Sunteți pe pagina 1din 376

gglP'

ifv/
The four books of The Nature ofOrder constitute the ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth in aseries
of bookswhich describe an entirely new attitude to architecture and building.The books are in
tended to provide acomplete working alternative to ourpresent ideas about architecture, building,
andplanning — an alternative which will,wehope, gradually replace current ideas andpractices.

Volume I THE TIMELESS WAY OF BUILDING

Volume 2 A PATTERN LANGUAGE

Volume J THE OREGON EXPERIMENT


Volume 4 THE LINZ CAFE
Volumes THE production of houses
Volume 6 a new theory of urban design

Volume-/ a foreshadowing of 2ist century art:


THE COLOR AND GEOMETRY OF VERY EARLY TURKISH CARPETS

Volume 8 THE MARY ROSE MUSEUM

Volumes p to 12
THE NATURE OF ORDER: AN ESSAY ON THE ART OF BUILDING

AND THE NATURE OF THE UNIVERSE

Book I THE PHENOMENON OF LIFE

Book 2 THE PROCESS OF CREATING LIFE

Book J A VISION OF A LIVING WORLD


Book 4 THE LUMINOUS GROUND

Future volume now in preparation

Volume ij battle: the story of a historic clash


BETWEEN WORLD SYSTEM A AND WORLD SYSTEM B
THE LUMINOUS GROUND
Hand painted tile, black glaze, white slip
THE

NATURE
OF

ORDER
An Essay on the Art ofBuilding and
the Nature ofthe Universe

BOOK ONE

THE PHENOMENON OF LIFE

BOOK TWO

THE PROCESS OF CREATING LIFE

BOOK T H R E E

A VISION OF A LIVING WORLD

BOOK FOUR

THE LUMINOUS GROUND


THE CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STRUCTURE
BERKELEY CALIFORNIA

in association with

PATTERNLANGUAGE.COM

© 2004 CHRISTOPHER ALEXANDER

PREVIOUS VERSIONS

© 1980, I983, I987, I993, I995, I996,1998, I999, 2000, 200I, 2002, 2003
CHRISTOPHER ALEXANDER

Published byThe Center for Environmental Structure


2701 Shasta Road, Berkeley, California 94708
CES is a trademark of the Center for Environmental Structure.
Allrights reserved. Nopartofthispublication may bereproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form orbyany means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or otherwise,without the prior permission of the Center for EnvironmentalStructure.

isbn 978-0-9726529-4-0 (Book4)


isbn 978-0-9726529-0-2 (Set)
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Alexander, Christopher. The Nature ofOrder: An Essay on theArtofBuilding andtheNature of theUniverse/


Christopher Alexander, p. cm. (Centerfor Environmental StructureSeries; v. 12).
Contents: v.i. ThePhenomenon ofLife — v.2. The Process ofCreating Life
v.3. A Vision of a Living World — v.4. The Luminous Ground
1. Architecture—Philosophy. 2. Science—Philosophy. 3.Cosmology
4.Geometry inArchitecture. 5. Architecture—Case studies. 6.Community
7.Process philosophy. 8.Color (Philosophy).
I. Center for Environmental Structure. II. Title.
III. Title: The Luminous Ground.
IV. Series: Center for Environmental Structure series ; v. 12.
NA2500 .A444 2°°2
72o'.i—dc2i 2002154265
isbn978-0-9726529-4-0 (cloth: alk.paper: v.4)

Typographyby Katalin Bende and Richard Wilson


Manufactured in ChinabyEverbest PrintingCo., Ltd.
BOOK ONE

THE PHENOMENON OF LIFE

PROLOGUE TO BOOKS I"4

THE ART OF BUILDING AND THE NATURE OF THE UNIVERSE I

PREFACE 5

PART ONE

1. THE PHENOMENON OF LIFE 27


2. DEGREES OF LIFE 63
3. WHOLENESS AND THE THEORY OF CENTERS 79
4. HOW LIFE COMES FROM WHOLENESS IO9
5. FIFTEEN FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES 143
6. THE FIFTEEN PROPERTIES IN NATURE 243

