Ce Pmel Manual

Transportatopn Engineering Laboratory
Department of Civil Engineering

CE5654: Pavement Materials and Evaluation
Laboratory
I M. Tech (Transportation Engineering)
Laboratory Manual
Transportation Division
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
WARANGAL – 506004, TELANGANA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
Sl. No. Experiment Title Page No.
1 Tests on Soil 1
1.1 Liquid limit
1.2 Plastic limit
1.3 Soil classification
1.4 Standard Proctor’s compaction test
1.5 Field moisture content using rapid moisture meter
2 Tests on Aggregate 2
2.1 Aggregate Gradation 3
2.2 Shape Tests 10
2.3 Specific Gravity Test and Water Absorption Test 15
2.4 Aggregate Impact Test 20
2.5 Aggregate Crushing Value Test 24
2.6 Los Angeles Abrasion Test 29
2.7 Soundness test using Sodium sulphate and Magnesium sulphate
2.8 Aggregate specific gravity using Corelok
3 Tests on Bitumen
3.1 Penetration Test
3.2 Viscosity Test
3.3 Flash and Fire Point Tests
3.4 Ductility Test
3.5 Softening Point Test
3.6 Specific gravity Test
3.7 Elastic recovery Test
3.8 Short term aging using Rolling Thin Film Oven
3.9 Long term aging using Pressure aging vessel
3.10 Determination of Complex modulus and Phase angle using Dynamic shear
rheometer
3.11 Apparent viscosity using rotational viscometer
4 Tests on Bituminous Mixtures
4.1 Bituminous Mix Design using Marshall Stability Test
4.2 Stripping Value of Aggregates
4.3 Determination of Gmb, Gmm using CoreLok
4.4 Bitumen content using Centrifuge extractor and NCAT ignition oven
4.5 Roller compaction and Permanent deformation using wheel tracking equipment.
4.6 Evaluation of moisture damage using AASHTO T-283
5 Tests on Subgrade Soil
5.1 California Bearing Ratio Test
6 Pavement Evaluation Studies
6.1 Pavement Unevenness using MERLIN
6.2 Pavement Layer Density using Sand Replacement Method
6.3 Skid resistance using British Pendulum
6.4 Texture depth using sand patch apparatus
6.5 Stiffness of unbound pavement layers using Geogauge
6.6 Pavement Condition Rating
6.7 Unevenness dipstick and Bump integrator
6.8 Field CBR and layer thicknesses using Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
6.9 Modulus and rebound deflection using Portable falling weight deflectometer
6.10 Overlay using Benkelman Beam Deflection Technique
2
1. TESTS ON SOIL
3
1.1 Determination of Liquid Limit
Aim: - To determine the liquid limit for the given soil sample
Background: - Liquid limit is the water content for which the soil passes through zero strength to infinitesimal
strength, hence true value of liquid limit cannot be determined. It is the water content at which the sol changes
from plastic state to liquid state.
Apparatus: - Cassagrande’s liquid limits device, A.S.T.M. and B.S. grooving tool (Cassagrande’s type), 425
micron I.S. sieve, Balance (0.01 gm sensitivity) and Drying oven.
Theory: - Liquid limit is the water content at which soil passes from zero strength to an Infinitesimal strength,
hence the true value of liquid limit cannot be determined. For determination purpose liquid limit is that water
content at which a part of soil, cut by a groove of standard dimensions, will flow together for a distance of
1.25cm under an impact of 25 blows in a standard liquid limit apparatus. The soil at the water content has some
strength which is about 0.17 N/cm 2 (17.6 gm/cm2). At this water content soil just passes from liquid state to
plastic state.
Fig 1: - Relationship between Volume of soil and Its Moisture Content
Indian standard soil classification chart can be used to determine the soil type (IS 1498-1970).
Procedure: -
1. Adjust the cup of the liquid limit apparatus with the help of grooving tool gauge & the adjustment plate
to give a drop of exactly 1 cm on the point of contact on base.
2. Take about 120gm of an air dried sample passing 425 μ sieve.
3. Mix it thoroughly with some distilled water to from a uniform paste.
4. Place a portion of the paste in the cup of the liquid limit device, smooth the surface with spatula to a
maximum depth of 1cm. Draw the grooving tool through the sample along the symmetrical axis of the
cup, holding the tool perpendicular to the cup.
5. Turn the handle at a rate of 2 revolutions per second and count blows until two parts of the soil sample
come into contact at the bottom of the soil sample come into contact at the bottom of the groove along a
distance of 10mm.
6. Transfer about 15gm of the soil forming the edges of the groove that flowed together to a water content
tin and determine the water content by oven drying.
7. Transfer the remaining soil in the cup to the main soil sample in the basin and mix thoroughly after
adding a small amount of water
8. Repeat steps 4, 5 and 6. Obtain at least four sets of readings in the range of 10 to 40 blows.
Observation and Calculations: -
Table: 1- Determination of Moisture Content
Sr.No. Determination 1 2 3 4 5
1 No. of blows
2 Container Number
3 Mass of container + Wet Soil(gm)
4 Mass of container + dry soil(gm)
4
5 Mass of Water = (3)-(4) (gm)
6 Mass of container (gm)
7 Mass of Dry soil (4)-(6) (gm)
8 Moisture content= (5/7)*100, %
Graph to be drawn between moisture content and number of blows, the moisture content corresponding to 25
no. of blows is the liquid limit, shown in fig3.
Fig: 3- Determination of Liquid Limit From graph
Precautions: -
1. Use distilled water in order to minimize the possibility of iron exchange between the soil and any
impurities in the water.
2. Soil used for liquid determinations should not be oven dried prior to testing.
3. In liquid limit test, the groove should be closed by a flow of the soil and not by slippage between the soil
and the cup.
4. After mixing distilled water to the soil sample, sufficient time should be given to permeate the water
throughout the soil mass.
5. Wet soil taken in the container for moisture content determination should not be left open in the air even
for some time.
6. For each test, cup and grooving tool, should be clean.
Result: - The liquid limit for the given soil sample found to be
Applications: - liquid limit value used for the classification of fine grained cohesive soil by Indian standard soil
classification. Once soil classified, it helps to understand the behavior of the soil and selecting the maintenance
of the structure made up or/and made up of soil.
References: -
1. IS:2720(Part5)-1985 Determination of Liquid Limit

2. IS 1498-1970 -Classification and Identification of soils for general Engineering Purpose
3. ASTM D4318 - 10e1 Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit
5
1.2 Determination of Plastic limit
Aim: To determines the plastic limit of soils.
Objective: The objective of the Atterberg limits test is to obtain basic index information about the soil used to
estimate strength and settlement characteristics. It is the primary form of classification for cohesive soils. Fine-
grained soil is tested to determine the liquid and plastic limits, which are moisture contents that define
boundaries between material consistency states. These standardized tests produce comparable numbers used for
soil identification, classification and correlations to strength. The liquid (LL) and plastic (PL) limits define the
water content boundaries between non-plastic, plastic and viscous fluid states. The plasticity index (PI) defines
the complete range of plastic state.
Background: Plastic Limit (PL): The plastic limit (PL) is determined by rolling out a thread of the fine
portion of a soil on a flat, non-porous surface. The procedure is defined in ASTM Standard D 4318.
If the soil is plastic, this thread will retain its shape down to a very narrow diameter. The sample can then
be remoulded and the test repeated. As the moisture content falls due to evaporation, the thread will
begin to break apart at larger diameters. The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content where the
thread breaks apart at a diameter of 3.2 mm (about 1/8 inch). A soil is considered non-plastic if a thread
cannot be rolled out down to 3.2 mm at any moisture.
Procedural errors for the PL
- improper technique in rolling thread
- thread not 1/8 in. diameter
- moisture content sample too small
- air drying of soil before moisture content taken
Apparatus:
Porcelain evaporating dish, 102–127 mm (4–5 in.) in diameter.
Flexible spatula, blade approximately 102 mm (4 in.) long × 19 mm (0.75 in.) wide.
Plastic Limit Rolling Device (PLRD), and paper.
Balance, Class G1 in accordance with Tex-901-K, 100 g minimum capacity.
Drying oven, maintained at 110 ± 5°C (230 ± 9°F).
Weighing dishes, non-absorbent, with lids.
Plaster of Paris disks, approximately 102 mm (4 in.) in diameter (optional).
Rolling surface, minimum area of 300 × 300 mm (12 × 12 in.), non-absorptive, noncorrosive, light surface
texture (e.g., ground glass plate, linoleum, or plastic-faced plywood).
Procedure:
● From the 20 g mass, select four to five portions of 1.5–2 g.
● Form each portion into an ellipsoidal mass.
● Place the masses in a row on a piece of paper on the PLRD, spaced evenly apart.
● Roll the masses in the device with just sufficient pressure to form threads of uniform diameter.
Note: A normal rate of rolling for most soils is 80–90 strokes per minute, counting a stroke as one complete
motion forward and backward to the starting position. This rate of rolling may have to be decreased for very
fragile soils.
● Taking no more than two minutes, further deform the threads on each stroke so the diameters are
continuously reduced and the lengths are extended, until the diameters reach 3.2 0.5 mm (1/8 0.02 in.)
● Reduce the diameter of the threads to 3.2 ± 0.5 mm (1/8 ± 0.2 in.) Break each thread into several pieces.
Squeeze the pieces of each thread together, knead between the thumb and first finger, and reform into an
ellipsoidal mass.
● Repeat Sections 5.3–5.6 until the soil crumbles under the pressure required for rolling and can no longer
be rolled into a 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) diameter thread. There is no problem if the thread breaks into shorter
segments before reaching the 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) diameter.
● Roll each of these shorter segments to 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) diameter.
● Gather the portions of the crumbled threads and place in a tared container. Immediately cover the
container.
6
● Continue the procedure to accumulate at least 10 g of sample rolled to the 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) diameter.
● Weigh and record the mass of the sample and container to the nearest 0.01 g. Dry the soil sample in the
container to a constant mass in a 110C (230F) oven.
● Weigh and record the mass of the dry soil and container to the nearest 0.01 g.
● The operator should at no time attempt to produce failure at exactly 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) by reducing the
rate of rolling and/or pressure, while continuing the rolling without further deformation.
● For low Plasticity Index (PI) soils, it is permissible to reduce the initial diameter of the ellipsoidal mass
to near the required 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) final diameter.
● Use palm, finger, or a flexible spatula to roll low PI materials.
● If crumbling occurs when the thread has a diameter greater than 3.2 mm, this should be considered a
satisfactory endpoint, provided the soil has been previously rolled to a 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) thread.
● Crumbling of the thread will manifest itself differently with various types of soil. Some soils fall apart
into numerous small aggregations of particles. Others may form an outside tubular layer that starts
splitting at both ends. The splitting progresses toward the middle, and finally the thread falls apart in
many small platy particles.
● Fat clay soils require much pressure to deform the thread, particularly as they approach the plastic limit.
With these soils, the thread breaks into a series of barrel shaped segments about 3.2–9.5 mm (1/8–3/8
in.) in length.
NOTE: The only requirement for continuing the test is that the sample can be reformed into an ellipsoidal mass
and rerolled.
Calculations:
Mass of water: W =A−B
Plastic Limit (%): PL (%) =100 [W (B −C)]
Where:
A = mass of wet soil + tare, g
B = mass of dry soil + tare, g
C = mass of tare, g.
Result: Report the plastic limit to the nearest whole number
Applications: This testing method is used as an integral part of several engineering classifications systems to
characterize the fine-grained fractions of soils and to specify the fine-grained fraction of construction materials.
The liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index of soils are also used extensively, either individually or
together, with other soil properties to correlate with engineering behavior such as compressibility, permeability,
compatibility, shrink-swell and shear strength
References:
AASHTO T 87, Dry Preparation of Disturbed Soil and Soil Aggregate
Samples for Test
AASHTO T 89, Determining the Liquid Limit of Soils
AASHTO T 265, Laboratory Determination of Moisture Content of Soils
7
1.3 Soil Classification
Objective: To determine the relative proportions of different grain sizes of the soil particles.
The sieve analysis is a simple test consisting of sieving a measured quantity of material through successively smaller sieves. Two
methods of sieve analysis are:
1. Grain size distribution by Dry sieve analysis, applicable only to coarse soils retains on 4.75 mm sieve and to non- cohesive
sand or sandy soils passing 4.75 mm sieve with practically no fines ( silt and clay)
2. Grain size distribution by Wet sieve analysis, applicable to all soil samples passing 4.75 mm sieve with some cohesion or soil
containing fines (silt and clay).
Grain size analysis of soils by dry and wet sieve analysis are quite adequate for the purpose of soil classification and for assessing the
essential properties of soil as a highway construction material.
Apparatus:
Dry sieve analysis
a.) Balance –sensitive to 0.1 percent of the weight of sample to be weighed.
b.) Sieves –IS sieves of 100 mm, 75 mm, 19 mm, 4.75 mm, 2 mm, 0.425 mm, 0.075 mm and also the bottom pan or receiver.
Additional test sieves of 63, 45, 22.4 and 11.2 mm size may also be used if required.
c.) Rubber pestile and mortar
d.) thermostatically controlled drying oven to maintain temperature of 105°C to 110°C
Wet sieve analysis
a.) Set of wire mesh type test sieves of diameter 300 mm and sizes 2 mm, 0.425 mm, and 0.075 mm, bottom pan and lid.
Additional test sieves may also be used if found necessary.
b.) Balance sensitive to 0.1 % of the weight of sample
c.) thermostatically controlled drying oven to maintain temperature of 105°C to 110°C
d.) metal or plastic trays
e.) sieve brushes
f.) suitable dispersing agent to prevent flocculation of soil particles such as chemically pure sodium hexameta-phosphate or
analytical grade sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate
Preparation of sample for dry sieve analysis: The soil sample collected from the field is sieved and divided into two parts, coarser
fraction retained on 4.75 mm sieve and the fraction passing 4.75 mm sieve. The portion of soil passing 4.75 mm sieve is dried in oven
at 105°C to 110°C.
Preparation of sample for wet sieve analysis: the portion of soil passing 4.75 mm sieve is dried in oven at 105°C to 110°C. About
200g of dry soil sample is weighed and covered with water. If the soils are in fraction, add dispersing agents such as 2g of sodium
hexameta-phosphate per litre of water or 1g of sodium hydroxide and 1g of sodium carbonate per litre of water. The mix is stirred and
left for soaking
Procedure:
Dry sieve analysis:
1. Soil lumps present are broken with the help of rubber covered pestle
2. Sieves are arranged one above the other with the pan at the bottom.
3. The test sieve sizes 4.75 mm, 19 mm, 75 mm and 100 mm are placed one above the other in the increasing order for dry sieve
analysis for the soil fraction retained on 4.75 mm sieve, and sieves 0.075 mm, 0.425 mm, 2 mm and 4.75 mm are placed one
above the other in the increasing order for dry sieve analysis for the soil fraction passing 4.75 mm and retained on 0.075mm
4. Additional sieves of intermediate size may also be introduced as required.
5. Soil sample is allowed to pass through each of the sieves arranged.
6. After sieving thoroughly, materials retained on each sieve is carefully collected and weighed.
7. Cumulative percentage of soil retained on each sieve is calculated and gradation curve should be plotted.
Wet sieve analysis
1. Pan and the test sieves of sizes 0.075 mm , 0.425 mm and 2 mm are placed one above the other in the increasing order of
sieve sizes selected.
2. Prepared soil specimen soaked in water along with the dispersing agent is placed over the set of sieves and washed through
them with additional quantity of water as required.
3. Washing is continued till the water passing each sieve is substantially clean.
4. Fraction of soil retained on each sieve is emptied carefully without loss of material, oven dried and weighed
5. Weight of dry soil retained on each sieve is expressed as a percentage by total weight of soil sample (passing 4.75 mm sieve)
taken for the sieve analysis.
6. Cumulative percentage of soil retained on each sieve is calculated and gradation curve should be plotted.
Precautions:
i. During shaking the lid on the topmost sieve should be kept tight to prevent escape of soils.
ii. While drying the soil, the temperature of the oven should not be more than 105°c because higher temperature may cause
some permanent change in the fraction.
Observations and calculations:
Table 1: Results of dry sieve analysis (retained on 4.75 mm sieve)
IS Sieve Weight of Weight of dish + soil Weight of soil Cumulative weight Cumulative % Cumulative %
mm dish, g retained , g retained, g retained, g retained finer
100
75
19
12.5
4.75
Pan
8
Total weight of soil sample = _____ g Weight of dish=___ g Uniformity coefficient = D60/D10 Coefficient of
curvature = D230/(D60*D10)
Table 2: Results of dry sieve analysis (passing 4.75 mm sieve)
IS Sieve mm Weight of dish, Weight of dish Weight of soil Cumulative Cumulative % Cumulative %
g + soil retained , retained, g weight retained, retained finer
g g
4.75
2
0.425
0.075
Pan
Table 3: Results of wet sieve analysis (passing 4.75 mm sieve)
IS Sieve mm Weight of dish, Weight of dish Weight of soil Cumulative Cumulative % Cumulative %
g + soil retained , retained, g weight retained, retained finer
g g
4.75
2
0.425
0.075
Pan
Figure 1: Grain size distribution diagram

Results:
Results Dry Sieve analysis Wet sieve analysis
Soil Retained on 4.75mm sieve Soil Passing 4.75 mm sieve
Uniformity Coefficient Cu
Coefficient of curvature Cc
Discussion:
The gradation and the range of the grain sizes present in the soil is generally measured and reported in terms of ‘Uniformity
Coefficient’ (Cu)which is expressed as D60 /D10, where D60 and D10 are particle size corresponding to 60% and 10 % fines in the grain
size distribution diagram. A high value of uniformity coefficient, such as greater than 4 or 5 indicates the presence of a wide range of
particle sizes in the soil or that the soil is well graded. A low Cu value of the order of less than 2 indicates uniformly graded soil, the
lowest possible value being 1 for soil with single size.
Application:
The results of grain size analysis on soil are made use of in soil classification and to assess various other soil properties such as
permeability, capillarity, density and stability after compaction, bearing capacity etc. The other uses of grain size analysis are for the
design of drainage materials and soil-aggregate mixtures for mechanical stabilisation of soils. It is also possible to assess pavement
performance with respect to potential frost susceptibility of the subgrade soil and possible failure of rigid pavements due to pumping
action.
References:
➢ Bureau of Indian Standards, Classification and Identification Of Soils For General Engineering Purposes (first revision), IS
1498-1970 (reaffirmed 2007)
➢ Bureau of Indian Standards, Methods of test for soils, Part 4: Grain size analysis (Second Revision), IS 2720-1985
(Reaffirmed 2006)
➢ ASTM D2487-11, Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes
➢ ASTM D2488-09a, Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils
9
1.4 Standard Proctor Compaction Test
Aim
To determine the Optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of a soil by standard proctor compaction test.
Background
Compaction is the process of densification of soil mass by reducing air voids. The purpose of laboratory compaction test
is so determine the proper amount of water at which the weight of the soil grains in a unit volume of the compacted is
maximum, the amount of water is thus called the Optimum Moisture Content (OMC). In the laboratory different values of
moisture contents and the resulting dry densities, obtained after compaction are plotted both to arithmetic scale, the former
as abscissa and the latter as ordinate. The points thus obtained are joined together as a curve. The maximum dry density
and the corresponding OMC are read from the curve.
For example
Figure 1. Graph between water content and dry density.

The standard equipment in a proctor test is shown below,
Figure 2. Standard Proctor test equipment

The wet density of the compacted soil is calculated as below,
𝑊1−𝑊2
γt = 𝑊
Where, w1 = Weight of mould with moist compacted soil.
w2 = Weight of empty mould.
V = Volume of mould.
The dry density of the soil shall be calculated as follows,
𝑊1−𝑊2
γd =
𝑊
Where, γt = wet density of the compacted soil.
w = moisture content.
Apparatus required
a) Special:
i. Proctor mould (capacity 1000.0 cc, internal diameter 100mm, and effective height 127.3 mm.
ii. Rammer for light compaction (2.6Kg, with free drop of 310 mm).
iii. Mould accessories including detachable base plate, removable Collar.
iv. I.S. sieve 4.75 mm.
b) General:
i. Balance of capacity 10 kg, and sensitivity of 1 gm.
ii. Balance of capacity 200 gms and sensitivity of 0.01 gm.
iii. Drying oven.
iv. Desiccators. v. Containers for water content.
vi. Graduated Jar.
10
vii. Trimming knife.
viii. Large mixing tray.
Procedure
i. Take about 20 kg of soil and sieve it through 20 mm and 4.75 mm.
ii. A 100 mm diameter Proctor mould is to be used if the soil fraction that passes 4.75 mm sieve is greater than 80% by
weight.
iii. Take about 2.25 kg of the soil sample and add water to get the moisture content round 8%. Leave the mix to mature for
few minutes.
iv. Clean and grease gently the inside surface of the mould, and the base plate.
v. Take the weight of empty mould with the base plate.
vi. Fir the collar and place the mould on a solid base.
vii. Place first batch of soil inside the mould and apply 25 blows of Standard rammer, so that the compacted layer
thickness is about one-third height of the mould Scratch the top of the compacted soil before the second layer is placed
Place the second batch of wet soil and follow the same procedure In all the soil is compacted in three layers, each given
25 blows of the standard rammer weighing 2.6 Kg and having a drop of 310 mm.
viii. Remove the collar, and trim of the excess soil with trimming knife. Clean the mould, and weight the mould with the
compacted soil and the base plate.
ix. Take a representative sample from the mould and determine its water content.
x. Repeat the above procedure for water content values of 13%, 17%, 20%, 22% and 25%.
Precautions
i. Adequate period is allowed to mature the soil after it is mixed with water.
ii. The rammer blows should be uniformly distributed over the surface with spatula before next layer is placed.
iii. To avoid stratification each compacted layer should be scratched with spatula before next layer is placed.
iv. At the end of compaction test, the soil should not penetrate more than 5mm into the collar.
Observations and calculations
i. Diameter of mould, D (cm): __ _ _ _ _ _ _
ii. Height of mould, h (cm) : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
iii. Volume of mould, V (cc) : _ _ _ _ _ _ _
OBSERVATION Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
Weight of empty mould + Base plate (w1) ,kg
Weight of compacted soil + Base plate (w2) ,kg
Bulk unit weight of compacted soil
γ (gm/cc)
Water content (w)
Dry unit weight γd = γ / (1 + w), (gm/cc)
Results and discussions
1. The Optimum Moisture Content of the given soil sample is _ _ _ _%
2. The maximum dry density of the given soil sample is _ _ _ _g/cc.
The graph is drawn for dry density versus water content and the optimum moisture content is obtained.
Applications
Compaction of soil increases the density, shear strength, bearing capacity, thus reducing the voids, settlement and
permeability. The results of this are useful in the stability of field problems like earthen dams, embankments, roads and
airfield. In such compacted in the field is controlled by the value of the OMC determined by laboratory compaction test.
The compaction energy to be given by a compaction unit is also controlled by the maximum dry density determined in the
laboratory. In other words, the laboratory compaction tests results are used to write the compaction specification for field
compaction of the soil.
References
1. IHS, Industry Standards & Regulations. (2010).
2. Davis, Tim (2008). Geotechnical Testing, Observation, and Documentation. 2nd edition. Reston,
Virginia: American Society of Civil Engineers, 25-26.
3. Day, Robert W. (2001). Soil Testing Manual: Procedures, Classification Data, and Sampling Practices.
New York: McGraw Hill, Inc.. pp. 293–312.
11
1.5 RAPID MOISTURE METER
Aim: To determine the moisture content of soil quickly, without having to wait for the moisture to evaporate.
Background: Rapid moisture meter is used to obtain water content of the soil sample rapidly. The calcium
carbide reacts with free water of soil and acetylene gas is produced which exerts gas pressure from the
calibrated scale of pressure gauge the percentage of water on total mass of soil is obtained and the same is
converted to water content on dry mass of soil.
Apparatus:
1. Metallic pressure vessel with clamp for sealing cup.
2. A gauge calibrated in percentage water.
3. Counterpoint balance.
4. A scoop for measuring calcium carbide
5. Three steel balls of 12.5 mm diameter and one steel ball of
25 mm diameter.
6. Cleaning brush etc.
Procedure:
1. Set up the balance and place the sample in the pan till the mark on the balance arm mass lines up with the
index mark.
2. Unclamp the clamping screw to move the U-clamp off the cup. Lift off the cup. Clean the cup and the body.
3. Hold the body horizontally and gently deposit one level scoopful of calcium carbide half way inside the
chamber. Then lay the chamber down without disturbing the absorbent charge and transfer the soil weighed out
as above from the pan to the cup.
4. Holding cup and chamber approximately horizontal bring them together, without disturbing sample or
absorbent, bring the U clamp round and clamp the cup tightly into place.
5. With the gauge downwards, shake the moisture meter up and down vigorously for 5 seconds, then quickly
turn it so that the gauge is upwards, give a tap to the body of the moisture meter to ensure that all the contents
fall into the cup.
6. Hold the rapid moisture meter downwards, again shake for 5 seconds, then turn it with gauge upwards and
tap. Hold for one minute. Repeat this for a third time. Once more invert the rapid moisture meter and shake up
and down to cool the gas. Turn the rapid moisture meter with the gauge upwards, and dial horizontal held at
chest height when the needle comes to rest, take reading. The readings on the meter are the percentages of water
on the wet mass basis.
7. Alternatively, the three smaller steel balls can be placed in the cup along with the soil and the larger one in
the body along with the absorbent and seal up the unit as usual. Hold the rapid moisture meter vertical so that
the material in the cup falls into the body. Now holding the unit horizontally, rotate it for 10 seconds so that the
balls are rolled round the inside circumference of the body. Rest for 20 seconds. Repeat the rotation – rest cycle
until the gauge reading is constant (usually this takes 4 to 8 min). Note the reading as usual.
8. Finally release the pressure slowly (away from the operator) by opening the clamp screw and taking the cup
out, empty the contents and clean the instrument with a brush.
Calculations:
Calculate the water content (w) on the dry mass from the water content (m) obtained on the wet mass basis as
the reading on the rapid moisture meter, as follows:
w= (m/ (100-m))x 100 percent
where,
w = percent water content of the dry mass
m = percent water content of the wet mass.
Application: Rapid moisture meter is obtained to calculate water conent quickly and accurately of soil. The
water content of soil is oftenly required for many tests. If it is obtained rapidly, it saves time
Reference:
1. IS 2720 (Part II) – 1973 methods of tests for soils.
12
2. TESTS ON AGGREGATE
13
2.1 AGGREGATE GRADATION
Objective: To determine the particle size distribution of the coarse and fine aggregates.
The gradation can be classified as follows:
● Dense gradation,
● Gap gradation,
● Uniform gradation, and
● Open-gradation.
Dense gradation:
A dense gradation refers to a sample that is approximately of equal amounts of various sizes of aggregate. By having a
dense gradation, most of the air voids between the materials are filled with particles. A dense gradation will result in an
even curve on the gradation graph. It has wide range of sizes with Grain-to-grain contact, Low void content, Low
permeability, High stability and Difficult to compact.
Gap gradation:
A gap gradation refers to a sample with very little aggregate in the medium size range. This results in only coarse and fine
aggregate. The curve is horizontal in the medium size range on the gradation graph. No grain to grain contact is seen here.
It has Moderate void content and moderate permeability hence easy to compact.
Uniform gradation:
Also known as Narrow gradation, a uniform gradation is a sample that has aggregate of approximately the same size. The
curve on the gradation graph is very steep, and occupies a small range of the aggregate. Aggregate has Grain-to-grain
contact, High void content, High permeability, Low stability and Difficult to compact.
Open gradation:
An open gradation refers an aggregate sample with very little fine aggregate particles. This results in many air voids,
because there are no fine particles to fill them. On the gradation graph, it appears as a curve that is horizontal in the small
size range.
For coarse aggregate and fine aggregate free from particles which cause agglomeration, dry sieving may be preferred. For
aggregates which may contain clay or other materials likely to cause agglomeration, preliminary separation by washing
through a fine sieve is required before dry sieving, i.e. wet sieving.
Apparatus:
● Test sieves with diameter 450 mm or 300 mm and of sieve sizes: 75 mm, 63 mm, 50 mm, 37.5 mm, 28 mm, 20
mm, 14 mm, 10 mm, 6.3 mm, 5 mm.
● Test sieves with diameter 300 mm or 200 mm and of sieve sizes: 3.35 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.7 mm, 1.18 mm, 0.825
mm, 0.6 mm, 0.425 mm, 0.3 mm, 0.212 mm, 0.15 mm, and 0.075 mm.
● Balance of sensitive 0.1 g.
● Mechanical sieve shaker.
● Containers - pans suitable for washing the sample.
● Sieve brush.
● Drying apparatus - suitable pans and stove for drying the sample.
Procedure:
Sample Preparation:
The sample (5 kg of aggregates) shall be brought to an air-dry condition before weighing and sieving. This may be
achieved either by drying at room temperature or by heating at a temperature of 100 to 110 °C.
Dry Sieving- Test procedure:
1. Assemble appropriate sieves with a receiver at the bottom in increasing aperture size from bottom to top. Place the oven
dried sample on top of the coarser sieve and cover with a lid.
2. Either by hand or using the mechanical sieve shaker, shake the sieves for a sufficient time to separate the sample into
the different fractions.
Minimum mass of test portion for sieve analysis
Maximum particle size in mm Minimum mass of test portion in kg
63 20
50 15
40 10
28 5
20 2
14 1
10 0.5
5 0.2
3 0.2
Less than 3 0.1
3. The shaking shall be done with a varied motion, backwards and forwards, left to right, circular clockwise and anti-
clockwise, and with frequent jarring, so that the material is kept moving over the sieve surface in frequently changing
directions.
4. Material shall not be forced through the sieve by hand pressure, but on sieves coarser than 20 mm, placing of particles
is permitted.
5. Weigh the material retained on each sieve, together with any material cleaned/picked from the mesh, on completion of
sieving on that sieve.
Observations and Calculations:
Calculations:
14
1. Calculate the weight retained on each sieve as a percentage of original mass (M1).
For example: percentage retained on 10mm sieve = M (10mm) * 100/M1
2. Calculate the mass of the sample passing each sieve as a cumulative percentage, from the relationship:
(% passing this sieve) = 100 - (% retained on this sieve).
3. Plot the gradation as a curve on a semi-logarithmic chart.
4. Obtain D10 (effective size), D30 and D60 from the graph.
5. Calculate coefficient of uniformity (Cu) and coefficient of curvature (Cc)
Observations:
Observations of dry sieve analysis on soils
Weight of sample Cumulative %
IS Sieve, mm % of sample retained % cumulative passing
retained retained
75
63
50
40
31.5
25
20
16
12.5
10
6.3
4.75
Pan
Example:
Figure 6: Grain size distribution curve

