DESIGN MANUAL Guidelines for Structural Health Monitoring Design Manuel No 2 ‘Siptenber 20 TOSSA canes ate un an de Centon BecalenceDESIGN MANUAL Guidelines for Structural Health Monitoring Design Maru No 2 ‘Soptenber 201(Guidelines for Stmctural Health Monitoring eign Marsal No.2 ISBN 0-5689005.07 © SIS Canada Conpotstion September 2001 ISIS Canada tnteligent Sensing for Innovative Steutucre, A Canadian Netwotk of Cents of Exedllence, 227 Engineesng Budding, Univessty of Manteba Wanigep, Mantoba RST SV6, Canada E-mal cental@sacmadacom http / awww satcanada com "To puschase addtional copies, efecto the otdes form atthe back ofthis document ‘This publestion may not be mproduced, stored in a utaieval aytem, octanamted in any fom ox by any means vwthout poor wutten authouzation from ISIS Canada ‘The recommendstions contained hearin ac intended a2 a guide only and betote being wed in connection with say dengn, specicahion of constmichon project they shoud be reviewed with mgard tothe fill jrumstances of such wwe, and adwce from a apeciat should be obtained ae appiopuate Although every cae hasbeen taken the puepaation of this Manual, no Labiity for negigence ot otherwise wall be accepted by ISIS Canada the rmembes of technical comanttee,peet view g1oup, msearchem, secvants ox agente [SIS Canada publieions tue subject to aevsion fim time to tune and vende shonld entice that they poses the atest vemion‘This document has been prepared by: Baidae Balcht Jag Huma Javad Jala, ‘Afab Muti John Newhook Sauce Rahman Technical Committee: ‘Emin Alan Roget Cheng Kenneth Neale Erle Shehata Gam Tadkor Rodenck Tennyson Cailee Veotura Peer Review: Emile Shehats Ways Klnibee Roges Tal IMBT Stoschies Reseach Tne Cadeton Unive sity Dalhousie Univerity University of Manitoba Univemty of Calgasy Unaverity of Manitoba Dessel Univesity Univesity of Albesta Univesite de Shesbrooke Vindkep Engineesing Ine SPECO Bagaweang Ltd Unavemity of Toronto ltitute for Avtcepace Sbacer Univesity of Brith Columbia ‘Wasdkop Engineeting Ine own State Univesity Michigan Depastment of Tranepottation (Prete ined seviewed only those sections of the manual consttent with theisexpestse) ‘Technical Editor: Leslie Jaeges, Professor Ementus, Dalhousie Univesity Design and Pro: ition: Jennifer Rechten, ISIS Canada Editor: Jamie Zakewrch, ISIS Canada Author: Aftab Mufti University of Manitoba ISIS Canadas amombes ofthe Netwodks of Centts of Excellence (NCE) progtam admiistsed ma funded by the Niturl Sciences and Engineenng Reseach Connell (NSERO), the Canadian Instttes of Health Reseasch (CIHR) andthe Social Sciences and Himanises Reseach Cornel @SHRO). in patmesip with Indutry CanadaTABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE. INTRODUCTION 1 12 13 14 15 Scope of the Manual Basic Concepts Analogy Subsystems and Classification of Structural Health Menitoung. Advantages of Structural Health Monitoung, COMPOSITION OF STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING 21 Acquisition of Data 22 Communication of Data 23 Inteligent Processing of Data 24 Storage of Processed Data 25 Diagnostics 26 Retneval of Data STATIC FIELD TESTING 31 Introduction 3.2. Types of Static Tests 321 Behaviour Tests 322 Diagnostic Tests 323 Proof Tests. 33. Equipment for Testing 34 Case Histories 341 Girder Badges 3.411 Budge with Timber Decking 3.412 A Non-Comporite Slab-On-Guder Badge 3413 ANew Medium Span Composite Budge 342. Steel Truss Bndges 3421 Interaction of the Floor System with the Bottom Chord 3422 Component Interaction 3.43. Misleading Appearance. 3.431 Cantilever Sidewalk, 3432. A Bridge Without Construction Drawings 344 | Summary 35. Proof Loads 351 Proof Loads Versus Legal Loads 352 Proof Loads for Deficient Bridges DYNAMIC FIELD TESTING 41 Stress History Tests 42° DLA Tests 421 Definition of Dynamic Increment 422. Factots Responsible for Misleading Conchisions, 4221 Velucle Type 4222 Vehicle Weight 4223 Vehicle Position with Respect to Reference Point 11 1 13 13 14 21 23 23 24 24 24 31 31 32 32 33 33 34 34 35 38 310 31 312 313 3.4 314 314 315 316 3.16 3.8 41 41 41 44 44 45 45423 Recommendations 43. Ambient Vibration Tests 431 Low Sensitinty Damage 432 Complexity of the Damage Identification Algonthms 433. Effect of Factors Other Than Damage 44° PullBack Tests PERIODIC MONITORING 5.1 Monitonng Through Ambient Vibrations 52 Monitonng Through Testing Under Mowing Traffic 53 Monitosng Through Static Field Testing 54 Monitosing Crack Growth 55 Pewodke Monitonng of Repass GLOSSARY OF CASE HISTORIES 61 Beddington Trail Bridge 611 Bridge Descaption. 612 Instrumentation for Monitonng, 613 Diagnostic Resutts 62. Salmon River Badge 621 Badge Descnption. 622 _ Instrumentation for Monitoring, 623 Diagnostic Results 63 Chatham Budge 631 Budge Desenption 632 _ Instrumentation for Monitonng, 64 Confederation Bridge 641 Bridge Descaption. 642. Instuamentation for Monitonng, 643 Diagnostic Rests 65 Crowchild Tral Budge 651 Budge Desenption 652 _ Instrumentation for Monitoring, 653 RiedTesting 654 Diagnostic Results 66 Taylor Budge. 661 Budge Desenption 662 Instrumentation for Monitonng, 663 Diagnostic Resutts 67 Joffe Budge 671 Budge Desenption 672 Instrumentation for Monitonng, 673 Diagnostic Resutts 68 Waterloo Creek Badge 681 Bridge Descnption. 682 Budge Instrumentation for Monitoring 683 Diagnostic Resutts 69 Sante Emeke-detEnerge Budge 691 Badge Description 692 Instrumentation for Monitonng, 45 46 47 48 48 48 51 51 53 54 55 61 61 62 62 62 62 63 64 64 65 66 67 67 68 69 69 69 610 611 6 611 612 613 614 6aT 617 618 618 619 619 620 621 622 62 623693 FiddTesting 610 Hall's Harbour What 6101 Structure Descuption 6102 Instrimentation for Monitonng, 7 NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS 71 Notation and Definitions 8 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 81 References and Bibliography APPENDIX A -SENSORS ‘Al Stran Measurement. All Foil Strain Gauge A111 Strain Gauge Selection A112 Attachment Techniques A113 Envronmental and Mechanical Protection A114 Lead Wire Effects A115 Sensineity to Traneverse Stein A116 Temperature Effect A117 Noise Control A12 Fibre Optic Stain Gauges A121 Installation and Protection Techniques A122 Temperature Effect A13 Vibrating Wire Stran Gauges A2_ Linear Variable Differential Transformers AB Accelerometers A31 Spung-mass Accelerometers AA Temperatuse Sensors A41 Renstive Temperature Sensors A42 Vibrating Wire Temperature Sensors APPENDIX B DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM Bi Sensor Readout Units and Signal Conditioners B2_ Data Acquisition Boards B3. Data Acquisition Program APPENDIX C - ALGORITHMS FOR VIBRATION-BASED DAMAGE DETECTION C1 Methods Based on Changes in Resonant Frequencies C2. Damage Detection Based on Modal Residual Vector C3. Methods Based on Mode Shape Curvature C4 Matrix Update Methods ISIS CANADA DESIGN MANUALS ~ ORDER FORM 623 624 624 626 71 81 Al Al AQ AG Ag All All All Alt Als Als All Als AIS Al A20 A20 A20 A20 C1 co co chFiguee 11 Figure 12 Figute21 Figue 31 Figure 32 Figure 33 Figue 34 Figuce 35 Figuie 36 Figuee 37 Figure 38 Figuce 39 Figuse 3.10 Figuce 311 Figute 312 Figue 41 Figuee 42 Figue 43 Figure 51 Figue 52 Figuce 53 Figure 54 Figuce 61 Figuse 62 Figuce 63 Figure 64 Figure 65 Figuce 66 Figure 67 Figure 68 Figue 69 Figuce 6.10 Figute 6.11 Figuce 612 Figures Testing of steel truss in England for a saikay bridge in India in the 19% century Subsystems of a Structural Heatth Monitoring system Subsets of a Structural Health Monitosing system Details of the Lord's Bader Distubution coefficients for mi¢-span deflections Mid-span deflections Distubution factors for mid-span moments Distubution factors for mid-span moments Cross-section of the Notth Muskoka River Bridge Bearing restraint forces in the North Muskolea River Bridge Strains along the bottom chords of the trusses of two bndges Steains in the bottom flanges of floor beams at mid-span Details of cross-feames Bottom flange strains in girders Ratio of requited proof load to legal load for vanious values of Ba ‘Mid-span deflections of a beam uncer a mowing vehicle load ‘Acceletations plotted against time An average normalized power spectrum density plot of signals corresponding to vertical wbration Cross-section of the Salmon River Bridge steel-free deck sla Distubution factors for bottom flange strains (a) cue to tnuckin nosth lane (b) due to truck in south ne Crack pattem on the underside of the deck slab of the Salmon River Bridge Crack opening in a steel free deck slab under a five-arle truck Beddington Trail Budge — Calgary, Alberta Salmon River Bridge Nova Scotia Sensor locations in the Salmon River Bridge Chatham Bridge, Ontario —(a) view of bridge (b) view of deck replacement Half cross-section of steel free deck slab of the Chatham Bridge Installed sensors in steel-free deck with carbon fibre NEFMAC Confederation Bridge Photograph showing sensors installed on a rebar cage Crowchild Tal Bridge — Calgayy, Alberta Side elevation of Taylor Budge Layout of monitoung systems in Taylor Budge Sensor locations on the Taylor BridgeFigure 6.13 Figure 614 Figure 615 Figute 6.16 Figuse 6.17 Figuce 618 Figue 6.19 Figuse 620 Figuie 621 Figuse 622 Figure 623 Figue 624 Figuee Al Figure A2 Figute A3 FigueA4 Figuse AS Figure A6 Fixture AT Figue AS Figure A9 Figure A 10 Figue All Figue Ba Figure B2 Figure B3 FigueB4 Figure C1 Figure C2 Figure C3 Figue C4 Figure C5 Figure C6 Serain responses for moving tuck: Strain and temperature data for long term monitonng (February 1998) Strain and temperature data for long term monitonng (October, 1998) Strain and temperature data for long-texm monutonng (June, 1999) Joffe Bridge — Sherbrooke, Québec Waterloo Creek Bridge ‘Waterloo Creek Bridge half cross-section Sainte Emelie-de-!Energie Bridge - Québec Failure of timber piles in Hall's Harbour Hall's Harbour Wharf —Nova Seotia ‘Transverse section and deck panel section of the new structure Sensor locations shou in ctoss-sectional view Gauge length of a strain gauge Strain gauge averaging effect Left Strain gauge with integral terminals Right strain gauge with solder dots ‘Vatious configurations of lead wise connection to bondable texmunals ‘Two clamping techniques. Left: common spsing clamp, Right clamp with magnetic block ‘Two vacuum clamping techniques Left commercially available vacuum pads Right homemade ‘vacuum clamping fixture Components for strain gauge clamping, ‘A.weldable strain gauge attached to a ranforeing bar Fibse optic strain gauges Left embeddable strain gauge Right weldable strain gmge Schematic ciagram of a typical LVDT sensor Schematic chagram of a piezoelectae accelerometer Components of a computer-based data acquisition system Effect of low sampling rate on the reproduced signal Top: adequately sampled Bottom: under sampled Digitized sine wave with 3-bit cesohution ‘The data acquisition program interface window for Confederation Budge Finite element model of 2 composite steel concrete girder Relation between frequency change ratios for different damage sites ‘Mode shape curvature for a buidge guder with damage in element 4 ‘Mode shape curvature for a bridge gder with damage in elements 4 and 8 Identified and actual damage in a gader with damaged clement No. 4 Identified and actual damage in a girder with damaged clements Nos 4 and §Table 6.1 Table 62 Table 63 Table C1 Table C2 Table C3 Table C4 Table C5 Tables List of Fibre Optic Sensors in the Joffre Bridge Sensor Types and Locations in Waterloo Creek Bndge Sensor Details in Sainte Emile-de-1Energe Bridge ‘Eigenvalues Obtained from Modal Tests Changes in Eigenvalues Caused by Reduction in Element Stifiness Calculation of the Seventy of Damage Absolute Sum of the Residuals Changes in Eigenvalues caused by Structural DamageIn Canada, more than 40% of the bridges currently in use were built over 30 years ago A significant number of these structures are in urgent need of strengthening, rehabiktation or teplacement Many bndges, as well as other types of structures, are deficient due to the corrosion of steel reinforcement and consequent break down of the concrete - a result of Canada’s adverse ckmate and extensive use of de-icing sats. In addition, many structures are functionally obsolete because they no longer meet current standards. The expensive cycle of maintaining, epainng and rebuilding infrastructure has led oumers to seek more efficient and affordable solutions in the use of fibre reinforced polymers (FRPs). These lightweight, high-strength composite matenals ate resistant to cososion, durable and easy to install Glass and carbon FRPs are already increasing infrastructure service Me and reducing maintenance costs ‘The evolution of FRPs in civil engineesing is accompanied by the evolution of fibre optic sensors (FOS) for stnuctural health monitonng (SHIM). The recent emergence of structural health monitonng is pumanly due to the fact that innovative designs using new matenals necessitate a requirement for long-term monitonng Accurate monitonngis key to securing the confidence of infrastructure owners in the use of FRPs in civil engineenng structures, ‘The ability to assess the behaviour of concrete stnuchuses reinforced, strengthened or repaired nth carbon and/or ghss FRPs will accelerate the matesal’s widespread use In the past, structures were monitored by transporting measusing devices to the site each time a set of readings was required. By using FOSs for structural health monitonng, an extensive amount of data can be collected and processed without ever visiting the site In situations of rehabilitation and repair, bre optic sensors can be attached to or mounted on. existing concsete stnuckures where composite matedials ae used as reinforcing weaps. They can be used to measure and monitor a vanety of components, conditions, and environments Within the ISIS Canada Network of Centres of Excellence, much research has been conducted to develop advanced technologies to facilitate remote monitonng A wireless transmission system has been developed as well as an economical, portable microchip data acquisition system that accommochtes transmission via radio fequency, Intemet or via satelite, Wireless, temote monitoungis emerging as the preferted method of SHM. ‘The durability and reliability of SHM systems have been demonstrated for five years in ISIS clemonstration projects located across Canada The data collected so far have been used to develop an archive and tetsieval system for use by Network researchers. In one ISIS cemonstiation projet, a camera has been installed and synchronized with a computer that records stran measurements, peumanently stores photos, and records trucks that exceed ‘weight Iimits In addition, a web page faaktates interactive access to data and downloading, of information from a database A software program is lso available for intelligent processing of data Several years worth of data are now available on the durability and performance of SHM systems ‘The content of this manual focuses on Structural Health Monitoring as a chagnostic tool and the vanous components that comprise a SHM system This manual ss one in a senes of manuals that cover the use fibre optic sensors for monitonng structures, reinforcing concrete strictures with fibre reinforced polymers, and strengthening concrete structures ‘with extemally-bonded fibre reinforced polymers. This design manual will be expanded and. Updated penodtcally as other technologies are developed and vakdatedil INTRODUCTION WW 1.2 Scope of the Manual ‘The basic puspose of this Manual is to expose the benefits of Structural Health Monitosing (SHIM) to structural engineets who ate not fully cognizant of this field of engineenng This ‘manual will also be useful to engineers who are already involvedin some aspect of SHIM, and ‘would like to expand their Inowledge about other aspects In order to keep the Manual readable and user friendly, the main body is kept free of daunting details For example, details pertaining to tensors and data acquisition systems are provided in Appendices A and B. Simulatly, details of algonthm for vibtation-bared damage detection, involuing many equations, are in Appenckx C. A special feature of this Manual is that the authors, all dectly involved with ISIS Canada, have hands-on Inowledge of the subject Other areas for consideration, such a5 continuous ‘monitoring and remote acquitition of data, will be dealt with in future edtiont of the ‘manual, as expesience with this new technology unfolds Basic Concepts Stuctutal Health Monitoung (SHM) i a relatively new teun for aul engnecsing appheations, and a single definition has yet to be standacckzed For the purpose of this gaideine, SHM will be defined both by its objectives, and by the physica aystem and sensors required to achieve there objectives The guideline will focus mainly on SHM as applied to bbudges, but the concepts ate applicable to civil engineetng stauctures generally ‘The objective of SHM is to monitor the in-stu behaviour of a structure accurately and efficiently, to assess its pecformance under vanous seruce loads, to detect damage or detenoration, and to determine the health or condition of the structure The SHM system. should be able to provide, on demand, reliable information peitaining to the safety and integaty of a structute, The information can then be incorporated into budge maintenance and management strategees, and improved design guidelines, The ummedacy and sensitivity of SHM can allow for short-term venfication of imnovative designs, early detection of problems, avoidance of catastrophic faitures, effective allocation of resources, and reduced service disruptions and maintenance costs ‘The physical diagnostic tool of SHM is the comprehensive integration of vatious sensing devices and ancillary systems, inckicing a sensory system, © a data acquisition system a data processing system ‘© a communication system ‘© a damage detection and modelling system 1Guidlines for Susur Hadth Mniteing Figure 1.1 Although SHM is a relatively new term in civil engineering, the use of instruments to assess the health (/e integtity of strictures) is not new Bridge field tering using vasious measuring instruments is a very old activity, as shown in Figure 2.1 Testing of a steal truss in England for a railway bridge in India in the 19* century (pont couresy of RA, Deron) Similarly, the basic instruments that compnse a SHM system have been in use for a long time in structural engineenng Isboratones around the world Fusther, budge codes and badge owners have established evaluation and inspection guidelines that have been in practice for many years. Indeed, the objectives of SHM are consistent with the objectives of many of there long-standing practices, Structusal health monitonng is, in fact, an augmentation of current practice, not only through the use of leading-edge technology in sensing, instrumentation, communications and modeling, but also through effective integration of these technologies into an intelligent system, The daving force behind implementing SHM comes from recognizing the limitations of conventional visual inspections and evahiations using conservative codes of practice Conventional means are not sufficient to determine the structural adequacy of many older bridges and buildings, for example those constructed in earthquake prone areas (Chase 1999), The development of an integrated SHM system is also justified by the fact that North American infrastructure currently includes a very large number of aged bridges whose capacity to sustan modem traffic loads is questionable Just as consumers demand state-of-the-art technology in products and services, bridge fowmers and users will demand advanced technology, such as SHM, in cl engineesng infrastructure management The intention of this manual, therefore, is to prowide a framework for consolidating various basic instruments and technologies into an integrated system that can be uthzed to advantage for mantenance of bndges, buildings, power plants, offshose platfouns, and other significant structures14 Figure 1.2 Invoduaon Analogy (One way of gaining an appreciation of Structural Health Monitosng (SHM) is to draw an analogy with the human body. Just as a doctor checks the health of his patents, today’s engineers needito