PART TWO

7. THE PERSONAL NATURE OF ORDER 299


8. THE MIRROR OF THE SELF 313
9. BEYOND DESCARTES: A NEW FORM OF SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATION . . 351
10. THE IMPACT OF LIVING STRUCTURE ON HUMAN LIFE 37I
11. THE AWAKENING OF SPACE 4°3

CONCLUSION 441

APPENDICES:

MATHEMATICAL ASPECTS OF WHOLENESS AND LIVING STRUCTURE . . 445

Vll
BOOK TWO

THE PROCESS OF CREATING LIFE

PREFACE: ON PROCESS I

PART ONE: STRUCTURE-PRESERVING TRANSFORMATIONS

1. THE PRINCIPLE OF UNFOLDING WHOLENESS 15


2. STRUCTURE-PRESERVING TRANSFORMATIONS 51
3. STRUCTURE-PRESERVING TRANSFORMATIONS IN TRADITIONAL SOCIETY 85
4. STRUCTURE-DESTROYING TRANSFORMATIONS IN MODERN SOCIETY . 107

INTERLUDE

5. LIVING PROCESS IN THE MODERN ERA: TWENTIETH-CENTURY CASES


WHERE LIVING PROCESS DID OCCUR 137

PART TWO: LIVING PROCESSES

6. GENERATED STRUCTURE 175


7. A FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENTIATING PROCESS 203
8. STEP-BY-STEP ADAPTATION 229
9. EACH STEP IS ALWAYS HELPING TO ENHANCE THE WHOLE . . . . 249
10. ALWAYS MAKING LIVING CENTERS 267
11. THE SEQUENCE OF UNFOLDING 299
12. EVERY PART UNIQUE 323
13. PATTERNS: GENERIC RULES FOR MAKING CENTERS 341
14. DEEP FEELING 369
15. EMERGENCE OF FORMAL GEOMETRY 401
16. FORM LANGUAGE AND STYLE 431
17. SIMPLICITY 461

PART THREE: A NEW PARADIGM FOR PROCESS IN SOCIETY

18. ENCOURAGING FREEDOM 495


19. MASSIVE PROCESS DIFFICULTIES 511
20. THE SPREAD OF LIVING PROCESSES THROUGHOUT SOCIETY:

MAKING THE SHIFT TO THE NEW PARADIGM 531


21. THE ROLE OF THE ARCHITECT IN THE THIRD MILLENNIUM ... 551

CONCLUSION fie
appendix: A SMALL EXAMPLE OF A LIVING PROCESS 571
BOOK THREE

A VISION OF A LIVING WORLD

PREFACE: LIVING PROCESSES REPEATED TEN MILLION TIMES I

PART ONE

1. OUR BELONGING TO THE WORLD: PART ONE 25


2. OUR BELONGING TO THE WORLD: PART TWO 41

PART TWO

3. THE HULLS OF PUBLIC SPACE 69


4. LARGE PUBLIC BUILDINGS IOI
5. THE POSITIVE PATTERN OF SPACE AND VOLUME
IN THREE DIMENSIONS ON THE LAND 153
6. POSITIVE SPACE IN ENGINEERING STRUCTURE AND GEOMETRY . . . 191
7. THE CHARACTER OF GARDENS 229

PART THREE

8. PEOPLE FORMING A COLLECTIVE VISION FOR THEIR NEIGHBORHOOD . 257


9. THE RECONSTRUCTION OF AN URBAN NEIGHBORHOOD 283
10. HIGH DENSITY HOUSING 311
11. NECESSARY FURTHER DYNAMICS OF ANY NEIGHBORHOOD