From graph calculate:
Coefficient of uniformity Cu = D60/D10 =....................
Coefficient of curvature Cc = D302 / (D60* D10) =...................
Results and Discussion:
Results:
Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) =
Coefficient of curvature (Cc) =
Type of gradation =
Discussion:
Particle size distribution gives an idea about type of soil and gradation of soil. Well graded soils consist of good
representation of particles of all sizes. Gap graded soils consists of excess of certain particles and deficiency of others.
Uniformly graded soils have most of the particles of same size. Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) is a measure of particle size
range. It is always greater than or equal to 1. For uniformly graded soils C u lies between 1 and 2, for a well graded gravel
Cu must be greater than 4 and for well graded sands Cu is greater than 6. Coefficient of curvature (Cc) represents shape of
particle size curve. For well graded soils Cc is between 1 and 3 and for uniformly graded soils, Cc is almost equal to 1.
Applications:
Gradation is usually specified for each engineering application it is used for. For example, foundations might only call for
coarse aggregates, and therefore an open gradation is needed. Common application of gradation is to classify the coarser
portion of soils. Aggregate gradation is also used for shape test and to find out the specific gravity. Aggregate gradation is
used in Asphalt mix design.
References:
● IS : 2386 ( Part I) – 1963 - Methods of Test for Aggregates
● http://www.engineeringcivil.com/sieve-analysis.html
● ftp://ftp.odot.state.or.us/techserv/construction/.../2009/05_WAQTC.pdf
● http://www.readit.me/2013/05/to-carry-out-sieve-analysis-of-fine.html
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1tADxnj8AgY&list=PL6E883FC763F219C1&index=8.
15
2.2 SHAPE TESTS
Objective: To determine the combined flakiness and elongation index of the given aggregates.
Background: The particle shape of aggregate is determined by the percentages of flaky and elongated courses
construction of bituminous and cement concrete types, the presence of flaky and the elongated particles are considered
undesirable as they may cause inherent weakness with possibilities of breaking down under heavy loads. The flakiness
index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles in it whose least dimension (thickness) is less than three-
fifth of their mean dimension.
The elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest dimension (length) is greater
than one and four-fifths times their mean dimension.
Apparatus:
The apparatus shall consist of the following:
a) Balance: The balance shall be of sufficient capacity and sensitivity shall have an accuracy of 0.1 percent of the weight
of the test sample.
b) Metal Gauges: Thickness gauges and Length gauge.
Thickness gauge
Length gauge
c) Sieves - IS Sieves of sizes of sizes 63 mm, 50 mm, 40 mm, 31.5 mm, 25 mm, 20 mm, 16 mm, 12.5 mm, 10 mm, and
6.3 mm.
Procedure:
Flakiness Index:
1. The sieves are arranged such that the largest size sieve (63mm) is at the top and the smallest size sieve (6.3mm) is at the
bottom.
2. The given aggregate are sieved a min of 200 pieces of each fraction to be tested are taken and weight.
3. In order to separate flaky aggregate each fraction is than gauged for thickness through the respective opening on the
thickness gauge for example :- if the aggregate is form 50-40 fraction if is gauged through the opening of 27mm on the
thickness gauge.
4. The flaky aggregate passing the respective opening are collected and accurately weighed.
5. The procedure is repeated for other fractions having weighs W2, W3 ------ etc. the flaky
16
aggregate in them having weights w2,w3 respectively.
Flakiness Index = (w1+w2+w3+…………) x100 / (W1+W2+W3+…….) percent
= 100 w/W percent
It is desirable that the flakiness index of aggregates used in road construction is less than 15 percent and normally does not
exceed 25 percent (as per IS 2386(part-1)-1963).
The elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of the particles whose greatest dimension (length) is
greater than one and fourth times (1.8 times) their mean dimension. The elongation test is not applicable to sizes smaller
than 6.3 mm.
Elongation Index:
1. Take enough quantity of dry blended sample so that at least 200 pieces of any fraction is present. This is not applicable
for the biggest and smallest size.
2. Sieve the blended sample through all the sieves mentioned above starting from the largest sieve i.e. 63 mm.
3. Separate all the individual fractions: 63 mm to 50 mm, 50 mm to 40 mm, 40 mm to 25 mm, 25 mm to 20 mm, 20 mm
to 16 mm, 16 mm to 12.5 mm, 12.5 mm to 10 mm, and 10mm to 6.3 mm.
4. Take the entire fraction separately; gauge them one by one through the corresponding slot provided in the gauge. Keep
the particles retained by the length separately. The aim should be to retain as much as possible to avoid testing bias.
5. Weigh the particles retained on length gauge.
6. Elongation index is the total weight of the material retained on the various length gauges, expressed as a percentage of
the total weight of the sample gauged.
7. Each piece of these are tried to be passed through the specified gauge length of 58.5 mm with its longest side and which
do not pass the gauge are separated and the total weight determined = X1g. Similarly the weight of each fraction of
aggregate passing and retained on specified sieve sizes are found, W 1, W2, W3,……. And the total weight of sample
determined = W1+W2+W3+……..=W g. Also the weight of material from each fraction retained on the specified gauge
length are found = X1, X2, X3 and the total weight retained determined = X1+X2+X3+……= X g.
The elongation index is the total weight of the material retained on the various length gauges, expressed as a percentage of
the total weight of the sample gauged.
Elongation Index = (X1+X2+X3+……………) x100/ W1+W2+W3+……………
= 100x(X/W) percent
Flakiness Index = (w1+w2+w3+…………) x100 / (W1+W2+W3+…….) percent
= 100 w/W percent
Elongation Index = (X1+X2+X3+……………) x100/ W1+W2+W3+……………
= 100 X/W percent
Weight of Wt of Weight of
Passing fraction Aggregate in aggregates in
Retained on Thickness Length gauge
through IS consisting of at each fraction each fraction
IS sieve, mm gauge size, mm size ,mm
sieve, mm least 200 passing the retained on the
pieces, (W)g gauge, (w)g gauge, (X)g
63 50 30.90 ..
50 40 27.00 81.0
40 31.5 19.50 58.5
31.5 25 16.95 ..
25 20 13.50 40.5
20 16 10.80 32.4
16 12.5 8.55 25.6
12.5 10 5.75 20.2
10 6.3 4.89 14.7
Total= W= w= X=
Applications:
The shape tests give only a rough idea of the relative shapes of aggregates. Flaky and elongated particles should be
avoided in pavement construction, particularly in surface course. If such particles are present in appreciable proportions,
the strength of pavement layer would be adversely affected due to possibility of breaking under loads. Workability is
reduced for cement concrete. IRC recommendations for maximum limits of flakiness index are as given. As per IS 2386-
part-1-196, it is desirable that the flakiness index of aggregates used in road construction is less than 15 percent and
normally does not exceed 25 percent. Flakiness index and elongation index values in excess of 15 percent are generally
considered undesirable; however no recognized limits have been limited down for elongation index.
References:
● Flakiness and Elongation index test (shape test) IS 2386- part-1
● Pavement materials: Aggregates- nptel_ceTEI_L22
● http://theconstructor.org/transportation/shape-tests/1397/
17
2.3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION TESTS
Objective: To determine the specific gravity and water absorption of the given aggregate.
Background: Specific gravity is a measure of a material’s density (mass per unit volume) as compared to the
density of water at 73.4°F (23°C). Therefore, by definition, water at a temperature of 73.4°F (23°C) has a
specific gravity of 1. Absorption, which is also determined by the same test procedure, is a measure of the
amount of water that an aggregate can absorb into its pore structure. Pores that absorb water are also referred to
as “water permeable voids”.
Apparent Specific Gravity, Gsa:
The volume measurement only includes the volume of the aggregate particle; it does not include the volume of
any water permeable voids. The mass measurement only includes the aggregate particle. Apparent specific
gravity is intended to only measure the specific gravity of the solid volume; therefore it will be the highest of
the aggregate specific gravities. It is formally defined as the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of the
impermeable portion of aggregate (does not include the permeable pores in aggregate) to the mass of an equal
volume of gas-free distilled water at the stated temperature.
Bulk Specific Gravity (Bulk Dry Specific Gravity), Gsb:
The volume measurement includes the overall volume of the aggregate particle as well as the volume of the
water permeable voids. The mass measurement only includes the aggregate particle. Since it includes the water
permeable void volume, bulk specific gravity will be less than apparent specific gravity. It is formally defined
as the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of aggregate, including the water permeable voids, at a stated
temperature to the mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at the stated temperature.
Bulk Saturated Surface Dry (SSD) Specific Gravity:
Volume measurement includes the overall volume of the aggregate particle as well as the volume of the water
permeable voids. The mass measurement includes the aggregate particle as well as the water within the water
permeable voids. It is formally defined as the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of aggregate, including the
weight of water within the voids filled to the extent achieved by submerging in water for approximately 15
hours, to the mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at the stated temperature.
Effective Specific Gravity, Gse:
Volume measurement includes the volume of the aggregate particle plus the void volume that becomes filled
with water during the test soak period minus the volume of the voids that absorb asphalt. Effective specific
gravity lies between apparent and bulk specific gravity. It is formally defined as the ratio of the mass in air of a
unit volume of a permeable material (excluding voids permeable to asphalt) at a stated temperature to the mass
in air (of equal density) of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature. Effective specific
gravity is determined by a different procedure and is not covered in this section.
The following relationships are always true:
1. Gsa ≥ Gse ≥ Gsb
2. Bulk (SSD) specific gravity ≥ Gsb
3. Aggregate specific gravities (Gsb, Gsa,Gse and bulk SSD specific gravity ) are all ≥ Gmm(because
Gmm includes the asphalt binder, which has a lower specific gravity than the aggregate)
Apparatus:
1) A wire basket of not more than6.3 mm mesh or a perforated container of conventional size with thin
wire hangers for suspending it from the balance.
2) A thermostatically controlled oven to maintain temperature of 1000 to 1100 C.
3) A container for filling water and suspending the basket.
4) An air tight container of capacity similar to that of the basket
5) A balance of capacity about 5 kg to weigh accurate to 0.5 g and of such a type and shape as to permit
weighing of the sample container when suspended in water.
6) Sieve of size 25mm and 20mm.
7) A shallow tray and two dry absorbent clothes each not less than 750 X 450 mm.
Procedure:
1. About 2.5 kg of the aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines, drained and then placed in the
wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a temperature between 22ºcand 32ºc and a cover of at least 5
cm of water above the basket.
2. Immediately after immersion the entrapped air is removed from the sample by lifting the basket containing
it 25 mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop 25 times at the rate of above one drop per
second.
3. The basket and the aggregate should remain completely immersed in water for a period of 24± ½ hour
afterwards.
4. The basket and the sample are then weighed while suspended in water at a temperature of 22 ºC to 32 ºC in
case it is necessary to transfer the basket and the sample to a different tank for weighing, they should be
jolted 25 times as described earlier above in the new tank to remove air before weighing.
5. The weight is noted while suspended in water =w1 g.
18
6. The basket and the aggregate are then removed from the water and allowed to drain for a few minutes, after
which the aggregate s are transferred to one of the dry absorbent clothes. The empty basket is then returned
to the tank of water, jolted 25 times and weighed in water= w2 g.
7. The aggregates placed on the absorbent clothes are surface dried till no further moisture could be removed
by this cloth.
8. Then aggregates are transferred to the second dry cloth spread in single layer, covered and allowed to dry
for at least 10 minutes until the aggregates are completely surface dry. 10 to 60 minutes drying may be
needed.
9. The aggregate should not be exposed to the atmosphere, direct sunlight or any other source of heat while
surface drying.
10. A gentle current of unheated air may be used during the first 10 minutes to accelerate the drying of
aggregate surface. The surface dried aggregate is then weighed = w3 g.
11. The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in any oven maintained at a temperature of 110ºc for 24
hours. It is then removed from the oven, cooled in an air tight container and weighed = w4 g.
12. At least two tests should be carried out, but not concurrently.
Precautions:
1. The aggregate must be immersed properly in water for 24 hours.
2. The water from surface of aggregate must be dried.
3. Weight the aggregate carefully in spring balance
Weight of the saturated aggregate suspended in water with the basket = w1 g
Weight of basket suspended in water = w2 g
Weight of saturated aggregate in water = (w1-w2)
= ws g
Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air = w3 g
Weight of water equal to the volume of the aggregate = (w3-ws) g

= w5 g
Weight of oven dry aggregate = w4 g
Specific gravity = dry weight of aggregate/ weight of equal volume of water

= w4/ (w3-ws)
= w4/ w3-(w1- w2)
Apparent specific gravity = Dry weight of aggregate / (weight of equal volume
of water (excluding air voids in aggregate))
= w4/ (w4 - ws)
Water absorption = Percent by weight of water absorbed in terms of oven dried
Weight of aggregate
= (w3 – w4)*100/w4
(1) Specific gravity =
(2) Apparent specific gravity =
(3) Water Absorption =
The size of the aggregates and whether it has been artificially heated should be indicated. IS 2386(part-3)-1963
specifies three methods of testing for the determination of the specific gravity, according to the size of
aggregates. The three size ranges used are
1. Aggregates larger than 10 mm
2. between 10 mm and 40 mm
3. smaller than 10 mm
The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about 2.5 to 3.0 with an
average value of about 2.68. Though high specific gravity of an aggregate is considered as an indication of high
strength, it is not possible to judge the suitability of a sample of road aggregate without finding the mechanical
properties such as aggregate crushing, impact and abrasion values.
Applications:
Specific gravity is used in super pave mix design, deleterious particle identification and separation, and material
property change identification.
References:
● AASHTO T 85 – specific gravity and absorption of course aggregate.
http://www.dot.nd.gov/manuals/materials/testingmanual/t85.pdf
● http://www.highways.gov.sk.ca/206-7.2/
● http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/coarse-aggregate-specific-gravity/
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hqXFPq676iM
19
20
2.4 AGGREGATE IMPACT TEST
Objective: To determine the aggregate impact value of coarse aggregate.
Background:
Toughness of the aggregate is defined as its resistance to impact. One of the properties important in considering
the suitability of an aggregate for road making is its resistance to sudden shock load or impact, which in some
aggregates differs from its resistance to a slow compressive load. This can be ascertained in the laboratory by
determining the aggregate impact value.
In this test a specimen is compacted, in a standardized manner, into an open steel cup. The specimen is then
subjected to a number of standard impacts from a dropping weight. This action breaks the aggregate to a degree,
which is dependent on the impact resistance of the material. This degree is assessed by sieving the impacted
specimen and is taken as the Aggregate Impact Value (AIV).
Impact hammer
Apparatus:
1) Impact testing machine, the machine consists of a metal base with a plane lower surface supported well on a
firm floor. A detachable cylindrical cup, a metal hammer capable of sliding freely between vertical guides, and
fall concentric over the cup. There is an arrangement for raising the hammer and allowing it to fall freely
between vertical guides from a height of 38 cm in the test sample cup. A key is provided for supporting the
hammer while fastening or removing the cup.
2) A cylindrical measure.
3) Tamping rod.
4) IS sieves of 12.5 mm, 10 mm and 2.36 mm size.
5) Balance, oven, rubber mallet, metal tray and brush etc.
Procedure:
1) The test sample consists of aggregates passing 12.5 mm and retained on 10 mm sieve. Wash the sample and
dry at 100 to 110oC for 4 hours and cool to room temperature.
2) Fill the cylindrical measure by the aggregate sample in 3 equal layers, each layer being given 25 tamping.
Struck off the aggregate sample by tamping rod weigh and record the mass of sample (M1).
3) Place the impact testing machine with its bottom plate flat on the floor so that hammer guides are vertical, fix
the cup firmly in its position on the base of the machine and transfer the entire sample in the cup and compact it
25 times.
4) Raise the hammer and allow it to fall freely on the aggregates. The sample is subjected to a total of 15 such
blows, each being delivered at an interval of not less than one second.
5) Remove the crushed aggregate from the cup and sieve from 2.36 mm sieve. The fraction passing the sieve is
weighed (M2). The fraction retained on the sieve is also weighed (M3). If M2+M3 differs M1 by more than 1 gm.
Discard the results and repeat the test.
The aggregate impact value is expressed as the percentage of the fines formed in terms of total weight of the
sample.
Aggregate Impact Value = 100 x M2
M1
Where,
M1 is mass of the test specimen.
M2 is mass of the test specimen passing 2.36 mm test sieve.
The value is expressed as a whole number and is the mean of the two tests.
Results and Discussions:
The mean of the two results is reported as the aggregate impact value of the specimen to the nearest whole
number.
21
Aggregate impact value is to classify the stones in respect of their toughness property as indicated below:
Aggregate Impact Values:
Allowable impact value of aggregate in different types of pavement materials/layers
Aggregate impact value
S. No. Types of Pavement Material
(%), Max.
1 WBM, Sub-Base Course 50
2 Cement Concrete, Base Course 45
3 WBM, Base Course With Bitumen Surfacing 40
Built-Up Spray Grout, Base Course
4 Bituminous Macadam, Base Course 35
5 WBM, Surfacing Course 30
Built-Up Spray Grout, Surfacing Course
Bituminous Carpet
Bituminous Surface Dressing
Bituminous Macadam, Binder Course
Cement Concrete Surface Course
Condition of Sample Maximum Aggregate Impact Value (%)

Sub-Base and Base Surface
Dry 50 32
Wet 60 39
Chief advantage of aggregate impact test is that test equipment and the test procedure are quite simple and it
determines the resistance to impact of stones simulating field condition. The test can be performed in a short
time even at construction site or at stone quarry, as the apparatus is simple and portable. Well-shaped cubical
stones provide higher resistance to impact when compacted with flaky and elongated stones. It is essential that
the first specimen to be tested from each sample of aggregate is equal in volume; taking the specimen in the
measuring cylinder in the specified manner by tamping in 3 layers ensures this. If all the test specimens to be
tested in the aggregate impact testing mould are of equal volume, the height of these specimens will also be
equal and hence the height of fall of the impact rammer on the specimens will be equal. On the other hand, if
equal weight of different aggregate samples is taken, their volume and height may vary depending upon the
specific gravity of the aggregates and their shape factors. There is no definite reason why the specified rate of
application of the blows of the impact rammer should be maintained.
Applications:
The aggregate impact test is considered to be an important test to assess the suitability of aggregates as regards
the toughness for use in pavement construction. It has been found that for majority of aggregates, the aggregate
crushing and aggregate impact values are numerically similar within close limits. But in case of fine-grained
highly siliceous aggregate which are less resistant to impact than to crushing, the aggregate impact values are
higher than the aggregate crushing values.
Various agencies have specified the maximum permissible aggregate impact values for the different types of
pavements; those recommended by the Indian Road Congress are shown above. For deciding the suitability of
soft aggregates in base course construction, this test has been commonly used. A modified impact test is also
often carried out in the case of soft aggregates to find the wet impact value after soaking the test sample. The
recommendations given in table (2) based on work reported by different agencies: have been made to assess the
suitability of soft aggregates for road construction.
Precautions:
1. The machine shall be rigidly fixed to the floor with guide columns vertical.
2. Before giving hammer blows check whether the metal cup is tightly bolted to the machine.
3. The blows should preferably be given @ 1 per sec.
4. After impact, remove the crushed aggregate carefully using a stiff bristle brush.
References:
1. AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE (IS:2386-Part IV-1963)
http://civilblog.org/2013/05/07/aggregate-impact-value-is2386-part-iv-1963/
2. SS (1974). SS73:1974 Specification for methods for sampling and testing of
mineral aggregates, sand and fillers - Determination of aggregate impact value, aggregate crushing value
and ten percent fines value. Singapore Standard, Singapore.
3. Millard, R.S. (1993). Road building in the Tropics. Transport Research Laboratory State-of-the-art
Review 9, HMSO, London.
22
2.5 AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE TEST
Objective: To determine the aggregate crushing value of the given aggregate sample by using compressive
testing machine.
Background: Aggregates used in road construction, should be strong enough to resist crushing under traffic
wheel loads. If the aggregates are weak, the stability of the pavement structure is likely to be adversely affected.
The strength of coarse aggregate is assessed by aggregates crushing test. The aggregate crushing value provides
a relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually applied compressive loads. In this test an aggregate
specimen is compacted in a standardized manner into a steel cylinder fitted with a freely moving plunger. The
specimen is subjected to a standard loading applied through the plunger. This action crushes the aggregate to a
degree which is dependent on the crushing resistance of the material. This degree is assessed by a sieving test
on the crushed aggregate and is taken as a measure of the Aggregate Crushing Value. To achieve a high quality
of pavement, aggregate possessing low Aggregate Crushing Value should be preferred. The principal
mechanical properties required in stones are:
i) Satisfactory resistance to crushing under the roller during construction, and
ii) Adequate resistance to surface abrasion to surface abrasion under traffic.
Apparatus:
i) Steel cylinder with open ends, and internal diameter 152 mm, square base plate, plunger having a piston of
diameter 150 mm, with a hole provided across the stem of the plunger so that a rod could be inserted for lifting
or placing the plunger in the cylinder.
ii) Cylindrical measure having internal diameter of 115 mm and height 180 mm.
iii) Steel tamping rod with one rounded end, having a diameter of 16 mm and length 450 to 600 mm.
iv) Balance of capacity 3 kg with accuracy up to 1 gm.
v) Compression testing machine capable of applying 400 KN at the rate of 40 KN/min.
vi) Test sieves of 12.5 mm, 10 and 2.36 mm size.
vii) Metal tray, brush, etc.
Crushing test setup

Procedure:
1i) The aggregate passing 12.5 mm IS sieve and retained on 10 mm IS sieve is selected for standard test. The
aggregate may be dried by heating at a temperature 100oC to 110 C for a period of 4 hours and is tested after
being cooled to room temperature. The aggregate should be in surface dry condition before testing.
2) The cylindrical measure is filled by the test sample of aggregate in three layers, each layer being tamped by
tamping rod. After the third layer, level the cylinder by tamping rod. Weigh the sample.
3) The cylinder of the test apparatus is placed in position on the base plate and add the test specimen in three
layers of approximately equal depth, each layer being subjected to 25 strokes by tamping rod. Carefully level
the surface and insert the plunger so that it rests horizontally.
4) Place the cylinder between the platens of testing machine and apply the load of 400 KN in 10 min.
5) Release the load and remove the crushed aggregate and sieve through 2.36 mm IS sieve and find the mass of
the material passing the sieve.
Precautions:
1. In general, the larger sizes of aggregate will give a higher aggregate crushing value, but the relationship
between the values obtained with different sizes will vary from one aggregate to another. Particular care
shall be taken with larger sizes of aggregate to ensure that the plunger does not jam in the cylinder.
However, for such aggregate, a 7.5-cm diameter cylinder may be used, and this has been found to give
slightly higher results than the standard cylinder, so that the errors are compensating.
2. In general, the smaller sizes of aggregate will give a lower aggregate crushing value, but the relationship
between the values obtained with different sizes will vary from one aggregate to another.
Mass of the test specimen M1 = g

Mass of material passing 2.36 mm sieve M2 = g
S. No. Details Trial number Average

23
1 2
Total weight of aggregate sample filling the cylindrical
1
measure = M1 g
Weight of aggregate retained on 2.36 mm sieve after
2
the test = M3 g
Weight of aggregate passing 2.36 mm sieve after the
3
test = M2 g = M1-M3
4 Aggregate Crushing Value = 100 x M2 /M1
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) = M2/M1 * 100

In general large size of aggregates used in the test results in higher aggregates crushing value. The relationship
between the aggregate sizes and crushing values will however vary with the type of specimens tested. When
non-standard sizes of aggregates are used for the crushing test, the size of separating fines and the amount and
rate of compaction shall be adopted.
The aggregate sample for conducting the aggregate crushing test for the first time is to be taken by volume in
the specified cylindrical measure by tamping in a specified manner and the weight of the sample is determined.
When the test is repeated using the same aggregate, it is sufficient to directly weight of the test specimens in the
aggregate crushing mould constant when testing any aggregate sample so that the test, conditions remain
unaltered. If the volume and hence the height may vary depending on the variation in specific gravity and shape
factor of different aggregates.
When aggregates are not available, crushing strength test may be carried out on cylindrical specimen prepared
out of rock sample by drilling, sawing, and grinding. The specimen may be subjected to a slowly increasing
compressive load until failure to find the crushing strength in kg/cm2 however; this test is seldom carried out
due to difficulty in preparing specimens and not getting reproducible results. On the contrary the aggregate
crushing test is sample, rapid and gives fairly consistent results.
Applications:
The aggregate crushing value is an indirect measure of crushing strength of the aggregates. Low aggregates
crushing value indicates strong aggregates, as the crushed fraction is low. Thus the test can be used to assess the
suitability of aggregates with reference to the crushing strength for various typed of pavement components. The
aggregates used for the surface course of pavement should be strong enough to withstand the high stresses due
to wheel loads, including the steel tyres of loaded bullock carts. However, as the stresses at the base and sub-
base courses are low aggregates with lesser crushing strength may be used at the lower layer of the pavement.
Indian Roads Congress and ISI have specified that the aggregate crushing value of the coarse aggregates used
for cement concrete pavement at surface should not exceed 30 percent. For aggregates used for concrete other
than for wearing surface, the aggregate crushing value shall not exceed 45 percent, according to the IS
standards. However, aggregate crushing value has not been specified by the IRC for coarse aggregates to be
used in bituminous pavement construction methods.
References:
● Bureau of Indian standards, Indian standard method of test for concrete, IS 2386 PART 4, 1983
(https://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/S03/is.2386.4.1963.pdf )
● Bureau of Indian standards, Indian standard specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural
sources for concrete. (Second revision). IS 383-1970
● Indian Road Congress, Standard specification and cod of practice for construction of concrete roads. IRC:
15-2002
● Bureau of Indian standards British Standards Institution, Methods for sampling and testing of material
aggregates, sands and Fillers, BS: 812
24
2.6 Los Angeles Abrasion Test
Objective: To measure the hardness of coarse aggregate, i.e. the resistance of wear using Los Angeles method
to determine the Los Angeles Abrasion Value (L.A.A.V.
Background:
Abrasion is a measure of resistance to wear or hardness. It is an essentially property for road Aggregates
especially when used in wearing coarse. Due to the movements of traffic, the road Stones used in the surfacing
course is subjected to wearing actions at the top. When traffic moves on the road the soil particle (sand) which
comes between the wheel and road surface causes abrasion on the road stone. The abrasion test on aggregate is
found as per I.S.-2386 part-IV. For an aggregate to perform satisfactorily in a highway pavement, it must be
sufficiently hard to resist the abrasive effects of traffic over a long period of time. The abrasion tests are
basically accelerated tests which enable the user to eliminate aggregates which may be unsuitable from this
point of view. Whether the tests simulate abrasion under actual traffic conditions, is, however debatable. But of
all the tests proposed, the ‘Los Angeles Abrasion Test’ is believed to be more dependable because it attempts to
simulate both rubbing and pounding action under wheel loads. Many Highway agencies including IRC have
specified desirable limits to assess the hardness of aggregates for use in different types of pavement
construction.
The Los Angeles Abrasion Test was developed in that city’s municipal testing laboratory in the mid 1920’s, and
rapidly became accepted worldwide as a better measure of both abrasion resistance and toughness. It is now
covered by two ASTM standards. It is more closely indicative of the in-service behaviour of aggregates for
highway use; this is the case with any other physical test.
Apparatus: 1. Los Angeles Machine: It consists of A steel drum, 28 inches(700mm) in diameter and 20
inches(500 mm) in length. This drum rotates with its axis set horizontally at a speed of approximately 30-35
r.p.m. A door closed by bolts and nuts, and an internal steel shelf that extend along the steel drum and it
guarantees that the balls and aggregate will hit and so abrasion and attrition are done. Automatic counter switch,
the number of wanted revolutions is set at the beginning of the test so that the machine will stop automatically
when revolving the set number of revolutions.
2. Set of Sieves: 600 mm diameter IS 80, 63, 50, 40, 25, 20, 12.5, 10, 6.3, 4.75 mm: 300 mm diameter IS sieve
no.1.70 mm.
3. Abrasive charge: It consists of cast iron or steel spheres of about 48 mm diameter and weighing around 390-
445 gm of each.
4. Balance of capacity 10 kg, accurate to 1 gm.
5. Oven, thermostatically controlled to maintain a temperature of 100 to 110oC.
Grading of test sample
Sieve Size (Square Weight of Indicated Size
Openings) ,g
Passing Retained On Grading
A B C D
37.5 mm 25.0 mm 1250+25
25.0 mm 19.0 mm 1250+25
19.0 mm 12.5 mm 1250+10 2500+10
12.5 mm 9.5 mm 1250+10 2500+10
9.5 mm 6.3 mm 2500+10
6.3 mm 4.75 mm 2500+10
4.75 mm 2.36 mm 5000+10
Total 5000+25 5000+10 5000+10 5000+10
Number of Spheres 12 11 8 6
Weight of Charge (Gm) 5000 4584 3330 2500
Procedure:
1. Wash the test sample confirming to any of the sample grading from A to D and dry at 105-110o C to constant
weight. Take the weight of the sample in g.
2. Place the sample in the cylinder along with the specified abrasive charge and placed in the cylinder of the
machine and cover is fixed to make dust tight. Mix the cover of the machine and rotate it at a speed of 30 to 33
rpm.
3. The machine is rotated for 500 revolutions for grading from A to D.
4. After the desired number of revolutions, the machine is stopped and the material is discharged from the
machine taking care to take out entire stone dust.
5. Using a sieve of size larger than 1.70mm sieve, the material is first separated into two parts and the finer
position is taken out and sieved further on a 1.7 mm sieve.
25
6. Let the original weight of aggregate be W1 g, weight of aggregate retained on 1.70 mm sieve after the test be
W2 g.
Precautions:
1. While removing the sample from the steel drum take care of the hands because they can be get hammered by
the steel balls inside the drum.
Grade of the material:
Number of spheres used:
Size of the aggregate:
Number of revolutions:
Speed of rotation:
TEST 1 TEST 2 AVERAGE
Total weight of dry sample (W1)
Weight of specimen after abrasion test, coarser than 1.70 mm IS sieve
= W2 gm
Los Angel's abrasion value = (W1-W2)x100/W1
Los Angeles abrasion value %
Original weight of sample = W1 gm

Weight of aggregate retained on 1.7 mm sieve after the test = W2 gm
Los Angeles abrasion value = W1 – W2 x 100
W1
The result of the Los Angeles Abrasion Value is expressed as a percentage wear and the average value of two
tests may be adopted.
The Los Angeles Abrasion value for the aggregate sample= %
For sub-base course a value of 60%. For base course such as WBM, Bituminous Macadam (B.M.), Built - Up
spray grout base course and etc. value of 50%.
For surface course such as WBM, BM, Bituminous Penetration Macadam, Built-Up spray grout binder course
and etc. a value of 40%.
If aggregates are used in surface course as bituminous carpet, bituminous surface dressing, single or two coats,
cement concrete surface coarse and etc. a value of 35%.
It may seldom happen that the aggregates desired for a certain construction project has the same grading as any
one of the specified grading. In all the cases, standard grading or grading nearest to the gradation of the selected
aggregates may be chosen. Different specification limits may be required for grading E, F and G, when
compared with A, B, C and D. Further investigations are necessary before any such specifications could be
made. Los Angeles Abrasion test is very commonly used to evaluate the quality of aggregates for use in
pavement construction, especially to decide the hardness of stones. The allowable limits of Los Angeles
Abrasion values have been specified by different agencies based on extensive performance studies in the field.
The ISI has also suggested that this test should be preferred wherever possible. However this test may be
considered as one in which resistance to both abrasion and impact of aggregate may be obtained
simultaneously, due to the presence of abrasive charge. Also the test condition is considered more
representatives of field conditions. The result obtained on stone aggregates is highly reproducible.
Los Angeles Abrasion values for common Rock types