be able to check on the prevaling condition of badges and structures ‘The doctor uses specialived equipment to check a patient's blood pressure, and thereby ‘monitor that patient's health ‘The engneer utllzes specialized sensors imbedded in a structure to take a reading on the structural health of that faciity If a patient's blood pressure is too high, the doctor presesibes corrective medicine Similarly, in SHM, ifthe data flowing form the sensors indicates excessive stress on the structure, the engineer can take approptiate measures to correct the situation Ih both cases immediate action prevents catastrophic consequences. Annual checkups by your doctor are now a routine form of preventative maintenance Similaciy, SHM of infrastructure will be commonplace in the not too distant furure to provide check-ups as preventative maintenance It is an emerging technology that is destined to be of great value to those responsible for the safety and well beng of avil engineesng structures Subsystems and Classification of Structural Health Monitoring For ease of desctiption, the SHM system has been divided into the following four subsystems, which ate sub-divided futher in Figure 1.2 static field testing © dmamic field testing *# periodic monitoring + continuous monitonng Static Dynamic Continuous Field Testing Field Testing Monitoring * Benavour * Stress history "nate fests tests monitoring * Diagnostic * DiAtests * Passive tests © Ambient monitonng * Proof tests vibration tests * Pulltack tests Subsystems of @ Structural Health Monitoring system ‘The main difference between the SHIM under consideration and other kinds of stauctural ‘monitoung, is that SHM, besides detecting damage in a stricture, can also deteumine the strength of a structure The damage-detection capabilities of the four subsystems of SHM. can be classified as follows, in ascending order of complexity of the system (Sitkorsky 1999). In Level I, a SHM system can detect only the presence of damage In Level II, the capabilities of the monitoring system are extended to detemmine the location of damage In. 13Goldline fr Susur Heath Mentoring 1a Level IIT the severity of damage is alto quantified In Level IV, the most comprehensive SHIM system, the evaktation of the safety ofthe stnscnise is also inchicled. Tt ss noted that there ate several other classification systems for SHM, with no precsely defined demarcation. Indeed, all classifications overlap. Advantages of Structural Health Monitoring In order to temain competitive in the current global economic environment, itis necessary to minimize service cismuptions to cl engneenng structures because of coutine ‘maintenance ot repairs following extreme events, such as earthquakes or huracanes By prowdng instant infoumation about senses auch as serwiceabilty, safety and crabilty, SFIM system can help civil engineers cope unth these types of disruptions Monitoring and evaluating the integaty of laxge civil structuces, while they are in service, optimizes resousces for cepas, rehabibtation, ot replacement of the structures SHM can also be useful in evaluating the bfe-cycle costs of strucoural components ‘The potential direct benefits of a SHIM system are numerous, including, * realtime monitoting and reporting * redhicing down time + improving safety and reliability, while reducing maintenance costs ‘As noted by Chang (1999) and Alten (1999), reduction of down time and improvement in telabilty enhances the productivity of the structure Finally, the results provide information about the behaviour of the structure on the inside, thus SHM can be used to improve the design of future stntcruesFigure 2.1 24 COMPOSITION OF STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING ‘An ideal SHM system should be eapable of providing information on demand about any significant damage occurang in the stricnire Infomation about the health of the staschare ca be obtained drectly through a local network, or transmitted automatically to a temote location. Cleatly, the development of such a system involves the use of expettise in many sciphnes, such as strucnires, matenals, damage detection, sensors, data collection and intelligent processing, computers and communiestion SHIM systems are compnsed of a number of subsets © acquisition of data ‘© communication of data intelligent processing of data ‘# storage of processed data © chagnostics ¢ retneval of data ‘These subsets are discussed in the following sections in sequential order As ilkisrated in Figure 2.1 and discussed later, the flow of infomation between some subsets can take more than one path | Acaaialion oF Data] Communication of Data Tnatigenr inches retllaton of sensors dnd callcton FP] TEneMasI” of date, eg Fee) cleansing Gata of ‘ot data semnaely for provesting ‘exvaneaus formation Tapco tamale ee eae onic ‘apneaitce Dagnostcs ‘conversion of new data nea structural resoonwe Subsets of @ Structural Health Monitonng system Acquisition of Data ‘The fist subset in a SHM system involves the acquisition of data The first task in this subset is the preparation of a plan for the installation of vasious sensing devices that can ‘measure absolute values of, or changes in, one or more of the following strans ‘¢ deformations «accelerations # temperatures # moisture ‘acoustic emissions bme «electric potential load other attsbutes of a structure 21Goldline fr Susur Heth Mentoring 22 ‘The sensors should be clearly selected for their ability to provide required information about the heath of the structure A lst and description of varicus sensors is given in Appendix A, A number of types of sensing devices are commercially available, these include electaical resistance strain gauges, vibrating wnre strain gauges, deflection transcucets, accelerometers, anemometers, fibre optic gages, etc Many of these sensors, however, are not akways suitable for all subsystems of SHM. For example, some of the commercially available strain [gauges are unsuitable for long-teum monitoring, because they ace not fee from dufting An clectical resistance strain gauge that has a shifting glue intexface with the structure may be suitable for obtaning a response under loads applied for only a short duration, but highly unsuitable for long-term monitonng There is a seseatch need, therefore, to develop an inventory of rekable and economic sensors for tracking the response of a structure on a continuing basis In addtion to sensors that have been available commercially for a long time, thece are many new sensor technologes that are in different stages of development, including more advanced fibre optics sensors, di-electtic measurement sensors, and piezo-electric sensors Many of these newer sensors are meant for application in the aerospace and automotive industnies (Chang 1999), However, efforts are cusrently underway, through the auspices of ISIS Canada, to extend the applation of these sensors to civil engineesing applications For example, fibre optic sensors (FOSs) with gauge lengths of 1 to 20 m have recently been developed (Tennyson and Mufti 2000) and used to monitor the performance of fibre ranforeed polymer (FRP) repaics on deteriorated cohumns (Lee 1998) The Leng Gauge FOSs, ideally suited to detect the fracture of long steel members in tension and to monitor ceack growth in bridge decks, are now economical for a wide vatety of civil engineesing applications. Similarly, distabuted sensocs computing a large number of cifferent sensoss in one measuang unit ate bang used to monitor impoitant large civil engineeting structutes, such as the Confederation Budge in Canada (Tacos 1997 and Mufti et al 1997) The collection of data from vaious sensors installed on a structure, a very important component of a SHM system, is becoming increasingly complex. Fortunately, specialised expettise is now avalable to deal with this task A general mleofthumb regaicing the volume of data is that the amount of data should not be so scanty at to jeopasckze its Usefulness, nor should it be so voluminous as to overwhelm integpretation. A low sampling tate leads to the former, and an unnecessanily high rate to the latter ‘Much of the data collected cusing continuous monitoting activities may be substantially compressed by recording only changes in seackngs. For example, the strain readings from a badge component may reman essentially the same when no traffic is on the structure o even when only light vehicles are crossing the structure To avoid excessive data files, t may not be necessary to store this information in its entire form A simple algorithm which reviews the data and writes to a file that the reading was “value A” between ‘time 1” and “time 2” can replace megabytes of cecundant data Furthemmore, the SHM activity may requite that only data exceeding a specified threshold value needs to be recorded, all other data can be discarded. Another option is to only keep peak values of reackngs for each event, such as a heavy trick passing over a bridge This technique may be suitable for fatigue assessments that are based on overloads, but is not suitable for frequency analysis. Tt is possible that a combination of data acquisition algorithms may be required so that only peak values ate secorded as a general operating mode, and continuous cata is vecorded for discrete peniods of time, if a threshold value is exceeded Selection of the most appropuate data Acquisition algorithm is an important component of SHIM and vnil affect both the volume of stored data and the type of diagnostic information that can be obtained22 23 Compattion f Sroeurel Hedth Monitoring ‘The usual conduit for transferring data from a sensor to the data acquisition system is the lead wice, the length of which may have an adverse infhience on the level of noise collected ‘with the actual data Care should be exercised to ensure that the length of the lead wites is ‘within the limits that are compatible with the data aoquisition system Proximity of transmission devices, such as those foundin a radko station, have been inowm to corrupt the recorded data. Sources of extraneous information should be detected during the eatly stages of monitoring, and avoided whecever possible. Fusther advice about the acquisition of data isin Appendix B In the cate of a lage number of sensors, the handling of the lead vates is not only cficult but also prone to ercors in the correlation between indwidual sensors and the collected data ‘These cifficubies can be overcome, to a certain extent, by wireless communication between the tensoss and the data acquisition system. Communication of Data Here, the teum ‘communication of data’ refers to the conveyance of data from the data acquisition system to the location where the datais processed Dunng static field testing, this communication is often seen in its most basic fom, when the collected data is punted and the hard copy is physically handed over to the test engneet. At the most sophisticated end of the communication continuum, the collected data is transmatted remotely, ether through telephone lines or by a witeless mode The selection of a suitable communication system is an essential component of a SHM subsystem. Intelligent Processing of Data ‘The data tetsieved directly from sensors is likely to contain extraneous information that is not only useless, but also uneconomical to store. The source of the extraneous information can be a transmitting device, high-tension electuc wires, or telephone ines among others. It 1s important for interpretation that the collected data be cleansed or intelligently processed Efficient and good processing techniques make interpretation easier, faster and more accurate, Processing of data is also smpostant when multiple sensory systems are used in the same SHM project. For example, a badge may be monitored using a combination of FOSs, potentiometers, electronic gauges, accelerometers and video input Many of these sensors may have quite separate signal conditioning and demodulation systems for aoquiting the raw chta from the respective sensors. The only common link between the systems is a central computer which processes and stoses data It is impostant that this computer be able to process the data from all inputs and relate it to a common seference such ab atime stamp In this manner, the readings from one sensor em be telated to those of the other sensors deally, this processing should be performed prior to the storage of data A further consideration for processing of data is cotrection for thermal effects. Some sensors can be thermally compensated whule other sensors tely on reference gauges in orcer to isolate changes in reackngs due to thesmal changes from those induced by other types of loads. Data should be consistently processed so that all reacings ether incide theamal effects of ate free from themal effects The latter is more common 2.3Goldline fr Susur Heath Mentoring 24 25 2.6 24 Storage of Processed Data ‘The teum ‘storage of data’ ss being used hete for the storage of clata that has been cleansed by inteligent processing and is available for chagnostics. The medium used for this storage should be such that the data remains retnevable even after many years In addition, the data files should contain enough infomation about the details of format to understand the ‘meaning of the mynad of numbers, In certain cases, it may be appropnate to dscard raw data after st has been converted into quantities that relate citectly to a bridge response For example, files containing plots of spectral densities versus frequencies of vibration might be preferred over the volumes of cata gathered from a dmnamic test. Discarding the large amount of raw data in favour of the processed infomation has both positive and negative aspects. In today’s rapidly changing ‘world, itis vistually impossible to precict the makeup of the administrative system used by the oumers of significant structures. It is quite likely that the lack of commitment for continuation might render the raw data useless for future generations On the other hand, the loss of the dita might lose future opportunities for reinterpretation Diagnostics ‘The most important subset of a SHM system deals with Gagnostics, or the integpretation of the collected and cleansed data In this subset of SHIM, the abstract data numbers are convested into quantities that relate rectly to the rexponset of a structuse For example, the deflection measurements might be converted into quanbies of flenutal sifiness, steans into stresses, ot accelerations into plots of spectral densities against frequencies. The conversion of exw dita into cesponse incieators ahvays depends upon basic assumptions, which are rarely perfect Unfortunately, no comprehensive procedure is custently available for overcoming difficulties in the interpretation of cbsexved data Hloweves, in order to provide an appreciation of the problem, detals of some caze histone: and dificulues in the intespretation of observed data are discussed in Section 3 Retrieval of Data As noted eather, the rw data collected from sensors must be intelligently processed, including conversion to quantities that relate ckrectly to structural responses. A decision has to be made about the kind of data that is deemed fit for retieval. In the case of static field. testing, the observed data is not too voluminous and can be stored along with the interpreted responses, Thete is usually too much data from dynamic field tests to be stored in its entirety, quite often it is considered sufficent to record only the interpreted data. A decision about the storage of data suitable for cetieval depends not only on the significance of the data, but also on the confidence of its interpretationFj ‘STATIC FIELD TESTING 3.1 3.2 Since the history of feld-testing bridges is far more extensive than fieldtesting of other structures, it was decided to devote this section to badge fiele-testing Tt is emphasised that ‘many of the panciples mherent in budge testing are common to all strictures, therefore, this, section will aso be useful inthe testing of structures other than bnidges. The static field tests provide information about the capacity of bndges to sustain live vehicle loads Introduction Static field-testing of badges is not anew activity and has been in practice for centuies Early in the 20th century, a bridge would be tested under uniformly distributed loads simulating actual traffic If it cid not collapse or show excessive deflections under the test loads, the badge was considered to be sound It was customary in some European countues to demonstiate the load-worthiness of impostant budges by testing them before opening them to traffic For these tests, the bridge was loaded by the equivalent of service loads, and its response was monitored mainly through manual deflection measurements. Effectively, these early tests related the health of a bridge only to its stiffness in fleruce Some of the equipment and technology requited for modem static fiekdtesting of bridges has been available for some tme Until recently, however, use was limited to laboratory testing and occasional field tests that were usually undertaken by university scholars as special research projects In the early 1970s, in Ontatio, the Structures Research Office of the Ministry of Transpostation (MTO) introchiced routine testing of highway badges, with 2 ume objective to assess load carrying capacities of budges. Since the inception of this program, more than 250 budges have been tested in Ontano. Most of these tests show that the actual load-carrying capacity of badges ss much higher than can be rationalized analytically A comprehensive brdgetesting program was also established in the United States by the Flotida Department of Transportation. In addition to a limited number of ‘governmental bridge testing facilities, several commercial specialist teams in North America can now assess the health of bridges through testing, ‘The purpose of this section is to introduce static fieldtesting as an effective means of assessing the absolute health of a structurally suspect bridge Technical literature contains details of many case histosies, some of which ate seferenced in this Section Tt is noted that the references are generally imited to case histories that the authors of the section have been involved with directly Types of Static Tests Ina broad sense, buidge tests ate ether static or dmamic. For the puspose of buidge testing, static loads are considered to be those loads that are brought onto or placed on the bridge ‘very slowly, s0 a5 not to induce dynamic effects in the badge In the cate of testing with ‘vehicles, vehicle loads are considered to be static when vehicles are brought onto the badge at a crawling speed Static field tests can be subdivided into behaviour tests, diagnostic tests and proof tests. Dynamic load tests, as the term implies, are cassied out with moving loads that exate the dmanuc response of the budge 31Goldline fr Susur Heth Mentoring 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2 Behaviour Tests Behaviour tests are carned out ether to study the mechance of badge behaviour or to venty certain methods of analysis The objective in the later case is to venfy that analytical method: can be used with confidence for the design and evahuaion of similar badges Applied loading dusing such tests is usually kept 2t, or below, the level of maximum serace Joacis, ie legally pemmatted manimum loads, A behaviour test provides information regarding, how the load is cstubuted among vasious components of a badge. The test does not fumuh rect information about the czpaaty of vanous components to sustain loads Recent examples of behaviour tests ate those conducted by Bakht et al (1999) and Bakht and Mufti (1999) One of these sets of tests was conducted on six sawn timber stringer bridges in Nova Scotia The principle objective was to determine load distribution chatacteustics of the bridges. The second set of behaviour tests was conducted in Buitish Cohimbia on two concrete plank bridges with shear keys. The purpose of these tests was to calibrate an analytical method, and then assess the magnitude of shear stresses in shear keys for all concrete plank badges on forestry coads in Britsh Columbia Contrary to easier apprehensions, it