears, shafts,
ous temper embrittlement. Since these alloys are subject and fasteners for increased wear, tensile strength, or
to serious embrittlement by improper heat treatment, sometimes for improved fatigue resistance.
post-weld stress relief should be under the direction of a The designer should keep in mind that if mild steel, or
welding engineer or a metallurgist. even the steels that are quenched and tempered before
welding (i.e., HY-80/100) will meet the service require-
7. Detrimental Elements that Reduce Weldability ments, they should always be used in lieu of these post-
weld heat treatable steels.
The most common element on earth, hydrogen, is also
the most hazardous to welding quenched and tempered 2. Base Metal Corrosion Resistance of Quenched and
steels. Hydrogen is commonly produced when water, oil Tempered Steels after Welding
and rust are broken down in the arc. Procedures and tech-
niques to avoid hydrogen embrittlement cracking are dis- The quenched and tempered steels have only slightly
cussed in Section 12 of this manual. Other hazardous better corrosion resistance than mild steel. They are rou-
elements are those such as lead, tin, zinc, phosphorous, tinely painted for corrosion protection. Improved corrosion
sulfur, etc., that will form low melting temperature resistance of these steels comes from the small amount of
constituents. alloying elements. They are not typically galvanized.
Low-Alloy Steel with Quench Hardening 3. Welding Effects on the Base Metal Properties of
Steels that are Quenched and Tempered after
and Tempering Heat Treatment after Weld- Welding
ing (Post Weld Heat Treatable) (AISI-1040,
-8620, -8630, -4130, -4140, -4340, etc.) Welding can drastically affect the mechanical proper-
ties of the base metal in the heat-affected zone (HAZ).
The heat-affected zone is the unmelted base metal area
1. Base Metal Strengthening Mechanisms of Steel
next to the weld having any noticeable affects from the
Quenched and Tempered after Welding
heat of welding. These effects may include changes in
Steels that are quenched and tempered after welding, tensile and yield strength, increased hardness, loss of
such as AISI-8620, 4130, or 4340, have high hardenabil- ductility, mechanical and/or corrosion-resistant proper-
ity. They are alloyed to produce high tensile and yield ties. These steels are typically very difficult to weld and
strengths and may have limited ductility and toughness special precautions must be observed or serious cracking
even at room temperatures. These steels are usually se- may result. Improper welding techniques can result in
lected for their high strengths or hardness for wear resis- immediate gross cracking, hidden cracks and cracking
tance. Commonly these metals are welded in a soft that may not occur until many hours after welding is
condition called annealed. Postheat treatment is accom- complete (hydrogen embrittlement cracking). Welding
plished after welding to obtain desired mechanical prop- heavy sections with no preheat and low interpass temper-
erties. These steels primarily receive their yield and atures can result in extensive HAZ/fusion line and weld
tensile strength from the microstructure of tempered metal cracking.
high-carbon bainite and/or martensite which are created
by quenching the material from approximately 1550°F 4. What Effects Does Welding have on the Base Metal
and tempering (reheating) at 1100°F or higher. Desired Corrosion Resistance?
mechanical properties can be selected by varying the
Welding typically has no noticeable effect on the cor-
tempering temperature. The carbon contents are typically
rosion resistance of the base metal.
high which lowers the weldability and requires special
procedure requirements. Depending on the alloy, maxi-
5. How Welds Develop their Mechanical Properties
mum carbon contents are usually in the range of 0.23 to
0.43%. Alloying elements are typically less than 6 per- Filler metals may or may not have similar chemical
cent and may be comprised of elements such as manga- compositions as their base metals. They are frequently
nese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, silicon, and alloyed with elements such as nickel, chrome, molybde-
vanadium. The primary function of these elements is to num, and manganese, with the exception that the carbon
123
SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
content is usually kept much lower than the base metal. frequently cause unacceptable distortion and scaling of
This is because the weld metal goes through an ex- close-tolerance machined components.
tremely rapid quench and is very susceptible to cracking
at carbon contents approaching the base metal. Under 7. Detrimental Elements that Reduce Weldability
special circumstances base metal or filler metals that
One of the most common elements on earth, hydro-
nearly match the base metal are used for welding. It is
gen, is also the most hazardous to welding these
common to use undermatching filler metal and rarely do
quenched hardenable steels. Procedures and techniques
welds match the base metal mechanical properties, un-
to avoid hydrogen embrittlement cracking are discussed
less unique and specialized procedures are developed.