Los Angeles Abrasion
Rock Type
Values
Basalt 10-17
Diabase 13-21
Dolomite 18-30
Gneiss 33-57
Gnenite 27-49
Limestone 19-30
Quartzite 20-35
Sand stone 24-48
References:
● Indian Standard Methods of Test for Aggregate for concrete IS: 2386 Part-IV, Indian Standards Institution.
● Indian Standard Specifications for Coarse and Fine Aggregate from Natural Sources for Concrete, IS: 383
Indian Standards Institution.
● ASTM 131-69, ASTM 535-69 and AASHO T 96 standards
26
2.7 SOUNDNESS TEST
Objective: To evaluate the soundness of given aggregate.
Background:
This test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action. In order to quicken the effect of
weathering due to alternate wet-dry and or freeze-thaw cycles in the laboratory, the resistance to disintegration
of aggregate is determined by soaking the specimen in saturated solution of sodium Sulphate or magnesium
sulphate.
Apparatus:
The apparatus required for the test are containers for aggregates, sieves (80 mm, 63 mm, 50 mm, 40 mm, 31
mm, 25 mm, 20 mm, 16 mm, 12.5 mm, 10 mm, 8 mm, 4.75 mm), balance of capacity 5 kg to weight accurate to
at least 0.1g and oven to maintain 105 to 110 °C.
Procedure:
Saturated solution of sodium sulphate (the anhydrous Na2SO4 or the crystalline Na2SO4 10H2O) is prepared in
water at a temperature of 25 to 30 °C. The solution is maintained at a temperature of 27 ± 2 °C and stirred at
frequent intervals, until it is used. At the time of using, the solution should have a specific gravity of not less
than 1.151 and not more than 1.171, and discolored solution should not be used. It may be necessary to use not
less than 420 g of anhydrous salt or 1300 g of the crystalline decahydrate salt per liter of water.
Alternatively saturated solution of magnesium sulphate may be prepared by dissolving either anhydrous
(MgSO4) or crystalline (MgSO4H2O) magnesium sulphate. At the time of using, the solution should have a
specific gravity of not less than 1.295 and not more than 1.308. Not less than 400g of the anhydrous salt or
1600g of the crystalline heptahydrate may be used per liter of water.
The specimen of coarse aggregate for the test may be prepared after removing the fraction finer than 4.75mm IS
sieve. The sample should be of such a size that it would yield not less than the following amounts of the
different sizes, which should be available in amount of 5 percent or more.
(i) 10 to 4.75 mm (300 g)
(ii) 20 to 10 mm (1000 g): consisting of 12.5 to 10 mm of 33% and 20 to 12.5 mm of 67%
(iii) 40 mm to 20 mm (1500 g): consisting of 25 to 20 mm of 33% and 40 to 25 mm of 67%
(iv) 63 mm to 40 mm (3000 g): consisting of 50 to 40 mm of 50% and 63 to 50 of 50%
(v) 80 mm and large sizes by 20 mm spread in sieve size: each fraction 300 g
The sample of coarse aggregate should be thoroughly washed and dried to a constant weight at 105° to 110°C
and is separated to different size ranges, as given above, by sieving. The proper weight of the sample for each
fraction is weighed and placed in separate containers for the test. In the case of fraction coarser than 20 mm, the
particles are also counted. The samples are immersed in the prepared solution of sodium sulphate or magnesium
sulphate for 16 to 18 hours in such a manner that the solution covers them to a depth of at least 15mm. The
containers are kept covered to reduce evaporation and during the period of immersion, the temperature of the
solution is maintained at 27±2 0 C.
After the immersion period, the aggregates are removed from the solution, drained for about 15 minutes, and
placed in the drying oven maintained at a temperature of 105° to 110°C. The samples are dried to a constant
weight at this temperature by checking the weights after 4 hours up to 18 hours. When the successive weights
differ by less than 1 g, it may be considered that constant weight has been attained and then it may be allowed
to cool to room temperature. Then the aggregates are again immersed in the prepared solution, for the next cycle
of immersion and drying. The number of cycles of alternate immersion and drying are minimum 5 for road
aggregates.
After completion of the final cycle, the sample is cooled washed free from the sulph.at. This may be determined
when there is no more reaction of the wash water with barium chloride (i.e., when there is no white precipitation
when barium chloride is added to wash water, it can be said that there is no sulphate with wash water). Each
fraction of the sample is then dried to constant temperature of 105 ° to 110°C and weighed. Coarse aggregate
fractions are sieved by IS sieves of sizes indicated below:
Size of aggregate Sieve size used to determine loss
63 to 40 mm 31.5 mm
40 to 20 mm 16.0 mm
20 to 10 mm 8.0 mm
10 to 4.75 4.0 mm
mm.
Each fraction of aggregate is examined visually to see if there is any evidence of excessive splitting, crumbling
or disintegration of the grains. A combined sieve analysis of all the materials subjected to the above test cycles,
may also be carried out to note the variation from the original grain size distribution of the sample.
Limits:
Soundness of aggregates: Loss with Sodium Sulphate - Max 12%
Loss with Magnesium Sulphate - Max 18%
27
Reference:
● IS :2386 PART 5
● UKTRP Research report- 1988- Evaluation of procedures for testing Aggregates
28
2.8 AGGREGATE SPECIFIC GRAVITY USING CORELOK
Objective:
For determination of the aggregate specific gravity using Corelok.
Apparatus:
18”X24”X18” water tank,Large Aggregate Volumeter, Rubber Sheets, Spatula, Brush, Alcohol Spray Bottle, Filling
Basin with wire cover, Beaker.
Procedure:
STEP 1- Calibration of the Large Volumeter for Coarse Aggregate
Important: Make certain the water temperature is 77± 2 degrees Fahrenheit.
Caution: Be sure your volumeter is on a level surface. Use a level indicator to setup the volumeter position!
Note: Make certain you have all the necessary accessories. See picture for the required accessories.
Important: To achieve the best repeatability, it is extremely important that the empty volumeter temperature remains at 77± 2
degrees Fahrenheit. A simple way to keep the volumeter at the correct temperature is to fill a 5-gallon bucket with 77± 2
degrees Fahrenheit water. Before each test, rinse the empty volumeter in this water and dry it with a towel. This will quickly
stabilize the volumeter temperature and will allow you to start your testing. This step is particularly important on very cold or
very hot days, when the volumeter temperature can change drastically by the use of tap water or by normal changes in ambient
temperature in the lab.
1. Fill the large volumeter with water to the top of the volumeter.
2. Place the lid on the volumeter gently pressing it down so that water flows through the hole in the lid post. Be sure the lid is well
seated by gently rotating the lid on top of the volumeter.
3. Make sure the small 1/8” hole on the lid is facing forward. Use the provided syringe and fill the container through the large hole
in the post until water starts to flow through the small 1/8” hole.
4. Wipe the excess water from the volumeter with a towel. Place on a towel to wipe water from the bottom of the unit.
5. Place the volumeter filled with water on the scale and obtain the weight.
6. Record the weight in the top portion of the Aggregate Worksheet, on “Coarse Aggregate Only” row.
7. Repeat the above steps 2 more times and average the weights.
8. If the range in these weights is larger than 1.0 gram, then you are not performing the test correctly. Check to see if the
volumeter is level. Check the water temperature. Check the volumeter temperature. Repeat the test until you have three weights
that are within a 1-gram range.
9. Record the average weight on the worksheet.
10. The volumeter is now calibrated and ready for testing. Re-calibrate the volumeter prior to changes in each aggregate source or a
minimum of once per week.
STEP 2 - Testing Coarse Aggregate samples
Be sure your volumeter is on a level surface by checking with a level.
1. Oven dry a sufficient quantity of aggregate to perform this test. A single test may require 5000 grams of sample. You will need
two or three 1000 grams samples for tests in the volumeter and one 2000-gram sample for vacuum test in the CoreLok. Note:
Oven dry the sample for a minimum of 24 hours at 105° C. Make certain you have achieved constant weight.
Note: This test is designed for washed coarse aggregates. For coarse aggregates with high fine content or blended aggregates,
small adjustments have to be made to the procedure. Contact InstroTek for more information on these procedures.
2. Cool the sample to 77 ± 2 ° F. Use appropriate state or national standards to split the sample into three individual 1000 gram
and one 2000 gram samples.
Important: Steps 4 through 10 should be completed within 2 minutes. Increased test time without the lid on the volumeter will
affect the accurate determination of absorption during this process.
3. Weigh 1000±2 grams of the oven dry material and record weight in column A of the worksheet.
4. Fill the volumeter halfway with 77 ± 2 ° F water.
5. Slowly and evenly distribute the sample into the volumeter. Make sure the water completely covers the aggregate.
6. Using the aluminum spatula gently move the aggregate sample around to ensure that there is no trapped air between the
particles.
7. Fill the volumeter with water to the top and spray with rubbing alcohol to remove air bubbles.
8. Place the lid on the volumeter and press gently so that water flows smoothly from the post and the sides. Continue to press until
the lid is properly seated. Rotate the lid on top of the volumeter making sure good contact is achieved and the 1/8” hole is facing
forward.
9. Using the syringe, slowly fill the volumeter through the large center hole on top of the lid. Make sure the syringe tip is far
enough in the volumeter to be below the water level. Gentle application in this step will prevent formation of air bubbles inside
the volumeter.
10. Wipe the excess water from the volumeter with a towel. Place the volumeter on a towel to dry the bottom. Do not tilt or spill
any of the water in the volumeter.
11. Obtain the total weight of the volumeter, aggregate, and water and record in column B of the worksheet.
12. Repeat Steps 3 to 10.
13. If the difference in weight in column B for the two samples tested is less than or equal to 2 grams, go to step 13.
14. Repeat steps 3 to 10, if the first two tests with the volumeter indicate weights that are more than 2 grams from each other.
15. Average the weights in column A and then average the weights in column B of the worksheet and use this average when
entering numbers in AggSpec software.
16. Set unit to run on Program 1 (all settings of Program 1 are preset at the factory).
Note: The CoreLok unit is setup at the factory to run this and other tests. Simply run program 1. For varying the settings use the
Menu key and the Up or Down arrows.
17. Place the three white filler blocks into the CoreLok chamber. The plates fit in the chamber without touching the sealing bar
assembly. If they appear too close to the seal bar or are above the seal bar, rotate them 90º.
18. Tear one large bag and one small off bag rolls. Inspect each bag for holes and tears.
19. Weigh the bags (one large and one small). Record the total weight in column C.
20. Weigh the two rubber sheets and record the weight in column D.
29
21. Weigh approximately 2000±2 grams of aggregate and record in column E.
22. Place the sample in the small bag. When filling, support the bottom of the bag on a tabletop to protect against puncture and
impact points.
23. Place the large bag into the CoreLok chamber, then place one of the rubber sheets in the large bag. The rubber sheet should be
flat, centered, and pushed all the way to the back of the large external bag.
24. Place the bag containing the sample into the large external bag centered on top of the rubber sheet.
25. Use your hand and spread and flatten the sample in the internal small bag. Be sure area taken up by the sample inside the small
bag remains completely contained within the area of the rubber sheet.
26. Place the other rubber sheet on top of the small internal bag inside the large external bag.
Note: The internal bag should be completely sandwiched between the two rubber sheets. The rubber sheets are cut to a size so
as to not cover the opening of the small bag. If the rubber sheets cover the small bag opening this will restrict the airflow from
the bag causing error in the readings.
27. Place the open end of the large external bag over the seal bar and close the chamber door.
28. After the chamber door opens, gently remove the sample from the chamber.
29. Immediately place the sample in the water, for water displacement analysis.
30. Cut one corner of the bag, approximately 3 to 4 inch from the side. Make sure the bag is completely submerged before cutting.
Introducing air into the bag will produce inaccurate results.
31. Open the cut portion of the large bag and the uncut small bag with your fingers and hold open for 25 seconds. Allow the water
to freely flow into the bag. Allow any small residual air bubbles to escape from the bag.
32. After water has filled in, cut the other corner of the bag approximately 3-4 inches. Squeeze any residual air bubbles out of the
cut corners by running your fingers across the top of the bag.
33. Place the bags containing the rubber sheets and the aggregate on the provided weighing basket under water. You may fold the
bag to place it on the basket. However, once on the basket under water, unfold the bag and allow water to freely flow into the
bag.
Caution: Make certain the bag or the sample are not touching the bottom, the sides, or floating out of the water tank. If the bag
contacts the sides it can negatively impact the results of this test.
34. Allow the sample to stay in the water bath for twenty (20) minutes.
35. Record the submerged weight and wait one minute. If after this time the weight increases by more than one-gram wait an
additional five minutes. Record the weight and continue this process until the weight stabilizes.
Note: In our experience most aggregates are fully saturated after 20 minutes. However, we have seen some aggregates with
more than 8% absorption that require longer soak times.
36. If your aggregate size is such that more than 2000 grams need to be tested, repeat steps 3-28. Average the results of the tests for
the total aggregate amount required by ASTM C127 and AASHTO T-85.
Note: AggPlus tests should only be done with 2000 g or less samples.
37. Open the Gravity Suite program and select AggSpec.
38. Enter the average weight of the container with water only above the chart.
39. Enter sample identification. Tab over and select “coarse” aggregate.
40. Fill in columns 3 and 4 with the average weight (2 or 3 test) from column A and B of the worksheet.
41. In column 5 the combined weight of the rubber sheets is entered. The first time you try to enter this weight, a window will
appear saying you must enter a value for “rubber sheet VC”. This value is the density of the rubber sheets and is written on the
sheets (gm/cm3). Select OK. Click on ‘EDIT’ and then select ‘SETTINGS’. You now must enter a password- the password is
density. In the next window, enter the numerical value from the rubber sheets and click OK. Tab back to the rubber sheet weight
column and enter the combined weight of the sheets. The ‘Rubber Sheet VC’ will display above the chart and will not need to
be re-entered for future tests unless the rubber sheets are replaced or damaged. As a precaution, record the rubber sheet density
value in this manual in case it wears off the rubber sheets.
42. Continue by entering the weights from the worksheet and the sealed sample weight. The program will calculate the apparent
density, percent absorption, Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD) and Bulk Specific Gravity (Bsg).
43. You may export the data into an Excel spreadsheet template and print the data as well as other functions provided under the
excel program. Simply click on “Export to Excel” and the AggSpec program will automatically pull the data into Excel.
44. If your absorption is zero, there might be two problems. First, the results (apparent gravity) of your vacuum test in the bag is
low. There might have been a puncture in the bag. Repeat the test in the bag under vacuum with another 1000- gram sample.
Second, you are possibly spending more than 2 minutes performing the tests in the volumeter or the temperatures during the test
(of water, sample or volumeter) is changing drastically during the test. Increased test time during the volumeter test will cause
the weights in column B to be higher than the actual values. Repeat this test with another 500-gram sample paying special
attention to time and temperature (sample, water and volumeter).
Observation and Calculations:
Aggregate Worksheet
(Fine Aggregate Only) Weight of Volumeter and fixture filled with water.
1._________ 2. __________ 3. ___________ Avg. __________
(Coarse Aggregates Only) Weight of Volumeter filled with water.
1. _________ 2. __________ 3. ___________ Avg. __________
Trial 3 is only necessary if the difference in weights in Column B for the first 2 trials is larger than 1 gram for fine aggregates
and larger than 2 grams for coarse aggregates.
References:
· AggPlus System
· http://www.instrotek.com/pdfs/AggPlusManualRev7.pdf
30
3. TESTS ON BITUMEN
31
3.1 PENETRATION TEST
Objective: To determine the penetration value of a given bitumen sample.
Background: The consistency of bituminous materials varies depending upon several factors such as
constituents of bitumen (relative proportions of asphaltenes, resins and oils), temperature etc. and is determined
by indirect methods. Penetration test is one such indirect test to determine the consistency of paving grade
bitumen. Various types and grades of bituminous materials are available depending on their origin and refining
process. Penetration test determines the consistency of these materials for the purpose of grading them, by
measuring the depth (in units of one tenth of a millimeter or one hundredth of a centimeter) to which a standard
needle will penetrate vertically under specified conditions of standard load, duration and temperature. Thus, the
basic principle of the penetration test is the measurement of the penetration (in units of one tenth of mm) of a
standard needle in a bitumen sample maintained at 25°C during 5 seconds, the total weight of needle assembly
being 100 g. the concept of penetration test on bitumen sample is illustrated in Fig. 1. The softer the bitumen,
the greater will be penetration. The penetration grades of bitumen binders are generally denoted as 80/100,
60/70 or 30/40. 80/100 bitumen denotes that the penetration value of the binder ranges between 80 and 100.
Penetration test concept

Apparatus:
The apparatus for conducting penetration test on bitumen consists of penetrometer, container, thermostatically
controlled water bath, stop watch and transfer dish.
1. Penetration test apparatus or Penetrometer: This apparatus consists of a penetration needle assembly which
is attached to a calibrated dial. On release, the penetration needle penetrates into the bitumen specimen
without appreciable friction. The penetration unit consists of a straight polished cylindrical stainless steel
needle of total length 50 mm and diameter 1.0mm with a pointed end, the conical end of the penetration
needle tapers from a diameter of 1.0 mm to 0.15 mm through a length of 5 mm. The other end of the needle
is rigidly fixed to a shank of diameter 3 mm. the gross weight of penetration needle is 100 g. the dial of the
penetrometer is calibrated to measure the penetration value in units of one tenth of a mm. Electrically
operated automatic penetrometers are also available, in which the test duration is automatically controlled,
by releasing the test needle assembly for an exact duration of 5.0 seconds. Typical diagram of penetration
test apparatus.
2. Container: a flat bottomed cylindrical metal or glass container of diameter 55 mm and depth 35 mm is used
to place the penetration test specimen of bitumen. A container of diameter 70 mm and depth 45 mm is used
for testing bitumen binders with penetration values exceeding 225.
3. Water bath: a thermostatically controlled water bath containing not less than 10 liters of water, maintained
at 25 ± 1 °C so as to keep the containers with the bitumen sample immersed in water at a depth of 100 mm
(or more) from the surface and supported on a perforated shelf placed at 50 mm (or more) from the bottom
of the water bath.
4. Transfer tray: a small tray which can keep the bitumen container fully immersed in water at 25 °C during
the test.
5. Thermometer: a thermometer to read up to 0.2 °C.
6. Timer device: a timer device or stop watch, accurate to 0.1 of a second.
Procedure:
1. Preparation of test specimen
i. The bitumen is heated to a pouring temperature about 75 – 100°C above the temperature at which
bitumen softens.
ii. The sample is thoroughly stirred to make it homogeneous and free from air bubbles and water.
iii. The bitumen sample is then poured into the containers of 35 mm depth.
iv. The sample containers are placed on the transfer tray and cooled in atmosphere at temperature between
15 – 30°C for 60 to 90 minutes.
v. Then the transfer tray with the sample containers is placed in the thermostatically controlled water bath
maintained at a temperature of 25°C for a period of 60 to 90 minutes after which it is removed from
water bath and placed under needle of penetrometer.
2. Determining the penetration value
32
i. Using the adjusting screw, the needle assembly is lowered and the tip of the needle is made to just
touch the top surface of bitumen sample and the needle assembly is clamped in this position.
ii. The initial reading of the penetrometer dial is either adjusted to zero or initial reading is taken before
releasing the needle.
iii. The needle is released exactly for a period of 5.0 seconds by pressing the knob and the final reading is
taken on the dial.
iv. The test is repeated on the same sample by conducting the repeat test at a distance of not less than 10
mm apart.
v. After each test the needle assembly is raised and the penetration needle is cleaned with benzene and
dried.
Precautions:
1. Use hand gloves and apron while pouring bitumen in containers.
2. Mixing should be thoroughly done as presence of any air bubbles causes erroneous results.
3. There should be no disturbance at the time of penetration.
4. Hot air oven or sand bath may be used to avoid over heating of bottom of the container.
5. If the bitumen sample contains extraneous matter, it should be removed by sieving.
Penetration value
Trial No. Initial dial reading Final dial reading
(Final – Initial)
1
2
3
Average penetration value (1/10th of mm) =

The penetration value of given bitumen sample is …….. .
It may be noted that the penetration value is influenced by inaccuracy as regards:
i. Pouring temperature
ii. Size of needle
iii. Weight placed on the needle
iv. Test temperature
v. Duration of releasing the penetration needle
vi. Period of cooling
If the test temperature is higher than specified value of 25 °C or the weight of needle assembly is higher than
specified value of 100g, then the penetration value obtained will be much higher. Higher pouring temperature
than the specified value may cause hardening of bitumen and result in lower penetration values.
Applications:
1. It is most commonly adopted test on bitumen to determine the grade of the material in terms of its
hardness because of its simplicity.
2. The penetration values of various types of bitumen used in pavement construction in this country range
between 20 and 225.
3. The appropriate grade of bitumen binder to be used for road construction work is decided depending
upon the climatic condition of the project site, type of construction and pavement layer (base course/
binder course/ surface course).
4. Harder grade of bitumen with lower penetration value is generally chosen in warm regions.
5. In colder regions, bitumen with higher penetration value is generally used.
References:
● Bureau of Indian Standards, IS: 1203 – 1978, Indian Standard Methods for Testing Tar and Bituminous
Materials: Determination of Penetration (First Revision)
● Bureau of Indian Standards, IS: 73 – 2006, Indian Standard Paving Bitumen – Specification (Third
Revision)
● Road Research Laboratory, Bituminous Materials in Road Construction, H.M.S.O., London.
● ASTM Designation: D5 – 06, Standard test method for Penetration of Bituminous Materials.
● Highway Materials and Pavement Testing by Dr. S. K. Khanna, Dr. C.E.G. Justo and Dr. A. Veeraragavan
● http://civilblog.org/2013/05/12/penetration-value-of-bitumen-is1203-1978/
33
3.2 VISCOSITY TEST
Objective: To determine the viscosity of the given bitumen sample.
Background: Viscosity is defined as inverse of fluidity. Viscosity thus defines the fluid property of bituminous
material and it is a measure of resistance to flow. The degree of fluidity at the application temperature greatly
influences the strength characteristics of the resulting paving mixes. High or low fluidity at mixing and
compaction has been observed to result in lower stability values. There is an optimum value of fluidity or
viscosity for each aggregate gradation of the mix and bitumen grade. At high fluidity or low viscosity, the
bituminous binder simply “lubricates” the aggregate particles instead of providing a uniform film thickness for
binding action. Similarly, low fluidity or high viscosity also resists the compactive effort and the resulting mix
is heterogeneous in character exhibiting low stability values.
Orifice viscometer
BIS specifies a test procedure for liquid binders like cutback bitumen, emulsion and liquid tar. One of the
methods by which viscosity is measured is by determining the time taken by 50 cc of the material to flow from
a cup through specified orifice under standard test conditions and specified temperature. This is illustrated in
figure . 1 specification vide IS 1206 – 1958 describe the details of equipment and procedure. Equipment like
sliding plate micro viscometer and Brookfield viscometer are however in use for defining the viscous
characteristics of the bitumen of all grades irrespective of testing temperature. A specified quantity of binder is
allowed to flow through specified orifice size of cup at the given temperature and time taken in seconds is
recorded as viscosity value.
As per BIS, the viscosity values of bitumen emulsions are determined by Saybolt Furol orifice viscometer at test
temperature of 25oc and 50oc. The viscosity values of tar are determined using orifice viscometer called tar
viscometer using either 10mm or 4mm size orifice.
Apparatus:
1. Tar viscometer: It consists of a cup with a gold plated cylindrical brass vessel closed at the top by a lid. The
cup is surrounded by a jacket which holds water or other suitable liquid securing as a constant
thermostatically controlled water bath with stirring device. A tripod supports the apparatus and also carries a
ring burner by means of which the bath is heated. Adjustable legs on the tripod serve to level the instrument.
A smooth and round wooden stopper is also provided to prevent the flow of liquid.
2. A receiver : A 50 ml graduated testing flask is placed below the viscometer just under the stopper.
3. Two thermometers to check the temperature of bath and that of the sample in the tube.
Viscosity test
Procedure:
1. Tar cup orifice is cleaned and top of tar cup is levelled.
2. Water in the bath is heated up to the temperature specified for the test and is maintained throughout test with
constant stirring.
34
3. The specified test temperatures are 35, 40, 45, 55, 65 C.
4. Material is heated to 20°C above the test temperature and material is allowed to cool.
5. During this material is continuously stirred. When temperature reaches 40°C, it is poured into cup of the tar
viscometer until levelling peg on valve rod is just immersed.
6. Receiver is placed under the orifice. Valve is opened after applying kerosene in the receiver.
7. Stop watch is started when cylinder records 50 ml. Time is recorded for flow upto a mark of 100 ml.
Precautions:
1. Care should be taken to maintain the correct temperature of the sample throughout the test in order not to
affect results.
2. Presence of any lumps in the bituminous sample or clogging of orifice should be avoided as far as possible.
Materials :
Grade :
Testing temperature :
Size of orifice :
Observed Values
Test property Test run Mean value
Viscosity, in seconds 1 2 3

The time in seconds for 50 ml of the sample material to flow through the orifice is defined as the viscosity at a
given test temperature.
Recommended values
Cutback bitumen 0 1 2 3 4 5
SC,MC,RC of
grades
Orifice size (mm) 4.0 4.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Test 25 25 25 25 40 40
Temperatures(°C)
Viscosity Ranges 25-75 30-250 10-20 25-75 14-45 60-140
The working range of tar viscometer for 10mm orifice is 10 to 140 seconds. For cutback bitumen, the orifice
size specified is 4 mm (According to IS 1206-1978). According to tests, the higher the duration of the fluid to
flow, the more is the viscosity of the material.
Applications:
The bituminous binders are mixed with aggregates and applied in road works in the liquid form at different temperatures.
It is important that the viscosity properties of the binder are determined at the desired temperature before use. The range
of viscosity of different types of bituminous binders vary depending on the type and grade of binder and the temperature
of application.
References:
● IS:1206-1978 viscosity test
● “ Highway Materials and Pavement Testing ” by S. K. Khanna, C. E. G. Justo and A. Veeraraghavan.
● http://www.highwaysmaintenance.com/visc.htm
● http://www.cdeep.iitb.ac.in/nptel/Civil%20Engineering/Transportation%20Engg%20I/23-
Ltexhtml/p11/p.html
● http://www.prbdb.gov.in/files/Quality%20Control%20Training/Tests%20on%20Bitumin/Viscosity%20Test
.pdf
● http://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/viscosity
35
3.3 FLASH AND FIRE POINT TESTS
Objective: To determine the flash and fire point temperatures of the given bitumen sample.
Background: The flash point of a volatile liquid is the lowest temperature at which it can vaporize to form an
ignitable mixture in air. Measuring a liquid's flash point requires an ignition source. At the flash point, the
vapour may cease to burn when the source of ignition is removed. The flash point is not to be confused with the
temperature, which does not require an ignition source. The fire point, a higher temperature, is defined as the
temperature at which the vapour continues to burn after being ignited. Neither the flash point nor the fire point
is related to the temperature of the ignition source or of the burning liquid, which are much higher. The
flashpoint is often used as a descriptive characteristic of liquid fuel, and it is also used to help Characterize the
fire hazards of liquids. ”Flash point” refers to both flammable liquids and combustible liquids. There are various
standards for defining each term. Most chemists agree that liquids with a flash point less than 60.5 °C (141 °F)
or 37.8 °C (100 °F) Depending upon the standard being applied are flammable, and liquids with a flash point
above those temperatures are combustible.
Every liquid has a vapour pressure, which is a function of that liquid's temperature. As the temperature
increases, the vapour pressure increases. As the vapour pressure increases, the concentration of evaporated
flammable liquid in the air increases. Hence, temperature determines the concentration of evaporated flammable
liquid in the air. Each flammable liquid requires a different concentration of its vapour in air to sustain
combustion. The flash point of a flammable liquid is the lowest temperature at which there will be enough
flammable vapour to ignite when an ignition source is applied.
There are two basic types of flash point measurement: open cup and closed cup. In open cup devices the sample
is contained in an open cup which is heated, and at intervals a flame is brought over the surface. The measured
flash point will actually vary with the height of the flame above the liquid surface, and at sufficient height the
measured flash point temperature will coincide with the fire point. The best known example is the Cleveland
open cup(COC). There are two types of closed cup testers: non-equilibrium, such as Pensky-Martens where the
vapours above the liquid are not in temperature equilibrium with the liquid, and equilibrium, such as Small
Scale (commonly known as Seta flash) where the vapours are deemed to be in temperature equilibrium with the
liquid. In both these types the cups are sealed with a lid through which the ignition source can be introduced.
Closed cup testers normally give lower values for the flash point than open cup (typically 5-10 °C) and are a
better approximation to the temperature at which the vapour pressure reaches the lower flammable limit (LFL).
The flashpoint is an empirical measurement rather than a fundamental physical parameter. The measured value
will vary with equipment and test protocol variations, including temperature ramp rate (in automated testers),
time allowed for the sample to equilibrate, sample volume and whether the sample is stirred. Methods for
determining the flash point of a liquid are specified in many standards. For example, testing by the cup method
is detailed in ASTM D93, IP34, ISO2719, DIN 51758, JIS K2265 and AFNOR M07-019. Determination of
flash point by the Small Scale closed cup method is detailed in ASTM D3828 and D3278, EN ISO 3679 and
3680, and IP 523 and 524.
Flash Point:
The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the application of test flame causes the
vapours’ from the material to momentarily catch fire in the form of a flash under specified conditions of the test.
Fire Point:
The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the application of test flame causes the material to ignite and
burn at least for 5 seconds under specified conditions of the test.
Apparatus:
a) Pensky-Martens closed tester consist of cup, lid, stirrer device, shutter, flame exposure device.
b) Thermometer (0 – 350 C) – sensitivity – 0.1 C.
Procedure:
1. The material is filled in the cup up to a filling mark.
2. The lid is placed to close the cup in a closed system. All accessories
including thermometer of the specified range are suitably
fixed. The bitumen sample is then heated.
3. The test flame is lit and adjusted in such a way that the size of a bleed is of 4mm diameter. The heating is
done at the rate of 5 C to 6 C per minute.
36
4. The stirring is done at a rate of approximately 60 revolutions per minute.
5. The test flame is applied at intervals depending upon the expected flash and fire points. First application is
made at least 17 C below the actual flash point and then at every 1 C to 3 C.
6. The stirring is discontinued during the application of the test flame
7. The flash point is taken as the temperature read on the thermometer read on the thermometer at the time of
the flame application that causes a bright flash in the interior of the cup in closed system.
8. For open cup it is the instance when flash appears first at any point on the surface of the material.
9. The heating is continued until the volatiles ignite and the material continues to burn for 5 seconds. The
temperature of the sample material when this occurs is recorded as the fire point

For the given bitumen sample
Flash point =...........................
Fire point =...........................
Applications:
1. It is essential to know the flash point of bitumen, the temperature at which bitumen starts emitting vapours
is found to differ for different types of bitumen.
2. Flash point gives an identification of the critical temperature at which it catch fire.
Correct sampling is essential for consistent flash point results. Standardized procedures exist which must be
followed precisely otherwise partial degassing or complete loss of the ignitable vapours will occur by
evaporation. These vapour fractions are the ones with the lowest flash point.
Precautions:
1. The apparatus should be thoroughly dried. There should be no trace of moisture inside the cup.
2. The thermometer bulb should dip into the oil.
3. While applying the test flame, stirring should be continued.
4. Fill the sample of the lubricating oil up to the mark. There should be no oil on the outer part of the cup.
5. Avoid breathing over the surface of the oil.
References:
● IS 1209 – 1978, Methods For Testing Tar And Bituminous Materials: Determination Of Flash Point And
Fire Point
● ASTM D92 - 12b Standard Test Method for Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup Tester
● ASTM D1310 - 01(2007) Standard Test Method for Flash Point and Fire Point of Liquids by Tag Open-Cup
Apparatus.
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DEzyIiJe9ao
37
3.4 DUCTILITY TEST
Objective: To determine the ductility value of the given bitumen sample.
Background:
The ductility test gives a measure of adhesive property of bitumen and its ability to stretch. In flexible pavement
design, it is necessary that binder should form a thin ductile film around aggregates so that physical interlocking
of the aggregates is improved. Binder material having insufficient ductility gets cracked when subjected to
repeated traffic loads and it provides pervious pavement surface. Ductility of a bituminous material is measured
by the distance in centimeters to which it will elongate before breaking when two ends of standard briquette
specimen of material are pulled apart at a specified speed and specified temperature.
Apparatus:
(i) Briquette mould: It is made of brass. Circular holes are provided at ends called clips to grip the fixed and
movable ends of the testing machine. The mould when properly assembled form a briquette specimen of
following dimensions.
Total length 75.0 ± 0.5 mm
Distance between clips 30.0 ± 0.3mm