WHICH COMES TO LIFE 333

PART FOUR

12. THE UNIQUENESS OF PEOPLE'S INDIVIDUAL WORLDS 361


13. THE CHARACTER OF ROOMS 411

PART FIVE

14. CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS AS LIVING CENTERS 447


15. ALL BUILDING AS MAKING 4^1
16. CONTINUOUS INVENTION OF NEW MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES . . 517
17. PRODUCTION OF GIANT PROJECTS 561

PART SIX

18. ORNAMENT AS A PART OF ALL UNFOLDING 579


19. COLOR WHICH UNFOLDS FROM THE CONFIGURATION 615

THE MORPHOLOGY OF LIVING ARCHITECTURE: ARCHETYPAL FORM. . . 639


CONCLUSION: THE WORLD CREATED AND TRANSFORMED 675
APPENDIX ON NUMBER 683
BOOK FOUR

THE LUMINOUS GROUND

PREFACE: TOWARDS A NEW CONCEPTION OF THE NATURE OF MATTER

PART ONE

1. OUR PRESENT PICTURE OF THE UNIVERSE 9


2. CLUES FROM THE HISTORY OF ART 29
3. THE EXISTENCE OF AN "i" 49
4. THE TEN THOUSAND BEINGS 73
5. THE PRACTICAL MATTER OF FORGING A LIVING CENTER Ill

MID-BOOK APPENDIX: RECAPITULATION OF THE ARGUMENT 135

PART TWO

6. THE BLAZING ONE I43


7. COLOR AND INNER LIGHT 157
8. THE GOAL OF TEARS 241
9. MAKING WHOLENESS HEALS THE MAKER 261
10. PLEASING YOURSELF 271
11. THE FACE OF GOD 3OI

CONCLUSION TO THE FOUR BOOKS

A MODIFIED PICTURE OF THE UNIVERSE


317
EPILOGUE: EMPIRICAL CERTAINTY AND ENDURING DOUBT 339

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 345
i dedicate these four books to my family:

to my beloved mother, who died many years ago;

to my dear father, who has always helped me and inspired me;

to my darlings llly and sophie;

and to my dear wife pamela who gave them to me,

a n d who s h a r e s t h e m w i t h me.

These books are a summary of what i have understood about

t h e world in t h e sixty-third year of my life.


THE

LUMINOUS

GROUND

* * * *
AUTHOR'S NOTE

This fourth book presents an aspect ofphysical diction, and measure Josephson tunneling
reality that is often hidden nowadays — at least through a barrier,and those phenomena are sim
in the West— although it wasverymuch part of plynot explainable in the contextof classical me
humankind's conception of the world in past chanics. Whether a person has philosophical
times.There are phenomenain the universe that reservations about the basis of quantum me
are explainable onlyby meansof specific models, chanics or not, it remains true that it is useful,
or approaches, and not by any other means. Na and that no other formalism available when it
ture has many different aspectsand is not a single was first formulated, or now, does an equally
reality; at least the human mind cannot compre good job explaining what has to be explained, in
hend everything at once using a single model. a certain range of phenomena.
I have tried, in the first three books of the In the sameway, I haveattempted to put to
nature of order, to give a complete overview gether a workable explanation of the physical
of the phenomenon of life in architecture, to and emotional phenomena which I have ob
getherwith the issue of value, which is insepara served in buildings and in the livingworld. The
ble from life. This has included a description, in explanation, not surprisingly, clashes with other
Book i, of the static character of living structure, explanations of physical phenomenawhich have
and a view, in Books 2 and 3, of the living pro beenstudiedin physics. Nevertheless, I have very
cesses which can, successfully, generate living little choice: what I am putting forward in these
structure. These living phenomena are, I have four books of the nature of order is — for
argued, commonly observable: we see and feel the present — the onlytheoretical explanation I
them when they are present in the structure of can construct (until a better one comesalong) to
the world. But they are not easy to explain, and help us understand what I have described. Not
above all, they cannot be explained within the only do we want to understand this set of phe
world picture of conventional 19th-century me nomena, but we must also be able to reproduce
chanics. Nor, as far as I know, can they be ex them: we want to be able to create living struc
plained in the world view of biology, complex ture in the world. Quantum mechanics would
systems theory, and quantum physics aswe know not have been of more than academic interest to
them at the end of the 20th century. a few university professors if it were not for its
These phenomena do not fit within anypre immense field of practical applications, such as
vious explanatory context. They need their own in electronics. Here, too, in the sphere of build
model. ing, we have a practical aim. We wish to create
An analogy may be drawn with quantum living structure in the built world; we wish to
mechanics.As a theoretical discipline, when first apply this model of the universe in order to re
formulated, it stood apart from other fields of produce the phenomena that we are interested
physics, and even today there are still questions in.
and inconsistencies internally. Nevertheless, the The explanation that I give is not complete,
theoretical framework of quantum mechanics and it is myhopethat it will be improved byoth
helps explain certain aspects of physical reality. ers in years to come. Nevertheless, some under
We can see the interference fringes of electrons, standing of these phenomena is necessary at this
observethe photoelectric effect, calculate the ra early stage so that we can use them to better our
diative dissipation of a blackhole, test Bell's pre understanding of the universe.
Is what I propose real? Well, the phenom- the observed phenomena. A reader who rejects
ena are observable, and the results are reproduc- some aspects of my explanation in Book 4 as
ible (when we create an artifact or building too unlikely, should keep in mind that this is
that has the proposed qualities), so this part but an attempt to explain certain observed
at least corresponds to reality. The theoretical phenomena. It helps us to understand a particu-
explanation is simply an attempt to consolidate lar aspect of physical reality.
PREFACE