was found that the stresses in the welds of the shear keys were quite low and, therefore, there is no concem about fatigue resistance, Diagnostic Tests tis quite rate for the behaviour of a budge component to be unaffected by its interaction ‘with other components in the budge The presence of such interaction in certan types of ‘bridges can be analysed with confidence However, there are certain conditions where 2 realistic assessment of the interaction remains a subject for speculation. The effect of the interaction may be either detrimental or beneficial to the behaviour of the component concemed In the case of a detriment, the effect might manifest itself in the form of visible stress in the component In the cate of a benefit, the beneficial action may never be unlized A dagnostic test is the surest way to establish the source of the distress, of enhancement, of the load-canrying capacty of a component. ‘While there is no clear-cut ckstinction between behaviour and diagnostic tests, the former team is customanly used for a test that is carted out mainly to veufy a cestain method of analysis, The latter ten denotes a test that is cared out to dagnose the effects of component interaction. For example, the behaviout test may be conducted to venfy a certan method of transverse load dtstubution analysis of slab-on-girder bridges The chagnostic test may be condicted to establish the rotational restraint conditions at the ends of a bridge column. ‘Through a lacge number of tests, it has been confirmed that ckagnostic testing can be used swith advantage to locate the sources of distress that might exist in a bridge due to inadvertent component interaction, and to deteemine the positive effects of interaction The source of distress in many cases can be eliminated by simple remedial measures, Beneficial interaction, on the other hand, can be used to advantage in establishing the enhanced load camrping capacity of a budge Examples of diagnostic tests inchide those reported by Bakht and Csagoly (1979, 1980), Bakht and Jaeger (1987, 1990 a)3.2.3 Proof Tests ‘A proof test is cared out to establith the safe load-casrying capacity of a badge Dusing this test, the structure is subjected to exceptionally high static loads that cause lagget responses in the bndge than the responses that are inchuced by statcally-apphed maximum serace loads A definition of the proof load, together with the process of obtaining the operating loads from proof test loads, is given in Section 3.6 It should be emphasized that subjecting a budge to a sufficiently high proof load is not always a confirmation of the load carrying capacity of a bsidge Supporting analysis based on sound reasoning is absohitely essential for detemmining why the bridge cartied the loads applied to it, and for establshing whether there is reason to believe that it can be relied upon accordingly for the foreseeable future Because of the very high loads applied to the bridge in proof testing, there is always the possibility that the bridge may be pemanently camaged by the test However, it should be pointed out that the possibilty of incurring permanent damage with the test is extremely small, providing the test is planned and executed carefully ancl methodically. Of the more than 250 bndge tests conducted in Ontano, not a single budge suffered any damage because of testing Notuithstanding the lengthy accident-free record of bndge testing in Ontano, a budge test, in pasticular a proof test, should only be undertaken by quakfied professionals and only after the owners of the bridge have confitmed that they are prepared to accept the tisk of damage to the structuse as a cerult of the test A welkplanned proof test is carnied out with gradually increasing loads, ensusing that the loads are not allowed to increase beyond the kmut of knear elastic behaviour ‘These ate very few published examples of proof tests conducted outside Ontario, examples of those conchcted in Ontano are reported by Bakht (1981, 1988), Bakht and Csagoly (1979), Bakt and Mufti (1992 a and ¢) Equipment for Testing Static budge testing, a subsystem of an overall SHM system, genevally requires the same equipment as other subsystems. The equipment requirements for SHM ate discussed in Section 2 and elsewhere m this manual Loadng for proof testing in particular, however, deserves further explanation, which is provided here and also in Section 36 A good loading system applicable to vatious types of static field testing should preferably have the follovang charactesistics It should be representative of actual vehicular loads on the bridge It should be eaty to manoeuvte so that it ean be brought on and off a budge quickly © Irshould be easily transportable Is load should be adjustable so that it can be increased or decreased convenientiy After it has bee placed on the bridge, its weight cistabution should be repeatable and capable of quick stabilization © For proof testing it should be capable of beng moved by remote control as well as manually 3.3Goldline fr Srusurl Heath Mentoring 34 3.4.1 34 ‘The foregoing desirable attributes clearly disqualify ballast loacing similar to that used in pile testing Trucks laden with gravel and water tanks are also unsutable for proof testing In order to apply concentrated loads at the top surface of a budge deck, a portable hydraulic jack system that will react against the frame of a heavily loaded truck should be utzed The MTO has two heavy-duty test vehicles, one with a hydraulic jack attached to its underside Case Histories In a general way, an actual bsidge behaves ike the typical conceptual bridge used in design or analysis However, there are some aspects of bridge behaviour that do not enter into design considerations. Even an experienced badge designer may remain unaware of certain aspects of bridge behaviour. Similarly, even an expett analyst may not be able to replicate actual budge behaviour through mathematical modes. There is no better way to understand the shortcomings of the mathematical models used for the design or evaluation of bsidges than to compare the analytical predictions with the observed behaviour of structures ‘As noted eather, the Structures Research Office of the MTO has, for many years, conducted a progiam of biidge field testing that includes both static and dynamic tests. Many lessons have been leamed from the results of this testing program It has become obvious that design analysis, as customanly prachsed, can be in ervor in a number of afferent ways Indeed, it 1s fair to say that virtually every budge test had a surpnse in store, revealing a significant aspect of budge behaviour that had been previously ignored in the evaluation analysis of the budge (Baki and Jaeger, 1990b), ‘The disccepancies between analytical and measured responses are discussed in this Section, swith the help of specific examples. As could be foreseen, there cksctepancies were not due to inadequacies of the methods of analysis, but rather to the pretence of behzmoural factors that could not be inckided in the mathematical modeling because of diffuser in ideakzation ‘Vaious case histories presented below confitm this contention Girder Bridges ‘Tests on guder buidges show consistently that the grdets are usually much stiffer in flexure than is predicted by calculations In dynamic tests, this unaccounted-for flexusal stiffness ‘manifests itself in the form of measured frequencies that are greater than the calculated ones In most static tests, the measured deflections and longitucinal strains in the bridge gieders ‘were much smaller than the calculated ones, again indicating that the bridge is stiffer in flexuce than assumed Rerults from tests on three badger nth steel guders are presented in the following section demonstrating that even highly sigorou method: of analysis cannot be relied upon, unquesioningly, to peecket the actual response of a badgeFigure 3.1 Bridge with Timber Decking ‘The Lore!s Budge is the first example presented It is outfitted with rolled steel girders anda naHaminated umber dectng with the wood lamunates lad transversely, As desenbed by Bakht and Mufh (1992a), the badge is 625 m wide and has a single span that is apparently simply supported The girders are 10.2 m long with a bearing length of 0.53 m at each end, resting directly on timber cub abutments. Thete are no mechanical devices to transfer interface shear betoreen the gurders and the timber decking, although there are 100 x 200 mm nailing strips bolted to the top flanges of the girders where the decking is nailed Details of this budge are shown in Figure 3.1 214 VATION w460<74 crv) Details of the Lord’s Bridge ‘The beidge was tested with a test vehicle under several load levels and different longituctnal and transverse positions, The gidets responded in a linear elastic manner, even up to the highest lond level For two of the load cases, the longtucknal position of the vehicle was the same, but the eccentric transverse positions were the mirror images of each other For these ‘hwo load cates at the highest test load level, the distribution factors for mi¢-span deflections ate plotted in one of the sketches of Figure 32 Viewing the cross-section of the buidge from two different end: so that the two transverse dstuibution profiles overlap each other offers an easy compasison Its noted that the dstabution factor for deflection 1s the ratio of, the actual and average gyrder deflections at the transverse section under consideration 35Guidlines for Susur Heth Mentoring Figure 3.2 36 Centra! Escetitic Wi23458678 6 £67654321W —— Measured, girder 1 on left Measured. girder 8 on left 24 20 18 12) Distribution Factors for Mid-Span Deflections Distnbution coefficients for mid-span deflections If the geometrically symmetucal budge was also symmetiical with respect to its structural response, the dstnbution factors of the two mirror-image load cases noted above would have led to transverse eistubution profiles that ie exactly on top of each other As can be seen in Figure 32, the two profiles were faisly close to each other but were not exactly the same, incicating that the two transverse halves of the bsidge cid not respond in the same ‘way to corresponding loads. The two sets of distubution factors obtaned from measured, deflections in Figure 32 were also compared with those obtained ftom deflections gven by SECAN, a computer program based on semi-continuum analysis of grder bndges (Jaeger and Bakht, 1989) It can be seen that the malytical values of the non-cimensionakized dleflections were not any more cifferent from the two sets of observed values than the latter ‘were from each other This confiums that, for the bridge under consideration, the semi- continuum method used for analysis was able to predict the pattem of transverse istnbution of load fatly accurately, ‘The same accuracy of prediction, hourever, cannot be chimed in the case of absolute values of girder deflections, This is because of uncertainty in quantifying the following parameters ‘As noted earlier, the girders for the Lords Bridge are 102m long with an unusually long beanng length of 0.53 m at each end It ss customary to assume that the nominal posnt- support for a grder les mictvay along the beanng length, i which case the nominal span of each girder would be 9.67 m_Tt can be demonstrated, for the case under consideration, that the vertical pressure under the supported length of a girder should have its peak away from the midway point of the bearing length and toward the free edge of the abutment, Detemination of the exact location of this peak sequives detailed knowledge of the modulus of subgrade seacion of the timber enb abutment Cleatly, this factor is not easly quantifiable, mang the task of deteamuning the effective span very difficult The clear span of the girder, being 9.14 m, is clearly the lower bound of the effective span of the girderFigure 3.3 Seti isTesing ‘The transverse modults of elasticity of the wood deck, which is operative in the longitudinal chrection of the bridge, is exteemely small compared to the longitucinal mockihis Even ifthe transverse laminated cleck were made composite with the grdets, the contubution of the deck to the longtucinal strength and stiffness of the composite section would normally be neghgble Consequently, no attempt is usually made to prowde shear connectors in such badges. There are some holding down devices to connect the deck to the girders through the nailing stups, these devices, by transfering some interface shear, make the gisdess ppattially composite with the nailing stups and the decking From measured gicer strains, it ‘was discovered that despite the absence of shear connectors, the decking and the naling stups of the Lords Budge were pattally composite with the girders. The degree of composite action was found to vary from girder to girder and wras clearly not quantifiable ‘The Lore!s Bridge was analysed using two diferent sets of idealizations. In one idealization, the gdets were assumed to be non-composite with a simply-supported span of 9.67 m In the other ideakizstion, full composite action was assumed between the girders and the timber components, comprising the nailing stnps and the decking The girders were assumed to have the lower bound span of 9 14m In Figure 3.3 the measured deflections, for the same load case for which the cistsibution factors are plotted in Figure 32, are bracketed entirely swith very lange maugins by the analytical results comesponcing to the two ideabzations. Deflection. rm Transverse Girdes Position Mid-span deflections 37Guidlines for Susur Hedth Mentoring 3.4. Figure 3.4 38 ANon-Composite Slab-On-Girder Bridge ‘The unquantifable and random nature of the beanng restraint fosces, and of the degree of composite action in the absence of mechanical sheat connection, is illustrated by the results obtanned from a test on the Belle River Bridge This badge is 2 slab-on-girder badge with steel girders and an apparently non-composite conerete deck slab (Bakht, 1988) The nominal span of the bridge is 16.3 m andthe width is 9.1m. ‘The transverse load distnbution analysis of slab-on-girder bridges without mechanical shear connectors is made cifficur, to the point of becoming initially impossible, by the uncertain degree of the composite action Tt is tempting to believe that the actual load distribution. pattem of such bridges can be bracketed by two sets of analyses, one corresponding to full Composite action and the other to no composite action at al, with the foumer analysis akways leading to safe-side estimates of the maximum load effects in the girders. In teality, a deterministic analysis, no matter how advanced, might fail completely to safely predict such. maximum load effects. The assestion is illustrated in Figure 3 4 with the help of the resus from tests on the Belle River Badge ‘Transverse profiles of the distubution factors for mid-span girder moments in the budge are plotted in Figure 34, for a transversely symmetncal load case One of these profiles corresponds to moments computed from observed girder strains, both at the mid-span and near the abutments, with the latter providing infomation regarding the beanng testrant forces. The other two transverse profiles were ebtsined from the rerults of the semi- continuum method of analysis for the two bounds of the composite action. It is noted that no attempt was made to model the bearing testraint in these analyses Hy 4 er. GiirNo 1 2 3 4 5 6 OF 25 20 1 10 os oo Dietnbution Factors for Mid-span MTS, Girder No Distribution factors for mid-span moments In Figure 3.4, the pattem of transverse distribution of actual moments was similar, but only in a general way, to the two analtical pattems Tt was also quite irregular Unlike the analytical pattems, the actual pattem was far from being symmetscal In fact, the actual istnbution factor for maximum girder moments was about 10 percent larger than the corresponding analytical factor for the fully non-composite bridge ‘The very high distnbution factor and significant departure from symmetry was probably caused by the middle girder accidentally becoming much stiffer than the adjoining girders, throughFigure 3.5, Seti isTesing compotite action by bond From the results plotted in Figure 3.4, there can be little doubt that, for the and of bridge under consideration, even the most agorous deterministic analysis was, at best, only a faitly close approximation, Beanng restraint forces in the grders of the Belle River Bridge were computed from observed girder strains near the abutments. From these beanng restraint forces and approximately calculated girder reactions at the supports, it was concluded that the effective coefficient of friction between the girder flange and supports vatied between 0.66 and 0.95 ‘The foumer imit relates to loacing by single vehicles and the latter to two side-by-side vehicles. Such effective coefficients of fiicton may be on the high side, but are not ‘uncommon in bridges in which the girders rest directiy on highly susted steel bearing plates Beanng restraint forces computed from meanused girder stsains aze plotted in Figuse 3.5 for the same load case that the dstubution factors for muchspan girder moments are plotted in Figure 3.4 The beating restraint forces ate shown as positive when they tend to push the abutment away from the grders Fyre Bearing Restraint Farce, kM Distnbution factors for mid-span moments In Figure 35, the beating restraint forces in all the girders, except one, were positive Atthe location of the left-hand outer gitder, the beating resteaint force was not only negative, but also faly large in magnitude It was postulated that this unusual response was the tesult of a relatively soft pocket in the backfill behind the abutment, in the vicinity of the left-hand outer girder In light of the uncestainties discussed above, itit fair to tay that for the kind of bridge under consideration, no deteminustic analysis can be expected to precket the actual behanour of the budge 3.9Goldline for Susur Heath Mentoring 3.4. Figure 3.6 3.10 ANew Medium Span Composite Bridge ‘The examples presented in 3411 and 3412 ate relatively short span badges with no ‘mechanical shear connectors where the girders rest ather directly on the abutments or on fairly susty steel beanng plates In such badges, there may be difficulties in assessing the degree of composite action and the magnitude of beating restraint forces. Further, because of the spans themselves beng shott, even small errors in the estimation of the effective span. can have a relatively large influence on the computed responses of the bndge Consequentiy, it can be concluded that ckfficulties in predicting the reabstic response of a budge occur only in the kinds of bridges discussed earker It is shown below that errors in predicting bridge behaviour can also extend to medium-span bsidges in which mechanical shear connectors ensure virtually fall composite action, and in which the gicders are suppotted by elastomeric beatings that apparently pemnit free longitudinal movement of the girders ‘The cross-section of the single-span North Muskoka River Bridge is shown in Figure 3 6 This bridge comprises five steel girders and a composite deck slab, its span and width are 457 and 146 m, respectively Both ends of every gitder rest on Laminated elastomenc Deaungs, each measusng 560 x 335 mm in plan wew and 64mm m thickness The design sheat rate for each beanng is about 30 KN /mm 203 mm 610mm Cross-section of the North Muskoka River Bridge A dynamic test showed the North Muskoka River Budge to be about 20 percent stiffer in flemute than could be rationalized by even a very detailed analysis im which all those aspects of budge behaviour that could concervably enhance flenutal ngiity were taken into account To deteunine the cause for the apparent discrepancy, a chagnostic static test was subsequently conducted For this latter test, all the girders were instrumented with stran measunng devices to measuse longtucknal strains at three transverse sections of the budge, ‘with one section near the mic-span and the other two near each abutment (Bakht and Jaeger 19908)Figure 3.7 3.4.2 Seti isTesing If the elastomeric bearings had permitted free longitudinal movement of