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Non-destructive Testing
Rev 2 April 2013
Non-destructive Testing
Copyright TWI Ltd 2013
5 Non-destructive Testing
5.1 Introduction
Radiographic, ultrasonic, dye penetrant and magnetic particle methods are
briefly described below. Their relative advantages and limitations are
discussed in terms of their applicability to the examination of welds.
5.2.2 X-rays
X-rays used in the industrial radiography of welds generally have photon
energies in the range 30keV up to 20MeV. Up to 400keV they are generated
by conventional X-ray tubes which, dependent upon output may be suitable
for portable or fixed installations. Portability falls off rapidly with increasing
kilovoltage and radiation output. Above 400keV X-rays are produced using
devices such as betatrons and linear accelerators, not generally suitable for
use outside of fixed installations.
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Increased portability.
No need for a power source.
Lower initial equipment costs.
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weld defects. Since velocity is a constant for any given material and sound
travels in a straight line (with the right equipment) ultrasound can also be
used to give accurate positional information about a given reflector. Careful
observation of the echo pattern of a given reflector and its behaviour as the
ultrasonic probe is moved together with the positional information obtained
above and knowledge of the component history enables the experienced
ultrasonic operator to classify the reflector as slag, lack of fusion or a crack.
A flaw detector:
- Pulse generator.
- Adjustable time base generator with an adjustable delay control.
- Cathode ray tube with fully rectified display.
- Calibrated amplifier with a graduated gain control or attenuator.
An ultrasonic probe:
- Piezo-electric crystal element capable of converting electrical vibrations
into mechanical vibrations and vice versa.
- Probe shoe, normally a Perspex block to which the crystal is firmly
attached using suitable adhesive.
- Electrical and/or mechanical crystal damping facilities to prevent
excessive ringing.
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Ultrasonic equipment.
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Advantages Limitations
Inexpensive equipment Only magnetic materials
Direct location of defect May need to demagnetise components
Surface conditions not critical Access may be a problem for the yoke
Can be applied without power Need power if using a yoke
Low skill level No permanent record
Sub-surface defects found 1-2mm Calibration of equipment
Quick, instant results Testing in two directions required
Hot testing (using dry powder) Need good lighting - 500 lux minimum
Can be used in the dark (UV light)
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Section 6
WPS/Welder Qualifications
Rev 2 April 2013
WPS/Welder Qualifications
Copyright TWI Ltd 2013
6 WPS/Welder Qualifications
6.1 General
When structures and pressurised items are fabricated by welding, it is
essential that all the welded joints are sound and have suitable properties
for their application.
Table 6.1 is a typical WPS written in accordance with the European Welding
Standard format giving details of all the welding conditions that need to be
specified.
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Table 6.1 Typical sequence for welding procedure qualification by means of a test
weld.
The test coupon is subjected to NDT in accordance with the methods specified
by the Standard – visual inspection, MT or PT and RT or UT.
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EN ISO 15614
Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials,
welding procedure test.
Part 1
Arc and gas welding of steels and arc welding of nickel and nickel alloys.
Part 2
Arc welding of aluminium and its alloys.
ASME Section IX
Pressurised systems (vessels and pipework).
AWS D1.1
Structural welding of steels.
AWS D1.2
Structural welding of aluminium.
Some alternative ways that can be used for writing qualified WPSs for some
applications are:
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The welding conditions that are allowed to be written on a qualified WPS are
referred to as the qualification range and depend on the welding conditions
used for the test piece (as-run details) and form part of the WPQR.
Essential variable
Variable that has an effect on the mechanical properties of the weldment
and if changed beyond the limits specified by the standard will require
the WPS to be re-qualified.
Non-essential variable
Variable that must be specified on a WPS but does not have a significant
effect on the mechanical properties of the weldment and can be changed
without the need for re-qualification but will require a new WPS to be
written.
1 Make another test weld using similar welding conditions to those used
for the affected weld and subject this to the same tests used for the
relevant WPQR to demonstrate that the properties still satisfy specified
requirements.
2 Remove the affected weld and re-weld the joint strictly in accordance
with the designated WPS.
Most of the welding variables classed as essential are the same in both the
European and American Welding Standards but their qualification ranges
may differ.
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Welders also need to have the skill to consistently produce sound (defect-
free) welds.
EN 287-1
Qualification test of welders – Fusion welding.
Part 1: Steels.
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EN ISO 9606-2
Qualification test of welders – Fusion welding.
Part 2: Aluminium and aluminium alloys.
EN 1418
Welding personnel – Approval testing of welding operators for fusion
welding and resistance weld setters for fully mechanised and automatic
welding of metallic materials.
ASME Section IX
Pressurised systems (vessels & pipework).
AWS D1.1
Structural welding of steels.
AWS D1.2
Structural welding of aluminium.
Table 6.3 shows the steps required for qualifying welders in accordance with
EU Standards.
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The welding engineer writes a WPS for a welder qualification test piece.
The welder makes the test weld in accordance with the WPS.
A welding inspector monitors the welding to ensure that the welder is
working in accordance with the WPS.
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Figure 6.3 Example of a WPQR document (test weld details) to EN15614 format
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Some welding variables classed as essential for welder qualification are the
same types as those classified as essential for welding procedure
qualification, but the range of qualification may be significantly wider.
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Records/evidence are available that can be traced to the welder and the
WPSs used for production welding.
Supporting evidence must relate to volumetric examination of the
welder’s production welds (RT or UT) on two welds made during the six
months prior to the extension date.
Supporting evidence welds must satisfy the acceptance levels for
imperfections specified by the EU welding standard and have been
made under the same conditions as the original test weld.
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Figure 6.4 Example of WPQR document (details of weld test) to EN15614 format.
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Figure 6.5 Example of a welder qualification test certificate (WPQ) to EN287 format.
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