TOWARDS A NEW CONCEPTION OF

THE NATURE OF MATTER


THE LUMINOUS GROUND

1 / INTRODUCTION

In Book 4 we come to the most personal aspect touch someconnection of incalculable depth be
of the nature of order: the wayin which ar tween the madework (building, painting, orna
chitecture— indeed, all order in the world — ment, street) and the inner "I" which each of us
touches the inner human person, our being. experiences.
The structure of life I have described in What I call "the I" is that interior element
buildings — the structure which I believe to be in a work of art, or in a work of nature, which
objective — is deeply and inextricably connected makes onefeelrelatedto it. It mayoccurin a leaf,
with the human person and with the innermost or in a picture, in a house, in a wave, even in a
nature of human feeling. In this fourth book I grain of sand, or in an ornament. It is not ego. It
shallapproach this topicof the inner feeling in a is not me. It is not individualat all, havingto do
building as if there is a kind of personal thick with me, or you. It is humble, and enormous:
ness— a source, or ground, something almost that thing in common which each one of us has
occult — in which we find that the ultimate in us. It is the spirit which animates each living
questions of architecture and art sometimes center.

2/BACKGROUND

In Book i, the phenomenon of life, I have something nearly embarrassing, whichwewould


givenan accountof the living structure which ex perhaps not feel entirely comfortableto blurt out
ists in all those buildings and artifactswhich have too easily, even to mention.
life, which support life, which are themselves I canintroduce it bestbytalkingbriefly about
alive. InBook2,the process of creating life, myprivate experience makingbuildings. When I
I have given an accountof livingprocesses — the ampart ofthe making ofa building andexamine
class ofprocesses whichareneeded tocreate living my process, what is happening in me when I do
structure — leadingto a newviewof the dynam it, myself, in my effort, is that I find that I am
icsof architecture. In Book3, a vision of a liv nearly always reaching for the same thing. In
ing world, with hundreds ofillustrations, I have some form, it is the personal nature of existence,
given examples of modern towns, buildings, revealed in the building, that I am searching for.
neighborhoods, gardens, columns, and rooms, It is"I,"theI-myself, lyingwithinall things. It is
which have, to someextent, this livingstructure that shining something which draws me on,
in them, and which have been generated, in which I feel in the bones of the world, which
greateror lesserdegree, by livingprocess. comes out of the earth and makes our existence
But in the pages of Books i, 2, and 3,1 have luminous.
so far only hinted at what is possibly the most This perhaps enigmatic statement about my
important thing of all. I have not yet described daily life is not meant to be provocative. Nor is
in the most direct terms, the innermost process it meant to be profound. It is just a fact for me
that lies behind these phenomena. thatwhen push comes to shove, on a day-to-day
That is because the real heart of the matter basis in my work as an architect, this is how I
is something which is not so easilytalked about, think about things. I ask myself constantly—
PREFACE