the gicders, under live loads, then the strains in the bettom flanges near the beatings would have been tensile and very small. This was not the case. The test loads inchiced fairly large compressive strains in the bottom flanges near the elastomeric beanngs. Beanngs restrant forces, which were computed as an approximation from observed strains for different case loads, are plotted in Figure 37 It is interesting to note that under transverselp-symmetrical loads, the cottespencing beasing restraint forces wese not exactly the mirtor image of each other, as should have been the case for an ideally symmetncal structure Beaung restiant forces 2s high as 175 KN, which can be seen in Figure 37, ate considerably larger than a functioning elastomeric beanng would be expected to develop, Nevestheless, such lauge forces were actually present, despite the fact that the beanngs were apparently in excellent and a no 180 a 100 60 a Beanng Restraint force, kN Transverne Postion Transverse Postion Bearing restraint forces in the North Muskoka River Bridge At the time of the test, it wae found that the bearing restraint in the Noxth Muskoka River Budge reduced the michapan deflections die to text loads, by about 12 percent This rechicton is considerably smaller than the 20 percent rechiction observed in the previous test on the same budge. The fist test was conducted on a telatively cool day in October and the second on a very hot day sn June It war hypothesized that the elartomenc beanngs became shifer in the colder temperature dunng the frst test, thereby genesating higher xesteant forces that consequently caused the badge to become effectively siffer than indestedin the reaults of the second test ‘Test results on the Nosth Muskoka River Bridge demonstsate the significant influence of the reitraning effects of elastomenc beaungs which may change with load level aad tempercture To be able to analyse badges wth these beanngs moxe accurately st is ereental to inchide ther effective shear stiffness in the mechanical model Steel Truss Bridges Simply-suppotted steel truss bridges are usually simple to analyse because of the limited umber of paths that a load can take, ie because of their low degree of structural redundancy Tests show, however, that even these bridges have cestain aspects of behaviour that may suprise budge engineers. The more significant suxpnses are presented in the following section anGuidlines fr Susur Heath Mentoring 3.4.2.1 Figure 3.8 3.12 Interaction of the Floor System with the Bottom Chord ‘Bakht and Jaeger (1987) have desenbed tests on two teuly pin-connected steel truss buidges that were simular i dimensions, The bottom chord strans of one through-truss badge plotted in Figure 3 8 (2), were found to be smaller, by a factor of about 15, than the strains that would have occurred if the chord had sustained all of the kve load force The obvious conchision drawn rom this observation is that if the beanngs of the truss are functioning, the floor system must be acting with the bottom chord to sustan the tensile forces. The observation has been made so many times that stis almost a chché to say that, in pony-truss and through-tauss bridges, the floor system takes a large portion of the tensile force of the ‘truss bottom chords. Nevertheless, a surprising feature was observed in the test results as shown in Figure 38 (b). 1400 +200 1000 200 ‘Bottom enor strain mmx 108mm o8 88 Longitudinal postion Longitudinal postion (©) of bet chord ‘foto chord © Strains along the bottom chords of the trusses of twa bridges ‘The surpaising feature relates to the bottom chord strains in the panel closest to the night hhand support of the bridge In Figure 3 8 (b), the strains in this panel are about 15 times, larger than the strains in the adjacent panel Since the two panels have compenents of the same section, it is obvious from simple statics that the bottom chord force in the two panels should be neatly the same ‘The fact that the total strans in the bottom chords of the two panels were significantly Afferent from each other suggests that the floor system did not participate unth the bottom. choud in the end panel Bakht and Jaeger (1987) explained this behaviour as follows. All stringers of the floor system of the budge, shown in Figure 3.8 (b), are connected to the truss nodes in such a way that the bottom chord between adjacent nodes cannot defoum ‘without engaging the stangers. As shown in this igure, the budge had a small approach span that is foumed by extending the stingers of the floor system beyond the pier, 1 the intermediate support Because of this extension, the floor system did not have a floor beam at the end node, ike it dees for all other nodes Accordingly, the bottom chord in the end panel was called upon to sustain all the tensile force of the truss by deforming independently of the stungets.Itis obvious that the beneficial interaction between the floor system andthe bottom chords of trusses cannot abvays be taken for granted3.4.2.2 Figure 3.9 Component Interaction ‘The beneficial effect of component interaction in truss budger is often dksregatded as insignificant. Confirmation that the effect of interaction is not atways small was provided by atest on a 100 m span deck-truss type of arch badge The badge had a large number of transverse floor beams of the same cross-section, the strengths of which were investigated by a eiagnostic test. The bottom flanges of these beams were instrumented with strain measunng dences attached to ther respective mid-spans. As shown in Figure 3.9, st was, found that under simular loading, the four beams closest to one of the truss supports showed considerably higher strains than the other two instrumented floor beams. The reason for this unexpected behaviour became obvious after an inspection of the eross-frames under the ‘watious floor beams The configurations of the various cross-frames are shown in Figure 3.10 Tt can be seen in this figure that the cross-frames under the four floor beams closest to the tuuss support had an X-type of bracing which permitted these floor beams to span between the trusses, as was assumed in the pre-test analysis, and as was probably assumed in the design calculations The measused strains were considerably smaller than they would have been etheruise because of the integral nature of these latter floor beams with the eross- frames, This could be an aclvantage in the rehabibtation of the budge. dood caves Loadease2 Load case Fortean TT 8 | © I i E aw § E 00 adcase2 : yes Eo a Load case3 5 ow Z Z 1 Floor beam postion Strains in the bottom flanges of floor beams at mid-epan 3.13Goldline for Susur Heath Mentoring Figure 3.10 3.4.3 3.4.3.1 3.4.3.2 314 Details of cross-frames Misleading Appearance Emdence of deterioration can sometimes be misleading Many apparently severely. deteriorated conctete bridges have been found capable of carrying nomnal loads, although their load-carrying capaciies cannot, as yet, be explaned analytically. One example is a highty detenorated, reinforced concrete T-beam budge, which was tested by Bakht and Muff (1992c), From load testing, it was found, for reasons that could not be fully quantified analytically, that the bridge could be kept open to traffic with a posting mit of 19 tonnes Nosmithstanding such cases, two examples are presented below where behaviour ean be readtly explaned Cantilever Sidewalk Tt looked like cast iron brackets supported the sidewalk of an old arch bridge Many of these brackets were so cracked that their capacity to sustain the sidewalk loading was suspect. A. load test on the budge, with loads about five times the design load for the sidewalk, showed that the appled loading did not induce any stran, even in the brackets that were sound GBakht, 1981). It was subsequently found that the brackets were only omamental, and that the cantilevered deck slab, itself, was more than capable of sustaining the sidewalk loading A Bridge Without Construction Drawings ‘The next exampleis an old 5 5 m span slab-en-gieder bridge with steel girders and a concrete deck slab with monolthic parapet walls Construction drawings of the badge were not available. The budge cross-section is shown in Figuse 3 11, together with the relevant outer imensions.Figure 3.11 3.4.4 Transverse Girder Position Bottom flange strains in girders Recently, st was found that an outer guider had somehow moved away from under the badge An analytical evalustion of the load-carrying capacity of the badge, conchided that the girders were not capable of carrying even their own dead load Since the bridge was Imown ta have cartied nommal traffic for a number of years, it wat not closed but was rehictantly restricted to vehicles having gross weights of less than two tonnes A very buf test with a 22 t vehicle showed that the gitders only took a very small postion of the applied loading As shown in Figure 311, the stresses in the bottom flanges of the girders were only a fraction of the stresses that would have been induced if the gieders had sustained all the loading by themselves. Tt was conchided that the bridge wat not a slab-on- _grder budge after all It was, in fact, a slab budge with up-stanc beams, The" girders” were only a patt of the founsvork, and had simply been left behind after construction. Summary Several significant "suspnses” encountered dusing buidge testing in Ontano have been pierented in this Section They proude an introdhiction to state field testing, where the instruments sometimes seem to “ie” Tt is tempting to discegard such readings as being the result of an instrument malfunction In most cases, however, it was found that the unexpected readings from the instruments were, in fact, caused by unexpected bridge behaviour ‘The surpuses presented in this Section also underline the fact that some aspects of budge behaviour never enter into design considerations, s0 they can escape the attention of even the most expenenced bridge designers and analysts. Some of the surprises found in badge testing may have a significant effect on the load-carrying capacity of the budge, while others have only a minor effect From the vanous examples its clear that, in most cases, the load camping capacities of budges are higher than those obtaned from usual calculations 318Guidlines fr Susur Heath Mentoring 3.5 3.5.1 3.16 However, there ate tome cates where the load-carrying capacity of a badge can be lower than expected A carefully planned and executed badge test is unvahuable in identifying the strengths and weaknesses of an existing budge Proof Loads In the context of budge testing, the tetm proof loadis used for the maximum load of a given configuration that the badge hat withstood without suffenng any damage An obvious question is asked with respect to proof testing of a structure what should be the minimum magnitude of the proof load for a staucture to be regarded as struchurally adequate? Unfortunately, after considering all the factors, a satisfactory answer to this question is not available Both the Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code (OHBDC, 1992) and the Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code (CHBDC, 2000) implicitly require that, to classify a bridge as structurally-adequate and peumitted to carry untestricted traffic, the proof load should be of such magnitude as to induce at least the same maximum load effects as those induced by factoted design lve loads inclucing the Gmamic load allowance, DLA. Itis recalled that the factored design five load, inckicing impact, is a (1+ DLA) La, where ai, is the live load factor, and Ly the load effect due to unfactored ive loads. The factored design live load is equivalent to the nominal live load causing faire Since the proof load tests are always conducted within the near elastic knut of the structure, the OHBDC and CHBDC entena for proof loads can be seen to be excessively safe Tt can be demonstrated that the minimum level of the proof load required by the OHBDC and CHBDC should be reduced to account for the deachto-live load ratio for the structure ‘under consideration, and the live load that a structuse can take beyond its elastic kmit up to fahuse A more realistic proof load than the one specified by the current codes for evaluation, should also take into account these two factors. Until a mote ceakstic bass is established, however, the OHBDC and CHBDC catenon is recommended for determining, the level of proof loads. Proof Loads Versus Legal Loads ‘A comparison of minimum required proof loads andl cocresponcing maximum vehicle loads ppemnitted in a jurisdiction will xeachly show whether the former are excessive or not For this exercise, we considered the legal loads pemmatted in Ontato and compared them wath the proof loads specified by the OHBDC (1992). The values of the DLA are as gven in the code and the live load factor ais taken as 126. Ttis noted that while the OHBDC specifies a, = 14 for new designs, t pemmits a smaller vabie, 126, for the evahuation of pamary components of those multiple load path steuchures that are 1e-evaluated within five yeass.Figure 3.12 Sete isTesing For compatison of legal and proof loads, the convenient concept of equivalent base length, Bq, is used This forms the basis of legal weights in Ontario andis discussed, for example, by ‘Agarwal and Cheung (1987). For a given base length, there are specific values of total load W corresponding to the legal loads and the required proof loads, respectively. The ratio of proof load to legal load, denoted as K, is plotted in Figure 312 against Ba, for Ontaio conditions. It can be seen from this figure that for Bm = 0, which corresponds to single autles, the proof load is about 3.5 times the legal load. This high ratio appears reasonable because, in practice, single axle loads are known to exceed the legal limut by a very lage margin For larger values of Bx, the value of X, plotted in Figure 3 12, is fauly close to 20 suggesting that the proof loads are about twice as heavy as the legal loads. This agan appeals to engineenng judgement because exceedance of the gross vehicle weight, be it accidental or delberate, is rarely more than about 50 percent, in which case the remaining 50 percent can cater to the DLA and other possible infractions of load regulations 35) 30) 26] 20) 15] 10] as| oo o 5 0 1% 2 28 30 By M Ratio of required proof load to legal load for various values of B, Itmust be emphasized that a very large safety margin is already inchided in the proof load as speaiied by the OHBDC (1992). This is because this proof load is almost invariably below the elastic mt of the structure, above which neatly all buidges have a substantial reserve of strength ‘The design of a shost-span bridge is usually govemed by single axle, two-axel or three-axle groups It is instructive to study the relationship between legally petnissible weights on these axle groups and proof loads for short-span badges. A simply-suppotted span of 60m and a two-axle group vith an inter-axle group spacing of 185 ms chosen for this study. The ‘maximum weight pemmutted on such an axle, in Ontano, is 9.55 tonnes or 93.5 KN. The ‘maximum bending moment induced by a factored OHBDC design vehicle is 624 ENom ‘Assuming that longitudinal bending moments govem the design, the proof load on the ‘bndge should induce the maximum moment of atleast this magnitude, for the budge to be declared structurally adequate 37Goldline for Susur Heath Mentoring 3.5.2 Equation 3.1 3.18 ‘As explained previously, the test vehicle has a two-aele group with an inter-ale spacing of 185 m_ If this axle group is to induce a maximum moment of 624 kNem in a simply supported span of 6 0 m, the weight on each arle should be 296 KN. In this case, the total proof load on the twro-arle group 1s 592 KN, and the ratio of proof to permissible weights, K, 4s about 32 Such a large value of K can be justified only on the grounds that the exceedanice of permissible weights on two-axle groups can be very high, as itis for single axles Itis obvious that m excessively high evaluation load will lead to the unnecessary rejection of otheswite safe bridges, regardless of whether they ace evaluated analytically or by testing Proof Loads for Deficient Bridges ‘The structural deficiency of a badge is quantified by both the OHBDC (1992) and CHBDC (2000) by a factor F, called the scale-down factor This factor is defined by the following equation for a component with factored resistance Ry R , ~load effects due to factored permanent loads Toad effects due to factored live loads CClestly, when F 2 10, the budge is stsuctutally adequate and can be opened to untestacted traffic ‘The OHBDC (1992) has provided a chart to convert the scale-down factor to posting loads A similar but non-dimensionalized chatt is provided by CHBDC (2000) for the variable CL ‘Evaluation Loads. Both the OHBDC and CHBDC also permit extrapolation of the test results to determine the live load carrying capacity, ifthe maximum applied test load is limited by the eapacity of the test equipment, and the stabilty of the bridge or its components is not a concem with any further increase in load. Such an extrapolation, inchucing methods of analysis, projected ‘maximum load capacity and detemination of the scale-cown factor is, however, subject to the approval of the authonty having juasdiction on the budge.41 42 421 DYNAMIC FIELD TESTING Although not at old at staie Beldbtesting, dmamic testing of baidges is not new Since the 1922s, all highway badges in Switzerland with spans greater than 20 m are required to be tested cmamically These tests were, and still ate, conducted under a vehicle of fixed axle configurations running at cfferent speeds and over a "bump" of prescubed size on a bridge ‘Dynamic terting of bridges can be subdivided into four distinct categories © stress history tests = DLAtests © ambient vibration tests © pullbacktests ‘These categories of tests ace ciscussedin the following mubsections Stress History Tests Stress history tests are cared out to establish the distribution of stress ranges in fatigue- prone components of a bndge The data, continuously obtained for a short time due to the passage of vehicles on the bridge, are used to establish its fatigue life An early instrument used for acquining data fcom stress history tests comprised a number of compartments, each clating to a pre-assigned range of stran Every time a component expenences a strain that falls wathin the strain tange of a component, the counter in the component is increased by one At the end of an observation penod, the instrument provides a histogram of ckfferent strain ranges induced in the instrumented component The Ministry of Transport Ontario (MTO) tried this technique but soon abandoned it because of difficulties in interpretation of the collected data With modem facilities for stosing large amounts of data, a more suitable approach is to obtan a continuous record of strains at @ reasonable rate of sampling, and then process the data to obtain the frequency cistubution of cifferent stress ranges DLA Tests ‘The impact factor or dmamic load allowance DLA is an abstract entity which is not given to easy quantification. Dynamic testing of bridges is often undertaken as a research exercise to obtain information about representative values of the DLA which could be used in the founubition of code provisions. Some evaluation codes, eg the OHBDC, 1992 and the CHBDC, 2000, peut the determination of DLA by dynamuc testing As explained in this subsection, the detemnination of DLA is not without its own etfficules Definition of Dynamic Increment Faller et al (1931) proposed that the impact increment of dynamic force be defined as the amount of force, expressed as a fraction of the static force, by which the dmamic force exceeds the static force Recognizing that the "impact inerement of dynamic force’ is not necessanily the same as the "impact increment of stress", the latter was defined as the amount of stress, expressed as a fraction of static stress, by which the actual stress, due to ‘moving loads, exceeds the static stress 4.1Guidlines for Susur Heath Mentoring Figure 4.1 Researchers interpreting test data from dymamic load tests have often used the team "dynamic increment” for the