Electrostatic Discharge Hazards and

Control Measures
Dr. P. Bhattacharjee

Scientist 'G'
Defence Research & Development Laboratory, Hyderabad, India

I. HISTORY Although such catastrophes are terrible and spectacular, they

are quite rare; but a more insidious aspect of ESD bloomed in
Static electricity is the most ancient form of electricity known the early 1970s, with the massive arrival of integrated
to humans. More than 2000 years ago, the Greeks recognized microelectronics. The plants producing integrated circuits
the attraction between certain materials when they were rubbed (lCs) started to experience disappointing percentage yields.
together; indeed, the word electricity comes from the Greek Once thoroughly investigated, the problem was found to be
th th
elektron, which means amber. During the 17 and 18 largely due to ESD during all fabrication steps and handling.
centuries, several key experiments were conducted to Although the problem has been fully explained and drastic
understand and measure static electricity. But the discovery of solutions adopted, ESD is still costing millions of dollars a
electro magnetism and its formidable breakthrough has rapidly year of pure losses. Considering the astronomical quantities of
outgrown interest in static electricity, Even today, where the ICs manufactured each year, the mere fact that 3 to 30% of
industrial applications of static electricity are not insignificant, them die in infancy because of ESD represents an impressive
they cannot compare with those of electromagnetism and amount of money. Around 1980, Lockheed Corporation
electrodynamics, If we consider the thousands of lightning reported a one-year cost savings of $1. 8 million through static
strikes hitting the terrestrial atmosphere every minute, we have protection measures, which reduced ESD-related failures by a
to realize that our planet with its surrounding clouds is nothing 16 to 1 ratio. Even with severe protection measures, some
more than a huge electrostatic machine constantly charging manufacturers still confess that ESD is causing 39 to 48% of
and discharging on itself. their IC rejects.

II. IMPORTANT EVENTS III. THE ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE

PHENOMENON
For decades, people have been learning the hard way that
statics can cause explosions of fuels and ammunitions, In Static electrification or charging refers to all processes that
1937, the German flying boat Hindenburg arriving in produce segregation of positive and negative electrical charges
Lakehurst, New Jersey, caught fire while anchoring at its into relatively stationary groupings.
landing mast What could have been a severe incident became
a tragedy: Due to international tension, the United States had 3.1 Triboelectric Charging
put an embargo on helium sales to Germany and the vessel was
The most common charging mechanism is triboelectric
inflated with hydrogen instead, The resulting fire caused the
charging. This mechanism involves electron or ion transfer
death of 37 of its hundred or so passengers. Although the
upon contact, due to the frictional localized heating of
causes have not been completely understood, electrostatic
microscopic contact areas on solid surfaces. The localized
discharge (ESD) is at the top of the list More recently, during
microscopic regions of material are melted, allowing increased
the 1970s in the United States, a spacecraft launching rocket
charge mobility. Distinctions among various levels of material
exploded during the fueling operation, killing three engineers.
resistivity are based on surface and volume resistance. The
The cause was, beyond any doubt, identified as ESD. Satellites
electrostatic charge that can be developed between two
have paid a heavy toll because of ESD, from minor anomalies
materials is a function of their relative position in the
to severe malfunctions, as in the European Space Agency
triboelectric series, and of their resistivity. Those materials in
(ESA) MARECS satellite. In January 1985, during the
the series that also have a higher resistivity can accumulate
assembly of a Pershing missile near Heilbronn, Germany, the
significant charge because a longer time is required for charge
motor case, made ofKevlar, was repeatedly rubbed against the
to bleed off such materials.
cushioning in its container. The ensuing ESD caused the 4 tons
of highly flammable propellant to catch fire and the motor 3.2 Induction
exploded, blowing parts 125 meters away, killing three people
Induction, or electrostatic induction, is a means by which
and injuring nine.
portions of humans or other items can become differentially
978-1-4673-7231-2/15/$31.00 ©2015 IEEE charged. Such charge redistribution takes place on a body
when the electrostatic field of a nearby charged object, such as
the face of a cathode ray tube, polarizes
nonconductive body or redistributes charges on a conductive
body. As a result, even though the person or object as a whole
may remain electrically neutral, its charge may be distributed
unequally, thereby creating the possibility of an electrostatic
discharge from some portion of the person or object.
3.3 Physical Charge Transfer
This type of charging occurs when charged particles are
physically transferred to an object that is itself not creating the
charge. For example, a person who is pushing an equipment
cart, which is accumulating charge due to rolling friction, may
be charged by the cart. Also, charging via an ion stream is
another example of physical charge transfer.
charges of a The Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE) required to initiate the
EED is 0.001 joule or below. the generated energy is more
than enough to ignite the EED. Hence it is required to take
ESD control measures to prevent the ESD hazards.
Flammable mixtures of solvents and air can be ignited by the
static charge that can be accumulated on a person. Typical
flammable solvents are ethyl ether, ethyl alcohol, ethyl acetate,
acetone, benzene, naphtha and toluene which can be ignited by
ESD. The minimum spark energies of hydrogen in air are
0.017 mJ at 101.3 kPa. Even a weak spark caused by the
discharge of static electricity from a human body may be
sufficient to ignite any of these fuels in air.
VI. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ESD CONTROL