and it is the only question I really ask of my then it is this thing that we must look for, and
self—What mustI do to put this self-like qual meet, and face. But in the earlier three books I
ity into the house, the room, the roof, the path, have not expressed strongly enough, this
the tile? glimpse of the ultimate as the driving force be
Often, I can feel the possibilityof this in a hind what must be done. In the earlier books, in
thing before I start to make it or before I start to order to place attention on the questions of liv
think, or design, or plan, or build, or before I ing structure, I wanted to speak in a way which
start to paint. It is the sublimeinterior, the right was, as far as possible, consistent with our cur
thing. I first feel existence shimmering in real rent way of thinking about science and about
ity, and I then feel it deep enough in the thing I architecture. I wanted, as far as possible, to
am looking at and trying to make, to know that present a structure which could be understood
it is worth capturing in concrete and wood and in conventional terms. As a result, most of what
tile and paint. I can feel it, nearly always, al Books 1-3 contain is consistent, structurally,
most before I start. Or, rather, I do not usually with what we presently believe about the uni
let myselfstart until I can feel this thing. verse. But underneath that, implied, there is a
This thing, this something, is not God, it part which is not consistent with the way we
is not nature, it is not feeling. It is some ultimate, presendy think about the universe. Perhaps, in
beyond experience. When I reach for it, I try to part, I have been reluctant to make it clear
find —I can partly feel — the illumination of enough because it rests on academically unmen
existence, a glimpse of that ultimate. It is always tionable foundations.
the same thing at root. Yet, of course, it takes But now, in this fourth book, I must finally
an infinite variety of different forms. admit that beyond the formal structure this is
Although in Books 1-3I have onlytouched whatI experience. No matterhowdifficult it isto
upon this ultimate indirectly, I must now dwell write down and make it believable, it — this — is
on it as all-important. It is unavoidable, this what I believe all of us can experience. It is vast
thing, and it isthecore ofallliving structure. If and impersonal. Yet it is personal, relating to
we trulyhope to make buildings that have life, every person.

3 / THE PERSONAL

When I set out to make the small black and shining "something." I want to describe it so
white terrazzo ornaments on the last step of the that we can talk about it, understand what it
stairs to my basement office on Shasta Road in means, share it as an aspiration, recognize it
Berkeley (illustrated onpage 4), in partI reached as something true, and have some inkling of
this state. I knew that I was grazing, just touch what it is.
ing, existence itself. I could feel this thing, hov Myhypothesis isthis: that allvalue depends
ering, shimmering, in thework. I knew that the on a structure in which each center, the life of
pearly substance, being created bythis pattern of each center, approaches this simple, forgotten,
black and white bits of marble dust and cement, remembered, unremembered "I" ... that in the
does setthings in order in such away asto reveal living work each center, in some degree, is a
existence,to make us seeit, to see it shining, just connection to this "I," or self... that the living
beyondour grasp. steel and concrete bridge is one in which each
Book 4 has to do with this inner meaning, part is connected to this self, awakens it in us
with the task of making and reaching this ... that the living song is one in which each
T 11 E L U M1NOUS G ROUND

Black and white marble-terrazio inlay in a concrete step, Christopher Alexander, Berkelev, 1974.