same quantity that has been defined by Fuller et al (1931) as the impact increment of stress, or that could have been defined as the impact increment of deflection However, there is no uniformity m the manner in which this increment is calculated from test’ data Different ways of calculating the dmamic increment can be explained conveniently with the help of Figuce 41, which has been constructed from data of an actual dynamic test with a two-arle vehicle on a simply supported plate girder bsidge, repotted by Biggs and Suer (1956), This figure shows the vaniation of both the dynamic and static deflections at the mic-span of a girder with respect to time. The dynamic deflections ‘were obtaned when the test vehicle travelled on the budge at nomnal speed, The static deflections were obtained when the vehicle travelled at crawling speed, so a5 not to induce mamic magnification of deflections Figure 4 1 also shows the median deflections that were obtained by averaging consecutive peaks of dmamic deflections. The median deflections are not the same as the static deflections. However, a numencal procedute for fienng out the dynamic portion of the response can give mechan responses that are fatly close to the static responses, especially i bndges having spans larger than about 20 m \Mispan Deflection Dynamic Dsfiactons Median Beflections Static Deflodtions Mid-span deflections of « beam under « moving vehicle load It is noted that a fictitious scale of deflections has been introduced in Figure 41 in order to faciktate the explanation regarding interpretation of the test data Referring to this Figure, notation is introduced that is defined in Section 6 This notation can be more general if the ‘word deflection is replaced by sesponse In Figure 41, ascale of deflection is used in which dyeis 10 0 units, With this definition, the ‘vatious deflection quantities have the following vahies Bsus = 10.0; Bane = 123, Bs = 9.9, Ben = 62; 8, = 91, 8; = 98, 85 = 6.4, A, = 32,A0= 3.4, 45 =20,A,=20Equation 4.1 Equation 4.2 Equation 4.3 Equation 4.4 Equation 4.5 Equation 4.6 Equation 4.7 Equation 4.8 Baht and Pinjarkar (1990) have shown that vatious definitions have been used to obtain hmamic increments from test data, or similar parameters given other names, Some of the mote important of these definitions are now descubed. For the sake of convenience, all these different parameters will henceforth be referted to genencally as dynamic amphfication factors, and will be denoted by the symbol J The vanous definitions are noted below, together with the value of I, corresponding to the cata given in Figure 4.1, and also noted above 1= 41 (<0500) 200) 202) i= a = (0330) pe deenh (=0 352) 4 T=! £0242) 230) Tr can be seen that valiet of J obtained by the above equations range between 0.2 and 0.5 43Guidlines for Susur Heath Mentoring Equation 4.9 42.2 44 Bakht and Pinjarkar (1990) have cited 26 published references in which one or another of the definitions lated above has been used for calculating J In neatly all of the references there is ittle or no dbscussion or justification for using a particular definition of the dynamic ampbfication factor This suggests that each of the vanous definitions was regarded as beng somatic and requiring no fushfication. Yet, the vaniety of results noted above confisms that the definition of J is far from being axiomatic. What can be regaided as axiomatic, hourever, is the definition of the amplification factor for the responte at a given instant According to this definition, = A/6, where Ais the difference between the static and dynam responses atthe instant under consideration, and ,is the corresponding statie rerponte ‘The axiomatic definition of the ampkfication factor gyen immediately above is used, justifiably, in all the analytical stuckes, However, its of ittle use in buidge design because its value changes with time and load position. What is sequised for design purposes is a single ‘value of the amplification factor in which the maximum dynamic response can be computed from the maximum static response, so that bs 6 (2) Ideally, the amplification factor obtaned from Equation 49 should lead to the same vahie of Goa a5 was measured in the field, ie 1230, None of the definitions correspond to the contect value of Bun, except Equation 48, which is, in fact, the same as Equation 49 Ik is interesting to note that the apparently logical definition given by Equation 48 has not been ‘usedin any of the references cited by Bakht and Pinjatkar (1990). Factors Responsible for Misleading Conclusions Technical Utersture reports a fairly large scatter in the values of dynamic amplification factors of a gen response, even when the budge and the vehicle are the same. From these observations it can be readily concluded that the dmamic amplification factor is not a deterministic quantity To obtan a single value of this factor for design purposes, it is necessary to Inow the statistical properties of the scatter of data, in particular, the mean and ‘vatiance of the amplification factor The vasious parameters that ean influence the statistical properties of the amplification factors computed from the test dita are discussed in the following section. If not accounted for carefully, these parameters can misleadingly influence the way in which the measured cata ate intepreted. Vehicle Type It is alseady Inown that the dynamic amplification factor for a budge is influenced significantly by the dmamic characteristics of the vehucle with respect to those of the budge Despite this fact, most dynamic tests on bridges have been conducted with specific test ‘vehicles. The data from such tests cannot, for obvious reasons, be regarded as representative of actual conditions ‘The amplification factors obtained from tests using specific test vehicles can only provide a qualitative insight into the problem of bridge dmamics. They should not be used to obtain the final single value of the impact factor that is used in calculations for design or evaluation. A repretentative value of the impact factor can be calculated realistically only when data are gathered under nommal traffic, and over relatively long periods of time,42.2.2 4.2.2.3 423 ‘A wellplanned proof test it carried out with gradually increasing loads, ensusing that the loads are not allowed to increase beyond the lit of linear elastic behaviour ‘There ate very few published examples of proof tests conducted outside Ontario, examples of those conducted in Ontano are reported by Bakht (1981, 1988), Bakht and Csagoly (1979), Bakt and Mufti (1992 a and o) jehicle Weight Several researchers have conchided from observed data that the dynamic amplification factor hie to a vehicle decreases with the increase of vehicle weight. In light of this information, it can be appreciated that the amplification factors corresponding to lightly-loaded vehicles, ‘which are irrelevant to the design load effects, are Lely to unduly bias the data on the higher side The data corresponding to lightly-loaded vehicles should not be used at all in the calculation of the impact factor, unless, of course, the impact factor is sought specifically for lighter vehicles, 2s may be the ease for evahiating the load-carrying capacity of an existing substandard badge Vehicle Position with Respect to Reference Point Consider a three-lane slab-on-gircler bridge with five girders, all instrumented for dynamic reponse measurement, carrying a vehicle in the far sight-hand lane so that two girders uncer the vehicle catty itt load directly In this case, the two left grders, beng remote from the applied load, will earry a very small postion of the static load Yet, the dymamic amplification of the small portion of the static load carried by these taro gitders is likely to be faicly large Tt hhas been observed by several researchers that the dynamic amplification factor at a reference ppoint well away fom the load can be lasger than that for a refecence point cirectiy under the load. Clearly, the former amphfication factor has no relevance as far as the mazumum static load effects are concemed at the cross-section of a bridge ‘The statistical properties of the dmamic amplification factor, at computed from the test data, can be regarded at reakstic only if the extraneous dita from outside the zone of influence are exchided from consideration. It is suapasing that the attempt to exclude such cextrmeous data hat been exphatly mentioned in only a few of the references cited by Bakht and Pinjatkat (1990) Chan and O'Connor (1990) have tried to calculate the dynamic amplification of load effects by secording the sum of the strains of all gicders From dynamic test data on a short span, girder buidge, they have calculated alammingly high values of the dynamic increment. Bakht et al (1992) have contended that the high values of dynamic increment reported by these researchers are the tesult of inchiding extraneous data corresponding to those girders that are transversely remote from applied loads Recommendations In light of the above discussion, it is conchided that it is not a practical proposition to determine a representative value of the DLA for a given badge by dynamic testing The values of the DLA specified by OHBDC (1992) and CHDBC (2000) probably reflect the state-ofthe-at Dynamic testing of bridges is, nevertheless, a useful research tool in formulating more rekable specifications for DLA for different lands of badges. 4.5Guidlines fr Susur Heath Mentoring 43 Figure 4.2 Equotion 4.10 46 Ambient Vibration Tests Ambient vibration tests are conducted to determine the wbsation charactenstics of structure that has been excited by wind, human actrty, or traffic. Typically, the tesponse of the structure is measured by steategieally-placed accelerometers. An example of the record of output from an accelerometer is showm in Figure 42, in which the accelecations are plotted against time (Ventura et al, 1994) It can be seen in this Figuce that, cunng the observation, peniod, the structure expenenced accelerations of up to shghtly more than 01g The selection of the locations and number of the accelerometers requites not only expettise in dmamic testing, but also detailed Imowlecge of the behaviour of the structure As noted by ‘Ventura et al (1996), a detailed analysis of the structure is useful in decicing upon the test setup for ambient vibrations 15% 10% o% Acceleration {al xR 10% “15% 012345678810 Time [sec] Accelerations plotted against time [Ventura et al., 1994) ‘The plot of accelerations against time, such at that reproduced in Figuse 42, can be regarded as a function £ (9, which iz descabed by the following senes £() = Aisin 20fith Aa sin 2h Ay sin Da fir Aa sin Do fir where fi, f, f, fi, te ate the vanous natural {vequencies of the structure, and Ai, Ab, As, As, ee. ate te modal amplitudes or modal ratios. The modal amplitude for each frequency 1s closely related to its spectral density or power spectral density (PSD) Vibration record: are analysed into frequencies and PSDs by spedalpurpose computer programs, such as EDI (1995) Records of PSDs are then normalized to give them each the same weight Theteaiter, the normakzed PSDs corresponding to instruments secording the cata in the ditection of the wbration under consideration are averaged to obtain the average nommalized power spectral density (ANPSD). An example of an ANPSD plot is show in Figure 43. It is noted that the acceleration plot of Figute 42 represents only a part of the chta that led to the density function of Figure 43. An ambient wbrstion test, leading to ANPSD plots, is also referred to as a modal testFigure 4.3 43.1 Dynamic 100 ® g : 2 at et ot? et es tb ew Freuaney He ‘An average normalized power spectrum density plot of signals corresponding to vertical vibration (Ventura et al., 1996) ‘As can be sem in Figure 43, an ANPSD plot identifies the vatious peak frequencies, most of which are likely to be the natural frequencies of the structure The plot, however, might also inchide the frequencies of a dominant exating force, such as a heavy truck In order to ensure that the ANPSD plot contans only the natural frequencies of the structure, the identified frequencies should be compared with analytically preckcted frequencies. If the plot does contain extraneous frequencies, the test must be tepeated and the ANPSD plot recreated until the frequencies of exciting forces ate purged and a repeatable plot is obtained. If a mumber of accelerometers are permanently installed on a structure, thar output synthesized into a repeatable ANPSD plot can be regarded as the signature of the structure Any change in the pattem of ANPSD should indicate a shift in the frequency pattem and, hence, a change in the stifnesses or mass of the structure ‘The vanous analytical methods for wbration-based damage detection ate described in Appencex C In practice, there are a mumber of limitations associated with wibsation-based damage assersment They ate summanzedin the following Sections Low Sensitivity Damage Vibration charactesistics are global properties of the structure and, although they are affected by local damage, they may not be very sensitive to such damage As a result, the change in the global propestier may be chfficult to identity unless the damage is very sevete or the ‘measurements ate very accusate, 47Guidlines for Susur Heath Mentoring 4.3.2 4.3.3 44 48 Complexity of the Damage Identification Algorithms ‘The identification of a possible damage site and seventy of damage, on the basis of a change in global properties denived from measurements at a kmited number of sensor locations, 16 a problem that can be resolved Sophisticated and complex mathematical techniques, inchiding nonknear programming, need to be employed to obtain the most probable solution Tn fact, this is an atea of ongoing research. The methods that are curently available cannot deal wath, situations where the damage introduces non-ineatity in the structure. Such non-ineanty ‘may, for example, result {rom the presence of active cracks. Effect of Factors Other Than Damage Global wbration charactenstics are often affected by phenomena other than damage, inchieing environmental effects such as a change of mass caused by water waves and snow accumulation, and theamal effects caused by temperature variation. Whenever the structural system is constrained or indetemninate, themal effects introduce axial stresses in the structural elements. The presence of such axial stresses changes the stiffness of the structure and may alter its vibration charactenstics. The boundary concitions in a stuucture can have a significant effect on its suffness and, if these boundary coneitions are prone to change with the age of the structure, they may lead to a change in the bration charactesistics even when there is no damage in the structuce Pull Back Tests Since the traffic loads do not excite a bridge in the lateral cizection in any significant way, it 1s usually ciffcult to deteanine its lateral vibration characteustics from the results of an ambient vibration test The lateral vibration charactenstics of a bndge can be obtaned accurately from a pull back test. This type of test can be conducted by pulling the structure literally by means of cables anchored in the ground or to a fixed object, and releasing the cables suddenly The response of the structure is monitored with the help of accelerometers, and the process of analyzing the data is the same as for ambient wbration tests In a pull back test, the structure brates freely, so the test also yields informstion about the damping characteastics of the bndge for lateral vibrations A pull back test on a theee-span continuous badge is desenbed by Ventura et al (1996) For this test, the piers of an abandoned railway badge were used to anchor the cables, then teleated by a specal-puipose quick-seleae mechanism. ‘The cakbsation for a fame of Confederation Budge was conducted by pull tests and measuring the xesuing tilt from a lnown appled load, as desenbed by Azameyad et al 1999) ‘Dusing one of the lateral pull tests, the fracture of the slings caused a dynamic release of the full load and resulted in free wibsation of the frame The recorded data was used to determine the natural frequencees of the structure using sepectral analysis.5.1 5.2 PERIODIC MONITORING Penoeéc monitoring is conducted to investigate any detrimental change that might occurin a structure oto its repairs. Most of the components of this monitosng system are common to static and dam field testing, described in Sections 3 and 4, respectively Customanly, continuous monitoring is only applied to those structures that are either extremely important, or if thete 1s a doubt about their structural integnty The latter might be the case if the stnicture is bkely to be exposed to extreme events, such as severe earthquakes and Inurncanes, o© if its design inchides an innovative concept that does not have a history of perfomance to prove its longtem worthiness. Similarly, a check on the health of a structure repaired with an innovative technique could be made by meas of petiodic monitouing Although the authoss of this manual ase not awate of a specific cate study to cate, peniodic monitoring complemented by field testing can also be useful in the gradual extension of the Ife of a sapidly-deteriorating structure Since the details and techniques of all possible petiodic monitoring methods is too vast to be covered in this guideline, this section will illustrate the usefulness this SHM subsystem, ‘mainly with the help of a number of caze histones Monitoring Through Ambient Vibrations As discussed in Section 43, ambient vibration records can provide a useful signature of the bndge response, provided that the records are free from the dmamic chatactenstics of an exciting force. For example, Abe et al (1999) described an ambient vibration system that is being used to monitor the health of the Hiaukachu suspension buidge in a wind-prone and sessmically-active location in Notthem Japan. They used a statistical technique to sift the informabon pertaining to the free modes of bration from the recorded data It is emphasized that, for peniodke monitoring, the instruments should preferably be installed permanently on the structure after identifying entical locations, Akthough records of ambient vibrations have been taken for several buidges in Canada (eg Ventura & al, 1994, 1996, Black and Ventuta, 1998), this technique is yet to be used for peiodic monitonng of badges An accurate identification of frequencies and modal shapes for two raikvay badges in Austnia has also been ted (Weanel and Pichler, 1997) Monitoring Through Testing Under Moving Traffic Penodte records of badge responses, such as strains, can be used to track changes in the behaviour of a bridge The Mufti et al (1999) report on the monitoring of the steel plate girder of the Salmon River Bridge is an example of this patticular SHM subsystem. As reported by Newhook and Mufti (1996), one simply-suppotted spa of this budge incorporates a concrete deck slab without tensile reinforcement, Inown as a steel-free deck slab The innovative slab derives its strength mainly through transverse steel straps that he outside the slab and are welded to the top flanges of the steel girders. A cross-section of the Salmon River Bridge span with the steel-free deck slab is shown in Figure 5 1 51Guidlines fr Susur Heath Mentoring 100112 mim 25 mm Shear Studs ‘Yeatnenng Steet Custer OF Tree ‘Strap @ 1.2 m Welded 50mm da 850 (250-300 mn Ta Gieder Flanges PVC Tube Glass FRP Gre 100-125 mm 1350 men Figure 5.1 Cross-section of the Salmon River Bridge steel-free deck slob ‘The heath of the Sakmon River Badge har been monitored penockcally for the last five yeast, under the auspices of ISIS Canada Since the deck slab of this badge is the Sst application of the novel concept of steel-free deck slabs, twas considered desirable to track the performance of the badge, as it might be affected by an unanticipated deterioration of the slab without tensile reinforcement A measure of the perfoumance of the deck system of a budge is the manner in which its _grdets share the vehicle loads During short intervals of peockc monitonng the strains of the bottom flanges of the girders of the