IV. STATIC ELECTRIC DISCHARGE FROM THE

The SIX basic principles in the development and
HUMAN BODY
implementation of effective ESD control programmes are
given below:
If a person is insulated from ground, that person can
accumulate a significant amount of charge by walking on an
A. Design in Immunity by designing products and
insulating surface, by touching a charged object, by brushing
assemblies to be as immune as reasonable from the
surfaces while wearing nonconductive clothing, or by
effects of ESD.
momentarily touching a grounded object in the presence of
B. Define the level of control needed in the environment.
charges in the environment. During normal activity, the
C. IdentifY and define the electrostatic protected areas
potential of the human body can reach 10 kV to 15 kV, and the
(EPA), the areas in which sensitive parts are handled.
energy of a possible spark can reach 20 mJ to 30 mJ. By
D. Eliminate and reduce generation by reducing and
comparing these values with the Minimum Ignition Energies
eliminating static charge generating processes, keeping
(MIE) of gases or vapors, the hazard can easily be identified.
processes and materials at the same electrostatic potential
and by providing appropriate ground paths to reduce
For static electricity to cause ignition, four conditions must
charge generation and accumulation.
exist:
E. Dissipate and neutralize by grounding and the use of
1. An effective means of static electricity generation. conductive and dissipative static control materials.
2. A means of accumulating the charges and maintaining a F. Protect products from ESD with proper grounding or
difference of electrical potential. shunting and the use of static control packaging and
material handling products.
3. A discharge of spark with adequate energy.
6.1 Preparedness against ESD hazard
4. The spark must occur in an ignitable material.
• The preparedness for the above mentioned ESD sensitive
areas shall be checked in the following areas.
V. RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH SENSITIVE
EXPLOSIVE DEVICES / FLAMMABLE • ESD audit by an expert at periodic intervals atleast
MATERIALS annually.

Electro Explosive Devices (EED) are electrically initiated

• ESD training Programme to all personnel having direct

detonators to fire an explosive charge or to operate a relation with ESD sensitive items, devices or areas.

mechanical device used in the rocket development process. • Detailed procedures developed, documented and
Human beings are charged by movement or by handling implemented in the facility for handling ESD sensitive
objects which can build up a static charge and transferred to items during testing, integration, inspection, shipping and
the person and then discharges to the device by touching it. storage & flight trials.
The average capacitance of the human being is 200 pF and he
can generate more than 7.5 KV while walking on the vinyl
• Bonding and grounding of all metal parts of a test bed and

floor at 55 % Relative Humidity. The energy of a charged the structure enclosing it.

capacitor is given by • Installation / Availability of conducting or anti-static

flooring.
W = Vz CV2
= Vz x 200 X 10-12 x 7500 x 7500 • Use of wrist straps, cotton clothing, conductive coveralls,
= 0.005 joules hardhat covers and conductive gloves.
• Use of a personnel test meter for monitoring persons
entering buildings fitted with conducting or antistatic
flooring
• Use of conductive-soled shoes or leg straps when
conductive flooring used as the primary grounding
method.

• Monitoring for static electricity with electrostatic meters

("stat guns") and static alarm devices during all
operations, having the potential of generating static
charges.

• ESD caution signs board at each ESD protected

workstation and/or at the entrances of defined ESD
protected areas.

VII. SUMMARY

Virtually all activities which involve sensitive explosive /

flammable materials will contain some of the elements
necessary for an electrostatic ignition. More often than not, the
activities run trouble free - the generation and accumulation of
electrostatic energy is unseen and discharges if they occur may
be low in energy and remain unnoticed. A simple change in the
process or operating procedures however may be all that is
necessary to complete the chain between charge generation and
ignition. The consequence of an ignition is of course often
catastrophic. History has demonstrated that a plant may run
trouble free for decades and then for no immediately apparent
reason experience a series of fires. There is a need to look in to
the aspects of expertise, knowledge and practice in dealing
with ESD hazards. It is strongly recommended that all
operations on or involving explosive devices, and/or
propellants shall be analyzed for applicability of the mitigation
techniques.