Width at mount of slip 20.0 ± 0.2mm
Width at minimum cross-section
(half way between clips) 10.0 ± 0.1mm
Thickness throughout 10.0 ± 0.1mm
(ii) Water bath: A bath maintained within 27.0° ±0.1 °C of the specified test temperature containing not less
than 10 litres of water, the specimen being submerged to a depth of not less than 10 cm and supported on a
perforated shell and less than 5 cm from the bottom of the bath.
(iii) Testing machine : For pulling the briquette of bituminous material apart, any apparatus may be used which
is so constructed that the specimen will be continuously submerged in water while the two clips are being pulled
apart horizontally at a uniform speed of 50 ± 2.5 mm per minute.
(iv) Thermometer. Range 0-44 °C and readable up to 0.2 °C
Procedure:
(i) Melt the bituminous test material completely at a temperature of 75 °C to 100 °C above the approximate
softening point until it becomes thoroughly fluid.
(ii) Strain the fluid through IS sieve 30.
(iii) After stirring the fluid, pour it in the mould assembly and place it on a brass plate. In order to prevent the
material under test from sticking, coat the surface of the plate and interior surfaces of the sides of the mould
with mercury or by a mixture of equal parts of glycerine and dextrine.
(iv) After about 30-40 minutes, keep the plate assembly along with the sample in a
water bath. Maintain the temperature of the water bath at 27 °C for half an hour.
(v) Remove the sample and mould assembly from the water bath and trim the specimen by levelling the surface
using a hot knife.
(vi) Replace the mould assembly in water bath for 80 to 90 minutes.
38
(vii) Remove the sides of the mould.
(viii)Hook the clips carefully on the machine without causing any initial strain.
(ix) Adjust the pointer to read zero.
(x) Start the machine and pull clips horizontally at a speed of 50 mm per minute.
(xi) Note the distance at which the bitumen thread of specimen breaks.
Precautions:
(i) The plate assembly upon which the mould is placed shall be perfectly flat and level so that the bottom
surface of the mould touches it throughout.
(ii) In filling the mould, care should be taken not to distort the briquette and to see that no air pocket is within
the moulded sample.
Ductility value of the first observation = ....cm
Ductility value of the second observation = ....cm
Ductility value of the third observation = ....cm
Ductility of bitumen = Mean of three observations rounded to nearest whole number is ductility value=
..........cm
Ductility value = ............. cm
If the thread in the test was sagging down i.e. the material has higher density than water so, we rise water
density by adding salt, and if the thread was floating i.e. it’s density less than water density so, we decrease
water density by adding Methyl-Alcohol.
The ductility value gets seriously affected if any of the following factors are varied:
i. Test temperature
ii. Pouring temperature
iii. Dimensions of briquette, particularly the cross section of the test sample at the minimum width which
should be 10x10mm
iv. Improper level of briquette placement or the stretched thread of the specimen touching the top or bottom
surface of the water bath during the test.
v. Rate of pulling
vi. Period of cooling
The ductility value of bitumen may vary from 5 to over 100. Several agencies have specified the minimum
ductility values for various types of bituminous pavement. Often a minimum ductility value of 50 or 75cm is
specified for bituminous construction. The ductility value is determined on residue from thin film oven tests and
the requirements for paving bitumen as per BIS are as follows:
Method of Test
Property VG10 VG20 VG30 VG40
Ref .No
Ductility at 25
C cm min. after
thin film oven 75 50 40 25 IS:1208-1978
test
Applications:
A certain minimum value of ductility value is considered essential for a bitumen binder for satisfactory
pavement performance. This is because of the temperature changes in the bituminous mixes and the repeated
deformations that occur in flexible pavements due to traffic loads. If the bitumen has low ductility value, the
bituminous pavement may crack especially in cold weather.
References:
● Highway Materials and Pavement Testing by S.K.Khanna, C.E.G.Justo and A.Veeraragavan
● IS: 1208-1978- Determination Of Ductility
● http://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/ductility-of-bitumen/2569/
● www.engineeringcivil.com/determining-the-ductility-of-bitumen.html
● civilqclab.blogspot.com/2011/02/ductility-test-is-1208-197
39
3.5 SOFTENING POINT TEST
Objective: To determine the softening point of the bitumen.
Background: All semi-solid state bitumen grades need sufficient fluidity before they are used for application
with the aggregate mix. For this purpose bitumen is sometimes cutback with a solvent like kerosene. The
common procedure however is to liquefy the bitumen by heating. Softening point is the temperature point at
which the bitumen becomes softening to use it to:
● Classify bitumen according to their susceptibility to heat.
● Classify bitumen according to their suitability to use in hot or cold regions.
● Check the uniformity of sources supplies.
● Indicate the tendency of bitumen to flow at elevated temperatures.
Ring and ball test is used for the determination of softening point. The apparatus and test procedure are
standardized by BIS. Harder grades of bitumen possess higher softening point than softer grades. . It is also an
indirect measure of viscosity or, rather, the temperature at which a given viscosity is evident. The softening
point value has particular significance for materials which are to be used as thick films, such as joint and crack
fillers and roofing materials. A high softening point ensures that they will not flow in service. For a bitumen of
a given penetration (determined at 25 C), the higher the softening point the lower the temperature sensitivity.
Apparatus:
1. Ring and Ball apparatus
a. Steel balls: Two steel balls each of diameter of 9.5 mm and weight 2.5 g ± 0.05 g
b. Brass rings: Two rings of depth 6.4 mm with inside top diameter 17.5 mm and bottom diameter 15.9
mm
c. Support: The metallic support is used for placing pairs of rings
d. Water bath should be a heat resistant glass vessel not less than 85 mm in diameter and 120 mm in depth
e. Thermometer: capable of reading temperature up to 250C
f. Bituminous materials
g. Stirrer: can be manual or mechanical to ensure uniform heat distribution at all times throughout water
bath
Apparatus for the bitumen Softening Point Test
Procedure:
1. Sample material is heated to a temperature between 75 and 100 C until it is completely fluid and is poured
in heated rings placed on a metal plate.
2. Solution of glycerine and dextrin can be coated to avoid the material sticking on to the metal plate.
3. After cooling the rings in air for 30 minutes, the excess bitumen is trimmed and rings are placed in the
support.
4. Temperature of water must be kept at 5 C. This temperature is maintained for 15 minutes after which the
balls are placed in position.
5. The temperature of water is raised at uniform rate of 5 C per minute until the bitumen softens and touches
the bottom plate by sinking of balls.
6. At least two observations should be made.
Precautions:
● The stirrer shall be so placed that the moulds are not disturbed when the stirrer is in operation.
● The prescribed rate of heating shall be rigidly adhered for ensuring accuracy of results.
● The rate of temperature rise shall not be averaged over the period of the test.
i. Bitumen grade =
40
ii. Approximate softening point =
iii. Liquid used in the bath =
iv. Period of air cooling, minutes =
v. Period of cooling in water bath, minutes =
vi. Temperature at the start of the test =
Test values observed:
Mean value,
Sampl Sample
Test property Softening
e No. 1 No. 2
point
Ball Ball
No. 1 No. 2
(i) (ii) (i) (ii)
Temperature (°C) at
which sample touches
the bottom plate
Repeatability
Reproducibility
Average of the temperatures of the two balls touching the bottom should be taken.
The temperature at the instant when each of the ball and sample touches the bottom plate of support is recorded
as softening value. The mean of duplicate determinations is noted. It is essential that the mean value of the
softening point (temperature) does not differ from individual observations by more than the following limits.
Softening Point Repeatability Reproducibility
40 °C to 60 °C 1.0 °C 5.5 °C
61 °C to 80 °C 1.5 °C 5.5 °C
81 °C to 100 °C 2.0 °C 5.5 °C
1. The softening point is another important test of bitumen bind and is effecting by change in temperature.
2. This test assures the engineer that the binder being test will have properties similar to this of another binder
that has already served successfully. Carefully control of testing temperature and change in temperature
must be 5C /minute and must be calibrated before making the test until to get the resultant more accuracy.
3. The water must be distilled without air voids or salts because air bubble may assemblages under the sample
during heating.
4. Impurity in water or glycerine has been observed to affect the result considerably.
5. Increase in distance between the ring and bottom plate indicates higher value of softening point.
Applications:
Softening point is essentially the temperature at which the bituminous binders have an equal viscosity. The
softening point of the tar is therefore related to the equi-viscous temperature (e.v.t). The softening point found
by the ring and ball apparatus is approximately 20C lower than e.v.t.
Softening point thus gives an idea of the temperature at which the bituminous material attains a certain
viscosity. Bitumen with higher softening point may be preferred in warmer place. Softening point is also
sometimes used to specify hard bitumen and pitches.
As per the Bureau of Indian Standards, the requirements of softening point for paving bitumen are as follows:
Paving Method of
Property
Grades test
Softening
VG 10 VG 20 VG 30 VG 40
point °C
IS 1205-
40 45 47 50
1978
References:
● IS: 1205-1978- softening point test (ring and ball apparatus)
● http://dc363.4shared.com/doc/0VK9VZsZ/preview.html
● transportationengineering2012onwards.blogspot.com/.../rings-and-balls-..
● www.scribd.com/doc/133512372/Softening-Point-of-Bitumen
41
3.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF BITUMEN
Objective:
To determine the specific gravity of given sample of bitumen.
Background:
The specific gravity of bitumen binder is a fundamental property frequently used as an aid to classify the
binders for use in paving jobs. in most applications, the bitumen is weighed, but finally in use with
aggregate system, the bitumen content is converted on volume basis. Thus accurate determination of
specific gravity value is required for conversion of weight to volume. The specific gravity is influenced by
the chemical composition of binder. Increase in aromatic type mineral impurities cause an increase in
specific gravity. The test procedure has been standardized by the BIS.
The specific gravity of bitumen is defined by BIS as the ratio of mass of given volume of bitumen of known
content to the mass of equal volume of water at 27o C ± 0.1oC. The specific gravity can be measured using
either pyknometer or preparing a cube specimen of bitumen in semi solid or solid state.
Apparatus:
There are two methods : (a) Pyknometer method (b) Balance method.
For pyknometer method, the apparatus are :
i. Specific gravity bottle of 50 ml capacity, ordinary capillary type with 6mm diameter neck or wide mouthed
capillary type bottle with 25 mm diameter neck can be used
ii. Distilled water
iii. Weighing balance having least count of 1g
iv. Bath Thermometer
For balance method :
i. An analytical balance equipped with a pan straddle
ii. Thermometer
iii. Thread - A length of fine, waxed, silk thread
iv. Brass Moulds - cubical, measuring approximately 20 mm on each edge
Figure 1 Specific gravity bottles
Figure 2: analytical balance equipped with pan straddle

Procedure:
Method 1 – Pyknometer Method:
1. The specific gravity bottle is cleaned, dried and weighed along with stopper.
2. It is then filled with fresh distilled water till top of it and this is then kept in water container for atleast half
an hour at temperature of 27o C ± 0.1oC.
3. The bottle is then removed and carefully dried from outside and it is then weighed.
4. The bituminous material is then heated to a pouring temperature and poured in the empty bottle.
5. In order to prevent air bubbles, the sample bottle is allowed to stand for half an hour at suitable temperature
of 27o C and weighed.
6. Half the bottle is filled with bituminous material.
7. The remaining space is filled with distilled water at 27o C and then weighed.
42
8. Then specific gravity of bitumen is determined.
Method 2 – Balance Method:
1. Test Specimen - The test specimen shall be a cube of the material measuring approximately 20 mm on each
edge.Tthe specimen is prepared by melting a small sample of the material by gentle application of heat,
taking care to prevent loss by evaporation, and pouring the material when sufficiently fluid into a 20 mm
brass cubical mould that has been treated with a 1 : 1 mixture of glycerine and dextrin and placed on a brass
plate previously so treated. Precautions should be taken to prevent the inclusion of air bubbles. The hot
material should be slightly more than that required to fill the mould, and when cool, the excess may be cut
off with a hot spatula. The specimen has to be removed from the mould when cooled to room temperature.
2. The balance is first tared with a piece of fine waxed silk thread sufficiently long to reach from the hook on
one of the pan supports to the rest.
3. The test specimen is attached to the thread, so as to be suspended about 25 mm above the straddle from the
hook on the pan support, and weighed to the nearest 0.1 mg.
4. The specimen still suspended by thread is weighed, and completely immersed in freshly boiled and cooled
distilled water at 27.0 ± 0.1°C, to the nearest 0.1 mg, adhering air bubbles being first removed with a fine
wire.
Precautions:
▪ It is necessary that all precautions are taken in making the specific gravity bottles thoroughly cleaned and
dried in the first weighing.
▪ The surface of the specific gravity bottle should be cleaned dry after filling with water, before weighing.
▪ The test temperature should be firmly adhered to.
▪ Inaccurate balance would never give reproducible results. .
Observation :
At least three measurements should be made for determining the value of the specific gravity
Result/calculation :
(a) PYKNOMETER METHOD
The specific gravity of the material is calculated as follows:
1) Specific gravity (solids and semisolids) = ( c-a )/[(b-a) – (d-c)]
2) Specific gravity (liquids) = ( e-a )/ ( b-a )
where
a = weight of the specific gravity bottle, g
b = weight of the specific gravity bottle filled with distilled water, g
c = weight of the specific gravity bottle about half filled with the material, g
d = weight of the specific gravity bottle about half filled with the material and the rest with distilled water,
g
e = weight of the specific gravity bottle completely filled with the material, g
(b) BALANCE METHOD
Specific gravity = f/( f-g)
where
f = weight of the dry specimen, g
g = weight of the specimen when immersed in distilled water, g
Discussion :
The pyknometer method determines the specific gravity for semisolid (at 27oC) bitumen road tars and
creosote and anthracene oil. The balance method of test is intended for the determination of the specific
gravity of all bituminous materials sufficiently solid to be handled in fragments. The specific gravity of
bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.02 for use in construction work which is free of any impurity.
Application :
A knowledge of the correct specific gravity of bituminous materials have mainly two applications. First, to
convert the specified bitumen content by weight to volume basis when the binder is measured by volume.
Here it is necessary to know the coefficient of expansion or the specific gravity values at different
temperatures.
Second, the specific gravity is useful to identify the source of a bituminous binder. In case the bitumen
contains mineral impurity, the specific gravity will be higher. Thus it is possible for a qualitative estimation
of mineral impurity in bitumen. The specific gravity of tar depends on the type of carbonisation process
used for their production. Vertical-retort tars have a specific gravity range 1.10 to 1.15 whereas horizontal-
retort and coke-oven tars have values in the range 1.18 to 1.25.
References :
1. Bureau of Indian Standards, Methods for Testing Tar and Bituminous Materials : Determination of
Specific Gravity. (First Revision) IS : 1202 – 1978
2. Road Research Laboratory. Bituminous Materials in Road Construction. H.M.S.O., London
3. Bureau of Indian Standards, IS : 73 - 2006
4. http://civilblog.org/2014/07/21/specific-gravity-test-on-bitumen/
43
3.7 ELASTIC RECOVERY TEST
Objective: To determine the elastic recovery of the given Bitumen sample
Background: The elastic recovery is a measure of the tensile properties of the polymer modified asphalt
residue of a polymer modified emulsified asphalt. The elastic recovery is measured by the percentage to which
the asphalt residue will recover its original length after it has been elongated to a specific distance at a specified
rate of speed and then cut in half. The distance to which the specimen contracts during a specified time is
measured and the elastic recovery is calculated
Apparatus:
1. Ductility Testing Machine
2. Thermometer
3. Scissor
4. Scale
Fig. 1 Ductility testing machine with briqutte mould
Procedure:
● After a thorough stirring, pour the sample into the mold. Allow the test specimen to cool to room
temperature for a period of 30 to 40 minutes.Place the mold, plate and test specimen in the water bath at
a temperature of 10⁰C for 30 minutes.
● After the 30 minutes, cut off excess bitumen with a hot straight edged putty knife or spatula to make the
mold just level full.
● Place the mold, plate and test specimen back in the water bath at 10⁰C for 85 to 95 minutes. Then
remove the test specimen from the plate, detach the side pieces and test the specimen immediately.
● Elongate the specimen to 10 cm at a rate of 5 cm/min. After elongation the testing machine is stopped
and the specimen is held in this stretched position for 5 minutes.
● At this time the specimen is cut in half with a pair of scissors or other suitable cutting device.
● The specimen is left undisturbed for one hour when the one half sample specimen is retracted until the
two broken ends touch. The new pointer reading is recorder in centimeters.
● While the test is being made, the water in the tank of the testing machine shall cover the specimen both
above and below by at least 2.5 cm and shall be kept continuously at 10⁰C+ 5⁰C
Length of the specimen after retouching D = cm
% elastic recovery = ( 10 – x/10 ) x 100
Where x = Final reading in cm after bringing the two broken ends together.
Results and conclusion:
References:
1 . ASTM D6084 – 06 “ standard test method for elastic recovery of bitumen material by
ductilometer”
2. ASTM Designation D113-86, Standard Test Method for Ductility of Bituminou Materials,
Volume 4.03
44
3.8 SHORT TERM AGING OF ASPHALT BINDER USING ROLLING THIN
FILM OVEN
Objective
To simulate the short-term aging of asphalt binders that occurs during the hot-mixing process and measure the
effect of heat and air on a moving film of semi-solid asphaltic materials.
Background
There are two widely used methods for subjecting asphalt binders to age hardening to simulate hot mix plant
and placement conditions. These methods are the thin film oven test (TFOT) (ASTM D1754, AASHTO T179)
and rolling thin film oven test (RTFOT) (ASTM D2872, AASHTO T240). The TFOT method originated in the
1940s and was adopted by AASHTO in 1959 and by ASTM in 1969. The RTFOT was proposed by the
California Department of Transportation in 1959, received ASTM approval in 1970, and accepted by AASHTO
in 1973. Both the TFOT and RTFOT are intended to simulate age hardening, which occurs in the pug mill of a
hot mix batch plant operated at a maximum temperature of 150°C.
The aging of bitumen is one of the principal factors causing the deterioration of asphalt concrete pavements.
The aging modes of failures includes fatigue, thermal induce cracks, and raveling. In practice the actual time for
short-term aging in construction sites varies and depends on hauling distances or paving delays. There are two
basic mechanisms involved in binder aging; these include an irreversible process like chemical changes of the
bitumen, consisting of oxidation of bitumen molecules, and loss of volatile components which subsequently has
an impact on the rheological properties of the binders. The reversible process is the second mechanism termed
as physical hardening; this involves the reorganization of the binder molecular structure, under specific
conditions. Bitumen aging can be attributed to some factors these include the binder characteristics and it
content in the mix, nature of aggregates and particle size distribution, air void content in the mix. Other factors
include production related parameters such as temperature and time. In this study the rolling thin film oven test
(RTFOT) was used to simulate short-term aging during asphalt mix production at the plant. The RTFOT
measures the effect of heat and air on a moving film of semi-solid asphaltic binder. The test temperature of
1630 C and time for the RTFO test is 85 min expected to produce aging effects comparable to average site
conditions.
This test can result in either a mass loss or a mass gain. During the test, volatile components evaporate, causing
a decrease in mass, while oxygen reacts with the sample, causing an increase
in mass. The combined effect determines whether the sample has an overall mass gain or an overall mass loss.
Samples with a very low percentage of volatile components usually will exhibit a mass gain, while samples with
a high percentage of volatile components usually will exhibit a mass loss.
Apparatus
 Rolling thin film oven (RTFO), with a flow meter and thermometer as specified in AASHTO T 240.
 Eight sample containers (RTFO bottles), as specified in AASHTO T 240.
 Balance, conforming to AASHTO M 231
 Spatula or other tool, sufficiently shaped to scrape material from the inside of the RTFO bottles.
 Sample dishes, tins, or cups, for collecting aged material at the end of the test.
Figure 1: Rolling thin film oven

45
Precautions
1. Heat resistant gloves should be used while performing the test to avoid accidents.
2. Glass jars are sensitive so they should be carefully handled
Procedure
1. The sample should be free from water
2. Heat sample to 150°C and ensure it is completely fluid
3. Pour 35 ± 0.5 g of the sample into each of the required glass containers
4. Rotate the container slowly for at least one full rotation, and attempt to pre-coat its cylindrical surface
5. Allow the glass sample containers to cool in the cooling rack for a minimum of 60 min, and a maximum of
180 min
6. Determine the mass of these containers using an analytical balance having a resolution of 0.001 g.
7. Set the airflow rate at 4000 ± 200 mL/min
8. Close the door and rotate the carriage assembly at a rate of 15 ± 0.2 r/min
9. Maintain the samples in the oven with the air flowing and the carriage rotating for 85 min
10. The test temperature of (163 ± 0.5°C) should be reached within the first 10 min; otherwise, discontinue the
test
11. After completion of test remove containers and place them on the cooling rack
12. Transfer its contents to a collection container having a capacity at least 30 % greater than the total expected
volume of residue
13. While the residue is being removed from each sample container, the oven door shall remain closed, with
the heater power on, the air on, and the remaining samples rotating in the carriage
14. Test the residue within 72 h of performing the RTFO test
Observations and calculations
Calculate the mass change of the sample as a percentage of the original mass
(( ) ( ))
Where:
M = mass change
B= initial mass
A = the final mass of bottle and asphalt
C = empty weight of bottle.
Results and discussion
1. Report the results from the RTFO test in terms of the physical changes in the asphalt brought about by
this method. These values are obtained by performing appropriate ASTM tests on the asphalt before and after
the RTFO test.
2. Mass change =………………
Applications
 Effect of heat and air on the rheological properties (complex shear modulus, phase angle) of aged and
unaged asphalt binder can be compared.
 Change in the viscosity of the binder due to environmental conditions can be assessed.
References
1. D 2872-04 Standard Test Method for Effect of Heat and Air on a Moving Film of Asphalt
2. ASTM Standards
2.1. D 113 Test Method for Ductility of Bituminous Materials
2.2. D 2171 Test Method for Viscosity of Asphalts by Vacuum Capillary Viscometer
2.3. E 1 Specification for ASTM Thermometers
2.4. E 644 Test Methods for Testing Industrial Resistance Thermometers
2.5. E 1137 Specification for Industrial Platinum Resistance Thermometers
46
3.9 LONG TERM AGING USING PRESSURE AGING VESSEL
Objective
To simulate the type of changes which occur in asphalt binders during in-service oxidative aging.
Background
The aging of asphalt binders during service is affected by ambient temperature and air pressure and by mixture
associated variables, such as the volumetric proportions of the mix, the permeability of the mix, properties of
the aggregates, and possibly other factors. This conditioning process is intended to provide an evaluation of the
relative resistance of different asphalt binders to oxidative aging at selected elevated aging temperatures and
pressures, but cannot account for mixture variables or provide the relative resistance to aging at in-service
conditions.
This practice is designed to simulate the type of in service oxidative aging that occurs in asphalt binders during
pavement service. Residue from this conditioning practice may be used to estimate the physical or chemical
properties of asphalt binders after several years of in-service aging in the field.
For asphalt binders of different grades or from different sources, there is no unique correlation between the
aging time and temperature in this conditioning practice and in-service pavement age and temperature.
Therefore, for a given set of in-service climatic conditions, it is not possible to select a single PAV aging time
and elevated temperature and pressure that will predict the properties or the relative rankings of the properties
of all asphalt binders after a specific set of in-service exposure conditions.
The relative degree of hardening of different asphalt binders varies with aging temperatures and pressures in the
PAV. Therefore, two asphalt binders may age at a similar rate at one condition of temperature and pressure, but
age differently at another condition. Hence, the relative rates of aging for a set of asphalts at PAV conditions
may differ significantly from the actual in-service relative rates at lower temperatures and pressures.
Apparatus
 Pressure vessel and ovens
 Pressure-controlling devices
 Temperature-controlling devices
 Pressure and temperature measuring devices
 Temperature and pressure recording system.
Figure 1: Schematic
of pressure aging
vessel test system
Figure 2: Schematic
Showing Location
of Pans and RTD
Within PAV
Precautions
Use standard
laboratory safety
procedures in handling the hot
asphalt binder when preparing
aging specimens and removing
the residue from the pressure
vessel. Use special precaution
when lifting the pressure
vessel.
47
Procedure
1. Place the pan holder inside the pressure vessel
2. Preheat the pressure vessel to the aging temperature i.e 90˚C or 100˚C or 110˚C
3. Condition the asphalt binder in accordance with Test Method D 2872 (RTFOT).
4. Hot residue from RTFOT is allowed to cool to room temperature before transferring to TFOT pan
5. Place the TFOT pan on a balance and add 50 ± 0.5 g mass of asphalt binder to the pan. This will yield
approximately a 3.2-mm thick film of asphalt binder
6. Place the filled pans in the pan holder
7. Place the pan holder with filled pans inside the pressure vessel and close the pressure vessel
8. Pressurize the vessel to 2.1 ± 0.1MPa after it achieves desired temperature and start timing the aging run
9. If the temperature inside the vessel has not reached the desired temperature for applying pressure within
2 h of loading the pan holder and pans, discontinue the procedure and discard the asphalt samples
10. Maintain the temperature and air pressure inside the pressure vessel for 20 h ± 10 min
11. At the end of the 20-h aging period, begin the slow reduction of the internal pressure of the PAV, using the
air pressure bleed valve
12. Remove the pan holder and pans from the PAV, and place the pans in an oven set to 168 ± 5°C for 15 ± 1
min
13. Preheat the vacuum oven to 170 ± 5°C
14. Remove the pans from the oven and scrape the hot residue from all pans into a single container
15. Container has to be placed in the vacuum degassing oven, maintain the temperature at 170 ± 5°C for 10 ± 1
min
16. Open the vacuum valve as rapidly as possible to reduce the pressure to 15 ± 2.5 kPa
17. Maintain the absolute pressure at 15 ± 2.5 kPa for 30 ± 1 min.
18. Release the vacuum and remove the container.
19. Remove bubbles by flashing the surface of the PAV residue with a torch or hot knife
Observations
1. Sample identification :
2. Aging temperature, nearest 0.5°C :
3. Maximum and minimum aging temperature recorded, nearest 0.1°C :
4. Total time during aging that temperature was outside the specified range, nearest minute :
5. Total aging time, hours and minutes :
6. The heating temperature and heating time if temperatures greater than 163°C are required at any time
during the handling of the material:
Applications
1. Effect of heat and air on the rheological properties (complex shear modulus, phase angle) of aged and
unaged asphalt binder can be compared.
2. Change in the viscosity of the binder due to environmental conditions can be assessed.
References
 D 6521 – 05 Standard Practice for Accelerated Aging of Asphalt Binder Using a Pressurized Aging
Vessel (PAV)
 ASTM Standards
D 8 Terminology Relating to Materials for Roads and Pavements
D 1754 Test Method for Effect of Heat and Air on Asphaltic Materials (Thin-Film Oven Test)
D 2872 Test Method for Effect of Heat and Air on a Moving Film of Asphalt (Rolling Thin-Film
Oven Test)
D 4753 Guide for Evaluating, Selecting and Specifying Balances and Standard Masses for Use in
Soil, Rock and Construction Materials Testing
D 6373 Specification for Performance Graded Asphalt Binder
E 1137/E 1137M Specification for Industrial Platinum Resistance Thermometers
 AASHTO Standards
3.1. M 320 Specification for Performance-Graded Asphalt Binder
3.2. MP 1a Specification for Performance-Graded Asphalt Binder
4. CGA Standards
4.1. CGA G-7.1–1997 Commodity Specification for Air, Fourth Edition
48
3.10 DETERMINATION OF COMPLEX MODULUS AND PHASE ANGLE USING DYNAMIC
SHEAR RHEOMETER
Objective:
To determine complex modulus and phase angle using Dynamic shear rheometer.
Background:
The DSR measures a specimen’s complex shear modulus (G*) and phase angle (δ). The complex shear modulus (G*) can
be considered the sample’s total resistance to deformation when repeatedly sheared, while the phase angle (δ), is the lag
between the applied shear stress and the resulting shear strain (Figure 5). The larger the phase angle (δ), the more viscous
the material. Phase angle (δ) limiting values are:
Purely elastic material: δ = 0 degrees Purely viscous material: δ = 90 degrees
The specified DSR oscillation rate of 10 radians/second (1.59 Hz) is meant to simulate the shearing action corresponding
to a traffic speed of about 55 mph (90 km/hr).
DSR Superpave Specification Logic
G* and δ are used as predictors of HMA rutting and fatigue cracking. Early in pavement life rutting is the main concern,
while later in pavement life fatigue cracking becomes the major concern.
Rutting Prevention
In order to resist rutting, an asphalt binder should be stiff (it should not deform too much) and it should be elastic (it
should be able to return to its original shape after load deformation). Therefore, the complex shear modulus elastic
portion, G*/sinδ, should be large.
Fig 2: Complex modulus

Therefore, in order to minimize rutting, the amount of work dissipated per loading cycle should be minimized. The work
dissipated per loading cycle at a constant stress can be expressed as:
Where:
Wc = work dissipated per load cycle σ = stress applied during load cycle G* = complex modulus δ = phase angle
In order to minimize the work dissipated per loading cycle, the parameter G*/sinδ should be maximized. Therefore,
minimum values for G*/sinδ for the DSR tests conducted on unaged asphalt binder and RTFO aged asphalt binder are
specified.
Fatigue Cracking Prevention
In order to minimize fatigue cracking the amount of work dissipated per loading cycle should be minimized. The work
dissipated per loading cycle at a constant strain can be expressed as:
Where:
Wc = work dissipated per load cycle ε0 = strain during load cycle G* = complex modulus δ = phase angle
This relationship between G*sinδ and fatigue cracking is more tenuous than the rutting relationship.
In order to minimize the work dissipated per loading cycle, the parameter G*sinδ should be minimized. Therefore,
maximum values for G*sinδ for the DSR tests conducted on PAV aged asphalt binder are specified.
Test Description
The following description is a brief summary of the test. It is not a complete procedure and should not be used to perform
the test. The complete test procedure can be found in:
● AASHTO T 315: Determining the Rheological Properties of Asphalt Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer
(DSR)
Summary
A small sample of asphalt binder is sandwiched between two plates. Test temperatures greater than 115°F (46°C) use a
sample 0.04 inches (1 mm) thick and 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter, while test temperatures between 39°F and 104°F (4°C
and 40°C) use a sample 0.08 inches (2 mm) thick and 0.315 inches (8 mm) in diameter. The test specimen is kept at near
constant temperature by heating and cooling a surrounding environmental chamber. The top plate oscillates at 10 rad/sec
(1.59 Hz) in a sinusoidal waveform while the equipment measures the maximum applied stress, the resulting maximum
strain, and the time lag between them. The software then automatically calculates the complex modulus (G*) and phase
angle (δ). Much of the procedure is automated by the test software.
Approximate Test Time 1 to 2 hours depending upon the number of test temperatures needed.
Apparatus:
Dynamic shear rheometer, plates, silicon mold, trimming tool.
Procedure:
49
1. Heat the asphalt binder from which the test specimens are to be selected until the binder is sufficiently fluid to
pour the test.
2. Select the testing temperature according to the asphalt binder grade or testing schedule. Heat the DSR to the test
temperature. This preheats the the upper and lower plates, which allows the specimen to adhere to them.
3. Place the asphalt binder sample between the test plates.
4. Move the test plates together until the gap between them equals the test gap plus 0.002 inches (0.05 mm).
5. Trim the specimen around the edge of the test plates using a heated trimming tool.
6. Move the test plates together to the desired testing gap. This creates a slight bulge in the asphalt binder
specimen’s perimeter.
7. Bring the specimen to the test temperature. Start the test only after the specimen has been at the desired
temperature for at least 10 minutes.
8. The DSR software determines a target torque at which to rotate the upper plate based on the material being tested
(e.g., unaged binder, RTFO residue or PAV residue). This torque is chosen to ensure that measurements are
within the specimen’s region of linear behavior.
9. The DSR conditions the specimen for 10 cycles at a frequency of 10 rad/sec (1.59 Hz).
10. The DSR takes test measurements over the next 10 cycles and then the software reduces the data to produce a
value for complex modulus (G*) and phase angle (δ).
Precautions:
1. Cold asphalt binder can develop reversible molecular associations that cause it to stiffen (called “steric
hardening”). Without heating, steric hardening can result in overestimating the complex modulus by as much as
50 percent (AASHTO, 2000c).
2. The calculated complex modulus (G*) is proportional to the fourth power of the asphalt binder specimen radius,
therefore careful trimming will insure more reliable measurements (AASHTO, 2000c).
3. Movement of the test plates at 10rad/sec is so small that you should not be able to easily see it. If movement is
obvious, the bond between the asphalt binder sample and the test plates may have broken.
4. Testing should be done as quickly as possible to minimize the effect of steric hardening that occurs during the
test. Steric hardening can cause an increase in complex modulus (G*) if the specimen is kept in the DSR for a
prolonged period of time.
Application:
The dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) is used to characterize the viscous and elastic behavior of asphalt binders at medium
to high temperatures. This characterization is used in the Superpave PG asphalt binder specification. As with other
Superpave binder tests, the actual temperatures anticipated in the area where the asphalt binder will be placed determine
the test temperatures used.
Observation and calculation:
Calculations (see Interactive equation)
DSR software performs the necessary calculations automatically. The DSR software uses the following equations:
Where:
τmax = maximum applied stress γmax = maximum resultant strain T = maximum applied torque r = specimen radius (either 4
or 12.5 mm) θ = deflection (rotation) angle (in radians) h = specimen height (either 1 or 2 mm)
Then, the complex modulus (G*) and phase angle (d) are determined by:
δ = time lag between occurrence of τmax and γmax