Salmon River Bridge are recorded at ahigh sampling sate The maximum values of girder strains corresponding to a single truck travelling in each of the twwo marked lanes on the badge ate isolated The non-dimensional cistubution factors for bottom Hange strains are obtained by civicing the selected strans with the corresponding average grder strains Plots of distubution factors for bottom flange strains recorded in one set of readings are reproduced in Figuses 5.2 (a) and (b), cosresponding to single trucks in the nosth and south lanes, respectively These figures alto contain corresponding distribution factors obtained from finite element analyses in which no allowance was made for a possible loss of stiffness of the concrete slab due to the absence of tensile reinforcement Excellent comespondence between the observed and analytical plots of the cistnbution factors confitm that the steel free deck slab participates fully in transverse load ckstnibution between the girders 52Figure 5.2 5.3 Period Monitoring Load oieinutn Fact Load Dirianon Factor Tuck n Non tare . "ck ote tame g 20, g 20, * 18] ‘= 16] 3 § ge 3 1 2 os 3 os 3° 335s jot Girer Location Grae Location 0 9 = =a Distribution factors for bottom flange strains: [a) due to truck in north lane (b) due to truck in south lane ‘Teansverse plots of the distabution factors, such as those in Figures 52 (a) and (b), provide an accurate measue of the load cistuibution chacactenstics of a girder budge that is affected by both longtucinal and transverse flexural ngiities of the budge. The deck slab contnibutes to the foumer through its composite action wath the girders, The deck slab, straps and cross- frames collectively contnbute to the transverse flexural ngdity of the deck system. If the transverse pattem of the distnbution factors discussed above remains unchanged, then it can bbe conchided with confidence, that the deck slab has not suffered any deteioration in its stiffness, Through a number of periodic observations, it hat been found that the dstnibution plots, of the fund presented in Figures 5, 2 (2) and (b), have remained the same for the Salmon River Budge. Thus, penocic monitonng continues to provide confidence in the concept of the steel free deck slab Monitoring Through Static Field Testing Static Geld testing is a relatively expensive undeitahing, so tis rarely used for penodic heakh ‘monitonng of a structure One tate example of this method is the penodc testing of the Chatham Budge in Ontatio. In the Chatham Budge, the detenorsted reinforced concrete deck siab was replaced with a steclfree deck slab (Ali et al, 1997) Engineers from MTO have already tested the bridge twice. The first test was conducted on the bridge before tchabilitaton and the second test soon after rehabilitation These two tests confirmed that the load dstnbution chatacteustics ofthe buidge were somewhat improved by the steehiree deck slab A third test 1s planned in the near future to confirm that the steel-free deck slab hhas not detesiorated Details of the tests and thet rerults are yet to be published 5.3Goldline for Susur Heath Mentoring 54 Figure 5.3 54 Monitoring Crack Growth All concrete components, except thote with full prestressing, develop cracks dang the early stages of being subjected to high loads Until the formation of cracks has stabilized, the bbehamour of the concrete component remains snelathe When the eracks ceate to develop under 2 given system of applied loads, the structure shakes down to an elastic state On the other hand, ifthe cracks continue to grow indefinitely, there is cause for concem about the health of a structure. For certain components, the monitonng of crack gexowth can be used as a subrystem of SHM An example of these components is the steel free deck slab, discussed in Section 53 As noted by Agarwal (1990), all concrete deck slabs develop cracks. The steckfree deck slabs also develop cracks. However, unless special provision is made for controlling the crack ‘widths, the cracks tend to be fewer and wider It is noted that five of the enlist steel free deck slabs, Bakht and Mufti (1998), do not have special provisions for controlling cracks, 30 these cracks are relatively wide and easily noticed There is a steel-free deck slab with special provisions for controlling cracks that is free of cracks visible to the naked eye (Newhook et al, 2000) Crack growth is beng monitored penoctcally in the deck slab of the Salmon River Bridge ‘This s bang done to confism that erack growth ceases in steel-free deck slabs ata fatly early stage Mutt et al (1999) have noted that the etacks in the deck slab of the Salmon River Badge, shown in Figure § 3, have remained unchanged over the yeats, Crack pattern on the underside of the deck slab of the Salmon River Bndge Although geouth of cracks in stechfrce deck slabs is cucrently beng monitored manually, plans are underway to develop an acoustic emission system that could detect the end of cxack growth A dynamic test was conducted over a transverse crack on the underside of the steehfree deck slab of the Chatham Budge, which is dscusted in Section 5.3. For the test, a 30 mm high ‘temporary bump was placed clore to the crack location, and a fully loaded five-aile test tick tesvelled over the bump The opening of the crack was meatured by means of a sensitive stain transducer As can be seen in Figure 5 4, the erack cid open under each axle However,Crack Opening 0016rm Figure 5.4 5.5 Period Monitoring even the maximum erack opening wat less than 0002 mm It is expected that in the future, simular tetts on the slab will pele simular cesulks Time, Crack opening in a steel-free deck slab under « five-axle truck Periodic Monitoring of Repairs Static field tests done before and after tepairs can be useful in quantifying the effectiveness of repaits for enhancing various stffnesses of the structure For example, Stallngs ¢ al (2000) have desenbed such tests on a short-span concrete T-beam badge that was strengthened by giuing carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) plate: to the bottom and sides of the beams Load tests on the buidge before and after repairs confirmed that the FRP repais marginally teduced the live load deflections. It shoul be noted, however, that these tests can not provide teakstic information about the enhancement of the load-carrying capacity of the structure, as affected by the repairs A novel technique incomorating a casing of glass fibre seinforced polymer (GFRP) with fibres onented in the circumferential direction was used to separ a detesorated concrete column on a budge in Ontatio, The gap between the casing and the column was filed wath expmisive grout It was expected that, after expansion, the grout would induce tadal pressure on the detesiorated concrete, thus enhancing its compressive strength This technique was described by Erki and Agarwal (1995) Since the racial compressive force on the old concrete ce to the expansive mortar is directly related to the hoop tension in the RP casing, circurnfesential strains on the litter can be used to quantify the effectiveness of tepaits Soon after the layer of expansive concrete se, the FRP casing was instrumented with ‘swo electncal resistance strain gauges at each of three sections, at the top, middle and bottom of the column The tensile strains remained at a constant level soon after peaking, and dropped slightly dusing the first ten days These kinds of records, while being extremely useful in a limited sense, lose credibility on a longerterm basis because the electsical resistance gauges, which are ghied using standard procedures, eventually tend to daft A. mote useful tool for this land of monitonng is the fibre optics Long Gauge descubed by ‘Tennyson and Mufti (2000) 55oldies for Srucure Heath Menitring6.1 Figure 6.1 6.1.1 GLOSSARY OF CASE HISTORIES Beddington Trail Bridge Location Calgary, Alberta Opened to Tratitc: November 1993 References 1 Rizhalla and Tadkos (1994). Tennyson and Mutt (2000) Web site wus isitcanada com Beddington Trail Bridge - Calgary, Alberta Bridge Description The Bedeington Trail Bridge, as shown in Figure 6 1, is the first bridge in Canada to be outfitted with FRP tendons and a system of structurally integrated optical sensors for monitoung The budge opened to trafficin November 1993, The Beddington Tral Budge is a two-span, continuous 25° skew bridge of 22.83 and 1925 m spans, each consisting of 13 bulb-Tee sections, pre-cait, prestressed concrete girders. Toro different types of catbon fibre reinforced polymer (CRP) tendons were used to pretension six pre-cast concrete girders Carbon fibre composite cables (0.625" diameter) produced by Tokyo Rope of Japan were used to pretension four girders, while the other two girders were pretensioned using two Leadine rod tendons (0.375" ckameter) produced by Mitsubishi Kasei Continuity of the two spans was achieved using post-tensioned steel tendons extended slong the entire length of the bridge 61Goldline for Susur Heath Mentoring 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.2 6.2.1 6.2 Instrumentation for Monitoring Fibse Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors were installed to monitor the budge’s behaviour dusing construction and under serviceability condktions. ElectroPhotonies Corporation Canada installed a total of 20 FBG sensors A four-channel Bragg Grating fibre laser sensor system ‘was used as a data acquisition system at different locations along the bridge girders that were pretensioned by the CFRP. The system involved four independent Bragg Grating tuned fibre lasers that were multiplexed in order to be pumped by one semiconductor laser. Each. fibre laser was attached to the susface of the tendon to serve as a sensor The sensors were connected, through a modular system, to a laptop computer used at the construction site to record the measurements at different stages of construction, and after completion of the bridge The optic sensor system measured the absolute strain rather than a strain relative to an initial calibration value (the latter being characteristic of electric resistance strain gauges and mechanical gauges). The network of FBG sensors was connected to a junction box that ‘was provided for on-site monitoring Diagnostic Results To check the integnty of the cazbon fibre cables and the FBGs, measurements were made in November 1999, Readings under traffic loads were consistent with those taken in 1993 with no obsecved change in structural behaviour This project is the fisst civil engineesing application in Canada to use fibre optic sensoss (FOS), so it is an impostant project for assessing the durabikty and functional hfe of FOSs Dusing the 1999 assessment, 18 of the original 20 FOSs were still functional after 6 years of service life The dynamic response of the strictuse, a8 recorded by a FBG sensor on a tendon for a one truck pass, was assessed and the shape of the curve was found to be consistent with that predicted for a three axle truck Salmon River Bridge Location On the Saknon River near Kemptown, Nova Seotia Opened to Traffic: December 1995 References Newhook and Mufti (1996) Newhook and Mutt (1996) Bakht and Mufti (1998) Doncaster etal. (1998) ACMBS I Mufti et al (1999), Web site wwwisiscamada com aurene Bridge Description The first fibre renforced concrete budge deck slab without steel reinforcement was constructed over the Salmon River on Trans Canada Highway 104, as shown in Figure 62 ‘The highway is divided into an eastbound section and a westbound section. Each section camnes two traffic lanes The bridge has taro simply supported spans of 31.20 m each and includes a composite concrete slab on steel girders with a skew angle of 22°-15'.0" The eastbound section has one span constructed with a deck slab with conventional steel reinforcement and the other span has a steel-free deck The deck slab wrth conventional steel reinforcement is 225 mm thick and the steeLfree deck is 200 mm thick, with choppedFigure 6.2 6.2.2 Glos of Cove Hieries polypropylene fibres randomly mized at a volume fiaction of 0.55 percent The bridge deck ss mipposted on si steel plate girders, at a spacing of 12m. Salmon River Bridge ~Nova Scotia. The cucb/parapet that supports the aluminum barier wall is also constwucted with an innovative design. The concrete bartier wall contains inchned steel rods encased in PVC tubes. These rods are bolted at the top of the wall and to the steel cross-ftames below the deck FRP was used in the cubs to provide durability similar to the steel-free deck Two hhonzontal layers and one vertical layer of a 150x150 mm NEFMAC glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) grid were also used Although the stechfree side has an initial cost of 6 percent more than the stecl-ranforced side, the overall design tends to have a less expensive life-cycle cost because of expected lower mantenance costs Instrumentation for Monitoring Out of a total of 23 foil stran gauges, 15 were installed on the gisdess below the steel-fee deck welded at muchspan, as shown in Figure 6 3, The stran gauges were placed near the top and bottom flanges. Two outer girders had addtional gauges installed on ther webs midway between the flanges, and eight foil gauges were installed at several straps at mid-span and at the end of the span. In addition to the conventional strain gauges, thiee FBG sensors were installed in the GFRP gud embedded in the cusb section. These sensors were embedded in the NEFMAC gad dunng manufacture This was the frst ceposted attempt in the world to use integrated FOS: to monitor the performance of the FRP reinforcement inside the conerete of a bridge structure 63Guidlines for Susur Heth Mentoring Figure 6.3 6.2.3 64 "5 Sensor locations in the Salmon River Bridge Field assessment of the steclfree deck has focused on: mapping of crack pattems and growth, load sharing among the bridge girders, fatigue performance of the welded strap connections, and patticipation of the curbs in carrying live loads, Diagnostic Results ‘The field assessment reruits of the Salmon River Bridge show that the steclfree deck is perfoming adequately under field concitions. In the initial seven days of moist curing, no plstic shunkage cracking ocausted Detailed visual inspections in May of 1996 revealed that two types of cracks had occutred, one type being small transverse cracks that appeated in the outside edge of the deck, and the second beng a single longitudinal crack that occurred in teach panel of the deck for almost the entite length of the badge However, after sox months of constnuction, these cracks appeared to stabilize andl are not affecting the remaining lfe of the deck The crack pattem map is show in Figure 5.3 Thee sensors were installed in the cutbs and parapet, but only two survived the constriction work The relative cfference in stran levels is less than 10 microstean, indicating that the curb has been isolated from participating in the bending behavior of the deck A discussion on the load-sharing effects in the girder, under nommal traffic, is provided in Section 5.2. Chatham Bridge Location Kent Countsy Road No. 10 in Chatham, Ontao Opened to Traffic: November 1996 References: 1 Aly etal (1998) 2 Bakht and Mufti (1998) 3. Doncaster (1998) 46.3.1 Figure 6.4 Figure 6.5 Glos of Cove Hiri: Bridge Description ‘The Chatham Budge, as shown in Figure 6 4, 5 an old steel girder budge with two traffic Imes and four simply supported spans over the busy expressway, No. 401, in wertem Ontano. The bridge has a 131m extenor and 201 m intesior spans The budge has five girders at a spacing of 21m Due to severe detesoration of its onginal 178 mm thick ranforced concrete slab, the two intenor spans were replaced with a 225 mm thick rectangular deck slab with steel renforcement, designed by the conventional OHBDC empincal method. The two extedor spans were replaced by the innovative, 175 mm thick, steelfree deck slab containing chopped polypropylene fibres at a vohume fraction of 0.55 percent Chatham Bridge ~ Ontario (¢) view of bridge (b view of deck replacement A hualf cross-section of the Chatham Budge steelfree deck is shown in Figure 65. The cantilever overhangs and the outer panels of this slab have a grid of CFRP placed near the top surface. The CFRP NEFMAC grid, which is resistant to the deletesious effects of de- ing sats in conceete, was used so that the dutability of the entire slab in the outer spans ‘would remain as high as that of the segments that are truly free of any ranforcements To achieve full arching action, the steehfree slab is confined by galvanized steel straps (20 x50 mim) welded to the top flange of the girders ata spacing of 10m € 180 mm —| | | CFRP GRID GFRP GRID. ‘50-100 mm $0125 mm GALVANISED STEEL STRAP @iom 2134 mn 820 mm Half cross-section of steel-free deck slab of the Chatham Bridge 65Guidlines for Susur Heath Mentoring 6.3.2 Figure 6.6 66 A durable bridge barier wall, reinforced with a planar grid of GFRP, is connected to the dleck slab with double-headed tension bars made of stainless steel The new bartier wall is inown as the Ontatio Bridge Bauer (OBB). The OBB confoms to the highest performance level in the new CHBDC ands incorporated in the steel-free deck slabs of the Chatham Badge Instrumentation for Monitoring ‘The north side extenor span of the bridge har been instrumented by the MTO with permanent installed resistance strain guges Among these, 24 ace silln serace, wath eight located on the NEFMAC inside the deck slab, Two types of FOSs were cast in the slab in conjunction with conventional embedded strain gauge transducers. The new steel free deck ‘wat also instrumented wrth a FBG sentor on a 20 m GERP bar, a RocTest embeddsble fibre optic gauge, and an EGP-Sesies embecment strain gauge Figute 6 6 shows the gauges inetalled in the deck under a layer of NEFMAC gad, before the concrete wat poured Installed sensors in steel-ree deck with carbon fibre NEFMAC For field tetting addtional instruments, sich at accelerometers and displacement tuansducers, weie temporanly placed on the structuse. Dynamic and static teste were conducted at each of the three phases of the rehabitation process. fist, with the old deck in place, second, wath half of the new steekitee fibre reinforced concrete deck in place, and third, sath the old deck completely xeplaced The lat test was performed inthe first week of June 1997 Tr hat been confismed that the steelfree deck slab acts compositely with the (gadecs, and is able to withitand a static wheel load of about SOO (50 tanne), without any cstess64 6.4.1 Figure 6.7 Glos of Cove Hires Confederation Bridge Location: Notthumberiand Strait, separating Prince Edward Island from the mainland. The budge connects Borden, Pance Edsvatd Island, to Cape Toumentine, New Brunswick, Opened to Traffic June 1997 References 1 Tadros (1997) 2 Mufti et al (1997), 3. Cheung et al. (1997). 