in Section 12 of this manual. Other hazardous elements
However, post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) can be se-
are those such as lead, tin, zinc, phosphorous, sulfur, etc.,
lected so that the resultant base metal properties nearly
that will form low melting temperature constituents.
approximate those attainable by the weld. In most cases,
designers must take into account that the welds will typi-
300 Series Austenitic Stainless Steel (An-
cally undermatch the base metal properties.
nealed) [304, 310, 316, 321, 347 Corrosion-
6. What Special Treatments or Actions are Necessary
Resistant Steel (CRES)]
to Maintain Base and Weld Metal Properties?
1. Strengthening Mechanisms of Austenitic Stainless
Strict adherence to manufacturer’s recommendations, Steel Base Metal
special developed procedures, or code requirements is
Typical austenitic stainless steels used in industry
absolutely essential if the desirable properties of these
have 18% or more chromium and 8% or more nickel,
metals are to be achieved. Preheat and interpass tempera- with the remaining balance of approximately 50 to 60%
tures that are too low during the welding process can re- iron, and are sometimes called the 18-8 stainless steels.
sult in base metal and weld metal cracks. Preheats as Depending on the alloy type and application, the carbon
high as 600°F may be required. Typically, these metals content will be 0.20% and less. Typically carbon is less
may require soaking times after welding at preheat tem- than 0.08% for corrosion resistance. Higher carbon con-
peratures to minimize cracking or they may require to be tent metals (309, 310) are commonly used where high-
immediately stress relieved, if post heat treatment for temperature strength is required. Austenitic stainless
mechanical properties will not occur until later in the steels are not strengthened by quench hardening, since
fabrication process. Probably the most frequent cause of their primary phase and structure do not change with
cracks while welding these metals is lack of adequate temperature as with the quenched and tempered steel al-
preheat. When preheats are required, they should be loys. Their primary yield and tensile strength properties
soaking preheats. Soaking preheats can be verified by are developed from what is called substitutional and in-
measuring the preheat on the opposite (back side) of the terstitial alloy strengthening. The microstructure is auste-
weld joint. nitic at all temperatures with small amounts of carbides.
Generally, there are no welding heat input restrictions Austenitic stainless steels containing nickel, chrome, and
on these metals like those required on metals that are manganese with small amounts of silicon are sometimes
quenched and tempered metals before welding. The rea- alloyed with molybdenum, titanium, niobium, or copper
son for this is the mechanical properties are achieved with residuals of unwanted sulfur and phosphorous. Aus-
through heat treatment after welding and the weld and tenitic 300 Series stainless steels typically have yield
HAZ are recrystallized during heat treatment. strengths of 35 ksi at room temperature, with very little
Since these metals are heat treated after welding, they loss of strength even at relatively high temperatures. Ten-
are not usually stress relieved unless they are welded in sile strengths of 75–80 ksi are common with ductility of
the heat-treated condition or following manufacturing 30–35%. These steels are typically used for their high-
processes makes it necessary to dimensionally stabilize temperature yield strength, oxidation resistance for both
high- and low-temperature applications, and excellent
the metal or to reduce the hardness of the material (as
toughness. These steels are nonmagnetic.
might be needed for machining). The manufacturer’s rec-
ommendations or code requirements should be strictly Galvanic Series. When any of these 300 series stainless
followed. When components are welded in the heat- steels are used in combination with a dissimilar metal for
treated condition, stress relieving is usually accom- sea-water service the galvanic series should be examined.
plished 50°F below the tempering temperature. It should This will help determine if accelerated corrosion can be
always be kept in mind that the temperatures reached expected due to the different metal being brought used in
during the heat treatment and the quenching process will the same system. The surface areas of the dissimilar met-
124
SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
als can also greatly affect the amount and extent of corro- carbides, leaving the chrome available to form its protec-
sion. In general austenitic stainless steels are not tive oxide film. Stressed stainless alloys that have exten-
recommended for sea-water service environments. sive depletion of chrome by sensitization and are in a
corrosive halogen product environment, such as salt wa-
2. Corrosion Resistance of Austenitic Stainless Steel ter, may be subject to stress corrosion cracking. Stress
corrosion cracking can be extensive, penetrating com-
Austenitic stainless steels have excellent atmospheric
pletely through the base material thickness in a short pe-
corrosion resistance and resist corrosion very well at
riod of time.
high temperatures. When alloyed with copper (320) it
has good corrosion and erosion resistance in sea water.