The phase angle cannot be less than 0° or greater than 90°. The time lag can be measured in seconds and then converted to
an angular measurement by dividing it by the oscillation frequency and then multiplying by 360° (or 2π radians).
Results and discussions:
Parameters Measured
1. Complex modulus (G*)
2. Phase angle (δ)
CONCLUSION:
The basic DSR test uses a thin asphalt binder sample sandwiched between two circular plates. The lower plate is fixed
while the upper plate oscillates back and forth across the sample at 10 rad/sec (1.59 Hz) to create a shearing action. DSR
tests are conducted on unaged, RTFO aged and PAV aged asphalt binder samples. The test is largely software controlled.
Comment:
Reference:
● AASHTO T 315: Determining the Rheological Properties of Asphalt Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer
(DSR)
● American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). (2000c). AASHTO Provisional
Standards, April 2000 Edition.
● “http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/dynamic-shear-rheometer/ “-Accessed on 09-11-2014
50
3.11 ROTATIONAL VISCOMETER
Objective: To determine the viscosity of asphalt binders in the high temperature range of manufacturing and
construction using rotational viscometer.
Background:
The RV test helps ensure that the asphalt binder is sufficiently fluid for pumping and mixing (Roberts et al.,
1996[1]). The basic RV test measures the torque required to maintain a constant rotational speed (20 RPM) of a
cylindrical spindle while submerged in an asphalt binder at a constant temperature. This torque is then
converted to a viscosity and displayed automatically by the RV.
The viscosity of asphalt binder at high manufacturing and construction temperatures (generally above 275°F
(135°C)) is important because it can control the following:
1. Pumpability: The ability of the asphalt binder to be pumped between storage facilities and into the HMA
manufacturing plant.
2. Mixability: The ability of the asphalt binder to be properly mixed with and to coat aggregate and other
HMA constituents in the HMA manufacturing plant.
3. Workability: The ability of the resultant HMA to be placed and compacted with reasonable effort.
The RV gives a rapid and reproducible measurement of high temperature viscosity which correlates closely
with the more traditional, but time-consuming, glass capillary viscometer method.
The rotational viscometer senses torque required to rotate a spindle at constant speed while immersed in the
sample fluid. Dynamic viscosity is proportional to this measured torque.
The standard RV is quite common in chemical and food industries for measuring the viscosity of non-
Newtonian fluids.
Typical uses include:
• characterization of margarine and table spread melting
• candy coating viscosities
• mixing and storage stability of paints
• food formulation quality control checks
• characterizing sol to gel transitions in gelatins
Apparatus:
1. Rotational viscometer
2. Spindles
3. Thermo cell (thermo container)
4. Temperature controller (380C to 2600C)
5. Extracting tool, sample chamber with holder
6. Balance
Theory:
Viscosity is defined as the ratio between the applied shear and induced shear rate of a fluid. the relationship
between shear stress, shear rate and viscosity can be expressed as
Shear rate = (1/sec)
The unit will be in units of Pascal -second. The lower the viscosity of asphalt the faster the asphalt will flow.
Apparent viscosity: The ratio of shear stress to shear rate for Newtonian or non-Newtonian liquid.
Newtonian liquid: A liquid for which the rate of shear is proportional to the shearing stress. The viscosity of a
Newtonian liquid is independent of its shear stress versus shear rate will therefore be a straight line slope with η
for a Newtonian fluid
The viscosity curve which is a plot of viscosity vs shear rate, will show a straight line at a constant value equal
to η
Non - Newtonian liquid: Materials which cannot be defined by a single viscosity at a specified temperature If
shear rate is changed, viscosity also changes.
Non Newtonian materials that are time independent are defined as
- shear thinning ( pseudo plastic)
51
- shear thickening ( dilatant)
Non - Newtonian materials that are time dependent are defined as
- thixotropic
- anti-thixotropic (rheoplastic)
Shear Thinning: Viscosity of shear thinning fluid decreases with increasing shear rate
eg. Creams, juice concentrations, shampoo
Shear Thickening: Viscosity of Shear thickening fluid increase with increasing shear rates
Thixotropic flow behavior: It is a shear thickening system where the viscosity decreases not only with the
increasing shear rate but also with the time at a constant rate.
Anti-thixotropic behavior: A shear thinning system, one where the viscosity decreases with increasing shear
rate, but increases with time at constant shear rate.
Procedure:
1. Preheat spindle, sample chamber, and viscometer environmental chamber (Thermosel) to 275°F
(135°C).
2. Heat unaged asphalt binder until fluid enough to pour. Stir the sample, being careful not to entrap air
bubbles.
3. Pour appropriate amount of asphalt binder into sample chamber. The sample size varies according to
the selected spindle and equipment manufacturer.
4. Insert sample chamber into RV temperature controller unit and carefully lower spindle into sample.
5. Bring sample to the desired test temperature (typically 275°F (135°C)) within approximately 30
minutes and allow it to equilibrate at test temperature for 10 minutes.
6. Rotate spindle at 20 RPM, making sure the percent torque as indicated by the RV readout remains
between 2 and 98 percent.
7. Once the sample has reached temperature and equilibrated, take 3 viscosity readings from RV display,
allowing 1 minute between each reading. Viscosity is reported as the average of 3 readings.
Graphs:
1. shear rate vs shear stress
2. shear rate vs viscosity
3. time vs shear rate
4. shear stress vs viscosity
Result: The various nature of bitumen of different temperatures and shear rate were analyzed carefully and
appropriate figures were plotted to depict the same.
Conclusion:
Applications:
1. Applications on bitumen mix design, workability and pump ability of bitumen.
2. Used in viscosity grading (bitumen grading)
Advantages:
• Can measure viscosities of opaque, settling, or non-Newtonian fluids
• Useful for characterizing shear-thinning and time-dependent behavior
• Speed of the rotating part easily adjusted
• Often linked to computers for semi-automated measurement
Disadvantages:
• Can be relatively expensive
• Often large and not portable
References:
• ASTM D 4402: Viscosity Determination of Asphalt Binder Using Rotational Viscometer.
• AASHTO T 316
• Brookfield thermal accessory manual.
• http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/rotational-viscometer/ (7/11/2014 11:50 pm)
• http://encyclopedia.che.engin.umich.edu/pages/processparameters/viscometers/viscometers.html
(8/11/2014 12:20 am)
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=agcyxbaspzc
52
4. TESTS ON BITUMINOUS MIXTURES
53
4.1 Bituminous Mix Design using Marshall Stability Test
Objective: To determine optimum binder content required for the given bituminous mix using Marshall Method.
Background: Bituminous mixes (sometimes called asphalt mixes) are used in the surface layer of road and airfield
pavements. The mix is composed usually of aggregate and asphalt cements. Some types of bituminous mixes are also used
in base course. The design of asphalt paving mix, as with the design of other engineering materials is largely a matter of
selecting and proportioning consistuent materials to obtain the desired properties in the finished pavement structure.
The desirable properties of asphalt mixes are:
1. Resistance to permanent deformation: the mix should not distort or be displaced when subjected to traffic loads to
traffic loads. The resistance to permanent deformation is more important at high temperatures.
2. Fatigue resistance: the mix should not crack when subjected to repeated loads over a period of time.
3. Resistance to low temperature cracking: this mix property is important in cold regions.
4. Durability: the mix should contain sufficient asphalt cement to ensure an adequate film thickness around the
aggregate particles. The compacted mix should not have very high air voids, which accelerates the aging process.
5. Resistance to moisture-induced damage.
6. Skid resistance.
7. Workability: the mix must be capable of being placed and compacted with reasonable effort.
8. Low noise and good drainage properties: if the mix is to be used for the surface (wearing) layer of the pavement
structure.
Apparatus:
1. Mould assembly:
a. Cylindrical Mould of 10 cm diameter and 7.5 cm height consisting of a base plate and collar extension.
b. Compaction hammer with a flat circular plate of 98.4 mm and a hammer of weight of 4.5 kg which can be
lifted and freely released to obtain 45.7 cm drop.
c. Compaction pedestal and mould holder consisting of a wooden block capped with a steel plate to hold the
mould assembly during compaction.
2. Sample extractor: Suitably fitted with a jack and compression machine, for extruding the compacted specimen from
the mould.
3. Breaking head: consists of upper and lower cylindrical segments of test heads with an inside radius curvature of
51mm. the lower segment is mounted on a base having two vertical guide rods which facilitate the insertion in the
holes of upper test head.
4. Loading machine: consists of motorized loading unit, provided with a gear system.
5. A calibrated proving ring of 510 capacity is used with a dial gauge.
6. Strain controlled loading machine produces a moment of the base plate at the rate of 51 mm/min.
7. Thermostatically controlled oven and Water bath, hot plate, thermometers and mixing devices.
Procedure:
In this method, the resistance to plastic deformation of a compacted cylindrical specimen of bituminous mixture is
measured when the specimen is loaded diametrically at a deformation rate of 51 mm per minute. There are two major
features of the Marshall method of mix design. (i) density-void analysis and (ii) stability-flow tests. The Marshall stability
of the mix is defined as the maximum load carried by the specimen at a standard test temperature of 60 °C. The flow value
is the deformation that the test specimen undergoes during loading up to the maximum load. Flow is measured in 0.25 mm
units. In this test, is made to obtain optimum binder content for the type of aggregate mix used and the expected traffic
intensity.
1. Select aggregate grading to be used.
2. Determine the proportion of each aggregate size required to produce the design grading.
3. Determine the specific gravity of the aggregate combination and asphalt cement.
4. Prepare the trial specimens with varying asphalt contents.
5. Determine the specific gravity of each compacted specimen.
6. Perform stability tests on the specimens.
7. Calculate the percentage of voids, and percent voids filled with bitumen in each specimen.
8. Select the optimum binder content from the data obtained.
9. Evaluate the design with the design requirements.
1) Selection of aggregate:
1. The aggregates must meet all the requirements as specified by the local highway agency. These requirements
typically include limits on L.A. abrasion loss, soundness loss, sand equivalent, percent of deleterious substance,
percent of natural sand, percent of particles with crushed faces, and percent of flat or elongated particles.
2. The gradation of the aggregate blend to be used must meet the gradation requirements as per the specifications of
surface courses as set by the local highway agency. The specifications for bituminous concrete (BC) surface
course as per Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MORTH), Govt. of India are presented below.
3. The aggregates are sieved according to the gradation and are proportioned by calculating the weights required for
the preparation of the Marshall bituminous mix sample.
2) Selection of binder:
The binder must meet the specification requirements as set by the local highway agency.
3) Preparation of test specimens:
1. In the first attempt, approximately 1200 g of the blended aggregates is taken and heated to a temperature of 175ºC
to 190ºC. The compaction mould assembly and rammer are kept preheated to temperature of 95ºC to 150ºC.
2. Five different binder contents with three samples per binder content are taken and the binder contents are selected
at 0.5% increments with at least two binder contents above the estimated optimum and at least two below it.
54
3. Binder is heated to a temperature of 120ºC to 165ºC (depending upon the type and grade of binder used).
4. The weighed quantity of bitumen (as per the percentage binder by weight of total mineral aggregates in the mix)
and heated aggregates are mixed thoroughly at specified mixing temperature as per the grade of the binder. (VG-
10: 154 ºC and for VG-30: 160 ºC).
5. After mixing the bituminous mix may be slightly cool down to recommended temperatures. (VG-10: 138 ºC and
for VG-30: 149 ºC).
6. The mix is placed in treated mould assembly and compacted as specified below
Compaction of the asphalt mixtures:
1. The asphalt mixture is compacted in a 101.6-mm (4-inch) diameter cylindrical mould by a Marshall Compaction
hammer, which is 4.5 kg (10 pounds) in weight and dropped from a height of 457 mm (18 inches) for a specified
number of blows per side of the specimen.
Data sheet (observation table)
Description Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
Bitumen content, %
Height of specimen,
cm
Weight in air, g
Weight in water, g
Volume of voids, %
Unit weight (Gb)
Theoretical s.g. (Gt)

Vb (%)
VMA (%)
VFB(%)
Stability (Kg)
Flow value (mm)
Determination of Bulk specific gravity:

After demoulding the samples, the average thickness of the sample is calculated from the three thickness readings for the
same sample. The weights of the samples in air (Wm) and water (Ww) are measured in grams from which bulk density
and bulk specific gravity (g/cc) of samples are calculated using the formula shown below.
Computation of volumetric properties of the specimens:

Using the bulk specific gravity of the specimen, the maximum specific gravity of the mixture and the bulk specific gravity
of the aggregate, the air voids and VMA of the specimen are determined.
Phase diagram of bituminous mix

Theoretical specific gravity of the mix (Gt)
Theoretical specific gravity of the mix (Gt) is the specific gravity of the mix without considering air voids, and is given by
55
where, W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix (g), W2 is the weight of fine aggregate in the total mix, W3 is
the weight of filler in the total mix (g), Wb is the weight of bitumen in the total mix (g), G1 is the apparent specific
gravity of coarse aggregate (g/cc), G2 is the apparent specific gravity of the aggregate (g/cc), G3 is the apparent specific
gravity of filler (g/cc) and Gb is the apparent specific gravity of bitumen (g/cc).
Air voids percent (Vv)
Air voids Vv is the percent of air voids by volume in the specimen and is given by
where Gt is the theoretical specific gravity of the mix, and Gm is the bulk or actual specific gravity of the mix given by
equation
Percent volume of bitumen (Vb)
The volume of bitumen Vb is the percent of volume of bitumen to the total volume and given by
𝑮𝒎
𝑮𝒃
∗ 𝑾𝒃𝒊
Where Wbi is the percentage by weight of bitumen in the total mix, Gb is the apparent specific gravity of bitumen, and
Gm is the bulk specific gravity of mix.
Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA)
Voids in mineral aggregate VMA is the volume of voids in the aggregates, and is the sum of air voids and volume of
bitumen, and is calculated from
where, Vv is the percent air voids in the mix, and Vb is percent bitumen content in the mix.
Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB)
Voids filled with bitumen V FB is the voids in the mineral aggregate frame work filled with the bitumen, and is calculated
as
where, Vb is percent bitumen content in the mix, and VMA is the percent voids in the mineral aggregate.
Correction factors for Marshall stability values
Volume of specimen(cm3) Thickness of specimen(mm) Correction factor
457 - 470 57.1 1.19
471 - 482 68.7 1.14
483-495 60.3 1.09
496-508 61.9 1.04
509-522 63.5 1.00
523-535 65.1 0.96
536-546 66.7 0.93
547-559 68.3 0.89
560-573 69.9 0.86
Determination of design binder content:

The graphs are plotted with bitumen content in X axis and (i) Bulk specific gravity (Gb) (ii) Marshall stability (iii) flow
value (iv) air voids (v) VFB and (vi) VMA on Y axis as shown in the figure below.
Individual values of optimum bitumen contents are obtained considering and (i) Maximum Bulk specific gravity (G b) (ii)
Maximum Marshall stability (iii) Mid-range of recommended flow value and (iv) Mid-range of recommended voids
content.
Considering the different values of optimum binder contents determined as above, a suitable design bitumen content is
selected within the range of optimum values mentioned above. Corresponding to the selected value of design bitumen
content, the values of Marshal stability, flow, and air voids in the mix are noted from the graphs and are checked to find if
they fulfill the specified mix design criteria.
Optimum binder content obtained (%) =
At this binder content,
Air Voids Vv (%) =
Marshall Stability in Kg =
Marshall flow value in mm =
Bulk specific gravity (g/cc) =
VMA (%) =
VFB (%) =
Applications:
The Marshall Test application involves determining the optimum binder content in the design of flexible pavements.
Merits and Limitations of the Marshall Mix Design Method:
56
The Marshall Mix design method is simple and inexpensive to use. Due to its widespread use throughout the world, a lot
of experience has been gained in the use of this method. Results of the Marshall Stability test are somewhat related the
performance of the asphalt mixture. The Marshall stability is related to the tensile strength, while a high Marshall flow is
related to low resistance to rutting of the asphalt mixture.
The disadvantage of the Marshall mix design method is that the aggregate orientation in the compacted Marshall
specimens is not representative of that in the field-compacted mixtures. The aggregates in the Marshall compacted
specimens tend to get crushed at high compactive levels.
References:
 Highway Materials and Pavement Testing by Dr. S. K. Khanna, Dr. C. E. G. Justo and Dr. A. Veeraragavan.
 Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Specifications for Road and Bridge works, Fifth revision, Indian Road
congress, New Delhi.
 www.cdeep.iitb.ac.in/nptel/Civil%20Engineering/nptel_ceTEI_L26.pdf
 http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/marshall-mix-design
57
4.2 Stripping Value of Aggregates
Objective: To determine the retained coating of bitumen over aggregates for the given gradation of bituminous
mix.
Background:
Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of aggregates provided they are dry and are not exceptionally dusty.
The process of binding is controlled largely by the viscosity of the binder. In the absence of water there is
practically no adhesion problem in bituminous road construction. Two problems are observed due to the
presence of water. First if aggregate is wet and cold, it is normally not possible to coat with a bituminous
binder. This problem can be dealt with by removing the water film on the aggregate by drying, and by
increasing the mixing temperature. Second problem is stripping of coated binder from the aggregate due to the
presence of water. This problem of stripping is generally experienced only with bituminous mixtures which are
permeable to water.
The stripping is due to the fact that those aggregates have greater affinity towards water than with bituminous
binders, and this displacement depends on the physico-chemical forces acting on the system. Most road stones
have surfaces that are electrically charged. As an example, silica, a common constituent of igneous rocks
possesses a weak negative charge and hence these have a greater attraction with the polar liquid water than with
bituminous binders having little polar activity.
In order to study the suitability of a road aggregate for bituminous road construction, it is desirable to study the
displacement characteristics of the binders from the aggregates, by water. Several laboratory tests have been
developed to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bituminous binder to an aggregate in the presence of water.
These tests may be classified into six types: (i) static immersion tests, (ii) dynamic immersion tests, (iii)
chemical immersion tests, (iv) immersion mechanical tests, (v) immersion trafficking tests, and (vi) coating
tests.
The static immersion test is very commonly used as it is quite easy and simple. The principle of this type of test
is by immersing aggregate coated with the binder in water, and estimating the degree of stripping.
The stripping value of aggregates is determined as the ratio of the uncovered area observed visually to the total
area of aggregates, expressed as a percentage.
Apparatus:
 Thermostatically controlled drying ovens capable of maintaining constant temperature between ambient
and 150 °C.
 Heat resistant glass beaker of 500 ml capacity.
 20 mm and 12.5mm IS sieves.
 Balance of capacity 1kg and sensitivity 0.1g.
 Mixing pan and spatula.
Procedure:
 Take 200 g of dry and clean aggregates passing 20mm and retained on 12.5 mm sieves and heat up to
150 C.
 Take five percent by weight of bitumen binder and heat up to 160 C.
 Mix the aggregates and the binder till they are completely coated and transfer the mixture in to a 500ml
beaker and allow to cool at room temperature for about 2 hours.
 Add distilled water to immerse the coated aggregates.
 Cover the beaker and keep in a water bath maintained at 40 C taking care that the level of water in the
water bath is at least half the height of the beaker.
 After 24 hours take the beaker out, cool at room temperature and estimate the extent of stripping visually
while the specimen is still under the water.

Determination No
Type of binder
% binder used
Total weight of aggregates
Total weight of binder
Temperature of water bath
Stripping value,%
Mean stripping value,%
58
Precautions:
 Care shall be taken while mixing aggregates with bitumen.

Percentage of stone surface that remains coated after the specified periods, the mean value of at least three
visually estimated values being rounded off to the nearest 5 percent.
Stripping value of aggregates is: _______________
The visual assessment of stripping leads to poor reproducibility. But still the test gives an idea of how a mixture
of aggregate and binder may behave in presence of water. Test results are not always reliable as far as field
performance is concerned.
Attempts have been made to improve the test by adopting other methods of assessing the degree of stripping.
One of the approaches is by measuring the quantity of light reflected by the sample of coated aggregates before
and after immersion in water. The degree of stripping may also be mechanically measured indirectly by
measuring the change in a mechanical property like compressive strength. The reduction in strength gives an
indication of the extent of damage by water that has occurred.
Applications:
Some types of aggregates have lesser affinity with bitumen than with water and hence stripping of the
bituminous binder occurs when bituminous mix is kept immersed in water. The problem of stripping coated
aggregates is not so amenable to theoretical treatment. Thus the adhesion test such as simple static immersion
test or the stripping test would be suitable to assess whether the binder would adhere to aggregate when
immersed in water. Several anti-stripping agents are available, which when used with the bituminous mix could
reduce the stripping.
Indian Road Congress (IRC) and MORTH have specified the allowable limits of stripping test values for the
aggregates to be used in bituminous road construction. IRC has specified the maximum stripping value as 25%
for aggregates to be used in bituminous construction like surface dressing, bituminous macadam and bitumen
mastic. The maximum stripping value suggested by IRC is 10% for aggregates used in open graded premix
carpet. If the stripping value exceeds the specified value, use of anti-stripping agents like lime is recommended.
References:
 Bureau of Indian Standards, Indian Standard Method for Determination of Stripping Value of Road
Aggregates, IS: 6241-1971(Reaffirmed 1998).
 Road Research Laboratory, Bituminous Materials in Road Construction, DSIR HMSO Publication,
London
 Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Specifications for Road and Bridge Works, Fourth Revision,
Indian Road Congress, New Delhi
 Indian Road Congress, Tentative Specification for Bituminous Surface Dressing, IRC: 17,23,48
 Indian Road Congress, Tentative Specification for Bituminous Macadam(Base & Binder Course), IRC: 27
 Indian Road Congress, Recommended Practice for Open Graded Premix Carpet, IRC : 14-2004(Third
Revision)
59
4.3 DETERMINATION OF BULK SPECIFIC GRAVITY (GMB) AND MAXIMUM
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (GMM) USING CORELOK
Objective:
To determine the Bulk Specific Gravity (Gmb) of Compacted Asphalt Specimens and Maximum Specific gravity (Gmm)
of Loose Asphalt mixes using CoreLok
Background:
In physics, the word specific implies a ratio. Weight is the measure of the earth’s attraction for a body and is defined as
gravity. Thus, the ratio of the weight of a substance to the weight of an equal volume of a standard substance, measured
under standard pressure and temperature conditions, is called specific gravity
Several types of specific gravity exist with the most commonly used in asphalt mix design being Bulk Specific Gravity
and Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity.
Bulk specific gravity of compacted Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) specimens is the ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of
a compacted specimen of HMA (including permeable voids) at a standard temperature to the weight of an equal volume of
water at a stated temperature. The value is used to determine the weight per unit volume of the compacted mixture.
Where,
WD = Dry weight, grams
WSSD = Saturated Surface Dry (SSD) weight, grams
WSub = Saturated surface dry weight submerged in water, grams
Theoretical maximum specific gravity, Gmm, is the ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of uncompacted bituminous
paving mixture at a stated temperature to the weight of an equal amount of water at a stated temperature. It is also called
Rice Specific Gravity (after James Rice who developed the test procedure). The theoretical maximum specific gravity
(Gmm) of bituminous paving mixture is equal to:
Where
WD = Dry Weight, grams
WCon = Weight of container submerged in water, grams
WSub = Weight of container with sample submerged in water, grams.
Increase in the use of coarse and open graded mixes has created a need for more reliable and accurate method of bulk
specific gravity measurement of laboratory and field specimens. Open graded mixes readily absorb water and drain
quickly when removed from the water tank. The lack of control over the penetration and drainage of water in and out of
asphalt samples creates a fundamental problem with the water displacement measurement using the current principles for
determination of specific gravity.
The most efficient and accurate method of correcting for this problem is to seal the samples prior to testing in water. The
new system explained in this manual provides an advanced and automatic solution to sealing asphalt samples. The
CoreLok system is a vacuum chamber that is used with specially designed polymer bags to completely seal field and
laboratory asphalt samples from water during the bulk specific gravity measurements.
The CoreLok is a versatile density system with many different applications. This device can be used for determination of
bulk gravity of compacted asphalt samples (ASTM D6752 & AASHTO T331), maximum gravity of loose asphalt samples
(ASTM D6857), porosity or permeability of compacted field or laboratory samples (ASTM D7063), and gravity and
absorption of fine and coarse aggregates (ASTM D7370)
Apparatus:
1. Water Tank (24” x 18” x 18”)
2. .Over Flow Container
3. CoreLok
4. Hanging Basket
5. Core Edge Breaker
6. Scissors
7. Sliding Plate
8. Small Sample Bags (10” x 14”)
9. Channel Bags for Gmm Testing
10. Large Sample Bags (15” x 18”)
11. Hanging Rod
12. Filler Plates
Procedure:
A. Installation of the Gravity Suite Software:
Gravity Suite from InstroTek is provided with each CoreLok. This package will allow you to enter information necessary
to automatically calculate bulk specific gravity with the CoreGravity software, maximum (apparent) specific gravity with
MaxGravity software.
1. Install the GravitySuite package on Windows 95 or a higher windows version.
60
2. Place the disk in the appropriate drive.
3. Select the “Start” from Windows.
4. Select ‘Run’.
5. Type “?:\GravitySuite.exe” where? Is the appropriate drive for your CD-ROM.
6. Follow the prompts.
7. The program will install on your computer and will automatically place an icon on your desktop.
8. You are now ready to use this program.
B. Bulk Specific Gravity (Gmb) of Compacted Asphalt Specimens Procedure:
1. The CoreLok machine should be set according to the procedures outlined under CoreLok Operation manual. Select
Program #1 (Table 1). In Program #1, the Dwell time is set at the factory, thus making sure that all trapped air is removed
out of the bags.
2. Place enough filler plates inside the CoreLok to ensure the specimen will not impede the machine lid from closing. You
will need the sliding plate for this test so this height will also need to be taken into account.
3. Select an appropriate size bag. Inspect the bag for holes or stress points. Do not use the bag if you find holes or stress
points.
4. Weigh the bag, record the total weight in column A of the Bulk Specific Gravity Data Collection Table 2
5. Weigh the dry sample and record the sample weight in column B.
6. Place the empty bag inside the CoreLok chamber.
7. Gently place the core inside the bag ensuring the core is resting on top of the sliding plate care is taken to not puncture
the bag.
8. Place the bag opening over the seal bar with approximately 1” overlap and close the chamber door. After the vacuum
and sealing operation, the chamber door will open.
9. Gently remove the sealed sample from the chamber and immediately transfer the sample to a large water bath equipped
with scales and the cushioned weighing basket. Completely submerge the bag in water..
10. Allow the scales to stabilize and record the weight in column C.
11. Remove the sealed core from the water. Cut open the bag and remove the core. Weigh the core and record the weight
in column D.
12. Hand-calculate the results or launch the Gravity Suite package to automatically calculate the results by using the
CoreGravity option.
C. Maximum Specific Gravity (Gmm) of Loose Asphalt Mixtures Procedure:
1. The CoreLok machine should be set to Program #2 (Table 1) . In Program #2, the Dwell time is set at 300 seconds, thus
making sure that all trapped air is removed out of the bags.
2. Place all three filler plates inside the CoreLok. You do not need the sliding plate for this test
3. Select a large bag. Inspect the bag for holes or stress points. Do not use the bag if you find holes or stress points.
4. Weigh the large bag and one channel bag (the clear bag with one textured side). Record the total weight in column A of
the Max/Apparent Gravity Data Collection Table 3.
5. Weigh the dry sample and record the sample weight in column B. You may use up to 2000 grams of loose mixture per
test.
6. Place the sample inside the channel bag.
7. Place the empty large bag (external bag) inside the CoreLok chamber.
8. Place the channel bag with the rough side down inside the external bag. It is important that the channel side (rough
side) of the bag is face down against the bottom. This will help in removing the air from underneath the sample.
9. Place your hand inside the channel bag and gently and evenly spread the sample within the channel bag.
10. Push in the opening of the channel bag away from the opening of the external bag.
11. Place the external bag opening over the seal bar and close the chamber door. The channel bag should not be over the
seal bar.
12. After the vacuum and sealing operation the chamber door will open.
13. Gently remove the sealed sample from the chamber and immediately transfer the sample to a large water bath
equipped with scales. Completely submerge the bag in water and while submerged (at least 2” under water) cut the bag
under the seal joint but above the channel bag. The bag opening should extend all the way across, leaving approximately
1” intact.
14. Open both bags while under water and hold open for 15 seconds to allow the water to enter the two bags and wet the
sample.
15. Carefully fold the bags over and, while keeping them completely under water, place the sample on the provided
weighing basket hung from the scale.
16. While over the weighing basket open the bags and let water freely enter the bags.
17. If necessary, use the alligator clip tied to the weighing basket to stop the bags from floating above the surface of the
water.
18. Allow the scales to stabilize and record the weight in column C.
19. Hand-calculate the results or launch the Gravity Suite package to automatically calculate the results by using the
MaxGravity option.
20. Double click on MaxGravity.
21. Click on Asphalt.
22. Input the required weights in the appropriate columns in the program. The program will calculate the Gmm in g/cm3.
23. The results can be transferred to Microsoft Excel for printing and storage
Precautions:
a. Do not tip the CoreLok on its side.
b. Do not use on wet surfaces.
c. Do not immerse any part of the CoreLok, the CoreLok cord or plug into water or other liquids.
61
d. To disconnect, grip plug and pull from wall outlet. Do not disconnect by pulling on the cord.
e. Do not allow cord to dangle over or touch hot surfaces.
f. Do not operate the CoreLok if the cord is damaged in any way.
g. Do not place on or near a heat source.
h. Do not operate the CoreLok with the housing removed.
i. Do not operate if the chamber lid appears to be damaged or cracked.
j. Do not lay hand on the intake to check pump suction. Exposure of any part of the body to the vacuum can result
in personal injury to the exposed part.
k. Never operate the pump with an open, accessible inlet. Vacuum connections, oil filling opening or oil draining
opening must not be opened during operation of the pump.
l. Beware of hot surfaces that can cause burns. The operating pump can have surfaces that reach temperatures higher
than 80 C (176 F). The bag sealing edge will still be hot immediately after operation, avoid contact.
m. Only allow authorized personnel with proper machinery operating knowledge to transport, install, operate,
perform maintenance (servicing) or dispose of hazardous wastes.
n. Do not use for other than intended use.
A. Bulk Specific Gravity (Gmb) of Compacted Asphalt Specimens:
1. Calculate the weight of Bag in grams (A)
2. Calculate the dry Sample Weight before sealing in grams (B)
3. Calculate sealed sample weight in water as C (grams)
4. Calculate the total Volume = G= (A+D)-C
5. Calculate the Volume of sample by subtracting Total Volume and Volume of Bag(H) as note it as I
6. Calculate Bulk Specific Gravity = B/I.
Table 2: CoreLok Bulk Specific Gravity Data Collection Table
B. Maximum Specific Gravity (Gmm) of Loose Asphalt Mixtures:

1. Calculate the weight of empty bag (g) and note it down as A.
2. Calculate the Weight of rubber sheets used (g). Put it as 0 if not used. Note it down as B.
3. Calculate the weight of sample in Air(g). Note it down as C.
4. Weight of Bags and Sample in water (G) = D
5. Calculate the Total Volume as E= (A+B+C)-D
6. Calculate Bag and Rubber sheet Volume as F=A/Vc+B/Rc, Where Vc=0.903 g/cm3 and Rc value is written on
rubber sheets.
7. Calculate the Sample Volume as G= E-F
8. Calculate the Maximum Specific Gravity as H= C/G
Table 3: CoreLok Max Gravity Data Collection Table
62