phrase, each note, is connected to this self,awak In this, the work of art is similar to nature,
ens it in us, reminds us of ourselves . .. that the because in nature too, this "I" is what we find.
living picture is one in which every center has The rock, the ripple in the pond, and the fish
this selfand, thus, because it was painted there, darting along the stream are connected to this
it reminds us ofourselves . .. and that the living I, reverberate with I, awaken and enliven us,
building is one in which each window, each roof, continually refresh the I which sleeps in us. And
each room, each ceiling, each doorway, the gar this I which sleeps in us will not then follow the
dens, the flowerbed, the trees, the rambling remembered voice. For this I which comes to
bramblebushes, the wall by the stream, the seat, life, as we gaze upon the pond, the buttercup,
and the handle on the door, are all connected to the cloud floating in the purple sky, the rush
this I, and awaken it in us. of water in the thunderstorm — this self is first
I believe that the ultimate effort ofall serious awakened and then speaks to us, encouraging
art is to make things which connect with this I the I in us to be itself, in a new form taken within
of every person. This "I," not normally available, us, not similar but awakened in its newness, and
is dredged up, forced to the light, forced into speaking, itself, in a voice which will Awaken I
the light of day, by the work of art. in other selves.
P R E F A C E

4 / THAT EXISTS IN ME, AND BEFORE ME,


AND AFTER ME

Effectively, what all this amounts to is that in tain of— not because it aped what others had
theprocess of making thingsthrough living pro taught me, but becauseI knew it to be true of it
cess, gradually I approach moreand moreclosely self, in me.
knowledge of what is truly in my own heart. Usually the things which embodied this
Early in mylife as an architect, at first I was knowledge were very small things, things so
confused or deceived by the teaching I received smallthat in ordinary discourse they might have
from architectural instructors. I thought that seemed insignificant, like the fact that I felt
those things which are important — and per comfortable when mybacksank into a pillowar
haps the things which I aspired to make— were ranged in a certain way, and the fact that a cup of
"other," outside myself, governed by a canon of tea was more comforting, when I lay thus, with
expertise which lay outside me, but to which I my back in that pillow, staring at the sky.
gave due. Then in my later years I gradually began to
Gradually, the older I got, I recognized that recognize that this realistic voice, breaking
little of that had value,and that the thing which through— and which by now, I had identifiedin
did have true value wasonlythat thing which lay manyconcrete ways, evento the point of writing
in my own heart. Then I learned to value only this stuff down so others could recognize it also,
that which truly activates what is in my heart. I forthemselves, in theirway, in their ownhearts —
came to value those experiences which activate wasmyownvoice, the voice that had always been
myheart as it really is. I sought, more and more, in me, sincechildhood, but which as ayoung man
only those experiences which have the capacity, I hadpushed away andwhich,now, again, I began
the depth, to activate the feeling that is my real to recognize as the only true value.
feeling, in mytrue childish heart.And I learned, But this knowing of myself, and what was
slowly, to make things which are of that nature. in my own true heart, was not only childish.
This was a strange process, like coming Because at the same time that I recognized it in
home. As a young man I started with all my small things — like cups of tea, leaves blowing
fancy ideas, the ideas and wonderful concepts of off an autumn tree, a pebble underfoot — I also
late boyhood, early manhood, mystudentyears, began to recognize it in very great things, in
the ideas I wondered at, open-mouthed, things works made by artists centuries away from us in
which seemed so great to me. Then, from my time, thousands of miles away in space.In some
teachers I learned things even more fantastic — thing which one of them had made, suddenly
I learned sophisticated taste, cleverness, profun this childish heart, this me, came rushing back.
dity, seriousness. I tried to make, with my own I could feel this, for example, in the mud wall
hands, things of that level of accomplishment. at the back of the sand garden of Ryoan-ji. I
That took me to middle age. could feel it in an ancient fragment of textile. I
Then, gradually, I began to recognize that in could feel it in the worn stone of a church, laid
the midst of that cleverness, which I never truly fourteen hundred years before. Somehow, I be
understood anyway, the one thing I could trust gan to realize that the greatest masters of their
was a small voice, a tiny soft-and-hard vulnera craft were those who somehow managed to re
blefeeling, recognizable, whichwas something I lease, in me, that childish heart which is my true
actually knew. Slowly that knowledge grew voice, and with which I am completely comfort
in me. It was the stuff which I was actually cer able and completely free.
T II E LUMINOUS G RO U N D

Ahmedabad, Ahmad Shah's mosque, interior, 1414


PR EFACE

An Ottoman tile. Here the geometry of circles within circles has beenperfected to the stage where one begins
tofeel a real connection with some domain beyond the self: the heart beyond the heart.