The iron in these austenitic stainless steels is protected 5. How Welds Develop their Mechanical Properties
from corrosion or oxidation by the formation of a protec- and Corrosion Resistance
tive stable refractory chrome-oxide film. This tenacious
Stainless steel filler metals have chemistries similar to
film develops when the surface of the metal is exposed to
the base metals they are intended to weld. They develop
an oxidizing atmosphere and once formed prevents con-
their mechanical properties and corrosion resistance due
tinuing corrosion or oxidation. The continued presence
to their similar base metal chemistry and metallurgy.
of this oxide film is imperative to maintain corrosion
There is no significant improved corrosion resistance of
resistance. If service conditions cause the loss of this
film, the material will be susceptible to corrosion. Also, the stainless steel weld metals over the base metal.
the effects of welding heat can cause a loss of the metal’s Some stainless steel filler metals have slight chemistry
ability to form these protective oxides. These metals are modifications to permit the development of delta ferrite
frequently used without painting. in the weld deposit. Fully austenitic welds have a ten-
dency to fissure (develop small cracks). When delta fer-
3. Welding Effects on Stainless Steel Base Metal rite is present in the weld deposit the tendency for
Mechanical Properties fissuring is reduced. Stainless steel filler metals such as
308, 309, 316, all may contain small amounts (usually
Welding has very little effect on the mechanical prop- less than 10%) of delta ferrite when deposited. The stain-
erties of austenitic stainless steel base metals. Since less filler metal 312 typically has 40% ferrite and is very
austenitic stainless steels are not quench hardenable, the crack resistant. However, it should not be used for high-
HAZ does not exhibit increased hardness as a result temperature applications, as the soft and ductile delta fer-
of welding. These steels are readily weldable but do re- rite will change to a hard and brittle phase called sigma
quire some special controls to maintain their corrosion ferrite that is extremely crack sensitive.
resistance.
If the stainless steel has been cold worked prior to weld-
6. What Special Treatments or Actions are Necessary
ing to increase its yield strength, the effects of welding
to Maintain Base and Weld Metal Properties
may cause a drastic loss of the base metal’s yield strength
in the HAZ to approximately its annealed condition. Austenitic stainless steel welds are somewhat subject
to high-temperature fissuring. They are also subject to re-
4. Welding Effects on Base Metal Corrosion duced corrosion resistance with increased potential of
Resistance stress corrosion cracking when sensitized. Sensitization
The effects of welding can cause a serious loss of cor- by chromium carbide precipitation takes place at 900°F
rosion resistance of the base metal adjacent to the weld. to 1500°F and is time dependent. The more time spent in
For some service applications, the presence of carbon the sensitizing temperature range the greater the degree
and the heat of welding can result in reduced corrosion of chromium carbide precipitation. To minimize fissuring
resistance of some stainless steel alloys by the preferen- and sensitization, minimum preheats are used and inter-
tial formation of chromium carbides in lieu of the protec- pass temperatures are kept low (350°F maximum). By
tive chrome-oxide films. This depletion of available keeping the preheat and interpass temperature low, less
chromium for oxidation resistance by the formation of time is spent at sensitizing temperatures and the amount
chromium carbides is called sensitization. Therefore, for of the base metal and degree of sensitization will be re-
special applications the carbon content may be held to duced. Avoiding high heat input welding processes will
0.04% or less (extra low carbon 308L or 316L) or addi- also lower the amount of time at sensitizing temperatures
tions of titanium (321) or niobium (347) may be made to and the amount of base metal subject to sensitization. The
the base metal. The stabilizing elements of titanium and use of stringer beads is recommended instead of weave
niobium will form carbides, preferentially chromium beads, which minimizes heat input and sensitization.