A. Results:
1. Bulk Specific Gravity (Gmb) of Compacted Asphalt Specimens = ............
2. Maximum Specific Gravity (Gmm) of Loose Asphalt Mixtures = .............
B. Discussions:
The test procedure adopted by using CoreLok is extremely simple and intuitive and can be done in less than 8 minutes.
The CoreLok Vacuum settings are predetermined settings and the results do not depend on the vibrating system.
Applications:
Bulk Specific gravity is involved in most of the key mix design calculations including air voids, VMA and, indirectly
VFB. Correct and accurate bulk specific gravity determinations are vital to proper mix design. Asphalt mixtures with
higher voids tend to allow water and air to penetrate, and thereby increase the potential for damage such as stripping,
ravelling, cracking, and excessive oxidation of the asphalt binder. Hence, an understanding of the void content is known
to provide indication about the durability and in-service performance of constructed asphalt pavements. Direct
measurement of AV and VMA of compacted HMA samples is difficult because of the complex structure of voids.
However, by using specific gravity, it is possible to calculate the volume.
References:
 http://www.instrotek.com/pdfs/CoreLok_Manual.pdf
 ftp://mdt.mt.gov/research/LIBRARY/FHWA-OH-2007-07.PDF
 http://www.epc.com.hk/product_en_2942.html
 http://www.dot.state.fl.us/
63
4.5 BITUMEN CONTENT DETERMINATION
Objective: To determine the amount of bitumen content present in the given sample of bitumen aggregate
mixtures.
Background: The asphalt content of asphalt-aggregate mixtures as determined by the described test method is
used for product acceptance, quality assurance, process quality control and research activities. It is a common
and most important quality control test that is conducted to ensure the field bitumen content tallies with the
designed optimum bitumen content in the lab. Several methods are available to extract and evaluate the bitumen
content namely nuclear gauge method, ignition oven test, solvent dissolution (centrifuge extractor), etc. Two
main methods are outlined in the following context.
1. CENTRIFUGE EXTRACTER
Introduction: In this method, the bitumen is extracted by adding and mixing the loose bituminous aggregate
mixture (ex: loose HMA mixture) with a bitumen dissolving (miscible) liquid solvent where the coated bitumen
is made to dissolve into the solvent leaving the aggregates behind. The commonly used solvents are methylene
chloride, trichloroethylene, trichloroethane , benzene etc. The main advantages of these methods are: (a) no
calibration factor needs to be determined (as it is required in the case of ignition oven method) and (b) the
properties of the binder and aggregate extracted from the HMA may be tested after extraction.
Apparatus:
1. Centrifuge Extractor: comprise of a removable precision-machined rotor bowl housed in a cylindrical
Aluminium box. They may be hand driven or electric motor driven in which case an electric motor fit with AC
drive (inverter) with the double function of speed control up to 3600 RPM. regardless of the frequency (50 or 60
Hz) and electrical braking. The speed can be settable from 3600 RPM to any intermediate RPM. The covers
should be precisely machined and fit with solvent resistant gasket to avoid leakages. The removable rotor bowl
has a hallow tube space at the centre into which the bowl can be coupled with the rotating spindle of the
extractor.
2. Commercial benzene (as solvent).
3. Balance of capacity 500 gram and sensitivity 0.01grams.
4. Thermostatically controlled oven with capacity up to 2500C.
5. Beaker for collecting extracted material.
Procedure:
1) Take exactly 500 grams of representative sample and place in the bowl of extraction apparatus (W1). Make sure
that the extractor bowl, hand tools and sample containers are cleaned of all residual asphalt and aggregate
materials before commencing the test
2) Add benzene to the sample until it is completely submerged.
3) Dry and weigh the filter paper and place it over the bowl of the extraction apparatus containing the sample ( F 1 ).
4) Clamp the cover of the bowl tightly.
5) Place a beaker under the drainpipe to collect the extract
6) Sufficient time (not more than an hour) is allowed for the solvent to disintegrate the sample before running the
centrifuge.
7) Run the centrifuge slowly and then gradually increase the speed to a maximum of 3600 rpm.
8) Maintain the same speed till the solvent ceases to flow from the drainpipe.
9) Run the centrifuge until the bitumen and benzene are drained out completely.
10) Stop the machine, remove the cover and add 200ml of benzene to the material in the extraction bowl and the
extraction is done in the same process as described above.
11) Repeat the same process not less than three times till the extraction is clear and not darker than a light straw
colour.
12) Collect the material from the bowl of the extraction machine along with the filter paper and dry it to constant
weight in the oven at a temperature of 1050 C to 1100 C and cool to room temperature.
13) Weigh the material ( W2 ) and the filter paper ( F2 ) separately to an accuracy of 0.01grams.
14) The aggregates are separated, dried and taken for gradation analysis.
Calculations:
𝑊1−(𝑊2+𝑊3)
Percentage of binder in the total mix = 𝑊1
Where, W1 = Weight of sample taken (gms) W2 = Weight of sample after extraction (gms) W3 = Increased
weight of filter paper ( F2 – F1 ) in gms.
Results:
The result obtained shall be reported as the percentage of binder content in the mix to the nearest second
decimal.
2. NCAT IGNITION OVEN METHOD
Introduction: In 1990, the National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) began development of an ignition
oven to burn off the asphalt (bitumen) from a sample of hot mix. Eventually, this effort led to the development of
the NCAT ignition oven. In this method the hot mix sample is heated to temperature above the fire point of
bitumen where in which all bitumen content is burnt and the remaining weight is measured from which the
bitumen content in the hot mix can be calculated.
Apparatus:
1. Balance Readable to 0.1 g
64
2. Catch pan of suitable size to hold Sample Trays (Item (a)) - to catch aggregate particles and melting AC falling
through the screens.
3. Sample pan of suitable size to allow samples to be thinly spread and allows the air to circulate through and
around the sample particles.
4. Ovens for drying aggregate and HMA mixtures and for preheating HMA mixtures prior to ignition testing.
5. NCAT Ignition furnace: The maximum weight of sample, which it can handle, is 4000 grams. The temperature
range, in which it operates, varies from 200 to 650° C. The accuracy of its internal balance is ±0.1 gram. It has
automatic interlock, which cuts power when the door is open (for more information please refer to the NCAT
1087 manual pdf).
6. Assorted Spatulas, Pans, Bowls, and Wire Brushes, for preparing HMA mixtures and removing aggregate from
sample tray(s) and catch pan.
Preparation:
 Sufficient quantity HMA samples obtained from the field is placed in a large flat pan and warmed in oven at 110
± 5°C until workable with a trowel.
 Test sample size/weight of the HMA mix to be taken for the test is governed by the Nominal Aggregate
Maximum Size (NMAS) and shall conform to the mass requirements listed in table no.1.
 The calibration factor used in the calculation of binder content is the difference between the known binder
content and ignition oven test result. This is the adjustment factor for the burnt up aggregate loss wt.
 Calibration factor is established by testing 3 calibration samples at the design asphalt cement content (p) for a
specific mix type.
Procedure:
1) Oven dry the test sample to a constant mass at 110 ± 5.0°C.
2) Determine mass of the sample tray(s) and catch pan to the nearest 0.1 g and Record.
3) Distribute the samples evenly in the sample (trays).
4) Set furnace temperature to 540 ± 5.0°C (in Convection Furnace type NCAT) or burn profile (Irradiation Type NCAT
Equipment).
5) If the calibration factor is higher than 1.0%, as is the case for some high mass-loss aggregates, the test temperature
should be lowered to 4820 C (suitably). According to AASHTO T308, a correction factor greater than 1.0% is
considered unusually high.
6) Determine the mass of the sample, sample tray(s), and catch pan to the nearest 0.1 g. Calculate and record the initial
mass of the sample (M1).
7) Enter sample weight into controller. Using the instructions under To Change the Initial Sample Weight, enter the
initial weight of your sample.
8) Check and, if necessary, adjust your temperature set point and correction factor. See the instructions at the end.
9) Load the sample tray assembly into the furnace chamber by inserting it directly above the hearth tray and setting
gently on the hearth tray. Check the load for proper clearance on each side. Keep objects away from the
thermocouple. Do not slide basket assembly against the thermocouple. This will affect temperature reading and
weight indication.
10) Close the door. The furnace will not operate with the door open and press the “Start/Stop” button to start the process.
11) Heat the calibration sample in the convection-type furnace at 540 ± 5.0°C until the change in mass of the sample
during three consecutive 1-min intervals does not exceed 0.01 % of the sample mass (M1), then press the “Start/Stop”
button to end the process.
12) Use appropriate safety apparel and tools when unloading the hot furnace.
13) Measure and record the mass (ML) of the sample after ignition to the nearest 0.1 g. The mass can be obtained
immediately upon completion of the test from the printout or display.
14) Calculate the calibration factor (CF) as follows:
where:
M1 = total mass of the mixture calibration sample prior to ignition, ML = total
mass of the mixture calibration sample after ignition, and P = percentage of actual
asphalt cement in the mix by mass of the total mix expressed as a percentage.
15) Using this calibration factor the actual (corrected) binder(bitumen) content for next trial onwards can be calculated
as
𝑀1−𝑀𝑙
Corrected binder content (%) = (( 𝑀1 ) x100) - temperature compensation - correction factor
16) The temperature compensation is provided for initial wt. change of load caused by heating the load from a low
temperature to a higher chamber temperature (Note that the load has not lost any mass at this point; it changes weight
because its temperature has increased).
17) Temperature compensation typically ranges from 0.1% to 0.25%. A warm HMA sample will be assigned a value of
0.1% or higher. A cold sample will be assigned a value near 0.25%. Test time will be reduced if an HMA sample is
warm.
Results: The corrected binder content is reported in % of the total initial mix weight.
References:
1. ASTM D6307 – 05 (2010), “Standard Test Method for Asphalt Content of Hot-Mix Asphalt by Ignition Method”.
2. NCAT Asphalt Content Tester - OPERATION MANUAL AND PARTS LIST (Series 1087)
3. IRC: SP 11 –1988 (Appendix - 5).
4. Karol, J. K., Rebecca, S. M., Jan, O., A. Shah. (2010). “Determining of the Binder Content Of Hot Mix Asphalt
Containing Dolomitic Aggregates Using the Ignition Oven”. FHWA – final report.
65
4.6 ROLLER COMPACTION AND PERMANENT DEFORMATION USING WHEEL
TRACKING EQUIPMENT
Objective:
To compact and determine permanent deformation of the bituminous mix sample using Wheel tracking device.
Background:
The roller compactor shown in figure 1 is used to prepare the slabs for wheel tracking equipment.
Wheel tracking test developed by British National Rail Road Institute (BNRRI) used to study the rut characteristics
of different HMA pavements and the rut depth characteristics of different subgrade materials. The wheel tracking
test setup is as shown in Figure 2. The test method is used to determine the premature failure susceptibility of HMA
due to weakness in the aggregate structure, inadequate binder stiffness, or moisture damage. This test method
measures the rut depth and number of passes to failure.
Figure1: Schematic diagram of compaction device for preparing slabs for WTT
Apparatus: Wheel tracking device, Roller compactor, mold, oven, mixing apparatus, thermometers, weighing
machine.
Procedure:
Using the roller compactor, asphalt mix slabs were compacted to be compacted to a target density under the
applications of load. To prepare wheel tracking specimen, slab preparation is done as follows:
 Mixing: materials mixed in laboratory were brought to mixing temperature in a forced draft oven and
mixed manually until complete coating of the aggregates is achieved.
 Splitting: material mixed in the laboratory were placed in open pans. The amount (weight) of material is
determined by the dimensions of the sample to be obtained and required density which is chosen from
Marshall stability test.
 Compacting: compaction of the sample has been done using roller compacting machine, until the
required height of the sample or the required target density is reached. The schematic diagram of roller
compacting machine which is used to conduct this test is shown in Figure 1. Target density is selected in
such a way that mix should have sufficient air voids % after compaction. The sample is then cooled to
the room temperature before testing the sample.
 Determine the bulk specific gravity (Gmb), maximum specific gravity (Gmm) and air void content (Va)
of each sample.
 In wheel tracking, a test specimen is placed on the test table and is made to move in to and fro motion.
While a hard rubber wheel press against the specimen by loading weight through a lever and a straight
track wheel is indented in the specimen. The rut depth of track is measured with lapsed number of load
repetitions.
 Wheel-Tracking test Machine is an electrically powered machine capable of moving a 203.6 mm
diameter, 47 mm wide steel wheel over a test slab. The load applied to the slab through the wheel is 705
N. The wheel shall reciprocate over the slab, with the position varying sinusoidal over time. The speed
of the wheel is approximately 43 passes across the slab per minute under controlled wheel load and
temperature. The maximum speed of the wheel shall be approximately 0.305 m/s, and will be reached at
the midpoint of the slab.
 Impression measurement system: A LVDT device attached to signal conditioner cum data acquisition
system (National Instruments USB 6008 model) is used to record the data at a recording rate of 10 data
66
points per second. The system shall be mounted to measure the rut depth of the impression at the
midpoint of the wheel path on the slab.
 Wheel pass counter: A non-contacting solenoid that counts each wheel pass over the slab. The signal
from this counter shall be coupled to the wheel impression measurement, allowing for the rut depth to be
expressed as a fraction of the wheel passes.
 Sample mounting system: A stainless steel tray that can be mounted rigidly to the machine. The tester
was provided with a temperature controlled chamber. Temperature can be controlled by thermostat.
Heating coils were used to heat the bituminous slab inside the chamber. The size of the chamber is
1500x750x760 mm. This experimental setup including temperature control and data acquisition system
is shown in Figure 3.
Precautions:
 Wheel tracking favors stiff asphalt binders and mixtures
– Good for thick pavements, bad for thin, deflecting pavement structures
 Do not hold the samples at elevated temperature form more than 24 hours prior to testing.
 Do not open the heated chamber door for more than 6 minutes when inserting and securing the samples.
Once the samples are secured, close the door and allow 10 min for the test temperature to stabilize.
Application:
 Wheel tracking does a better job of identifying mixtures that are susceptible to premature failure than
other laboratory tests.
 Rutting can be predicted.
Observation and calculation:

Table 1: Rut depth at different number of passes.
No. of Passes Rut Depth

Report the following for each test:
 specimen type;
 Temperature
 rut depth at 5,000; 10,000; 15,000; and 20,000 passes (when available);
 rut depth at failure; and
 Number of passes to failure.
Conclusion:
A loaded steel wheel tracks over the samples in a temperature controlled chamber, the deformation is observed
vs. the number of loading passes
Comment:
Reference:
1. Zhang, Y., RongLuo., and Lytton, R. (2012). “Characterizing Permanent Deformation and Fracture of
Asphalt Mixtures by Using Compressive Dynamic Modulus Tests” Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, Vol. 24, 898-906.
2. https://www.ltrc.lsu.edu/asphalt/pdf/Hamburg%20Wheel%20Tracking%20Test.pdf –Accessed on 09-11-
2014
3. Shashank Khandeliya (2014). “Laboratory evaluation of stone mstrix asphalt stabilized with various
fibers” M.Tech dissertation, NIT Warangal.
4. http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/laboratory-wheel-tracking-devices/ -Accessed on 09-11-2014
67
4.7 EVALUATION OF MOISTURE DAMAGE
AASHTO T 283
Objective:
To evaluate the resistance of compacted asphalt mixtures towards moisture susceptibility.
Back ground:
AASHTO T 283 is a test method that can be used to determine if the materials may be subject to stripping and also to
measure the effectiveness of additives. The test is performed by compacting specimens to an air void level of six to eight
percent. Three specimens are selected as a control and tested without moisture conditioning, and three more
specimens are selected to be conditioned by saturating with water undergoing a freeze cycle, and subsequently having a
warm-water soaking cycle. The specimens are then tested for indirect tensile strength by loading the specimens at a
constant rate and measuring the force required to break the specimen. The tensile strength of the conditioned specimens is
compared to the control specimens to determine the tensile strength ratio (TSR). This test may also be performed on cores
taken from the finished pavement.
Apparatus:
a) Vacuum container for saturating specimens
b) Balance, general purpose class G2 (AASHTO M 231)
c) Water bath, capable of maintaining a temperature of 60 ± 1°C
d) Pans, having a surface area of 48,400 – 129,000 mm2 in the bottom and a depth of approximately 25 mm
e) Loading jack and force measuring device
f) Loading strips with a curved face to match the side of the specimen
g) Forced-draft oven, capable of maintaining a temperature from room temperature to 176 ± 3°C
h) Freezer, capable of maintaining a temperature of -18 ± 3°C
i) Plastic wrap and heavy-duty leak proof plastic bags
j) 10 mL graduated cylinder
Procedure:
a) Sample preparation:
1. For laboratory-batched mixtures, 6 in. (150 mm) diameter and 2.5 in. (63.5 mm) thick specimens are normally
used.
2. Enough material is mixed to produce at least eight specimens at the binder content recommended for the mixture.
3. Extra mixture will be needed for trials to establish the compaction required and for determining the maximum
specific gravity of the mixture, if these values are not known.
4. After mixing, the mixture is placed in the pans and spread to about 25 mm thick. The mix is then cooled to room
temperature for 2 ± 0.5 hours.
5. The mixture is placed in the oven for 2 hours at 135 ± 3°C, and stirred every 60 ± 5 minutes to maintain
conditioning.
6. Some experimentation will be needed to find the correct compactive effort that will yield 7 ± 0.5 percent air
voids.
7. The specimens are required to be compacted in accordance with AASHTO T 312.
8. After the specimens are removed from the molds, they are stored at room temperature for 24 ± 3 hours.
b) Evaluating and Grouping of Specimens
After curing, the following tests and measurements of each specimen are done:
1. The maximum specific gravity (Gmm) in accordance with AASHTO T 209
2. The thickness (t) and diameter (D)
3. The bulk specific gravity (Gmb) in accordance with AASHTOT 166. The volume (E) of the specimens is
determined by subtracting the specimen weight in water from the saturated, surface-dry weight.
4. The percentage of air voids (Pa) is determined in accordance with AASHTO T 269. Once determined,
the specimens are separated into two subsets, of at least three specimens each, so that the average air voids of the
two subsets are approximately equal.
5. For those specimens to be subjected to vacuum saturation, a freeze cycle, and a warm-water soaking
cycle, the volume of the air voids (Va) in cubic centimeters is calculated as follows:
Where:
Va = volume of air voids, cubic centimeters
Pa = air voids, percent
E = volume of the specimen, cubic centimeters
c) Reconditioning of Specimens:
At the end of the curing period, the dry subset is wrapped with plastic in a heavy duty, leak proof plastic bag. The
specimens are then placed in a 25 ± 0.5°C water bath for 2 hours ± 10 minutes with a minimum of 25 mm of water above
their surface as shown in the Figure 1.
The other subset is conditioned as follows:
1. The specimens are placed in a vacuum container supported a minimum of 25 mm above the container bottom (See
Figure 2)
2. The container is filled with potable water at room temperature so that the specimens have at least 25 mm of water
above their surface.
3. A vacuum of 13-67 kPa Hg absolute pressure is applied for approximately 5 to 10 minutes.
4. The vacuum is removed and the specimen is left submerged in water for approximately 5 to 10 minutes. (See Figure
2).
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5. The weight of the saturated, surface-dry specimen after partial vacuum saturation (B) is determined.
The volume of absorbed water (J) in cubic centimeters is determined by the following equation
J= B– A
Where:
J = volume of absorbed water, cubic centimeters
B= weight of the saturated, surface-dry specimen after partial vacuum saturation,g
A = weight of the dry specimen in air, g
The degree of saturation (S) is determined by comparing the volume of absorbed water (J) with the volume of air voids
(Va) using the following equation:
Where:
S = degree of saturation, percent
NOTE:
If the degree of saturation is between 70 and 80 percent, the conditioning by freezing may continue. If
the degree of saturation is less than70 percent, the vacuum procedure using more vacuum and/or time is repeated. If the
degree of saturation is more than 80 percent, the specimen is considered damaged and is discarded.
6. For specimens with 70 to 80 percent saturation, the samples are each wrapped with a plastic film such as Saran
Wrap and placed in a plastic bag containing 10 ± 0.5 mL of water and sealed.
7. The plastic bags are placed in a freezer at a temperature of -18 ± 3°C for 24 ± 1 hours. The specimens should have
a minimum of 25 mm of water above their surface.
8. As soon as the specimens are placed in the water bath, the plastic bag and film is removed from each specimen.
9. After 24 ± 1 hours in the water bath, the specimens are removed and placed in a water bath at 25 ± 0.5°C for 2
hours ± 10 minutes. The specimens should have a minimum of 25 mm of water above their surface.
d) Testing:
The specimen is removed from the bath, the thickness (t1) determined, and then placed on its side between the bearing
plates of the testing machine (Figure 3). Steel loading strips are placed between the specimen and the bearing plates. A
load is applied to the specimen by forcing the bearing plates together at a constant rate of 50 mm per minute.
The maximum load is recorded, and the load continued until the specimen cracks. The machine is stopped and the
specimen broken apart at the crack for observation (Figure 4). The approximate degree of moisture damage is
estimated on a scale from 0 to 5, with 5 being the most stripped.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
The tensile strength is calculated using the following equation:
where:
St = tensile strength, kPa P = maximum load, Newtons t = specimen thickness, mm D = specimen diameter, mm
The tensile strength ratio is calculated as follows:
𝑆₁
Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR) =
𝑆₂
where:
S1 = average tensile strength of the dry subset, kPa S2 = average tensile strength of the conditioned subset, kPa
Table 1: Observations
S.NO Gmm Gmb Va % Saturation Tensile TSR
Strength Avg(1,2,3)/Avg(4,5,6)
1 -
2 -
3 -
4
5
6
Parameters Measured:
1. Theoretical maximum specific gravity (Gmm) of each sample 2. Bulk specific gravity (Gmb) of each sample 3. Air void
content (Va) of each samples 4. Percent saturation of the conditioned samples 5.The Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR) of the
Specimens
Results:
The Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR) of the Specimens =
Discussions:
Material Value Specification HMA Distress of Concern

HMA Tensile strength ratio ≥ 0.80 Moisture damage, stripping
Typical TSR values range from 0.70 to 0.90. Depending on the type of HMA mixture, it is not uncommon to see values below 0.70 or
above 0.90.
References:
1. Resistance of compacted asphalt mixtures to moisture-induced damage - AASHTO T 283 .pdf
2. URL : http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/moisture-susceptibility
3. URL : http://www.coenge.ufcg.edu.br/download/Download_182.pdf
4. URL : http://www.instrotek.com/pdfs/CoreLok_Manual.pdf for determination of Gmb and Gmm of the samples.
69
5 TESTS ON SUBGRADE
70
5.1 California Bearing Ratio Test
Objective: To determine the California Bearing Ratio of the given soil sample.
Background: California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is the ratio of the force per unit area required to penetrate a soil
mass with a standard piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/ min. to that required for corresponding penetration of a
standard material.
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a load test applied to the surface and used in soil investigations as an
aid to the design of pavements, which is an empirical method having one of the chief advantage, simplicity of
the test procedure. CBR test is done mostly in laboratory on the subgrade soil, disturbed or remoulded
depending whether an existing subgrade is utilized for the pavement without improvement or a new subgrade is
to be constructed with proper control over its properties, especially compaction characteristics.
CBR value Subgrade Strength Comments
3% and less Poor Capping is required
Widely encountered CBR
3% - 5% Normal range capping considered
according to road category
“Capping” normally
5% -15% Good unnecessary except on very
heavily trafficked roads
The laboratory test uses a circular piston to penetrate material compacted in a mould at a constant rate of
penetration. The CBR is expressed as the ratio of the unit load on the piston required to penetrate 0.1 in. (2.5
mm) and 0.2 in (5 mm) of the test soil to the unit load required to penetrate a standard material of well-graded
crusted stone.
This test method is used to determine the CBR of a material compacted in a specified mould. The CBR mould
with the spacer disk specified in this standard has the same internal dimensions as a 6-in. (150-mm) diameter
compaction mould. Another alternative is for CBR test to be performed on material compacted to a specific
water content and density. Alternatively, a water content range may be stated for one or more density values.
This will often require a series of specimens prepared using two or three compactive efforts for the specified
water content or over the range of water contents requested.
The principle soil factors affecting the CBR are sol texture, moisture, and density. The testing procedure
employed depends primarily upon the type of material being tested. Granular soils are not greatly affected by
swelling during the soaking period, and therefore the surcharge eights are not to significant during this part of
test. In contrast, claylike soils, which are greatly affected by swelling pressures, yield CBR values depending
upon the weight of the surcharges used during the soaking period. Surcharge weights are extremely important
during the penetration portion of the test for granular materials but not too significant for the fine grained soils.
71
Apparatus:
a) Loading machine – any compressive machine which can operate at a constant rate of 1.25 m/ min and in
which a cylindrical plunger of 50mm diameter can be fitted.
b) Cylindrical moulds – Moulds of 150 mm diameter and 175 mm height provided with a collar of about 50mm
length and detachable perforated base, a displacer disc of 148 mm diameter and 47.7 mm in height, to obtain a
specimen of exactly 127.3 mm height.
c) Compaction rammer – compaction is done as suggested by the ISI for light compaction and heavy
compaction.
Weight of hammer
Number of layers Fall (cm) No. of blows
(kg)
3 2.6 31 56
5 4.89 45 56
d) Adjustable stem, perforated plate, tripod and dual gauge – accessories required to measure the swelling of the
water soaked soil before testing as per standard procedure.
e) Annular weight – each of 2.5 kg placed on the top of the specimen, both at the time of soaking and testing of
the samples.
f) Course filter paper, sieves, oven, and balance.
Procedure:
1) The optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of the soil are determined.
2) A batch of soil (approx. 5.5kg) is mixed with water up to the optimum moisture content. The spacer disc is
placed at the bottom of the mould and a filter paper over it, the processed soil sample is placed over this.
3) The soil is compacted with 56 blows per layer in three or five equal layers. The collar is removed and excess
soil at the top of the mould is struck off using a straight edge. Such three CBR test specimens are prepared.
4) From each mould, soil samples are collected for moisture content determinations.
5) The sample continued in the mould excluding base plate and spacer disc is weighed. The filter paper is now
placed on base plate and the mould is turned upside down, so that the top of the sample is now placed over the
sample top angle with the perforated weight of 2.5 or 5 kg is placed. Soaking is done for 4 days. The initial and
final readings of the dial gauge are taken to measure the expansion.
6) The sample is allowed to drain off water in a vertical position for 15 minutes. The sample along with mould
is again weighed to calculate the percentage of water absorbed.
7) The surcharge is weight is again provided and the assembly with the base plate is placed in the compression
machine. The plunger (50 mm. diameter) is brought in contact with the top surface and a seating load of 4 kg. is
72
applied. The compressive load is applied smoothly at the rate of 1.25 mm per minute. Load readings are
recorded at penetrations 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10, 12.5 mm. The load is released and
the mould is removed from the loading machine. A soil sample from the top 3cm. layer is collected and
weighed for moisture content determination.
Precautions:
1. Clean the holes of the base plate and that of perforated disc thoroughly.
2. Align the surcharge weight with the plunger so that the plunger penetrates freely in to the soil.

df = final dial gauge reading in mm =
ds = initial dial gauge reading in mm =
h = initial height of the specimen in mm =
The expansion ratio is calculated from the test for swelling:
(𝑑𝑓 −𝑑𝑠 )
Expansion ratio = × 100 =
ℎ
Where, df = final dial gauge reading in mm.

ds = initial dial gauge reading in mm. and
h = initial height of the specimen in mm.
For each penetration level, the unit pressure is obtained by dividing the total load by the area of piston. The load
penetration curve for each specimen is then plotted on natural scale. If the curve is uniform, the CBR value at
2.5mm and 5.0mm are obtained. If the curve becomes reverse one, a tangent at the steepest point of curve is
drawn. This line extended until it intersects the base axis which presents the correct zero penetration. The
values at the corrected penetration of 2.5 mm and 5mm are read out. CBR value is calculated using the
following formula.
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
CBR (percent) = ×100
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
Load carried by standard crushed stone at the above penetration level is obtained from the following table.
The CBR values at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm. penetration are found. Generally the value at 2.5 mm is higher and this
is adopted. However, if higher CBR value is obtained at 5mm. then the test is repeated to verify this. If identical
results follow, the CBR corresponding to 5mm penetration is taken for design.
73
Graph between load and penetration
Calculation of CBR from Load Penetration Curve:

1. Plot the load penetration curve in natural scale, load on Y - axis and penetration on X – Axis as shown in Fig
below.
2. If the curve is uniformly convex upwards although the initial portion of the curve may be concave upwards
due to surface irregularities make correction by drawing a tangent to the upper curve at the point of contra
flexure as below.
Variation of load as a function of penetration
3. Take the intersection point of the tangent and the X – axis as the origin. Calculate the CBR values for
penetration of 2.50mm and 5.00mm.
4. Corresponding to the penetration value at which CBR is to be desired, take the corrected load values from the
load penetration curve and calculate the CBR from the equation.
74
𝑃𝑡 × 𝐶𝑓
𝐶𝐵𝑅 = × 100
𝑃𝑠
Pt = Corrected unit test load corresponding to the chosen penetration from load penetration curve
Ps = Total standard load for the same depth of penetration, which can be taken from the Table below
Cf = Proving ring correction factor
Standard loads at specified penetrations
Penetration depth, mm Unit Standard load, kg/ cm2 Total Standard load, kg
2.50 70 1370
5.00 105 2055
7.50 134 2630
10.00 162 3180
12.50 183 3600
The CBR value of the given soil is: _____________

1. Report the CBR value to the nearest second decimal.
2. Take the average of three test specimens as the CBR value of the test.
3. Generally, the CBR value at 2.50mm penetration will be greater than that at 5.00mm penetration and in such
case take the value at 2.50mm as the CBR value.
4. If the CBR value corresponding to a penetration of 5.00mm exceeds that of 2.50mm, repeat the test.
5. If the identical results follow, take the value corresponding to 5.00mm as the CBR value
IRC Recommendations:
1. The CBR test should be performed on remoulded soils in laboratory. Insitu tests are recommended for design
purposes. The specimen should be prepared by static compaction whenever possible otherwise by dynamic
compaction.
2. For the design of new roads the sub-grade soil sample should be compacted at OMC to proctor density
whenever suitable compaction equipment is available to achieve this density in the field, otherwise the soil is
compacted to the dry density expected to be achieved in the field.
3. In new constructions the CBR test samples may be soaked in water for four days period before testing.
However in areas with arid climate or when the annual rainfall is less than 50cm and the water table is to affect
the subgrade adversely and when thick impermeable bituminous surfacing is provided, it is not necessary to
soak the soil sample before carrying out the CBR test.
4. At least three samples should be tested on each soil sample at same density and moisture content. If the
maximum variation in the CBR values of three samples exceeds the specified limits, the design CBR should be
the average of at least six samples.
5. The top 50cm of sub-grade should be compacted at least up to 95 to 100% of proctor density.
75
6. An estimate of road traffic to be carried out by the road pavements at the end of expected life should be made
keeping in view the existing traffic and growth rate of traffic. Pavements of major roads should be designed for
a period of ten years.
Limitation:
The CBR method of design of the flexible pavement suffer from a serious disadvantage that the CBR method of
pavement design gives the total thickness requirement of the pavement above a subgrade and this thickness
value would remain the same irrespective of the quality of materials used in the component layers.
Applications:
 To determine the resistance of the subgrade.
 CBR tests are used for evaluation and design of flexible pavement
References:
 IRC 37_ 2012
 IS: 2720 (Part 16) 1979
 ASTM standards D1883 – 07 (www.astm.org/Standards/D1883.htm)
 MORD Specifications for Rural Roads, page 47.
 http://www.scribd.com/doc/23493754/California-Bearing-Ratio
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_bearing_ratio
 http://www.prbdb.gov.in/files/Quality%20Control%20Training/Tests%20on%20Soils/CBR%20Test/CBR%
20Test.pdf
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L0x2DuYaXwk&list=PL6E883FC763F219C1
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8mdSmB3CtZM
76
PAVEMENT EVALUATION STUDIES
77
6.1 Pavement Unevenness using MERLIN
Objective: To measure the longitudinal unevenness of a road surface using MERLIN.
Background:
The roughness of a road surface is an important measure of road condition and a key factor in determining
vehicle operating costs on poor quality surfaces. MERLIN device can be used either for direct measurement or
for calibrating response type instruments such as the vehicle- mounted bump integrator. It was designed on the
basis of a computer simulation of its operation on road profiles measured in the International Road Roughness
Experiment.
The longitudinal unevenness of a road’s surface (normally termed its roughness) is both a good measure of the
road’s condition and an important determinant of vehicle operating costs and ride quality. The MERLIN is new
instrument which has been developed is a variation of the static profile measuring device. The device has two
feet and a probe which rest on the road surface along the wheel-track whose roughness is to be measured. The
feet are 1.8 metres apart and the probe lies mid-way between them. The Merlin measures the vertical
displacement between the road surface under the probe and the centre point of an imaginary line joining the two
points where the road surface is in contact with the two feet. If measurements are taken at successive intervals
along a road, then the rougher the surface, the greater the variability of the displacements. By plotting the
displacements as a histogram on a chart mounted on the instrument, it is possible to measure their spread and
the simulations have shown that this correlates well with road roughness, as measured on standard roughness
scales. For ease of operation, a wheel is used as the front leg, while the rear leg is a rigid metal rod. On one side
of the rear leg is a shorter stabilizing leg which prevents the device from falling over when taking a reading.
Projecting behind the main rear leg are two handles, so that the device looks in some ways like a very long and
slender wheelbarrow. The probe is attached to a moving arm which is weighted so that the probe moves
downwards, either until it reaches the road surface or the arm reaches the limit of its traverse. At the other end
of the arm is attached a pointer which moves over the prepared data chart. The arm has a mechanical
amplification of ten, so that a movement of the probe of one millimeter will produce a movement of the pointer
of one centimeter. The chart consists of a series of columns, each 5 mm wide, and divided into boxes.
Using the measured roughness on the Merlin scale. Road roughness, in terms of the International Roughness
Index or as measured by a towed fifth wheel bump integrator, can then be determined using one of the equations
given bellow,
The relationships between the Merlin scale and IRI scales,
IRI = 0.593+ .0471 D
42> D>312 (2.4> IRI> 15.9)
Where, IRI is the roughness in terms of the International Roughness Index and is measured in m/km and D is
the roughness in terms of the Merlin scale and is measured in mm.
The relationships between the Merlin scale and the BI scales.
BI = -983 + 47.5 D
42> D >312 (1,270> BI > 16,750)
Where, BI is the roughness as measured by a fifth wheel bump integrator towed at 32 km/h and is measured in
mm/km.
Apparatus:
 MERLIN (A Machine for Evaluating Roughness using Low-cost Instrumentation.),
78
MERLIN
 Two charts consists of a series of columns, each 5 mm wide.

Procedure:
1. Select a stretch of a road where measurements has to take Fix chart over the provided space in MERLIN.
2. The mechanical amplification of the arm should be checked using a small calibration block, typically 6 mm
thick. Insert block under the probe and measured the reading of pointer.
3. Take 200 measurements at regular intervals, say once every wheel revolution for the one wheel tracks. At
each measuring point, Machine is rested on the road with the wheel, rear foot, probe, and stabilizer all in contact
with the road surface.
4. The operator then records the position of the pointer on the chart with a cross in the appropriate column and,
to keep a record of the total number of observations, makes a cross in the ‘tally box’ on the chart.
5. The handles of the Merlin are then raised so that only the wheel remains in contact with the road and the
machine is moved forward to the next measuring point where the process is repeated.
6. When the 200 observations have been made, the chart is removed from the Merlin. The positions mid-way
between the tenth and the eleventh crosses, counting in from each end of the distribution, are marked on the
chart below the columns.
7. The spacing between the two marks, D, is then measured in mm and this is the roughness on the MERLIN
scale.
8. Repeat the above procedure for the second wheel track.
9. The combined roughness for the two wheel tracks can be equated to the mean of the individual tracks.