4 Web site www isiscamada com Bridge Description ‘The 13.1 ism long Confederation Bridge is the world’s longest pre-stressed concrete box ‘gider bridge built over salt water It replaced the fecry service that linked Prince Edurard Ishad to New Bnunswick since 1832 The buidge, shown in Figure 6 7, has 44 main spans of 250.m each, and each span is made up of four massive pre-cast elements. The budge width is 11 m from barrier to barner wall, nclucing one lane and one emergency shoulder in each direction Each main span consists of main girders of pre-cast concrete boxes rangng in depth from 45m to 14m, and 190 m in length, complete with drop-in-spans of pre-cast concrete box gitders 60 m in length. The navigation span elevation of the biidge is 60 m. It is one of the largest infiastructuce projects in Canada, and used the most modem concrete ‘manufactusing process for construction, with a 100 year design hfe Confederation Bridge 67Guidlines for Susur Heath Mentoring 6.4.2 Figure 6.8 68 Instrumentation for Monitoring ‘A comprehensive program is in place to monitor both the short-tem and long-teun behamour of the budge To minimize the cost and to obtan correlated data, monitont dmces were installed in the same two consecubve spans, one ngid frame and one drop-i span, located in the deep-sea patt of the strait In this section of the manual, enly the fibre optic monitong system installed by ISIS Canada will be discussed. A total of 22 censors were inttalled on several sections of the reinforcing steel and eventually embedded within a large pre-stzested concrete main girder component In May and July of 1996, members of the ISIS Dalhousie University group in Halifax installed ten FBG strain sensors in segments of Confederation Bridge Six FBG sensors were installed in main girder number 31, and four were installed in the adjacent drop-in span. ElectroPhotonics Coxporstion installed another twelve FBG sensors in the drop-in span, four as temperature sensors and eight at strain sensors Ordinary FBG sentoss were bonded to 20 m long sections of 15M rebar, and the rebar was embedded in concrete, at shown in Figure 68 At the constuction site the instaimented rebar sections wee ted into the structural rebar that ‘was beng builtin jigs on the ground Photograph showing tensors installed on a rebar cage Three fibre optic gages were installed in each of the two webs which made up Section C1 of gider No. 31. Eight fibre optic gauges, two temperature sensors and six stiain sensoxs ‘were installed in each web of Section 3 of crop:in span No. 31. Vibrating wate strain gauges, anstalled by Pubke Works Canada, were placed within 50 cm of each of the fibre opte sensors Two types of gauges were located clare together to allow for a companion of renults The sentoce were monitored with FLS3100 modules supplied by ElectzoPhotonice Composation6.4.3 65 6.5.1 Figure 6.9 Glos of Cove Hires gnostic Results ‘An important aspect of this project war to test the robustness of FOS under actual constniction conditions, on a laige scale project The tensors in the two buidge sections were checked once in August 1996, wile the sechons were stillin the yard, and a second ime in Marc 1997, after bang placed over the Northumberland Strait, before the bridge was open to traffic. All six sensors in the man guder section were functioning properly. Three of the 12 stram sensors installed in the drop-in span were damaged dusing construction, one of the lead was broken off at the concrete, and two of the connectors were jammed with concrete and are cusrentiy giving low signal valies All four temperature sensors were functioning. properly No report is currently available on the observed data Crowchild Trail Bridge Location Noithwwest Calgary, Alberta Opened to Traffic: September 1997 References 1 Bakht and Mutt (1998) 2 Tacos et al (1998) 3. Athami and Cheng (1999) 4 Web ste: yw isiscanada com Bridge Description The Crowchild Trail/University Drive Bridge in Calgary is a two-lane, one-way traffic overpass that has three continuous spans of 2983, 3282, and 3023'm The osginal superstructure of the bridge, compnsing pre-stressed conctete box guders, was demolished in May 1997, A new superstructure was constructed in June 1997, using stec-free concrete bbndge deck technology Refer to Figure 69 The new superstructute is the first continuous span steel free bridge deck in the world Crowchild Trail Bridge - Calgary, Alberta 69Goldline fr Susur Heath Mentoring 6.5.2 6.10 Steel free constmuction eliminates the problem of bridge deck deterioration due to corrosion of the reinforcing steel The new superstnucture is composed of five 900 mm deep steel gidets with a stecl-ftee polypropylene fibre renforced concrete deck Four evenly spaced toss frames brace the girders in each span, Transverse steel chaphiragms join the gitders at the supports The superstructure is supported by five bearings at each abutment: and two beatings at each pier ‘The steeb free deck slab is 9030 mum wide anc 185 mm thick, and the stiaps and guess were macie composite with the concrete slab by stanless steel studs. GFRP bars were used in overhanging cantilevers and at the regions of intenor supports Prefabucated GFRP reinforang gnd, NEFMAC, was utilized in the barner walls, GFRP C-Bars were used to minimize the wieth of transverse cracks in the steel-fee deck over the intermediate bridge piers. By way of compatison, the capital cost of the GERP and the steel free deck slab was $20,000 less than 2 conventional deck slab This reinforcement is 2% of the total superstructure cost Instrumentation for Monitoring ‘The petiormance of the rehabilitated structure was investigated by using intelligent sensing and monitoning technologes. The objective of the project was to develop inteligent sensing in real time in order to monitor the structure's performance The mstrumentaton and ‘monitosing progam wat developed at the University of Alberta in collaboration with ISIS Canada, the City of Calgary, and SPECO Engineeang Ltd The program inchides the study of static and dynamic behaviour of the budge under vehicle loads, its theimal effects, load transfer in transverse ckrection, and the performance of glass fibre reinforcement ‘A total of 103 strain gauges (86 electrical steain gauges and 17 electsical embedded stesin _gnuge!), 2 fibre optic strain senor, and 5 theunisters were red in the monitoring progeam All of these sensors were installed in the north span of the bridge, dusing construction in 1997, To contiol their algnment, themnisters and concrete strain eauges were embedded in pre-cast concrete blocks. Four theaters monitored the temperature profile m the deck A fifth theamister mearuced air temperature Seventeen embeded strain gauges were placed in a total of five pre-cast blocks, thtee in the positive moment region, and two in the negative moment region. Thuity of the remaning 86 clecttical resistance strain gauges were installed on GERP renforcements, shear studs of the steel straps, NEFMAC gus, and stainless steel studs. After removal of the concrete forms, the other 56 gauges were installed on giccers, straps, and eross-frames Bighteen gauges were ‘mounted on two straps to monitor the lateral distribution of strap strains at two sections, cone in the positive and one in the negative moment regions. Due to space constraint, the _giuges were installed on the bottom face of the straps. ‘Thirty-four strain gauges were used to monitor the steel girders. The webs of all five girders, ‘were instrumented with three gauges at both positive and negative moment regions Four gauges were also installed on the flanges of girder No 1, to measure any warping of the (gtdets and to better examine strain distubution at a cross section, Twenty strain gauges and ‘two FOSs were mounted on the glass fibre ranforcement. The girders and straps were ‘monitored by 54 and 18 strain gauges respectively Another 14 stran gauges were used to ‘monitor the shear studs, NEFMAC, and cross bracing of the bridge In addition to these, ten, cable transchicers and four accelerometers were temporasily used in the second year tests in. 1998.6.5.3 6.5.4 6.6 Glos of Cove Hiri: All electrical strain gauges were 120 ©, 5 mm foil gauges, compensated for steel at room temperature up to 80°C, anc had a theumal output of £2 pt2/°C. A two-component epoxy ‘was selected for resistance to moisture and most chemicals Field Testing ‘The first year of testing (1997) inchided static truckload tests, ambient vibration tests, effect of temperature, and dynamic meanurements under passing trucks The second year of testing (1998) inchuded static and dynamic truckload tests and ambient vibration tests A single truck loaded to 395 KN was used for all the tests, Before the tiuck came onto the bridge, intial reacings were taken and the wheels were moved onto the loading points at which time the readings were taken. In addition, crack pattems were mapped in August 1997, August 1998 and June 1999, Ten cable transcuicers and four accelerometers were temporatily used in 1998 to measure deflections and vibrations, respectively Accelerometers were temporarily placed cizectly on the bottom flange Diagnostic Results ‘The two FOSs, all themusters, and 100 of the 103 electncal stran gauges were functional after the construction of the bndge was completed The three non-functional gauges were located in the side barties, two on the stainless steel studs and one on the NEFMAC Stain measurements revealed that the location of the neutral axs in the negstive moment region, where concrete is mostly in tension, was lower sn 1998 compared to 1997 This ‘observation indicated that, as expected, the concrete cracks in the negaave moment region led to a rechuction in the composite action between the steel girders and the conerete deck. The location of the neutral axis in the positive moment region did not change noticeably ‘with time Measured guder deflections comesponding to the tests in 1997 and 1998 showed an improvement in load distnbuhon charactenshes The improvement in load distnbution characteristics can arguably be attnbuted to the decrease in effective flerural nigicty of the composite girders due to slab cracking in the negative moment regions, With a single truck on the tight lane, the budge was excited at a frequency of 3.5 He in its second vertical mode. For thus frequency, the dynamic factor was always less than 1.15, and the damping ratio was 13 percent of entical As of June 1999, cracks visible on the bottom susface of the badge deck showed no setviceabilty concem All the cracks were considered caused by temperature and shsinkage, and were less than 04 mm in width Transverse eracks were observed immediately after construction in 1997 The longitudinal cracks at the bottom surface were seen in 1998. Observations in 1999 confismed that crack growth has been retarded, Taylor Bridge Location. Heacingley, Manitoba Openedito Traffic October 1997 61Goldline fr Susur Heath Mentoring 6.6.1 Figure 6.10 6.12 References 1. Rizkalla et al (1998) 2. Shehata and Rizkalla (1999) 3. Warcrop Engineenng Inc (1999) 4 Korany and Rizkalla (2000) 5. Web site wuwrisiscanada com Bridge Description The Taylor Bridge is located on Provincial Road No. 334 over the Assiniboine River in the Parish of Headingley, Manitoba Itis the wosle’s largest span bridge that uses FRP for shear reinforcement, pre stressing of the main gudes, and a FOS system for remote monitoring ‘The 165 m long bridge, shown in Figure 610 , consists of 40 pre-stressed concrete AASHTO-type girders ‘The bridge is divided into five equally simple spans of 33m Each span consists of eight, 18 m deep, I-shaped pre-cast, prestressed concrete girders Four _gidets of the Taylor Budge were pre-stressed by two different types of CFRP, using straght and deaped tendons. Two gudess were reinforced for shear using double-leg CFCC, and Leadlne stirups protruded from the grdets to provide composite action between the deck and the girders Side elevetion of Taylor Bdge ‘A 1618 m portion of the 275 mm thick deck slab was reinforced with CFRP Leadine bats ‘This deck postion represents one-half of the width of the budge The rest of the deck slab ‘was senforced ith conventional steel reinforcement Two layers of GFRP bars, nown commercially as C-Bar, were used to reinforce a 142 m portion of the Jersep-type barier ‘wall The bartier wall was connected to the deck slab by double-headed stainless steel bars Buege girders, pre-stressed and renforced by CFRP, were designed to behave simulatly to the other girders of the bridge reinforced and pre-stressed with steel under service loading conditions. The pre-stressing force and the eccentucity of the reinforcement were kept the6.6.2 Glos of Cove Hieries same for all giccers The initial pre-stressing level wat 60 percent of the guaranteed ultimate tensile strength for CFRP prestressing bars, compared to 75 percent for steel strands Manitoba Highways and Transpoitation conservatively estimates the design service life of this budge buit with innovative mateuals as 75, compared to 50 years for conventional structures Instrumentation for Monitoring ‘Monitoring technology for the Taylor Bridge is shown schematically in Figure 6 11. Fibre Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors were used to monitor the strains in the CFRP reinforcement of the gitders, the deck slab of the Taylor Bridge, and in the GFRP reinforcement of the barier wall The FBG sensors used in the Taylor Bridge were fabsicated by ElectroPhotonics Corporation andhave a full eage of 10,000 microstran Web Camera ‘Monitoring bridge Fibre optic leads —] ‘Communication between Web Camera Figure 6.11 and PC through WBaseT Coaxial Cableand the ethernet card plugged in the PC Communication between FOGSI and PC through RS-252 Cable BRIDGE SITE / | (a Loyout of mentoring systems in Taylor Bridge A total of 65 fibre optic sensors were installed on the reinforcements of the structural members. Out of the 65 sensors, 63 were single FBG sensors and the remaining were muliplexed FBG sensors. As shown in Figure 6 12, these 65 sensors were installed on the following bridge components: the girders reinforced by CFRP, selected girders reinforced by steel, the deck slab reinforced by CFRP, and the barsier wall reinforced by GFRP. In. 6.13Guidlines fr Susur Heath Mentoring Figure 6.12 6.6.3 6.14 addition, 20 thermocouples were used at different locations on the bridge in order to compensate for temperature effects A 32-channel bre ophe grating inchcator, the FLS3500R, was used to take strain measurements, The system as connected to a computer to download the strain reackngs using a telephone ine The bndge is also bang monitored by 26 conventional electrical strain gauges mounted on the reinforcement to ven‘y the FOS reacings. A 32-channel data logging system (CR 10X) and two 16-channel mitiplexing units ‘were used for strain measurements. This system is also connected to an intemal modem to lownload the strain data using an ackitional telephone ine. Both the fibre optic multiplexing ‘units and the data logging system were installed in a heated enclosure located in the cross chaphiagm under the budge deck slab. * Sopans sem PLAN VIEW Sensor locations on the Taylor Bdge Since January 1998, the FLS3500R has been programmed to read 32 strain sensors and 20 temperature sensors, and transmit the signals of ten selected strain sensors and 11 selected temperature sensors to the resident computer through the RS232 communication port, every 24 seconds. The modem was installed and activated in the resident computer through 2 telephone line. The bndge was also monitored with a camera operating in the Java Image Feed mode, continuously taking photogeaphs that correlated with comesponcing peak stran readings agnostic Results FBG sensors were installed on the CFRP tendons at the end of the budge guders in order to measute effective stress level in the tendons after release of the pre-stressing force The strain in the CFRP pre-stressing tendons was also monitored cusing transportation of the gidecs to the bridge site There was no significant change in the strain of the CFRP pre. stressing tendons. Diagnostic test xesuts from monitonng can be expressed in teams of the following stages, Load Testing of the Bridge: The output signal of a BBG sensor installed on a CFRP pre. stressing tendon at midspan was recorded every 0.24 seconds dusing a test loading produced by a slow moving tauck and trailer It can be conchided from Figute 6.13, that aFigure 6.13 Figure 6.14 Glos of Cove Hiri: 36+ truck induces a strain as high as 15 microstrain in the CFRP Leadine bars It should be mentioned that the initial pre-stressing strain was 800 microstrain (0.0080) and the ulimate strain was 13600 microstrain (0.0136). Frequent load tests will evaluate the performance of the budge girders reinforced by CFRP. Strain responses for moving truck Long-term Behaviour Due to Temperature Effect: Loss in the pre-stressing forces was tected by strains in the CFRP teinforcements Figures 6 14, 615, and 616 show the vatiation in strain and temperature of a CFRP pre-stiessing tendon over three peniods of seven cays in February 1998, October 1998, and June 1999, tespectively. The strain and temperature were recorded every 24 seconds, ‘00 oo a) zo 3% § Re ® 400 7 ‘0 Tew (ays) % et en 35 25 23 BR 3 2 Time (299) Strain and temperature data for long-term monitoring (February, 1998) 6.15Guidlines fr Susur Hedth Mentoring Pa s 2 3 iat B 00 & Es cot 3 £u ee oo iH eit vein fare 15. roan epee dl rlangsem mento Osh, 1698 a #3 zg m0 is 3 af ‘Time (days) 3 ok ot eH iy ft A 2 Taste fore 16 Sinan npr dat rangam men tne, 199 6.1667 67.1 Figure 6.17 Glos of Cove Hiries Joffre Bridge Location Spanning over the Saint Frangots Riverin Sherbrooke, Québec Opened to Traffic December 1997 References 1 Benmoksane et al (2000). 2 Web site: war isiscanada com Bridge Description The Joffre Budge, crossing over the Sant-Frangois River in Sherbrooke, Québec, was onginally built im 1950, The bndge was reconstructed in 1997 following severe detenoration of the concrete deck slab and giders, arising from reinforcement corrosion The badge is a two-lane, steekconerete composite structure, consisting of five spans of different lengths between 26 m to 37 m, and five girders at a spacing of 37m. The thickness of the concrete deck slab is 260 mm The structural design was carted out accoreing to guidelnes available an the Canadian Standard (CSA A233 1994) for conventional stecl-ranfosced concrete structures for carrying CS-615 Canacian truck loading The selected patt of the deck slab (73x11 5 m) was reinforced with CFRP reinforcement. Referto Figure 6 17 Jotfre Bridge - Sherbrooke, Québec ‘The reinforcement near the top surface of the slab compuses CFRP gnc, with steel rebacs placed at the bottom The man CFRP reinforcement consists of ten CFRP guds, each 3.6m long and 2.3 m wide In addition, a total of 12 CFRP gnds, 2.31.15 m, were used in laps on the joints of the main CFRP reinforcement gries, in both the longitudinal and transverse hrections. The grids were placed in such a way that the longitudinal spacing was 200 mm. and the transverse spacing was 100 mm, with reference to the deck slab. The cross-section. of the CFRP gud is about 2000 mr#/m in the transverse direction of the slab (renforcement tatio 10 percent) The steel reinforcements consist of 15 mm dameter deformed rebars at a spacing of 150 mm, centre to centre (.e ranforcement #20 0.66 percent) Concrete covers of 60 mm and 35 mm at the top and bottom of the slab, respectively, were initially recommended for this project 617Goldline fr Susur Heath Mentoring 6.7.2 6.7.3 6.18 Instrumentation for Monitoring ‘The buidge is extensively instrumented with three types of gauges (FOSs, wbrating wire stiain gauges, and resistance strain gauges) for a total of 180 catical locations in the concrete deck slab and on the steel girders A total of 44 FOSs were installed for strain and temperature monitoring, inchiding 26 Fabry-Perot strain fibre optic sensors (SFO) bonded on the CFRP NEFMAC guid, six Fabry-Perot (SFO) sensots integrated into the CFRP NEFMAC end, two Fabry-Perot tempersture fibre optic sensors (TFO) and two Fabry- Perot EFO) embedded in the concrete, three Fabry-Perot stran fibse optic weldable senors (SFO-W) welded on the steel gitder, three FBG sensors bonded on the CFRP NEFMAC gid, and one Fabry-Perot (SFO) and one FBG tensor bonded on the CFRP NEFMAC bar for thermal strain monitoring Table 6.1 summarizes sensor placement in the Joffre Bridge Table 6.1 - List of Fibre Opic Sensors in the Joffe Bridge Secor Types Mathod of ndrumertaion end Lotion uetiy |Comments Fibre Ophe (S60) | integdedin CFRP NEFMAC gic of bncdige deck se 3 Sn Fibre pte (SEO) | Bondedito CFRP NEFHAC rod ‘Thermal | stan Fore Opte (SEO) | Bonded on CFRP NEFMAC gid of bnlge deck ab oo Sra Fibre Opt (FO) | Embeddedin concrete bridge deck 2 | sen Fre OpicSFOW) | Weldedon web of mide wel grder 3 Sean Fibre Ophe (TFO) | Embeddedin concrete deck lb 2 | Tempercure Broag Grating Bonded on CFRP NEFDIAC gid ef bide deck slab 3 Sean Bragg Grting Bonded CFRP NEFHAC rod [te Shan Diagnostic Results After the successful execution of construction and instrumentation of the sensors, the budge ‘was opened to traffic. Since then, static and dmamic tesponses of different components of the budge ate recorded regularly using computer-aided data logging systems. It was found that the temperature obtaried ftom the Fabry-Perot TFO FOS embedded in the concrete of the bridge deck varies with time, being lower in the winter and higher in the summer The tecouded thermal strain of the NEFMAC bar from the bonded Fabry-Perot SFO FOS is small, representing a small inctease with temperature ‘The stran vakies of the CFRP NEFMAC gud renforcement obtained from the bonded and integrated Fabry-Perot SFO FOS: are almost the same, corresponeingly varying with temperature and exhibiting almost the same vaiation with time as with temperature Both the bonded and integrated Fabry- Perot SFO FOSs recorded a marimum strain variation of about 200x104 mm/mm in the CFRP NEFMAC gnd The vanation of recorded strain with time and temperature clearly indicates that itis possible to obtain meaningful and consistent results from FOS, and that ‘temperature is the dominant factor influencing the strain vanation in the budge deck,Glos of Cove Hieries 6.8 Waterloo Creek Bridge Location: Fanny Bay ateain Vancouver Island, Batish Columbia Openedto Traffic March 1998 References 1. Bakht and Mutt (1998) 2 Tea and Ventura (1999), 3. Web site: www sissanada com Bridge Description ‘The Waterloo Creek Bridge is located in the southeast postion of the City of Courtenay at the intersection of the new Inknd Island highway alignment and Waterloo Creek It is designed to carry four lanes of traffic. A side wew of the budge and its half cross-section is shown in Figures 6 18 and 6.19. The badge consists of two independent, parallel, single-span cast-in-place concrete deck structures supported by pre-stressed concrete I-girders. Each deck carsies two lames of traffic in a single direction The northbound structure is constructed with a steebfree slab deck, while the southbound structure is built with a tradtional steel reinforced concrete deck slab Both bridge decks are approximately 25 m long, and 12.2. mwide with a 10° skew angle Figure 6.18 Waterloo Creek Bridge. 