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Networking Fundamentals
Fourth Edition
Chapter 12
Basic Switching and Switch
Configuration
Objectives
• Ethernet
– A network access method or media access method
– Originated by the University of Hawaii.
– Later adopted by Xerox Corporation in 1972.
– Standardized as IEEE 802.3 in the early 1980s.
• Today, Ethernet is:
– Most pervasive network access method in use
– Most commonly implemented media access method in
new LANs
• Collisions
– Two stations could listen to the wire simultaneously
and not sense a carrier signal
– Both stations might begin to transmit their data
simultaneously
– Once a collision is detected, the first station to detect
the collision transmits a 32-bit jam signal
• Tells all other stations not to transmit for a brief period
– The two stations that caused the collision use an
algorithm to enter a backoff period *
• Collision domain
– The physical area in which a packet collision might
occur
– Routers, switches, bridges, and gateways segment
networks
• And thus create separate collision domains
– The 32-bit jam signal that is transmitted when the
collision is discovered prevents all stations on that
collision domain from transmitting
• Broadcasts
– Stations on a network broadcast packets to other
stations to make their presence known on the network
• And to carry out normal network tasks!
– When a segment has too much broadcast traffic:
• Utilization increases
• Network performance in general suffers
• When broadcast traffic is above 10% of the available
network bandwidth. People may experience
– slower file transfers, e-mail access delays, and
slower Web access
CCNA Guide to Cisco Networking Fundamentals, Fourth Edition 7
CSMA/CD (continued)
• Broadcasts
– Simple ways to reduce broadcast traffic:
• Reduce the number of services that servers provides on
your network and limit the number of protocols in use on
your network
• You can also eliminate unnecessary protocols to
eliminate broadcast traffic on the network.
– IPX protocol on a server in an IP-only network
• Broadcasts
• Broadcast storm
• Broadcast storm
– A sudden rush of network transmissions that causes
all other network communications to slow down
• Due to the volume of data competing for access to the
same bandwidth on the communication medium
• BC Storm occurs when 126 or more BC packets are
being transmitted per second
• One of the most common causes of broadcast
storms is a network loop
• Transmission time
– The amount of time it takes for a packet to be sent
from one device to another.
– The latency of the devices and media between the two
hosts affects the transmission time.
– The more processing a device must perform on a data
packet, the higher the latency.
– The maximum latency for a repeater can be as high as 140
bit times
Table 12-1 illustrates the maximum propagation delays for various media
and devices on an Ethernet network. The propagation delays shown illustrate
the maximum allowable round-trip delays for cabling and devices on a 100-
Mbps Ethernet network.
• Bit time
– Refers to the amount of time required to transmit one
data bit on a network
3. Collision errors
– Reducing the number of devices per collision domain
will usually solve the problem
• You can do this by segmenting your network with a
router, a bridge, or a switch
– Late collision
• Occurs when two stations transmit more than 64 bytes
of data frames before detecting a collision
• In other words, a late collision occurs when the slot time
of 512 bits has been exceeded
• Causes: too many repeaters, too long cable, device
malfunction.
CCNA Guide to Cisco Networking Fundamentals, Fourth Edition 20
Half- and Full-Duplex Communications
• Half-duplex communications
– Devices can send and receive signals, but not at the
same time
• Full-duplex (or duplex) communications
– Devices can send and receive signals simultaneously
• Ethernet networks can use equipment that supports
half- and full-duplex communications
• Bridge
– Segments a network by filtering traffic at the Data Link
layer
– Divides a network into two or more segments
• Only forwards a frame from one segment to another if
the frame is a broadcast or has the MAC address of a
station on a different segment
• Bridges learn MAC addresses by reading the source
MAC addresses from frames
– As the frames are passed across the bridge
• Bridging table
– Maps the MAC addresses on each segment to the
corresponding port on the bridge to which each
segment is connected
• Bridges increase latency, but because they
effectively divide the collision domain
– This does not affect slot time
• Router
– Operates at layer 3 of the OSI reference model
– Interprets the Network layer protocol and makes
forwarding decisions based on the layer 3 address
• Routers typically do not propagate broadcast traffic
– Thus, they reduce network traffic even more than
bridges do
• Routers maintain routing tables that include the
Network layer addresses of different segments
• Adaptive cut-through
– For the most part, the adaptive cut-through switch will
act as a cut-through switch
• To provide the lowest latency
– However, if a certain level of errors is detected, the
switch will:
• Change forwarding techniques
• Act more as a store-and-forward switch