Scale Factor = (Thickness of calibrated block)/Measured distance on chart
Combined roughness for the two wheel tracks = Average of roughness across wheel track one and wheel track
two Roughness “D” = Combined roughness for the two wheel tracks * Scale Factor = _____ mm
IRI (international roughness index), IRI = 0.593+ .0471 D.
= _______ m/km.
BI (Bump Indicator), BI = -983 + 47.5 D.
= _______ mm/km.
79
The IRI and BI for selected road stretch are _____ m/km, and _____ mm/km, respectively.
Typically IRI’s value would be ranging from 0 to 20, 20 would be for the almost worst kind of a road. For
typical new highway pavements it can be in the range of may be 1 to 3.5 or 4. Similarly for very rough unpaved
road the IRI could be in the range of say 7 to 18. This is just an indicative idea about what could be expected in
terms of IRI for different types of facilities and also in terms of the condition at which the pavement is
designed.
Applications:
1. The measured IRI and BI values exists for a given road or computed for a given road useful to expect the
speed that can be possible on that road.
2. Based on IRI and BI values it is possible to start rehabilitation or reconstruction activities.
References:
 CRRI (1982). Road user cost study in India: final report Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi.
 TRRl research report 301 “The Merlin Low-Cost Road Roughness Measuring Machine “by M A Cundill.
80
6.2 Pavement Layer Density Using Sand Replacement Method
Objective: To determine the density of a pavement layer by sand replacement method.
Background: The dry density of the compacted soil or pavement material is a common measure of the amount
of the compaction achieved during the construction. Knowing the field density and field moisture content, the
dry density is calculated. Therefore field density test is importance as a field control test for the compaction of
soil or any other pavement layer.
There are several methods for the determination of field density of soils such as core cutter method, sand
replacement method, Rubber balloon method, heavy oil method etc. One of the common methods of
determining field density of fine-grained soils is core cutter method: but this method has a major limitation in
the case of soils containing coarse-grained particles such as gravel, stones and aggregates. Linder such
circumstances, field density test by sand replacement method is advantageous, as the presence of coarse-grained
particles will adversely affect the test results.
The basic principle of sand replacement method is to measure the in-situ volume of hole from which the
material was excavated from the weight of sand with known density filling in the hole. The in-situ density of
material is given by the weight of the excavated material divided by the in-situ volume.
Apparatus:
a) Sand pouring cylinder equipment:
(i) Small pouring cylinder: suitable for fine and medium grained soils. This consists of a metal cylinder of
capacity 3 liters, 100mm in diameter and 380 mm length with an inverted funnel or cone at one end and a
shutter to open and close the entry of sand and a cap on the other end. Metal tray to excavate the hole with
suitable shape and size. Calibration container of the small pouring cylinder (size 100 mm x 150 mm).
(ii) Large pouring cylinder: suitable for fine, medium and coarse grained soils. This consists a metal cylinder of
capacity 16.5 liters. 200 mm in diameter and 610mm length with all arrangements mentioned above.
Calibration container size 200 mm x 250 mm.
(iii) Medium pouring cylinder: suitable for fine, medium and coarse grained soils. This cylinder with 150 mm
diameter and length 450 mm. The calibration container size is 150 mm x 200 mm.
b) Tools for leveling and excavating: Hand tools such as scraper with handle for leveling the surface; a
libber or an elongated trowel for digging and excavating the material.
c) Containers: Metal containers of any convenient size (about 150 mm diameter and 200 mm depth) with
removable lid for collecting the excavated material.
d) Sand: Dry and clean test sand of uniform gradation. Passing 1.0mm and retained 600-micron sieve.
e) Balance: A suitable balance of capacity 15 or 30 kg accuracy 1.0 g and necessary set of weights.
Procedure:
The test may be conducted in two stages: (i) calibration of apparatus and (ii) measurement of field density.
(i) Calibration of Apparatus:
The determination of volume of the excavated hole is based on the weight of sand filling the hole and the cone
and the density of the sand. Calibration of apparatus includes (a) determination of density of test sand used in
the experiment under identical height and pouring conditions of the sand into the test hole and (b)
determination of the weight of the sand occupying the cone of the sand-pouring cylinder.
Clean and dry test sand passing 1.0mm sieve and retained 600-micron sieve is collected in sufficient quantity
required for at least three to four sets of tests. The top cap of the sand-pouring cylinder is removed, the shutter
is closed, the cylinder is filled with dry test sand up to about 10mm from the top and the cap is replaced. The
81
weight of the cylinder with the sand is determined accurate to one gram and is recorded = W 1 .In all the
subsequent tests for calibration as well as for the field density tests. Every time the sand is filled into the
cylinder such that the initial weight of the cylinder with sand is exactly W 2. The sand pouring cylinder is
placed over the calibration cylinder or one of the test holes already excavated, the shutter is opened and
the sand equal to the volume of the calibration cylinder or the excavated test hole is allowed to flow out
and the shutter is closed. The sand pouring cylinder is now placed on a clean plane surface (glass or Perspex
plate), the shutter is kept open till the sand fills up the cone fully and there is no visible movement of
sand as seen from the top of the cylinder by removing the cap. The shutter is closed, the cylinder is removed
and the sand which occupied the cone is carefully collected from the plate and weighed = W 2.
The sand pouring cylinder is refilled with sand such that the initial weight is again W 1. Now the cylinder is
placed centrally on the top of the calibration container and the shutter is opened. When the sand fills up the
calibration container and the cone completely and there is no movement of sand, the shutter is closed and the
sand pouring cylinder and the remaining sand is weighed = W 3. The above steps are repeated three times
and the mean values of W 2 and W 3 are determined such that the mean value of the weight of sand required
to fill the calibration container up to the level top can be determined. The volume of the calibrating container,
V is determined either by measuring the internal dimensions or by filling with water and weighing. From the
weight of sand W a and its volume V in the calibrating container. The density of sand, is determined.
(ii) Measurement of field density:
The site where the field density test is to be conducted is cleaned and leveled using a scraper for an area of
about 450 mm square. The metal tray central hole is placed on the prepared surface. Using this central hole as
pattern, the soil material is excavated using a dibber or a trowel up to a required depth and the loose material
removed is carefully collected in the metal container and is weighed = W. The sand-pouring cylinder is refilled
with sand such that its weight is again W 1. The metal tray with central hole is removed and the sand-
pouring cylinder is placed centrally over the excavated hole. The shutter is opened till the sand fills the
excavated hole and the cone completely and there is no further movement of sand in the cylinder. The
shutter is closed and the cylinder is weighed again = W 4 . So that the weight of sand filling the
excavated hole alone = W h can be found.
The moisture content of the excavated soil, w in percentage is determined by taking a sample of soil from it in a
moisture content dish, weighing, drying in oven at 110°C and re-weighing. Alternatively, the moisture content
(w%) is determined by placing the entire excavated soil collected from the hole (of weight W) in the oven
and finding its dry weight = Wd.
The above steps for the determination of the weights of excavated soil, the weight of the sand filling the hole
and the weights of samples for the moisture content determination are repeated at least three times and
the average values taken for the determination of field density (wet and dry) values.

W1 = weight of sand pouring cylinder and sand filled up to 10mm from top edge, g
W2 = weight of sand in the cone, mean value, g
W3 = weight of cylinder and sand after pouring into the calibration container and cone, g
W4 = weight of cylinder and sand after pouring into the excavated hole and cone, g
Va= volume of the excavating container. cm3
W = weight of the soil from the excavated hole, g
Wd = oven dry weight of the soil excavated from the hole, g
w = moisture content of the soil. %
The weight of sand filling the calibrating container only = Wa = (W1 — W3 — W2), g
Wa
i) Bulk density of sand, S= g/cm3
Va
82
Weight of sand filling the excavated hole alone = Wh = (W1 — W4 — W2), g
Wh
Volume of sand filling the excavated hole alone, V = , cm3
𝑆
W
ii) In-situ bulk density of the wet excavated soil, ɤ= , cm3
V
100(W−Wd)
iii) Moisture content of soil, w% = 𝑊
Wd 100ɤ
iv) In-situ dry bulk density of the excavated soil, ɤd = W = (100+w)
The results are reported as the average value of at least three sets of tests in the following:
(i) In-place wet density of soil in g/cm3, correct to second decimal place or in kg/m3, correct to
nearest whole number.
(ii) In-place dry density of soil in gicini3 or in kg/m.3 as above).
(iii) Moisture content of the soil in percent. Correct to first decimal place.
The field density of the pavement layer is: __________.
References:
 IS:2720-PART-28
 http://home.iitk.ac.in/~madhav/expt3.html
 http://www.engineeringcivil.com/determine-the-in-situ-dry-density-of-soil-by-sand-replacement-
method.html
83
6.3 Skid resistance Using the British Pendulum
ASTM E303 - 93(2008)

Objctive: To measure the skid resistance of the surface using british pendulum.
Background: Skidding is the loss of adhesion between a vehicle tyre and the road surface. Skid resistance is
the resistance offered by pavement surface against skidding. The British Pendulum Tester is a dynamic
pendulum impact-type tester used to measure the energy loss when a rubber slider edge is propelled over a test
surface. The tester is suited for laboratory as well as field tests on flat surfaces, and for polish value
measurements on curved laboratory specimens from accelerated polishing-wheel tests. This test method
provides a measure of a frictional property, microtexture, of surfaces, either in the field or in the laboratory.
This test method may be used to determine the relative effects of various polishing processes on materials or
material combinations. The values measured in accordance with this method do not necessarily agree or directly
correlate with those obtained utilizing other methods of determining friction properties or skid resistance.
Figure 1: British pendulum tester
84
Figure 2: Schematic Drawing of Pendulum Showing Spring and Lever Arrangement
Figure 3: Slider Assembly
Apparatus:
i) British pendulum: It is having a pendulum fitted with a rubber slider. Also it is having calibration scale
for measuring skid resistance value up to 126mm. It has a pointer which will move with pendulum, four
screws for adjusting the height of instrument and it has bubble for entering the instrument.
85
ii) Sand
iii) Water
iv) Oil
Procedure:
i) Levelling: level the instrument accurately by turning levelling screws until the bubble is centered in the
spirit level.
ii) Raise pendulum mechanism by loosening locking knob (directly behind pendulum pivot) and turn either
of pair of head movement knobs at centre of tester to allow slider to swing free of test surface. Tighten
locking knob firmly.
iii) Place pendulum in release position and rotate the drag pointer counter clockwise until it comes to rest
against adjustment screw on pendulum arm.
iv) Release pendulum and note pointer reading. If reading is not zero, loosen locking ring and rotate
friction ring on bearing spindle slightly and lock again. Repeat test and adjust friction ring until the
pendulum swing carries pointer to zero.
v) Apply sufficient water to cover the test area thoroughly. Execute one swing, but do not record reading.
vi) Without delay, make four more swings, rewetting the test area each time and record the results.
vii) After that same procedure is repeated for oily surface with sand.
Precautions:
1. Always catch the pendulum during the early portion of its return swing. While returning the pendulum
to its starting position, raise the slider with its lifting handle to prevent contact between the slider and the
test surface. Prior to each swing, the pointer should be returned until it rests against the adjustment
screw.
2. Care should be taken that the slider remains parallel to the test surface during the swings, and does not
rotate so that one end rather than the entire striking edge makes the initial contact. Available data
indicate that tilting of the slider may cause erroneous BPN readings.
 BPN( British pendulum no) mean value from three trials =
 MTD (mean texture depth from sand patch test) =
 Skid number ( SN0) when speed is zero = 1.32 * BPN
 PNG (percentage normalised gradient) = 0.157 ( MTD )-0.47 =
 Skid number ( SNv ) at speed v = SN0 * e-(PNG/100)*V
Table 1: Observations
Surface Trail 1 Trail 2 Trail 3 Mean

Dry
Sand
Water Results and
Oil
Discussion:
This test method provides a measure of a frictional property, micro texture, of surfaces, either in the field or in
Surface BPN MTD SN0 P.N.G SNv the laboratory.
Dry This test
Sand method may be
Water used to
Oil determine the
relative effects of various polishing processes on materials or material combinations. The values measured in
accordance with this method do not necessarily agree or directly correlate with those obtained utilizing other
methods of determining friction properties or skid resistance. The quantity measured with portable tester has
been termed skid resistance and this correlates with the performance of vehicle with pattern types breaking with
locked wheels on wet road at 50 kmph.
Applications: This method is used to calculate skid resistance of different types of surface. This method
provides a measure of frictional property, microtexture of surface.
References:
 ASTM E303 – 93 (Reapproved 2008)
86
6.4 TEXTURE DEPTH USING SAND PATCH APPARATUS
Objective:
To determine the texture depth of pavement using Sand Patch Test.
Background:
The sand patch test method is suitable for field tests to determine the average macro-texture depth of a
pavement surface. The knowledge of pavement macro-texture depth serves as a tool in characterizing the
pavement surface texture. It uses a volumetric approach of measuring pavement macro-texture.
The texture of the pavement can directly correlated to the skid resistance of the pavement. The surface with
deep texture will provide higher skid resistance surface up to a particular limit. The test is indirect measurement
of skid resistance of the pavement surface. It is quick and results obtained can be correlated to skid resistance.
Sand Patch Test is suitable for dry bituminous pavement and will not give good results for wet bituminous
pavement.
Apparatus and materials:
1. A pair of dividers capable of measuring radii up to 200 mm.
2. A 300 mm ruler.
3. Plastic cylinder of 25 ml volume or preferably a metal cylinder 86 mm internal depth and 19 mm internal
diameter.
4. A flat wooden disc of 64 mm diameter with a hard rubber disc 1.5 mm thick attached to one face. A short
spigot or dowel is attached to the reverse face to serve as a handle.
5. Sand container or for convenience, small plastic bags to hold a measured amount of 25 ml sand.
6. A soft hand brush.
7. A straight edge knife.
8. Sand of a natural dry type, with a rounded particle shape, complying with the grading given in the following
table:
Grading of Sand
BS Test Sieve (mm) % by Mass passing
0.60 100
0.30 90 to 100
0.15 0 to 15
Procedure:
1. The pavement surface selected for test must be dry.
2. If the concrete pavement has not been subjected to traffic, scrub the test surface with a wire brush to
remove any loosely bound particles or curing compounds that will be worn away by a small amount of
traffic.
3. Otherwise, the pavement surface should be swept with a soft hand brush
4. Fill the metal cylinder to the top with the natural sand and gently tap the base of the cylinder three times
on a rigid surface.
5. Add more sand to fill the cylinder again to the top and level the top with a straight edge.
6. Pour the measured sand on the test surface and spread it with the rubber disc spreading tool into a
circular patch with the surface depressions filled to the level of the peaks.
7. The sand-spreading tool should be kept flat on the surface and moved in a circular motion.
8. Measure the diameter of the sand patch at four or more equally spaced locations and record to the
nearest 1 mm (1/10 in.)
9. Average the measurements to give D, the sand circle diameter.
87
Figure 1. Sand Surface Depression Examples
Precautions:
1. Avoid losing any sand, especially during windy conditions while doing the test.
2. Sand used for one test should not be reused for another test.
3. For very smooth pavement surfaces where patch diameters are greater than 300 mm (12 in.) a smaller
known volume of sand is recommended.
4. The sand shall be spread as not to reach the levels of abnormally high peaks.

Location :
Material Used :
Mass of sand =
Density of sand =
Volume of Sand=
Table 1: TEXTURE DEPTH MEASUREMENT
Sample No Diameter Of Sand Patch(Mm) Texture Depth(mm)

D1 D2 D3 Mean D
Determine the texture depth T as follows:
T = Volume of sand(V)/ area of sand patch(πD2)
Where:
T = the texture depth in mm (in.)

88
V = the exact volume of the metal cylinder in mL (in.3)
=Mass of sand(g)/Density of sand(cm3)
D = the average diameter of the sand patch in mm (in.).
Results and discussion:

The texture depth of surface is _______cm.
The size of material used shall not exceed the texture depth measured.
Table 2: TEXTURE DEPTH VALUES
S.No Texture Depth Depth in mm

1 Smooth <0.3
2 Medium 0.31-0.6
3 Rough >0.6
Applications:
1. The method is suitable for bituminous surface course and concrete pavement surface with texture depth
greater than 0.25 mm.
2. Accurate sand patch testing cannot be carried out when road surface is sticky or wet.
3. For new road surface, it is recommended that sand patch test for compliance checking should be carried out
prior to opening to traffic including construction traffic.
References:
1. Guidance Notes On Road Testing, Research & Development Division RD/GN/009 September 1989.
2. Standard Test Procedure For Measurement Of Texture By The Sand Circle Method, TNZ T/3: 1981
3. Tex-436-A, Measuring Texture Depth by the Sand Patch Method
4. MnROAD-Sand Patch Test
89
6.5 STIFFNESS OF UNBOUND PAVEMENTS LAYERS USING GEOGAUGE
Objective: To measure the stiffness of the unbound pavement layers by using geogauge.
Apparatus:
Geogauge is a portable instrument having weight about 10 kg (~ 22 lb), is 28 cm (~ 11”) in diameter, 25.4 cm
(~ 10”) tall and rests on the soil surface via a ring–shaped foot. The foot bears directly on the ground without
penetrating it and supports the weight of the Geogauge via rubber isolators. Also attached to the foot are the
shaker that drives the foot and sensors that measure the force and displacement-frequency history of the foot. It
has display and sufficient memory to store and show data for entire day. It also has arrangement of getting
connected to computers for easy monitoring and storing data. It is powered by 6 disposable and common D-cell
batteries. Measurements can be performed as close to operating construction equipment as operator safety will
allow.
Background:
The Humboldt Geogauge is a hand-portable instrument that provides a simple, rapid and precise means of
measuring in-place two key engineering and mechanical properties of prepared soil and aggregate, lift stiffness
and material modulus (Fig. 1).
Compaction Quality Control (QC) of sub grades, bases and pavements based on modulus or stiffness, as
enabled by the Geogauge, will reduce compaction costs by 30% and roadway maintenance by at least 50%. The
Geogauge, unlike density gauges, can measure in-place the load bearing characteristics of compacted materials.
This enables real estimates of roadway performance and provides the basis for reducing construction margins,
lower construction costs by at least 20%. The Geogauge can be used in-place to estimate CBR and Resilient
Modulus or estimate the results of plate load tests, laboratory R-Value, FWD or DCP with more speed and
simplicity and at a much lower cost. The Geogauge can be used to evaluate the material strength gained by
stabilization of any kind very soon after installation, allowing construction to resume as soon as the material can
support traffic loads while assuring ultimate material strength.
The Geogauge can enable construction methods that reduce roadway maintenance by at least 50%.
• Asphalt & Concrete Pavement
• Full Depth Pavements
• Full Depth Roadway Reclamation
• Airport Runways & Infields
• Unpaved Roadways
• Structures Buried Under Roadways.
Fig 1: Humboldt Geogauge
90
The Geogauge can be used to simply and rapidly build the quantitative basis for implementing mechanistic-
empirical roadway design by cataloging as-built resilient modulus in a fraction of the time required for
laboratory measurements.
The Geogauge measures a material’s mechanical impedance at the surface of the ground. In other words, it
measures the force imparted to the soil and the resulting surface deflection as a function of frequency. Stiffness,
force over deflection, follows directly from the impedance. The Geogauge imparts very small displacements to
the ground (< 1.27 x 10-6 m or <.00005") at 25 steady state frequencies between 100 and 196 Hz. Stiffness is
determined at each frequency and the average from 25 frequencies is displayed. The entire process takes about
one minute. At these low frequencies, the impedance at the surface is stiffness controlled and is proportional to
the shear modulus of the soil. With Poisson's ratio, shear and modulus can be derived.
The Geogauge is placed on the ground to make a measurement with little or no preparation of surface.
Typically, a slight rotation of the Geogauge is needed obtain the desired 100% contact between foot and
ground. On particularly hard or rough surfaces, seating of the foot is assisted by the use of less than 10 mm
(1/4") of moist/wet material such as mortar sand. Common field practice is as applicable to the Geogauge as it
is to most current field measurement of material performance.
Fig 2: Schematic diagram of geogauge
Many current methods of measuring material modulus or lift stiffness in the field require large forces to produce
a measurable deflection. The Geogauge uses technology borrowed from the military to measure very small
deflections, allowing much smaller loads. The Geogauge does not measure the deflection resulting from the
Geogauge weight. Rather, the Geogauge vibrates, producing small changes in force that produce small
deflections. The material deflects an amount δ, which is proportional to the outside radius of the ring foot (R),
the Young’s modulus (E), the shear modulus (G) and Poisson’s ratio (υ) of the soil. The stiffness is the ratio of
the force to displacement. The Geogauge produces soil stress and strain levels common for pavement, bedding
and foundation applications (27.58 kPa or ~ 4 psi). Young's and shear modulus can be determined from
Geogauge measurements if a Poisson's ratio is assumed. (Fig.3)
Fig 3: Relating stiffness to modulus

91
Technical Specifications
Procedure:
Making Stiffness Measurements with the Geogauge per the Following Procedure Conforms To ASTM D6758.
 Inspect the Condition Of The Geogauge Prior To Testing

1) Is the foot clean and free of soil and other debris?
2) Is the rubber seal in good condition?
 Turn On The Geogauge (press “ON” button)

1) The self-test will be run (electronics functionality).
2) Ensure battery voltage is adequate (> 7.5 V).
3) No warm-up required before measurements.
 Prepare The Surface To Be Tested

1) Is the surface smooth and level?
2) Coarse aggregate, hard surfaces or stiff clay may require moist sand to be patted on the surface for good
direct contact with the foot.
3) Ensure the gauge has clearance on the side and bottom, does not come into contact with a trench wall, pipe,
soil, etc.
92
 Enter Data
Enter target stiffness from pre-defined, scrolled list via display, if necessary.
 Verify Geogauge Operation (daily)

Perform a check of Geogauge operation per the Geogauge Verifier Mass Guide.
The Geogauge is operating properly if the mean stiffness is within approximately – 8.6 MN/m and -9.8 MN/m.
 Establish Geogauge Precision (daily)

Locate some compacted material that is representative of what is to be measured that test day. Make a minimum
of 3 measurements at the same test location. Geogauge precision is sufficient if the coefficient of variation of
the measurements is less than 10%.
 Seating of the Foot

How to properly seat the foot will be determined by on-site trial per the recommendations above (see Geogauge
Seating).
 Take The Measurement (press “Meas” button)

1) Geogauge will measure noise as a function of frequency.
2) Geogauge will measure stiffness as a function of frequency.
3) Geogauge will display, in sequence:
• Signal to Noise ratio (SNR) in dB [The stiffer the material, the closer this value will be to 10, indicating that
more than usual attention should be paid to seating.]
• The standard deviation (5d) of all 25 frequency dependent stiffness measurements relative to the displayed
(average) value of stiffness {This number will be small for soft materials ( ~ 1 MN/m) and larger for hard
materials (~ 5 MN/m). A large change in this number between test locations for a given material may indicate
improper seating (e.g., from 1.5 to 3 MN/m). A measurement should be repeated at such a location to assure
proper seating. If the measurement does not change, then it is a true representation of the material.]
• Stiffness or Young’s modulus or fraction of stiffness Target
• Ready for next measurement (last measurement value still displayed)
 Remove the Geogauge From The Test Location

1) Examine the spot and ensure good foot contact (see Geogauge Seating).
2) Clean any soil off of the foot that may have been caked on in the course of testing.
 Store Data (press “SAVE” button)

The measurement ID will be assigned to the stored data. The Geogauge will store data for 500 measurements as
displayed (Operational Mode). Only the first 20 measurements stored will also include the complex, frequency
dependent components of displayed data (Research Mode).
 Turn The Geogauge Off (press “OFF” button)

When done for the day, turn off to save battery power.
 Transfer Data (via optional Infrared interface)

Download data to a PC per Geogauge Data Download Guide.
Precautions:
 Bases or sub bases with high aggregate contents should be avoided for a while until the technician gains
some experience.
 Perform Geo Gauge measurements first, before other companion measurements. Performing
measurements such as FWD or nuclear gauge measurements will disturb the material and affect any
subsequent measurements.
 Repeat measurements at each location at least three times. These repeated measurements will get you
familiar with GeoGauge precision for the corresponding surface conditions. Seating the GeoGauge to
93
the ground is the most important part of the measurement (see GeoGauge Seating below). Always
remove the GeoGauge between measurements and do not touch the GeoGauge during a measurement.
The number of repeated measurements depends on the site.

The Geogauge produces soil stress and strain levels common for pavement, bedding and foundation
applications (27.58 kPa or ~ 4 psi). Young's and shear modulus can be determined from Geogauge
measurements if a Poisson's ratio is assumed.
Result:
The stiffness of the unbound pavement layers by using geogauge is, K=
Limitations:
Its current design was geared specifically to measuring a range of modulus and the stiffness to .22 to .3 m (9 to
12 inches) deep in most soils. Its mechanical impedance is "matched" for this function. The Geogauge's
technology has the capability of measuring much deeper, softer (very wet sand, mud, uncured concrete) and
harder (asphalt, concrete and rock). The current Geogauge cannot precisely measure these, future versions will.
Development has been initiated towards that end.
Applications:
The Geogauge has an application anywhere there is a need to structurally evaluate a construction material in
place.
Following are some examples.
The Geogauge is better suited for the in-place QC of unbound materials than any other available instrument for:
• In-place estimates of Resilient Modulus
• Modulus measurements that relate well to relative compaction
• Identifying structural anomalies
• Quantifying strength gain with time
• Obtaining precise measurements
The Geogauge can be used in the QC of compacted sub grades and bases. The QC method utilizes a control
strip and initially established target stiffness values that are related to conventional relative compaction.
Ultimately, target stiffness values are related to design values and expected values based on experience (e.g.,
Resilient Modulus).
The Geogauge can be used in the QC of stabilized materials. The QC method can determine how soon a
material can bear construction loads, determine the ultimate strength from measurements at the time of
installation or assure structural uniformity of the material.
The Geogauge can be used in-place to estimate CBR and Resilient Modulus or estimate the results of plate load
tests, laboratory R-Value, FWD or DCP with more speed and simplicity and at a much lower cost.
94
References:
 Geogauge User Guide, Model H-4140, by Humboldt Mfg. Co.
 Geogauge White Paper, Rev. 072600 by Humboldt Mfg. Co., Norridge, Illinois, U.S.A.
 TXDOT Report: Evaluation of In-situ Resilient Modulus Testing Techniques (comparison of the
Geogauge with FWD, D-SPA & SASW)
 Humboldt Report: Estimating Dry Density from Soil Stiffness & Moisture Content (the basis for using
the Geogauge to estimate dry density)
 MNDOT Report: MNDOT Overload Field Tests of Standard & SIDD RCP Installations (the importance
of soil stiffness to the installation of buried structures and the potential value of the Geogauge for
evaluating it)
95
6.6 PAVEMENT CONDITION RATING
Objective
To find the condition of road based on visual inspection
Background
A condition survey is the process of collecting data to determine the structural integrity, distresses, skid
resistance, and overall riding quality of the pavement. Traditionally, maintenance or engineering personnel
relied on experience and visual inspections to schedule maintenance. The problems with that technique are that
experience is difficult to transfer from one person to another and decisions made using similar data often vary
considerably. Condition surveys provide a rational and consistent method of allocating limited resources.
PCI. The pavement condition rating is based on the PCI, which is a numerical indicator based on a scale of 0 to
100. The PCI measures the pavement’s structural integrity and surface operational condition. Its scale and
associated ratings are shown in Table-1
By monitoring the pavement condition using the methods described here, we should be able to:
 Evaluate the current condition of the network.

 Determine the rates of deterioration.
 Project future conditions.
 Determine maintenance and rehabilitation needs.
 Determine the costs of repair.
 Prepare plans for repairs.
 Determine the effects of budget reductions and deferred maintenance.
 Schedule future pavement maintenance activities.
 Track performance of various pavement designs and materials.
Assessing the pavement condition begins with collecting data. This data is then interpreted to define the current
state of readiness, or “health” of the pavement. There are generally four types of surveys:
 Distress Surveys
 Structural Capacity
 Roughness (ride quality)
 Skid Resistance (surface friction)
Distress surveys: Surface distress is damage observed on the pavement surface. Distress surveys are performed
to determine the type, severity, and quantity of surface distress. This information is often used to determine a
pavement condition index (PCI), which helps compute a rate of deterioration, and is often used to project future
condition (2). Surface distress and the current or future PCI values are often used to help identify the timing of
maintenance and rehabilitation as well as funding needs in the PMS process. Distress is the measure most used
by maintenance personnel to determine what type of maintenance treatment is required and when maintenance
is needed. It is typically the most important type of condition survey.
Structural capacity: Structural capacity is the maximum load and number of repetitions a pavement can carry
before reaching some defined condition. Structural analysis is normally conducted at the project-level to
determine the pavement load-carrying capacity and the capacity needed to accommodate projected traffic. Non-
destructive deflection testing of the pavement is a simple and reliable method to assist in making this
evaluation; however, destructive testing such as coring and component analysis techniques may be used as well.
Pavement structural evaluation is important in the selection of treatments at the project-level
Roughness (ride quality): Roughness, or ride quality, is a measure of pavement surface distortion along a linear
plane or an estimate of the ability of the pavement to provide a comfortable ride to the users. Roughness is often
converted into an index such as the Present Serviceability Index (PSI) or the International Roughness Index
(IRI). Pavement roughness is considered most important by the using public, and it is especially important on
pavements with higher speed limits, those above 45 miles (70 km) per hour. It is considered very important by
state highway agencies, but is generally of less importance to cities because of the difference in speed limits as
well as the causes of roughness.
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Skid resistance (surface friction): Skid resistance, or surface friction, indicates the ability of the pavement
surface to provide sufficient friction to avoid skid related safety problems. Skid resistance is most important on
pavements with high speeds. It is generally considered a separate measure of the condition of the pavement
surface and often can be used to determine the need for remedial maintenance by itself. Many agencies use
accident maps to identify high accident areas, and then an assessment is made as to whether the accidents are
related to friction problems. Measurements of surface friction can be used to help eliminate potential problem
spots before accidents occur.
Skid resistance measurements are expressed as a skid number. On highway pavements, skid measurements are
usually made with locked wheel skid trailers. Measurement of skid resistance is not typically associated with a
PMS at the local level.
Distress surveys can be performed manually, or automated equipment may be used. In either case, the surface of
the pavement is viewed and evaluation is made to determine the following:
 Type of distress.
 Severity.
 Quantity of distress present on the pavement surface.
The type of distress tells us what type of damage has developed; the severity tells how bad the damage is; and
the quantity gives us the extent of the type and severity of damage that is present. All three of these factors are
required to get a full picture of the damage that has developed on the pavement surface and are used to
determine the type and timing of maintenance, rehabilitation, and reconstruction.
Table 1 Rating of Pavement based on Pavement Condition Index
PCI Rating
85-100 Excellent
70 -85 Very good
55 - 70 Good
40-55 Fair
25-40 Very Good
10 - 25 Poor
0-10 Failed
Apparatus
 Hand Odometer used to measure distress lengths and areas,
 10-foot straightedge
 Ruler to measure the depth of ruts or depressions.
 Data Sheets
Procedure
1. Identify branches of the pavement with different uses such as roadways and parking on the network
layout plan.
2. Divide each branch into sections based on the pavements design, construction history, traffic, and
condition.
3. Divide the pavement sections into sample units. If the pavement slabs in PCC have joint spacing greater
than 25 ft (8 m) subdivide each slab into imaginary slabs. The imaginary
4. slabs all should be less than or equal to 25 ft (8 m) in length, and the imaginary joints dividing the slabs
are assumed to be in perfect condition. This is needed because the deduct values developed for jointed
concrete slabs are less than or equal to 25 ft (8 m).
5. Individual sample units to be inspected should be marked or identified in a manner to allow inspectors
and quality control personnel to easily locate them on the pavement surface. Paint marks along the edge
and sketches with locations connected to physical pavement features are acceptable. It is necessary to be
able to accurately relocate the sample units to allow verification of current distress data, to examine
changes in condition with time of a particular sample unit, and to enable future inspections of the same
sample unit if desired.
6. Select the sample units to be inspected. The number of sample units to be inspected may vary from the
following: all of the sample units in the section, a number of sample units that provides a 95 %
confidence level, or a lesser number.
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7. All sample units in the section may be inspected to determine the average PCI of the section. This is
usually precluded for routine management purposes by available manpower, funds, and time. Total
sampling, however, is desirable for project analysis to help estimate maintenance and repair quantities.
8. The minimum number of sample units (n) that must be surveyed within a given section to obtain a
statistically adequate estimate (95 % confidence) of the PCI of the section is calculated using the
following formula and rounding n to the next highest whole number (see Eq 1).
n =Ns / (e2/4) (N-1) +s2 --------------- 1
2
where:
e = acceptable error in estimating the section PCI; commonly,
e=65 PCI points;
s = standard deviation of the PCI from one sample unit to another within the section. When performing the
initial inspection the standard deviation is assumed to be ten for AC pavements and 15 for PCC pavements. This
assumption should be checked as described below after
PCI values are determined. For subsequent inspections, the standard deviation from the preceding inspection
should be used to determine n; and,
N = total number of sample units in the section.
If obtaining the 95 % confidence level is critical, the adequacy of the number of sample units surveyed must be
confirmed. The number of sample units was estimated based on an assumed standard deviation.
Calculate the actual standard deviation (s) as follows (see Eq 2):
S = (∑ni=1(PCIi –PCIS)2/ (n-1))1/2 …………………………2
where:
PCIi = PCI of surveyed sample units i,
PCIs = PCI of section (mean PCI of surveyed sample units), and
n = total number of sample units surveyed.
9. Calculate the revised minimum number of sample units (Eq 1) to be surveyed using the calculated
standard deviation (Eq 2). If the revised number of sample units to be surveyed is greater than the
number of sample units already surveyed, select and survey additional random sample units. These
sample units should be spaced evenly across the section. Repeat the process of checking the revised
number of sample units and surveying additional random sample units until the total number of sample
units surveyed equals or exceeds the minimum required sample units (n) in Eq 1, using the actual total
sample standard deviation.
10. Once the number of sample units to be inspected has been determined, compute the spacing interval of
the units using systematic random sampling. Samples are spaced equally throughout the section with the
first sample selected at random. The spacing interval (i) of the units to be sampled is calculated by the
following formula rounded to the next lowest whole number:
i = N/n …………………………………… (3)
where:
N = total number of sample units in the section, and
n = number of sample units to be inspected.
The first sample unit to be inspected is selected at random from sample units 1 through i. The sample units
within a section that are successive increments of the interval i after the first randomly selected unit also are
inspected.
11. A lessor sampling rate than the above mentioned 95 % confidence level can be used based on the
condition survey objective.
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12. Select the road section.
13. Each lane is inspected and distress data, Structural Capacity, Roughness and Skid Resistance recorded
on record sheet provided by lab. Record sheet format are given in Annexure -1. It is different for flexible
and concrete pavement.
14. The deduct values are determined from the deduct value curves which are given in Annexure-1.
15. A total deduct value is computed by summing all individual deduct values.
16. The corrected deduct value (CDV) is computed by corrected deduct value curve which is given in
Annexure -1.
17. The PCI (Pavement Condition Index) is computed using the relation PCI = 100- CDV
18. Based on pavement condition index (PCI) value, obtain the condition of pavement i.e. Excellent, Very
Good, Good, Fair, Poor, Very Poor, Failed.
Observation and Calculation:
Distress Density = Distress in squire feet x 100
Sample unit area in square feet
Density = number of potholes X 100
Sample unit area in square feet
Result and Discussion
Limitations
 Two raters should conduct ratings. One rater cannot see all the distresses and operate the vehicle safely.
 Do not conduct visual evaluations in the rain.
Applications
i. Identify immediate maintenance and rehabilitation needs
ii. Monitor pavement condition over time
iii. Develop a network preventive maintenance strategy
iv. Develop road maintenance budgets
v. Evaluate pavement materials and designs
Reference
1. http://www.cee.mtu.edu/~balkire/CE5403/ASTMD6433.pdf
2. https://www.discountpdh.com/.../pavement/Deduct%20value%20curves-..
3. hawaiiasphalt.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/PCI-101.pdf
4. https://www.wbdg.org/ccb/ARMYCOE/COETM/ARCHIVES/tm_5_623.pdf
99
100
Annexure: 1
Table -2 Distress types
https://www.discountpdh.com/.../pavement/Deduct%20value%20curves-.. It contain all the curve maintain in

procedure.
101
Asphalt pavement inspection sheet
For use of this form, see TM 5-623; the proponent agency is USACE
Figure 1. An example of a completed DA Form 5146-R, Asphalt Pavement Inspection Sheet.
102
1. Source- http://www.cee.mtu.edu/~balkire/CE5403/ASTMD6433.pdf
Concrete pavement inspection sheet
For use of is form, see TM 5-623; the proponent agency is USACE.
103
Figure -2. An
example of a completed DA Form 5145-R, Concrete Pavement Inspection Sheet
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6.7 Unevenness Measurement using Dipstick
Objective: To determine the unevenness index of a road stretch using the Dipstick.
Background: The common road users judge the functional requirements of a road pavement in terms of riding
comfort. Poor riding quality as per the judgement of the road users mainly depends upon the presence of
pavement undulations or unevenness. If the longitudinal profile of the pavement surface is undulated or uneven,
when automobiles travel at high speed, the vehicles are subjected to vertical oscillations of varying magnitude
and frequency, causing increase in fuel consumption in vehicles, increase in wear and tear of all moving parts
and in the tyres, increase in discomfort to the passengers and higher rate of fatigue to the drivers and other
occupants of the vehicle. The increase in the cost may be due to:
i. Increase vehicle operation cost

ii. Increase in travel time and consequent increase in time cost of vehicle and time cost of passengers
iii. Increase in intangible costs such as early fatigue of drivers, discomfort to passengers and higher accident
rates.
The undulation or unevenness of pavement surface may be classified in to three categories:
i. Rough surface profile with minor corrugation which cause some discomfort and vibrations, especially in
small automobiles or light vehicles.
ii. Uneven surface with large number of undulations such as small depressions and humps or a wavy
surface which result in considerable discomfort to the passengers and drivers due to the oscillations and
also increase in vehicle operation cost for all categories of automobiles.
iii. Surface with large size depressions on some stretches which may be due to the settlement of
embankment or its foundation which adversely affect high speed movement of vehicles on expressways
and movements of aircrafts on runways.
This instrument can record the pavement profile measurement very accurately. The device records 10 to 15
readings per minute. Software analysis provides a profile accurate to ± 0.127 mm. However, measurements by
dipstick are time consuming and therefore, it is commonly used to measure a profile for calibration of more
complex instruments. The undulation values of pavement surface are expressed in terms of “unevenness index”
or “roughness index” in mm per km road length or m/km.
105
Apparatus: The dipstick profiler can be used to collect a relatively small quantity of pavement profile
measurements. The Dipstick Profiler consists of an inclinometer enclosed in a case supported by two legs
separated by 305 mm (12 in.). Two digital displays are provided, one at each end of the instrument. Each
display reads the elevation of the leg at its end relative to the elevation of the other leg. The operator then
"walks" the dipstick down a premarked pavement section by alternately pivoting the instrument about each leg.
Readings are recorded sequentially as the operator traverses the section. The device records 10 to 15 readings
per minute. Software analysis provides a profile accurate to 0.127 mm (0.005 in.). A strip can be surveyed by a
single operator in about one-half the time of a traditional survey crew. The dipstick is commonly used to
measure a profile for calibration of more complex instruments.
Fig. 1: Dipstick
Procedure:
1. The stretch of the road to be tested is identified and the start and end points are marked by bold lines drawn
across pavement width.