125
SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
7. Detrimental Elements that Reduce Weldability 70:30 CuNi (70% copper-30% nickel) wrought metals
typically have yield strengths of 18,000–20,000 psi, and
Some stainless steels have selenium, phosphorous, or tensile strength of 45,000–50,000 psi with elongation of
sulfur additions to improve machining operations. These 20–35%. It is considered a hot short material having re-
steels are frequently called free machining steels (303-Se, duced ductility at temperatures above 1100–1400°F and
316F, 347F). These additions may cause porosity and/or is subject to high-temperature cracking while under
develop low melting temperature constituents that result stress.
in hot short cracking during welding. Welding of these al- NiCu (70% nickel-30% copper alloy), commonly
loys is not recommended. The contamination of weld called Monel®, has the highest tensile and yield strength
joints by low melting constituents can cause serious weld- of any ratio of nickel-to-copper contents. Its minimum
associated cracking. Lead contamination from radioactive tensile strength is 70–85 ksi and its yield strength is 23–
shielding or from machinists’ hammers, sulfur from sulfu- 25 ksi with 35% minimum ductility.
rized cutting fluids, lead and tin from soft solder contami-
nation, and cadmium from silver brazing alloys, etc., are 2. Corrosion Resistance of Copper and Nickel Alloys
examples of potential sources of contamination.
Carbon contamination can have a serious effect on the These alloys have excellent atmospheric and corro-
corrosion resistance of stainless steels; therefore, it must sion resistance. These metals are frequently used without
be considered a detrimental contaminate. Its potential painting.
sources are shop dirt, grease, oil, paint, shellac, antispatter
compounds, and carbon arcing slag. CuNi–90:10
It is typically used for water corrosion resistance with
Copper-Nickel and Nickel-Copper Base good antifouling resistance. This alloy has a higher iron
Metals [90:10 CuNi, 70: 30 CuNi , and content than the 70:30CuNi alloys, which improves its
strength and corrosion protection. This alloy performs
70Ni:30Cu (Monel®)]
better in stagnant water (pitting/crevice corrosion) than
either 70:30 CuNi or Monel® (70%Ni-30%Cu). It is also
1. Strengthening Mechanisms of Copper-Nickel and superior in its antifouling resistance.
Nickel-Copper Base Metal
CuNi–70:30
These alloys are not strengthened by quench harden-
ing, since their primary phase or crystal structure does It is used primarily for water corrosion and erosion re-
not change with temperature as it does with quenched sistance where increased strength and hardness is re-
and tempered steel alloys. The primary yield and tensile quired with less antifouling resistance than the higher
strength properties are developed from what is called copper content 90:10 CuNi alloy. It has better erosion re-
substitutional alloy strengthening (the mixing of copper sistance in flowing water but has less pitting resistance
and nickel atoms in a geometric pattern). Its structure is (crevice corrosion) than 90:10 CuNi.
austenitic at all temperatures. These austenitic copper
and nickel alloys have copper and nickel as their major Monel®–70NI:30Cu
alloying elements, with small additions of elements such
iron for yield strength and erosion resistance, manganese It is used primarily for water corrosion and erosion re-
to minimize hot cracking, silicon for strength and manu- sistance where increased strength and hardness is re-
facturing fluidity (high percentages silicon 4% for hard- quired (with less antifouling resistance) than the higher
ness), and niobium for increased weldability with copper content copper-nickel alloys. It has better perfor-
residuals of unwanted sulfur and phosphorous. mance for erosion resistance than either of the copper-
nickel alloys, but has inferior performance for crevice
90:10 CuNi (90% copper-10% nickel) wrought metals
corrosion and antifouling resistance.
typically have minimum yield strengths of 15,000–
18,000 psi, and minimum tensile strengths of 38,000 psi
Galvanic Series
with minimum elongations of 25–35%. It is considered a
hot short material having reduced ductility at tempera- When any of these copper and nickel alloys are used
tures above 500°F to 1400°F and subject to cracking in combination with a dissimilar metal, for water service,
while under stress. This metal is also less expensive than the galvanic series should be examined. This will help
the higher nickel content copper-nickel alloys. It is more determine if accelerated corrosion can be expected, due
difficult to weld than 70:30 CuNi and Monel® (70%Ni- to the different metal being used in the same system. The
30%Cu) metals. surface areas of the dissimilar metals can also greatly
126
SECTION 16—WELDING METALLURGY: PRACTICAL ASPECTS
affect the amount and extent of corrosion. These alloys ations. These are frequently called free machining alloys.
are frequently recommended and used for water-service These additions may cause porosity and/or develop low
environments. melting temperature constituents that jeopardize welding
due to hot short cracking. Welding of these alloys is not
3. Welding Effects on Base Metal Mechanical recommended.
Properties The contamination of a weld joint by low melting
Welding has very little effect on the mechanical prop- constituents can cause serious weld-associated cracking.