Knowing this changed my perspective. forever, the seaweeds strewn on the beach that
What at first seemed like a return to childhood have been hurled by a force greater than they
or a simple increase of the personal, gradually are — as I am, also, when I walk among them.
took on a different character. I begin to realize Yet even though I am next to nothing in
that what I come in touch with when I go closer the presence of all this force, I am free there. In
and closer to myself is not just "me." It is some such a place, at such a moment, I am crushed
thing vast, existing outside myself and inside to understand my own smallness, and then un
myself, as if it were a contact with the eternal, derstand the immensity of what exists. But this
something everlasting existing before me, in me, immensity of what exists — and myconnection
and around me. I recognized, too, that my most to it— is not only something in my heart. It is
lucid momentsoccurwhen I am sweptup in this a vastness which is outside me and beyond me
void, and fully conscious of it, as if it were a and inside of me.
blinding light. Actions and objects increase or decrease my
This is what I have felt on the beach on the connection to this vastness, which is in me, and
north shore of Point Reyes near San Francisco, which is also real. A concrete corridor without
when the sea comes crashing in with enormous windows and with an endless line of doors is
force, when the water and wind are too loud for less likely to awaken it in me than a small apple
me to hear my voice, the waves too strong for tree in bloom. The brick on my front doorstep
me to think of swimming, the force of the water may awaken it, if it is ordinary, soft, like life in
and the wind, the white foam of the waves, the its construction.

blackish green moving water, the huge, loud It is at once enormous in extent and infi
grinding swells, the beach sand that goes on nitely intimate and personal.
THE LUMINOUS GROUND

5 / CHANGES IN OUR IDEA OF MATTER

It is the living structure of buildings which its ultimate meaning and will also,one day, force
awakens a connection with this personal feeling. a revision in our idea of the universe.
The more that it appears in a building, the more I believe it is in the nature of matter, that it
it awakens this feeling in us. Indeed, we maysay, is soaked through with self or "I." The essence
truly, that a building has life in it to the extent of the argument which I am putting before you
that it awakens this connection to the personal. throughout Book 4 is that the thing we call "the
Or, in other language,we maysaythat a building self," which lies at the core ofourexperience, isa
has life in it, to the extent it awakens the connec real thing, existingin all matter, beyondourselves,
tion to the eternal vastness which existed before and that in the end we must understand it,in order
me, and around me, and after me. to make living structurein buildings. Butit isalso
I believe that this is true, not just a niceway my argument that this is the nature of matter. It
of talking. As1try to explain it quietly, for all its is not only necessary to understand it when we
grandeur, and try to make the artist's experience wish to make living structure in buildings. It is
real, I hope that you, with me, will also catch in also necessary ifwe wish tograsp ourplace in the
it a glimpseof a modified picture of the universe. universe, our relationship to nature.
For, in my view, there is a core of fact here — a That argument — that difficult intellectual
personal nature in what seems impersonal — path—is the path which lies before us in this
that both underpins the nature of architecture in book.

It would perhaps behelpful for the reader toconsider this verse. These three chapters provide the anchors of the
book asanchored at three points: chapter 1, our PRESENT argument, and describe the modified picture of reality
PICTURE OK THE UNIVERSE, chapter 6, THE BLAZING ONE, which I propose. The otherchapters provide details from
and the conclusion, a MODIFIED picture of the uni the spheres of architecture and art.