2. The survey is started from one end point to other; the Dipstick has to rotate in one way. Such that to should
start form one point and end on other.
3. As according to electronics arrangements along with the display will give the elevation of the legs with
respect to the other leg.
4. Knowing the elevation for first point we can calculate the elevations for all other points along the profile.
5. The roughness or unevenness can be found out by dividing the total summation of elevations by the distance
covered by dipstick.
Precautions:
1. Level of fluid in dash-pots is up to top mark of dipstick.
2. Only 10 to 15 readings should be taken per minute.
Road: Date:
Section: Nominal speed:
Inflation pressure:
Weather:
Sr.No. Distance Elevation W.R.T. other leg Actual Elevation
106
Summation of total elevations

Unevenness or Roughness =
distance covered
Result: The unevenness index for the given stretch of road is ……. mm/km
Discussions: The main factor affecting the progress of testing are traffic conditions. In areas of heavy traffic
testing is carried out at off-peak times and in some areas it is necessary to work during the night, especially
where it was essential to make runs across closely-spaced junctions. It was found that on urban routes with
traffic lights and pedestrian crossings active police assistance was necessary.
Applications:
1. Dipstick gives accurate value of unevenness for the stretch of the road.
2. The legs are separated by 305mm will give more accuracy in the work.
3. Simple to calculate as elevation directly given on the display.
References:
 Highway materials and pavement testing by Dr. S.K. Khanna, Dr. C.E.G. Justo and Dr. A. Veeraragavan
 IRC: SP: 16-2004: Guidelines for surface evenness of highway pavements.
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6.8 Unevenness Measurement using Bump Integrator
Objective: To determine the unevenness index of a road stretch using the Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator.
Background: The common road users judge the functional requirements of a road pavement in terms of riding
comfort. Poor riding quality as per the judgement of the road users mainly depends upon the presence of
pavement undulations or unevenness. If the longitudinal profile of the pavement surface is undulated or uneven,
when automobiles travel at high speed, the vehicles are subjected to vertical oscillations of varying magnitude
and frequency, causing increase in fuel consumption in vehicles, increase in wear and tear of all moving parts
and in the tyres, increase in discomfort to the passengers and higher rate of fatigue to the drivers and other
occupants of the vehicle. The increase in the cost may be due to:
i. Increase vehicle operation cost

ii. Increase in travel time and consequent increase in time cost of vehicle and time cost of passengers
iii. Increase in intangible costs such as early fatigue of drivers, discomfort to passengers and higher accident
rates.
The undulation or unevenness of pavement surface may be classified in to three categories:
i. Rough surface profile with minor corrugation which cause some discomfort and vibrations, especially in
small automobiles or light vehicles.
ii. Uneven surface with large number of undulations such as small depressions and humps or a wavy
surface which result in considerable discomfort to the passengers and drivers due to the oscillations and
also increase in vehicle operation cost for all categories of automobiles.
iii. Surface with large size depressions on some stretches which may be due to the settlement of
embankment or its foundation which adversely affect high speed movement of vehicles on expressways
and movements of aircrafts on runways.
Bump integrator (BI) is a single-wheel trailer unit hauled by a tractor unit or a suitable vehicle at the specified
uniform speed. The vertical oscillations of the BI are integrated with the help of an attached “integrator unit”.
The undulation values of pavement surface are expressed in terms of “unevenness index” or “roughness index”
in mm per km road length or m/km.
Apparatus: The bump integrator is a trailer unit comprising of a single automobile wheel with rubber tyre of
specified size mounted on a heavy chassis through suitable bearings and suspension system which is hauled at a
uniform speed of 32 kmph by a towing vehicle. Fig. 1 shows a typical sketch of bump integrator.
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Fig. 1: Bump integrator
While the bump integrator is hauled along a road, the test wheel of the trailer unit develops vertical oscillations
due to the presence of different types of undulations on the pavement surface. Part of these oscillations are
dampened or moderated with the help of suitable suspension system consisting of two large dash pots and
springs. The vertical movements of the test wheel with respect to the chassis are integrated by an integrator unit
and are recorded on an electro-magnetic counter with digital display. The cumulative value or the integrated
value of the vertical movements of the test wheel is displayed in mm or cm or meter units. There is another
digital display unit which will indicate the number of revolutions of the test wheel, which is the measure of road
length traversed during the test. In addition, the profile of the pavement surface as sensed by this bump
integrator unit is also recorded on a chart.
Procedure:
1. The stretch of the road to be tested is identified and the start and end points are marked by bold lines drawn
across pavement width.
2. The digital counters, one indicating the cumulative value of undulations and other indicating the number of
revolutions of the test wheel are set to read zero when test wheel crosses the starting line or else initial
reading may be noted down.
3. When the test wheel of bump integrator unit crosses the ending line, the readings of both the counters are
noted and recorded.
4. The hauling vehicle and the BI unit are reversed and the test run is made along the other wheel path in the
counter run, noting down the initial and final readings.
5. Similarly, total three to four test runs are made along each wheel path so as to determine the mean value of
unevenness.
6. In case of undivided roads, the first run is made along the left wheel path on the onward trip from the
starting point to the end while it is run along other wheel path in return trip.
7. In case of divided highways with multiple lanes, each wheel path shall be covered during each test run in
each direction and the required number of test runs may be made along each wheel path.
Precautions:
1. The tyre pressure should be 2.07 bars.
2. Level of fluid in dash-pots is up to top mark of dipstick.
3. Integrator cord terminal shall be in ‘operational’ position and cord should not be allowed to break.
4. Allen screws on dash-pot assembly shall be tightened.
5. Brake lights, roof flasher and electrical connections should be checked.
6. Each test section should preferably be 0.8 km long and not less than 0.4 km.
7. The machine should be driven at 32 kmph else necessary corrections shall be made.
Road: Date:
109
Section: Nominal speed:
Inflation pressure: Weather:
Time Wheel Distance Speed Integrator Unevenness Corrected

Section
(sec) rev. (m) (kmph) counter index (mm/km) index (mm/km)
Integrator counter value × number of wheel revolutions in one mile

Unevenness index (UI) =
Recorded number of wheel revolutions
Result: The unevenness index for the given stretch of road is ……. mm/km
Discussions: The main factor affecting the progress of testing are traffic conditions. In areas of heavy traffic
testing is carried out at off-peak times and in some areas it is necessary to work during the night, especially
where it was essential to make runs across closely-spaced junctions. It was found that on urban routes with
traffic lights and pedestrian crossings active police assistance was necessary. On rural or suburban roads
measurements were made in sections on either side of junctions with major roads. The most effective form of
police assistance was that of a team of two motorcycles. This type of escort was extremely mobile and flexible,
and by 'leap frogging' each other the motor-cyclists could cope with every traffic situation. The other form of
escort used was that of a police car preceding the towing vehicle. This proved useful in coping with pedestrian
crossings and traffic lights but was unable to control traffic speed and movement of individual vehicles which
made it difficult, on occasions, to maintain the bump-integrator speed at 20 mph (32 km/hr). Generally the
weather conditions did not greatly affect testing, unless the roads had a coating of snow or ice which prohibited
measurement. It was found however that heavy rain gave integrator counter readings 2 to 3 units lower on each
half mile (0.8 km) section. Measurement in heavy rain is therefore not recommended.
Applications:
1. The bump integrator offers a rapid means of measuring unevenness or riding quality.
2. Consistent results can be obtained if unit is operated correctly.
3. Simple numerical output is easy to handle for long lengths of road where graphic record is tedious to
evaluate.
4. The maximum permissible values of unevenness index measured with bump integrator for different surfaces
as per IRC specifications are given below:
110
Condition of road surface
S.No. Type of Surface
Good Average Poor
1 Surface Dressing < 3500 3500 - 4500 > 4500
2 Open Graded Pre-mix carpet < 3000 3000 - 4000 > 4000
3 Mix seal surfacing < 3000 3000 - 4000 > 4000
4 Semi-dense bituminous concrete < 2500 2500 - 3500 > 3500
5 Bituminous concrete < 2000 2000 - 3000 > 3000
6 Cement concrete < 2200 2200 - 3000 > 3000
References:
 Highway materials and pavement testing by Dr. S.K. Khanna, Dr. C.E.G. Justo and Dr. A. Veeraragavan
 IRC: SP: 16-2004: Guidelines for surface evenness of highway pavements.
 Bump-integrator measurements in routine assessment of highway maintenance needs by W.G. Keir,
Transport and Road Research Laboratory.
111
6.9 FIELD CBR AND LAYER THICKENESS USING DYNAMIC CONE
PENETROMETER (D.C.P)
Objective: To determine the strength of in-situ soil i.e. C.B.R and the thickness and location of underlying
layers.
Background:
The dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT) was developed in Australia by Scala (1956). The current model was
developed by the Transvaal Roads Department in South Africa (Luo, 1998). The mechanics of the DCPT shows
features of both the CPT and SPT. The DCPT is performed by dropping a hammer from a certain fall height
measuring penetration depth per blow for a certain depth.
The dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT) was originally developed as an alternative for evaluating the
properties of flexible pavement or subgrade soils. The conventional approach to evaluate strength and stiffness
properties of asphalt and subgrade soils involves a core sampling procedure and a complicated laboratory
testing program such as resilient modulus, Marshall tests and others (Livneh et al. 1994). Due to its economy
and simplicity, better understanding of the DCPT results can reduce significantly the effort and cost involved in
the evaluation of pavement and subgrade soils.
The basic principle of the test is based on the fact that the resistance to penetration of a standard cone pushed in
to a layer, depends on the strength characteristics of the material in the layer including its dry density and
moisture content.
The resistance to penetration of the standard cone in to the layers is measured in terms of the depth of
penetration due to dropping the hammer of specified weight from a specified height per blow of the hammer of
DCP
It is also possible to access the boundaries between different layers with different strength and densities and
thus to estimate the thickness of layer.
Apparatus:
Figure 1. Shows a typical configuration of the dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP). As shown in the figure, the
DCP consists of upper and lower shafts. The upper shaft has an 8 kg (17.6 lb) drop hammer with a 575 mm
(22.6 in) drop height and is attached to the lower shaft through the anvil. The lower shaft contains an anvil and a
cone attached at the end of the shaft. The cone is replaceable and has a 60 degree cone angle. As a reading
device, an additional rod is used as an attachment to the lower shaft with marks at every 5.1 mm (0.2 in).
112
Fig1. Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

Procedure:
A two-person team is needed to operate a manual DCP. One serves as the operator and the other is the recorder.
In addition to the DCP, the team must also have a hammer on hand. After locating a test point, the operator
follows these steps.
1. The DCP assembly must be held vertically and the cone is seated such that the top of the widest part in
the cone is flushed with the surface layer which is to be tested.
2. Initial reading of the graduated drive rod is noted to the nearest mm.
3. Hammer is released from the standard drop height and the penetration reading is noted, from which the
penetration value per hammer blow is determined.
4. The penetration readings at the corresponding number of hammer blows may be recorded in increments
of about 10mm penetration.
5. Alternatively, the penetration scale readings may be recorded after a set of 5 blows.
6. For hard pavement layers, like granular sub layers, sub bases, stabilized layers the readings may be
taken at every 5-10blows
7. However if too less readings are recorded, there is a possibility of missing the weak spot and it may be
difficult to identify the boundaries of different layers accurately.
8. If the total depth of penetration is more than 400-500mm the extension rods of DCP are to be used.

113
 A table for the penetration details of the pavement layers is prepared as shown below
S.No. No. of blows Cumulative Penetration Cumulative layers
no. of blows (mm) penetration
(mm)
1 5
2 5
3 5
4 5
5 5
6 5
7 5
8 5
9 5
 CBR values of different layers is calculated using the following equation.

log10 𝐶𝐵𝑅 = 2.48 − 1.057 log10 𝐷𝐶𝑃…………………………………… (1)
Where DCP in (mm/blow) for each layer
Graphs:
Graphs have to be plotted for
 Cumulative Dynamic penetration Vs. Cumulative no. of blows
Results:
CBR of the layer 1 ………% and thickness ……….mm
Applications:
1. Locating layers in pavement structures and pavement rehabilitation strategy determination
2. Identifying weak spots in constructed embankments.
3. Determining thaw/freeze depth during spring.
References:
1. IS 4968 part 1 and 2(1976) Method for subsurface sounding for soils.
2. ASTM D6951-03 Standard Test Method for Use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer in Shallow
Pavement Applications
3. User guide to the DCP, office of material research and engineering Mn/DOT April 1993
4. Use of DCP for finding the strength of unbound paving materials and subgrade soils for pavement
design, Robert Van Sambeek December 1991.
114
6.10 MODULUS AND REBOUND DEFLECTION USING FALLING WEIGHT
DEFLECTOMETER (LOADMAN)
Objective: To measure E modulus and rebound deflection using Loadman.
Background: Loadman is a light weight portable device for measurement of deflection caused by a falling
weight inside the device. The device is easy to handle and can be used practically on all construction sites and
materials under any conditions. It allows measurement of bearing capacity and compaction of construction
layers and constructions in places where other commonly used measuring instruments cannot be used owing to
their size, or because of the necessity to use a lorry or a van as a weight and/or transportation unit.
The deflection caused by the load of a falling weight is measured by an accelerometer. The acceleration is
double integrated and thus the deflection can be calculated. The measuring results are given as the maximum
deflection, the calculated bearing capacity modulus E, the length of the loading impulse and the percentage
(approx.) of the rebound deflection compared to the maximum deflection as well as the compaction ratio, that is
the ratio of the second and further on deflections compared to the first measured deflection (effectiveness of
compaction).
Technically the device can be used on practically all kinds of construction sites to measure bearing capacity and
for compaction control on bound, unbound and special layers; for example on roads, streets, bridge sites, house
building sites, in trenches, on sports fields (football, baseball, tennis, golf, athletics etc.) as well as for
laboratory tests of various kinds of materials.
The E-modulus obtained is based on the elastic deformation of a pavement under a circular load. It is calculate
as:
E = 1.5 P R /LDEF
Where E is the modulus of elasticity
P is the unit load on the Loadman plate in N/mm2
R is the radius of the Loadman plate in mm
LDEF is the deflection measured by the Loadman in mm
Apparatus: The device consists of a closed aluminum tube of 132 mm diameter. Inside the tube there is a
freely moving 10 kg steel weight with a rubber cushion at its lower end. At the lower end of the tube there is a
132 mm steel flange fastened to the tube by four screws to prevent movement between the tube and the flange.
For successful measurement it is essential that the steel flange is well fastened.
The electronic measuring device of the falling weight deflectometer is fixed to the upper end of the tube. The
electronics with the accelerometer and display are fixed to a plastic flange fastened to the tube with four screws.
This flange, too, must be absolutely tightly fixed.
Inside the tube there is a plate made of aluminum. To the plate a magnet is fastened to hold the falling weight
steady when preparing for measurement. The magnet is attached to the flange by a flexible rubber mounting.
The batteries required by the electronic appliances (3 pcs 9 V) are in a battery-case below the electronic
appliance. To change the batteries the measurement unit must be removed.
Technical information
Total weight 16kg
Height 117cm
115
Diameter of loading plate 132 and 300mm
Mass of falling weight 10kg
Falling height 80cm
Operating voltage 27V, three 9V batteries
Measuring range 0.1-5mm approx.
Duration of loading / unloading impulse 25-30 ms approx.
Misc. LCD display and four buttons
What's included Carrying case, 300mm plate, two allen wrenches
Fig 1: Loadman Cross section.
Procedure:
The measurement is carried out as follows.
1. Switch the black switch with a green dot to the right to turn the measurement on. Let it be on for about one
minute in order to get the electronics to set up. Charging the condensator of the magnet between measurements
about 5 seconds.
2. Turn the device upside down by its handles in order to slide the falling weight to the upper end of the tube
and get it attached to the magnet.
3. Put the device on the measuring spot in an upright position. Make sure that the loading plate surface rests
fully on the measuring surface. If the plate touches the ground only partially the surface pressure during the will
become higher than the measurement constant surface pressure.
116
It is advisable to tum the tube when placing it on the spot so that the plate fully touches the ground (unbound
constructions). When measuring on bound constructions, especially on an asphalt surface, a thin layer of
levelling sand can be used (for the first measurement the sand layer is packed).
Please note: The tube does not need to be in a completely vertical position (but a free fall is a necessity), it is
more important that the loading plate touches the ground completely.
4. The measuring takes place (and the weight by the red pressing button.
5. The second measurement and subsequent measurements are carried out as explained above in 2&4. The
procedure of, for instance, a plate loading apparatus is followed and the E-modulus of the second measurement
is compared with the E-modulus of the first measurement to follow the compaction.
6. When you wish to start measurements on a new spot or carry out a first measurement push the green button to
reset the measuring procedure.
Function of the buttons
Colour Function
Black/green dot On/off Right =on, left = off
Red Dropping the weight= measurement
Green Resetting the measuring cycle, in other words first measurement of the senses.
It also resets the electronics.
Black This button sets the calibration constant needed for calculation of E-modulus (E, MPa) selected
depending on the diameter of the loading plate (setting range 0…250)
Precautions:
1. The device should operate at -5o temperatures at the lowest and at the highest about +70o (specifications of
LCD- display).
2. The clean condition of the surface of the falling weight, especially the upper surface that is attached to the
magnet should be checked occasionally, especially if there have been disturbances.
3. The tightness of the screws in the upper and lower end and middle plates must be checked from time to time.
Looseness of the lower and upper end plate screws may cause disturbances in the results. Looseness of the
screws in the lower end can also damage the screw joints.
Table 1: Calculation of overall deflection

Deflection
Elastic
Deflection time to Elasticity Average Overall
S.No Interval modulus, E
(mm) deflection Index deflection average
(Mpa)
peak (ms)
117
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
The overall average deflection of the stretch is
Limitation:
1. Single point deflection
Applications:
Recommended on thin pavements with smooth surfaces subject to good correlations with already established
methods
References:
1. http://www.al-engineering.fi/en/loadman.html
2.http://www.ipenz.org.nz/ipenz/publications/indexes/transaction/transactions97/civil/3pidwer.pdf
3. Guidelines for Maintenance Management of Primary, Secondary and Urban Roads,” IRC, 2004.
4. www.civil.iitb.ac.in/~kvkrao/.../Measuring%20Distress.pdf
5. http://www.lpcb.org/index.php/component/docman/doc_view/509-1994-comparison-of-loadman-and-
benkelman-beam-deflection-measurements?Itemid=
6. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X6DUxSOj3WU
7. http://www.astm.org/Standards/D4694.htm
118
6.11 DESIGN OF OVERLAY USING BENKELMAN BEAM TECHNIQUE

Objective:-
 To assess the structural strength of the pavement using the surface deflection under standard axle load.
 To design the overlays of the pavement so that the deflections are reduce to a tolerable amount.
Background:-
A.C. Benkelman Devised the simple deflection beam in 1953 for measurement of pavement surface deflection
on the WASHO Test Road. It is widely used all over the World for evaluation of the requirements of
strengthening of flexible pavements. Deflection beam has been in use in India for more than two decades by
different organisations. To lay down a uniform procedure for the design of flexible overlays using the
Benkelman Beam deflection technique, tentative guidelines are published in IRC:-81-1997 Code.
Performance of flexible pavements is closely related to the elastic deflection of pavement under the wheel
loads. The deformation or elastic deflection under a given load depends upon subgrade soil type, its moisture
content and compaction, the thickness and quality of the pavement courses, drainage conditions, pavement
surface temperature etc. Pavement deflection is measured by the Benkelman Beam which consists of a slender
beam 3.66m long pivoted at a distance of 2.44 m from the tip. By suitably placing the probe between the dual
wheels of loaded truck, it is possible to measure the rebound and residual deflections of the pavement structure.
While the rebound deflection is the one related to pavement performance, the residual deflection may be due to
non-recoverable deflection of the pavement or because of the influence of the deflection bowl on the front legs
of the beam.
Apparatus:-
 Trucks- Satisfying all conditions
 Measuring tapes
 Chalks
 Digging tools in pavement up to subgrade levels
 Thermometer
 Rapid moisture meter
 Scale
 Axle Weighing pads
 Pressure gauge
 Straight Edge (3m long)
 Benkelman Beam, Dial gauge with Least Count of 0.01mm
 Glycerol
 Mandrel
119
Fig. No. 1:- Benkelman Beam Setup

Procedure:-
1) Pavement condition survey has to be done for dividing the road sections into uniform sections
2) Minimum of 10 points have to be selected. In each road section of uniform performance minimum of ten
points should be marked at equal distance in each lane of traffic for making the deflection measurements in
the outer wheel path. The interval between the points should not be more than 50 m. On roads having more
than one lane, the points marked on adjacent lanes should be staggered.
3) The point on the pavement to be tested is selected and marked. For highways, the point should be located 60
cm from the pavement edge if the lane width is less than 3.5 m and 90 cm from the pavement edge for wider
lanes. For divided four lane highway, the measurement points should be 1.5 m from the pavement edge.
4) The dual wheels of the truck are centred above the selected point.
5) The probe of the Benkelman beam is inserted between the duals and placed on the selected point
6) The locking pin is removed from the beam and the legs are adjusted so that the plunger of the beam is in
contact with the stem of the dial gauge. The beam pivot arms are checked for free movement
7) The dial gauge is set at approximately 1 cm the initial reading is recorded when the rate of deformation of
the pavement is equal or less than 0.025 mm / min.
8) The truck is slowly driven a distance of 270 cm and stopped.
9) An intermediate reading is recorded when the rate of recovery of the pavement is equal or less than 0.025
mm / min
10) The truck is driven forward a further 9m
11) The final reading is recorded when the rate of recovery of pavement is equal to or less than 0.025mm / min
12) Pavement temperature is recorded at least once every hour inserting thermometer in the standard hole and
filling up the hole with glycerol.
13) The tyre pressure is checked at two or three hour intervals during the day and adjusted to the standard, if
necessary.
Procedure for determining the temperature:-
120
a) A hole has to be drilled into the pavement with the help of a mandrel. The depth of the hole is 45 mm and
the diameter of the hole at the top is 1.25 cm and at the bottom is 1 cm.
b) The hole has to be filled with glycerol and the temperature has to be recorded after 5 minutes with the
thermometer (range of temperature between 0 -100°) with 1° division.
c) The temperature readings have to be measured for every hour during the survey.
Procedure for soil collection:-
a) Make a test pit in the shoulder to a depth up to 15 cm below the subgrade level in every km. Using an auger
collect the soil sample from the subgrade beneath the deflection points (These are the points which are at a
distance of 0.6m from the edge of the pavement if the carriageway width < 3.5 m (single lane road); 0.9 m if
the carriageway width is greater than 3.5 m (Two lane road and 1.5 m if it is a four lane road).
b) Minimum sample weight should be 100gm.
Corrections to be applied:-
a) Temperature corrections:- The stiffness of bituminous layers changes with temperature of the binder and
consequently the surface deflections of a given pavement will vary depending on the temperature of the
constituent bituminous layers. Correction for temperature variation on deflection values measured at
temperature other than 35°C should be 0.01 mm for each degree centigrade change from the standard
temperature of 35°C. The correction will be positive for pavement temperature lower than 35°C and
negative for pavement temperature higher than 35°C.
b) Seasonal correction:- Correction for seasonal variation shall depend on type of subgrade soil, its field
moisture content (at the time of deflection survey) and average annual rainfall in the area. For this purpose,
subgrade soils have been divided into three broad categories, namely sand/gravelly, clayey with low
plasticity (PI<=15) and clayey with high plasticity (PI>15). Similarly, rainfall has been divided into two
categories, namely low rainfall (annual rainfall <=1300mm) and high rainfall (annual rainfall >1300mm).
121
122
Observations and Calculations:-

 The design traffic is considered in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles,
Ns = (365* A [(1 + r )x – 1]) * F / r
Where Ns =the cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for in the
A = Initial traffic, in the year of completion of construction, in terms of no. of commercial vehicles per day duly
modified to account for the lane distribution
r= Annual growth rate of commercial vehicles
x = Design life in years
F = Vehicle Damage factor.
 Truck specifications for conducting the test:-

- Rear axle weight of the truck = 8170 kg
- Tyre pressure = 5.6 kg / cm2
- Spacing between the tyre walls = 30 -40 mm.
 Overlay Design Calculations:-
- If Dintermediate – Dfinal <= 0.025 mm and Dinitial – Dfinal <= 0.025 mm
Actual deflection (XT) = 2 (Dinitial – Dfinal)
- If Dinitial – Dfinal > 0.025 mm,
- Actual deflection XT = XA + 2.91 Y = 2(Dinitial – Dfinal) + 2.91 [2 (Dfinal - Dintermediate)].
- Rebound deflection = 2* XT
 The deflection values corrected for temperature shall be multiplied by the appropriate values of seasonal
correction factors to obtain corrected values of deflection.
- Mean deflection = Xi = Σ X / n
- Standard deviation = Q = sqrt (Σ(X- Xi)2 / n-1)
- Characteristic Deflection = DC = Xi+ 2Q (For minor roads, arterials, NH and SHs with CVPD >=1500
and
DC = Xi+ Q (For minor roads, arterials, NH and SHs with CVPD <1500)
 Design of overlay:- The design curves relating characteristic pavement deflection to the cumulative number
of standard axles to be carried over the design life is given by the following figure.
123
Fig. No. 8:- Overlay Thickness design curves
Results:-
The Characteristic Deflection DC, mm =
The thickness of Bituminous Macadam Overlay, mm =
Discussions and Applications:-
An important drawback when using the device is that most analysis methods of the test-results. Like the TRRL-
method are empirically based, which can make applications outside the empirical limits at least disputable.
Obvious examples of these empirical limits are climate, types of pavement structures, material type and traffic
characteristics. Less important are the geometry of the Benkelman beam, parameters describing the load and
load geometry and parameters derived from the measurements.
Applications:-
The Benkelman beam test can be a valuable aid to the engineer in providing a more objective basis for his
determination of the requirements for reinforcing and upgrading flexible pavements, evaluating his flexible
pavement designs, and in setting spring load restrictions. It is hoped that engineers will take advantage of this
research and implement a program of deflection measurements to aid them in making engineering decisions in
which the strength of flexible pavements is a factor. It will provide a practical and relatively economical means
for our local highway engineers to obtain a measure of the strength (load carrying capacity) of flexible
pavements. The results from the test can be used for analysing the bearing capacity of an existing pavement
structure and to design the possible required overlay.
References:-
 IRC-81-1997
 www.Ipcb.org
 www.authorstream.com
 INV 603- Summary report- State of Minnesota Department of Highway
124
 CE742- Lecture 21
125
126

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Transportatopn Engineering Laboratory

Department of Civil Engineering

I M. Tech (Transportation Engineering)

Sl. No. Experiment Title Page No.

Fig 1: - Relationship between Volume of soil and Its Moisture Content

Table: 1- Determination of Moisture Content

Fig: 3- Determination of Liquid Limit From graph

1. IS:2720(Part5)-1985 Determination of Liquid Limit

Aim: To determines the plastic limit of soils.

Result: Report the plastic limit to the nearest whole number

Figure 1: Grain size distribution diagram

Figure 1. Graph between water content and dry density.

Figure 2. Standard Proctor test equipment

Figure 6: Grain size distribution curve

Weight of water equal to the volume of the aggregate = (w3-ws) g

Specific gravity = dry weight of aggregate/ weight of equal volume of water

Condition of Sample Maximum Aggregate Impact Value (%)

Crushing test setup

Mass of the test specimen M1 = g

S. No. Details Trial number Average

Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) = M2/M1 * 100

Results and Discussion:

Original weight of sample = W1 gm

Los Angeles Abrasion values for common Rock types

Penetration test concept

Average penetration value (1/10th of mm) =

Results and Discussion:

Test property Test run Mean value

Results and Discussion:

Observations and Calculations:

Results and Discussions:

Distance between clips 30.0 ± 0.3mm

Apparatus for the bitumen Softening Point Test

Figure 1 Specific gravity bottles

Figure 2: analytical balance equipped with pan straddle

Fig. 1 Ductility testing machine with briqutte mould

Figure 1: Rolling thin film oven

Fig 2: Complex modulus

δ = time lag between occurrence of τmax and γmax

4. TESTS ON BITUMINOUS MIXTURES

Unit weight (Gb)

Theoretical s.g. (Gt)

Flow value (mm)

Determination of Bulk specific gravity:

Computation of volumetric properties of the specimens:

Phase diagram of bituminous mix

Determination of design binder content:

Observations and Calculations:

Results and Discussion:

Stripping value of aggregates is: _______________

B. Maximum Specific Gravity (Gmm) of Loose Asphalt Mixtures:

Table 3: CoreLok Max Gravity Data Collection Table

Results and discussions:

Observation and calculation:

Results and discussions:

Material Value Specification HMA Distress of Concern

Observations and Calculations:

Where, df = final dial gauge reading in mm.

Graph between load and penetration

Calculation of CBR from Load Penetration Curve:

Variation of load as a function of penetration

Standard loads at specified penetrations

Results and Discussion:

The CBR value of the given soil is: _____________