6.19Guidlines fr Susur Heath Mentoring Figure 6.19 6.20 422mm de. sTUDs ViELDED TO STRAPS ‘OVER GIRDERS, s5x25mm GaLvaseD STEEL STRAP etm 2000 corre 25mm do ousLe-HEADED STEELEAR @ 1100x1008 : GALVANISED (TYP) L75 x75 x8 Waterloo Creek Bridge half cross-section ‘The nosthbound structure of the Waterloo Creek Budge is the first steebftee deck slab constnucted with prestressed I-gitders This bridge is the first integral abutment badge to hhave a steel-free deck slab The deck is 190 mm thick with a polypropylene fibre reinforced concrete slab with no intemal steel reinforcement Each deck is sipported by five 1473 mm prestresseci concrete I-girders that are built monolthically with 1000 mm thick commen abutments, The spacing of the girders 1s 2810 mm. At the ends of the steel-free deck slab, longitudinal steel reinforcement is placed to ensure a monolithic connection between the deck and the abutment The foundation of each abutment consists of twelve 460 mm. chameter open-ended steel pipe piles ‘The steel-free deck slab eliminates the problem of steel conosion within the deck, thereby reducing maintenance costs dusing the serace Ife of the budge The straps are equally spaced, 125m apatt, across the top of the adjacent giders to promde transverse sestrant, and the fibre reinforced concrete functions as a compressive arching membrane. Bridge Instrumentation for Monitoring ‘The northbound structure is instrumented with a total of 53 sensors at various components and locations on the bridge This includes 32 foil strain gauges, ten TML embecment strain transducers, five Micro-Measurement embedment strain gauges, two Smatt Rod sensors and four FOSs. The 53 sensors were installed dusing construction of the badge In addtion, a total of 11 sensors, mclucing six TML embedment stran transducers and five Micro- ‘Measurement embedment strain gauges, were installed in the southbound structure at the same time The details of sensor types and locations are listed in Table 6 26.8.3 Glos of Cove Hiries Table 6.2- Sensor Types and Locations in Waterloo Creek Bridge Sues Typas Loation Quay ForNertbound Srogue Foil San Gouge Abuiment 6 Stel Srope 6 Broun 8 Ded /Abuiment @ Parcpet Deck 4 Fibre Optic Sensor Stel Stops 2 ‘Stettree Deck 2 “TML Embeciert Stain Tronaccer Gwder 4 Steltree Deck 6 Smart Rod Sensor Stettree Deck 2 Micro-mecnirement Embecmend Gauges ‘Steltree Deck 5 Tas 3 For Saahbound Srocure ‘TM Embecnert Stain Trnaccer é Mico-mecnurement Embecment Gouget Bide Deck 3 Tol W ‘The data acquisition system used for the Waterloo Creek Bridge consists of a sensor connector array panel, 16 amplifier modules for signal conditioning, a 16-channel LS4 Data Logget by Lakewood Systems Ltd, an eight-channel StressNet System from Arbutus Cove Systems Ine, a Penum 166 MMX postable computer and stran inckeator model P-350 from Vishay Instruments In order to monitor the performance of the bridge, 24 sensors at vatious locations were selected to measure strains at cegular time intervals. The data has been collected with two ta acquisition systems Both were installed at the site in October 1998. The Lakewood Data Logger andthe StressIet system can both provide gauge excitation, signal condtioning and analog to digtal conversion. Sampling rate setting, data retiewng and sensor cabbration can be done on both systems by instaling the corresponding data application software on a portable personal computer. Diagnostic Results Since the installation of the two data acquisition systems, the Lakewood Data Logger has been workng properly in the Geld, collecting measused data from selected groups of 16 sensors. The StressNet System was installed to take measurements at a high sampling rate over a short period of time A total of 12 site visits to dounload the measured data were undertaken between October 1998 and June 1999. The data were measured manually by using amodel P-350A stran indicator. Dunng ste visits, the data collected by the data logger ‘were downloaded After construction, a single longtudinal crack developed in each panel of the deck In the mid panel, the cracks were along the entire length of the bridge 621Goldline fr Susur Heath Mentoring 6.9.1 Figure 6.20 6.22 Sainte Emelie-de-I’Energie Bridge Location: Neat Saint-Emelie-de-T’Energic in the Laurentides-Lanauciere Region, Québec Openedtto Traffic: October 1998 References, 1. Labossiere et al (2000). 2 Web site: wii Bridge Description ‘The Sante Emele-del’Enewgie Bridge, over the Noire River on Route 131, was ouiginally bbuik in 1951, Refer to Figure 620, This is a one-span budge, 21.3 m in length, with four parallel enforced concrete beams and a participating slab forming T-sectons with spacng of 274 m The total width of the badge is 111m, and the traffic lames occupy 91m According to the Ministry of Transportation of Québec (MT'Q) the Live Load Reduction Factor (LLRF) of the bridge is 0.94. Using the S6-88 standard and truckload QS-660, it was found that the flexural strength would have to be saised by 35 percent, and the shear strength by 20 percent. No significant spalling of concrete or degradation of steel rebar through corrosion, combined with the required level of reinforcement and the general condition of the bridge, made this badge appopnate for full-scale expementation Sainte Emelie-de-l'Energie Bridge - Québec Repair work was performed in the fall of 1998 The bridge remained open to traffic curing the repair pesiod, but the lanes where FRP was being installed were closed in altemation Catbodur strips (CFRP) were used for flexural reinforcement and Sikawrap Hex 100G (GERP) was used for shear reinforcement The U-shaped stirrups were wrapped around the sections, with fibres in the veitical direction, locally covering the longtudinal CFRP reinforcement in the process The total quantity of composites installed in the badge amounts to 490 knear meters of Carbodur strips and 210 m¥ of Sikawrrap Hex 1006,6.9.2 6.9.3 Glos of Cove Hiri: Instrumentation for Monitoring In order to evaluate the structural efficiency of the FRP strengthening, the Sante Emeke-de- VEnerge Budge wat instrumented with conventional resistance strain gauges, Fabry-Perot ‘gauges, FBG sensors and thermocouples A total of 66 sensors were installed in extenor and intenor beams of the bridge deck Among those 28 strain gauges, eight Fabry-Perot sensors and 20 FBG sensors were instrumented on the steel rebars, FRP reinforcements, and the top of the beam Ten thermocouples were installed peumanentiy to help correct potential etrors de to temperature effects, Sensor locations are summanzed in Table 6 3. The positions of, the sensors were selected to validate the data obtained from the experimental FOSs and to provide complementary readings from vatious types of instruments Other instruments used chuning the tests inchided two load cells per beam to measure strains at mic-span, and one cisplacement sensor under each beam. Accelerometers were also used for a number of dynamic tests. Table 6.3 Senso Details in Sainte Emile-de-Energie Bridge Seer Types ‘Sear Insromortea Wh Nuria Sess | Tal Weténd | MidSpon | Eat ind San Gauges Steel Rebors vas a Fe ae 242 242 16 Top ofthe Beam 242 4 Fabry Perot Steel Rebare tM > Fe oF 1 é Bragg Greing Steel Rebors 242 4 Fe 40 242 242 2 “Thermocouple Top atthe Boom 242 2 Stee Rebar 242 4 Fe st 240 +l é Tal “ ield Testing atic load tests were performed on the bridge using three, 33 ¢, four-axle trucks to apply simulated traffic loading to the structure Four different loading paths were identified as axis Ato D on the bridge plan view. For dynamic load tests, three tacks were successively daven across the budge at modetate speed, braking at the middle of the badge The budze ‘was loaded with a single truck in each of the four paths, then wnth combinations of two and. tHhtee trucks, 6.23Guidlines for Srusurdl Heath Mentoring 6.10 6.10.1 Figure 6.21 6.24 Hall's Harbour Wharf Location Hall's Harbour, Nova Scotia Opened to: December 1999 References 1 Newhook (1999), 2 Newhook al (2000), 3. Web site www isiscanada com Structure Description Halls Harbour is 2 small craft fishing hatbour on the Bay of Fundy Shore, in Nova Scotia ‘The osiginal wharf structure was constructed in 1904 and retrofitted several times over the years, Durning an Atlantic storm on February 15, 1998, 2 40 m section of timber piles failed, a3 showm in Figure 6 21 Failure of timber piles in Hall’s Harbour The damaged segment wat replaced by an innovative staicture using new mutedals and technologies, as shown in Figure 622 Reseaich showed that by using innovative matesials and technologes, inital capital costs were higher than those afsocated with using conventional methods, but the Mfe-cyele maintenance costs should actually be reduced The snutial capital cott of the GFRP anforcements and steel-free deck wat about $20,000 more than conventional steel reinforced concrete increasing the overall cost of the Hall’s Harbour project by about 45 percentFigure 6.22 Glos of CveHiries Hall’s Harbour Wharf - Nova Scotia ‘The new structure is built with concrete deck panels on deep concrete beams (pile caps) spaced at 4m intervals. The transverse section of the deck panel and steuctuse is shown in. Figure 623, The transverse beams are supported on piles at the front face, and a retaining. structure at the back The construction depth of the deck, inchiding pile cap, is 1m It is Dui over the top of the existing wharf in order to achieve the desired increase of wharf elevation The pile cap beams are designed to be composite with the deck slab (square 700x700 mm) and catty the entire dead load and construction live loads. The pile caps and bents have some steel reinforcement, however, reinforcement under serviceability loads is by GERP tods. The deck panels contain smthetc fibre reinforced concrete and ubhze the axchung action of the slab The panels also contain GFRP rods to reinforce against the uplift force that is created by wave action dusing extreme stoums. The steel straps ase encated in grout-filled polyvinyl chloude (PVC) tuber to provide an economical means of achieving durabilty in the manne environment Due to the absence of steel reinforcements (and the ekmination of corrosion), the projected life of the wharf is increased from approximately 30 years to between 60 and 80 years, with minimum maintenance The inclusion of fibre optic monitoring technology embeded in the GFRP rods will provide useful data to support the application of the FRPs in other matine environment stiuctures 6.28Guidlines fr Susur Heth Mentoring TRANSVERSE SECTION 160.0 FRP g|-r2000F8? al Loncruomat section Figure 6.23 Transverse section and deck panel section of the new structure 6.10.2 Instrumentation for Monitoring ‘The structure was instrumented with FOSs to monitor its durability and performance A total of 35 sensors were installed in different paits of the structures. Sensor locations distnbuted in panels and beams of the structure ate shown in Figure 6 24 Eighteen Fabry- Perot sensors were attached in two pile cap beams in one panel Seven FBG sensors were installed in two pile cap beams, one panel and two straps Foil gauges were installed as checks on the FOSs Currently, the Fabry-Perot fibre optic sensor datalogger, anc aRocTest DMI unit is being remotely monitored via phonelines, from vasious seseatch locations across Canada, Figure 6.24 Sensor locations shown in cross-sedtional viewmM NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS Notation and Definitions A AASHTO. ANPSD, Ba CERP CHBDC R10 8-615 DLA FBG FLS3500 FOS ERP fg £ GERP BSSSRPPPR SE ‘Modal amplitude or modal tatio ‘American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Average noumalized power specteal density Equivalent base length CCatbon fibre reinforced polymer Canadian Highway Budge Design Code Campbell recorder — 10x Canadkan standard — 615, for truck loading Dynamic load allowance Fibre Bragg Grating Fibre light sensor 3500 read out unit (Fibre optic grating strain indicator, ElectroPhotonics Corporation) Fibre optic sensor (s) Fibre cainforced polymers Natural frequency Acceleration of gravity Glass fibre remforced polymer Dynamic amplification factor Ratio of required proof loac to legal load Span length Load effect due to unfactored live loads Live load reduction factor Lakewood Systems 16 channel datalogger Linear vanable ckffetential transformer Ministry of Transportation of Ontario Ministry of Transportation of Quebec Grid type fibre composite matenal for reinforcing concrete (Ontatio Highway Bridge Design Code Polyinyl chlonde Strain inckeator mode! of Vishay Instruments Recommended standard-232 (Electronic Industries Association) (Quebec standard — 660, for truck loading Strain fibre optic sensor Strain fibre optic weldable sensor Structural health monitoring ‘Temperatuse fibre optic sentor Tokyo Measusing Instruments Laboratory Total vehicle load Live load factor ‘Mazimum deflection under the vehicle traveling at nosmal speed Minimum dmamic deflection in the cycle of wibsation containing Saux ‘Mazimmum deflection under the vehicle traveling st crawkng speed ‘Maximum deflection obtained from the curve of median deflections ‘atic deflecnen conesponctng to Bras Meckan deflection corresponding to Sam Static deflection at the same location where A\ is recorded Maxinnum difference between dymamic and static deflections 71Guidlines fr Susur Heath Mentoring 7.2 A a A ‘Maximum difference between dynamic and median deflections Difference between dynamic and static deflections at the same load location that causes Saat Difference between dynamic and medkan deflection at the same load Jocation that causes 8 ut8.1 LIOGRAPHY References and Bibliography Abe, M., Fujino, ¥., Kajikura, T., Yanagihara, M., and Sato, M., (1999). “Monitoring ofa Long Span Swzpension Bridge by Ambrent Vibration Method,” Steuctural Heath Menitosng, Technomic Publication, Lancaster, PA, USA, pp 400-407 Athami, S., and Cheng, JJ-R., (1999). “Fild Insirunentaton aad Monioring of Croveild Trail Bridge in Calgary, Alberta, Project Repost, University of Alberta Agarwal, A.C., (1990). "Load Testing of New Concrete Bridge Deck Slabs,” Developments in Shot and Mechum Span Bridges ‘90, Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, Montreal, (Québec, Canada, pp 277-289 Agarwal, A.C., (1991). ‘Burkngon Stway Expansion Joint Testing,” Serachures Research Report SRR-91-02, Minustry of Transportation of Ontanio, Downsview, Ontano, Canada Aktan, A.E., Tsikos, C.J., Catbas, F.N., Grimmelsman, K,, and Barrish, R. “Challenges ‘nd Opportunites in Bridge Fitaith Monitonng’, Proceecing of the 2m Intemational Workshop on Stuchual Health Monutoang, Stanford Univeesty, Stanford, CA, pp 461-473, Agarwal, A.C, and Cheung, MS.(1987). "Development of Loading Truck Model and Live Laad Factor for the Canadian Standard: Assoaation CSA-S6 Code,” Canackan Joumal of Civil Engseeang, Vol 14(1) Ali, A., Bakht, B., and Schaefer, J., 1997). "Desies and Construction of a Steelfrve Duck Slab in Ontari” Proceedings, CSCE Annual Conference, Vol 6, pp 81-90. 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Black, C., and Ventura, C.E., (1998). “Amrhvent Vibration Measerenents of te Lindguast Endy,” UBC Eatthquake Engineering Research Lab, Univessity of Batish Columbia Cawley, P., and Adams, R.D. (1979). “The Location of Defects in Structures from Measurements of [Natural Frequencies,” Journal of Strain Analysis, Vol 14, 49-57 Chan, H.C., and O'Connor, C., (1990). “Whee! Loads from Highoey Bridge Strains: Fuld Studies” ASCE Journal of Steuctusal Engineesing, Vol 116 (7). Chang, F-K,, (1999) (Editor). “Srructral Fiealth Monitoring 2000 Workshop,” Proceedings of the 2s! Intemational Workshop, Stanford University, CA, USARederences ndBiiogephy Chase, $.B, (1999). "Dynannic and Field Testing of Bridges inthe New Millenium: A Look Forward a Discusion of he Mast Important Aspect, Isnes, Palas, and Procedags Relating to Testing and Braluaton of Bridges,” a White Paper Prepared for the Transportation Reseasch Board Committee A2COS Dynamics and Field Testing of Budges CHBDC, (2000). Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code, Canackan Standards Assocation, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada Cheung, MS., Tadros, GS., Brown, T., Dilger, W.H., Ghali, A., and Lau, D.T. (1997). “Firdd Monitoring and Racearch on Peformance ofthe Confederation Bridge”, Canackans Joumal of Civil Engneenng, 24(b), pp. 951-962. Daniel, I. M., and Ishai, ©., (1994). “Engineering Mechanics of Compasite Materat,” Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA. Doebling, $.W., Farrar, C.R., Prime, M.B., and Shevitz, D.W. (1996). “Damage dentfcaton and Hleath Monitoring of Structural and Mechanical Systems fram Charges in Their Vibration Characerstics: A Litrate Review,” Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, ‘New Mexico, Report No. LA 13070-MS Doncaster, A.M., (1998). “An Evaluation of Fibre Optic Sensors for Monitoring of Can! Engineering Strchs*, MASc. Thesis, Dalhousie University EDL, (1995). U2, 72 and P2 Manuals, Expetimental Dynamic Investigations Ltd. Eri, MA., and Agarwal, A.C., (1995). “Strengthening of Runforeed Concret Araal Members Using Fibre Composit Materials - a Survg.” Proceedings, CSCE Annual Conference, Vol II, pp. 565-574 Farrar, C.R, Baker, W.E., Bell, TM., Cone, KM., Darling, T.W., Duffey, T.A., Eklund, A., and Migliosi, A. (1994). “Dysame Charachrigaton aud Damage Detector in te I- +40 Bridge Over the Rio Grande” Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, Report No. LA 12767-MS Farrar, C.R., Duffey, T-A., Goldman, P.A., Jauregui, D.V., and Vigil, JS. 1996a) “Finute Element Anapyts ofthe 1-40 Bridge Over the Réo Grande,” Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, Report No. LA 12979-MS Farrar, C.R., and Jauregui, D. (1996b). “Damage Detection Alporitims Applied to Experimental ‘and Numerical Modal Data from he 1-40 Bredge” Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, Report No LA 13074MS Fuller, AHL, Bitzen, AR., and Kelly, EF, (1931). “Tupac on Highnay Bade,” ‘Transactions ASCE, Vol 95, Paper 1786 Gu, W. M,, (1982). “A Simplgied Method for Eliminating Bror of Transverse Sensisty of Strain Garge,” Experimental Mechanics, Vol. 22, No.1, pp. 16-18 Housner, G.W., Bergman, LA., Caughey, TK, Chassiakos, A.G., Claus, R.O., ‘Masri, S.F., Skelton, R.E., Soong, T-T., Spencer, B.F., and Yao, J.T-P., (1997). “Stuctral Contra: Past, Prcmt and Future” Journal of Engneening Mechanics, ASCE, Vol 123,No9 83