erties of nickel alloys and copper base metals. Since Lead contamination from radioactive shielding or from
these alloys are not quench hardenable the HAZ does not machinists’ hammers, sulfur from sulfurized cutting flu-
exhibit increased hardness as a result of welding. These ids, lead, tin or zinc from soft solder contamination, and
alloys are readily weldable but do require some special cadmium from silver solder, etc., are all potential sources
controls to minimize cracking and weld porosity. If any of contamination.
of these alloys have been cold worked prior to welding to
increase its yield strength, the effects of welding may
cause a drastic loss of the base metal’s yield strength in Castings
the HAZ, approximating its annealed condition.
Copper and nickel alloy components that are castings
4. Welding Effects on Base Metal Corrosion and are not made by weld fabrication should always have
Resistance suspected poor weldability. Because of the iron contents
permitted in these castings and the higher silicon con-
The effects of welding have little effect on the corro- tents to facilitate pouring operations, some of these cast-
sion resistance of the adjacent base metal. ings have extremely limited weldability. Unless properly
alloyed for weldability, they may experience extensive
5. How Welds Obtain Metal Strengthening and fusion line cracking.
Corrosion Resistance
For Monel® castings, iron and silicon contents must
Filler metals for welding alloys of nickel and copper be held low, preferably at 1.7%. Niobium is also required
have chemistries/compositions similar to the base metals to minimize the harmful effects that silicon has on the
they are intended to weld. They develop their mechanical weldability of Monel®. Niobium-to-silicon ratios of 1.5
properties and corrosion resistance due to their similar to 1.8 are believed to be adequate to minimize weld
base metal metallurgy. There is no significant improved cracking caused by silicon. A Nb/Si ratio of 1.7 is con-
corrosion resistance of weld metals over the base metal. sidered optimum. Iron content above 2% is a major con-
In the case of Monel® filler metal (70% Ni/30% Cu), it is tributor to both weld metal and heat-affected zone
found that under some wet conditions, these filler metals cracking. Also, shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) has
will preferentially corrode over similar composition base slight advantages over gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
metals. Monel ® welds on wetted surfaces of Monel® for casting repairs.
castings will often preferentially corrode in lieu of the
base metal.
Some copper and nickel alloys have selenium, phos- ———. Welding Metallurgy, 4th ed., vol. 1, Fundamen-
phorous, or sulfur additions to improve Machining oper- tals (WM1.4). Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.
127
SECTION 17
Arc Stud
Welding
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 130
129
SECTION 17— ARC STUD WELDING
130
SECTION 17— ARC STUD WELDING
131
SECTION 17— ARC STUD WELDING
Setting Up to Weld (See Figure 17.3) proximate and will vary with the type of application.
Note that the power supply may not be calibrated to indi-
Turn power OFF when making connections. cate actual welding current.
(1) Position the control unit and the power supply as
near the work area as possible. Excessive cable lengths
adversely affect stud welding. How to Handle the Stud Welding Gun
(2) Connect the ground cable to the terminal of the (1) Hold the gun firmly with your hand placed so that
power supply (positive or negative ground orientation you can readily press the trigger.
must be determined by the weld procedure test data). (2) Keep your hand off the side cable.
Secure the c-clamp to the work plate. Make sure both (3) Hold the gun square/perpendicular to the work.
connections are tight and eradicate any paint or rust at (4) Be sure the ferrule is seated firmly against the
the connection points. workpiece.
(3) Connect the timer input cable to the other termi- (5) Press the gun’s trigger only once and release.
nal of the power supply and to the connector marked Pressing the trigger a second time will damage the chuck
“power supply” on the control unit. or stud threads.
(4) Connect the control unit ground clamp to the (6) Do not move the gun during the welding action.
work plate. This completes the electrical path needed to (7) After welding the stud, draw the gun straight back
supply power to the control unit. away from the workpiece. Avoid pressing the trigger
(5) Connect the combination cable (control and weld- again.
ing cable) to the control unit and the gun.
(6) Make sure the power supply is set for required po-
larity, and that the input cable and the ground cable is Bibliography/Recommended Reading
properly connected. The power supply is typically a con- List
stant voltage (CV) type and should have a minimum
open circuit voltage of 65 volts dc. American Welding Society. Recommended Practices for
(7) Turn on the power supply and the control unit. The Stud Welding (C5.4). Miami, Fla.: American Welding
light on the control unit should light indicating that power Society.
is available and is connected for the required polarity. ———. Welding Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 1, Welding
(8) Adjust the time on the control unit and current Technology (WHB-1.8). Miami, Fla.: American
setting of the power supply. The settings provided are ap- Welding Society.
132
SECTION 18
Thermal Spray
Fundamentals
Contents
Why Use the Thermal Spray Process? ........................................................................................................................ 134
Fundamentals................................................................................................................................................................. 134
133
SECTION 18—THERMAL SPRAY FUNDAMENTALS
Plasma Powder
Machinery Component Applications
With the plasma powder process, the heating zone is
The thermal spray process can be a cost-effective produced by an arc that is created inside the plasma pow-
method for dimensional restoration. The process is an ex- der gun between a tungsten electrode and the nozzle. A
cellent repair method and should be considered, when gas or gas mixture is passed through the arc. This excites
appropriate, in lieu of other processes, such as weld re- the gas into a plasma state, creating temperatures higher
pair, chrome plating, or instead of manufacturing of a than can be obtained with just oxygen fuel flame mix-
new component. tures. The gas or gas mixture exits the nozzle, forcing the
Thermal spray is also used to enhance the service life plasma flame outside the gun. A powder is fed into the
of many machinery components. Ceramics can be flame, melted, and propelled to the substrate by the force
sprayed on packing areas of valve stems and pump shafts of the gas or gas mixture (see Figure 18.1). The plasma
to give those areas a smoother, longer-lasting surface powder process is used primarily for the refurbishment
than the substrate material. This will also cause less dam- of machinery components.
age to the packing material and provide better operation
of the component. Thermal sprayed metallic coatings Arc Wire
that will resist wear, erosion, corrosion, heat, and chemi-
cal attack better than the substrate material can be ap- The heating zone of the arc wire process is produced
plied to machinery components. by creating an arc between two continuously fed metallic
134
SECTION 18—THERMAL SPRAY FUNDAMENTALS
wires. The heating zone melts the wires and the molten Flame Powder
material is atomized and propelled to the substrate by The flame powder process uses an oxygen fuel flame
compressed air or an inert gas (see Figure 18.2). The arc to create the heating zone. Powder is fed into the heating
wire process can be used for corrosion control and ma- zone and melted. The molten material is then atomized
chinery refurbishment applications. and propelled to the substrate by the force of the burning
gasses and compressed air (see Figure 18.4). The flame
Flame Wire powder process is used primarily for machinery refur-
bishment applications.
The flame wire process uses an oxygen fuel flame to
create the heating zone. A wire is then continuously fed
into the heating zone where it is melted and then pro-
Finishing Thermal Sprayed Coatings
pelled onto the substrate by the force of the burning gas-
ses and compressed air (see Figure 18.3). The flame wire The structure of a thermal sprayed coating may be
process can be used for corrosion control and machinery different than the structure of that same material in
refurbishment applications. wrought form. Sometimes this different structure creates
135
SECTION 18—THERMAL SPRAY FUNDAMENTALS
4 TO 10 in.
(100 TO 250 mm)
136
SECTION 18—THERMAL SPRAY FUNDAMENTALS
problems in finishing. If personnel are unfamiliar with with the mating part. This makes it possible to form a
the finishing of coatings, they should follow the thermal precise seal.
spray equipment and material manufacturer’s recommen- While the substrate is frequently preheated, the ther-
dations. If thermal sprayed coatings are properly finished mal spray process is generally considered a metallurgi-
and they still separate or flake off during finishing the cally cold process. This means in most applications no
spraying operation should be reviewed. warpage or heat-affected zone is created.
137
Acknowledgment
The original Manual was the result of a contract between Ingalls Shipbuilding and the Maritime Administration with
support from the U.S. Navy. This project was performed by Puget Sound Naval Shipyard for the Welding Panel, SP-7, of
the Ship Production Committee of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers. Recognized contributors to the
original project included the American Welding Society, the Lincoln Electric Foundation, Mr. Omer Blodgett, and New-
port News Shipbuilding. In addition, Mr. Frank Gatto, Puget Sound representative to SP-7, was singled out for apprecia-
tion. The Manual is meant to serve as a practical guide for engineers, planners, and hands-on professionals to improve
scheduling and lessen rework. The Manual was released to the public in 1992.
iv