Bowloffruit, oil on panel, Christopher Alexander, 1991


PART ONE
We standface toface with art. Can we make the eternal, simple thing, that be
longs utterly to the world, and that preserves, sustains, extends, the beauty of
the world?
Is this trulypossible? Can it be done, in our world oftrucks,freeways, com
puters, andprefabricatedfurniture andprefabricated drinks?
Throughout Books i, 2,andj, I havepresenteda variety ofpropositions about
living structure. They are results ofobservation. Many of them rely, explicitly,
on unusual methods ofobservation. Many are based onfeeling. They are capable
ofteaching us a new attitude towards the art ofbuilding. They are capable, in
principle, oftransforming ourphysical worldfor the better.
But, powerful and effective as these methods are, they are likely to be ignored
or rejected by the reader so long as they are understood within a mechanistic
world-view. Aperson who adheres to classical19th- or20th-century beliefs about
the nature ofmatter, will not be able, fully, to accept the revisions in building
practice that I haveproposed, because the revisions will remain,for thatperson,
too disturbingly inconsistent with thepicture ofthe world. The old world-picture
will constantly gnaw at our attempts tofind a wholesome architecture, disturb
our attempts, interfere with them —to such an extent that they cannot be under
stood orused successfully.
Unless our world-picture itself is changed and replaced by a new picture,
more consistent with thefeltreality oflife in buildings and in our surroundings,
the idea oflife in buildings itself(even with allits highly practical revisions in
architecturalpractice) will not be enough to accomplish change.

10
CHAPTER ONE

OUR PRESENT PICTURE

OF THE UNIVERSE
THE LUMINOUS GROUND

1/COSMOLOGY

I have given indications, throughout these four that comes back is, // isfor nothing. Within this
books, that wecannot form a complete pictureof picture,ifwe ask,What is the point?the onlysci
the nature of architecture without conceptions entific answer that comes backis, There isnopoint.
that deal with life and self. We need, for our I shall begin, therefore, by examining the
time, a picture which allows us to form a con great strength and beauty of the scientificworld-
nection, a relatedness with the whole. But the picture, trying to find a crack where we may
mechanistic scientificworld picture we have in inject some new structure that endows the whole
herited, as it stands is not capable of this. with meaning. That cannot be done by wiping
It ishardlypossible to takethe art ofbuilding away the science and technology we have gained.
seriously, as a profound task, if what we do when They are too beautiful, too powerful. We have
wedesigna building is merely to aggregate mean learned too much from them, and gained too
ingless lumps of matter. Yet that is, within our much. But somehow, the abstract mechanism-
present world-picture, what we are doing when inspiredworld-picture must be modified, trans
we design, or build. Within the present scientific formed, in such away thatit becomes something
picture, ifweask, What itisallfor? theonlyanswer that has meaning for all of us.

2 / THE STRENGTH OF THE PRESENT SCIENTIFIC


WORLD-PICTURE

Letus begin by summarizing the strength ofour of human history. We have knowledge of, and
present scientific world-picture. During the last control over, the subatomic processes; and have
three hundred years we have succeeded in build used them to harness energy, to harness commu
ing up an astonishing view of reality. This is a nications. We are able to control oscillations
picture in which the parts of the world are to be throughout the electromagnetic spectrum, using
viewedthrough mathematical modelsor mecha them for everykind of electronic device, for con
nisms. That means, mental models have been trol and communication. We have also begun, in
constructed with precise rules of behavior, and the last decades, to attend to the behavior of
we have managed to make these mental models highly complex systems, and are now achieving
match the reality in such a powerful degree that understanding of this subject in biology, in
we can predict, and manipulate, the behavior of weather, in ecology, in genetics.
theworld, almost throughout thefull range ofits And for the most profound material ques
scales and substances. tions, too, we are beginning to have answers. We
We are able to control atomic explosions. have models of the origin of the universe and
Airplanes fly. We can create new materials. We galaxies. We have models of the origins of life.
can understand the chemical behavior of matter. Wehave models ofthe human psyche, andofin
We have learned to cure diseases by medicines, formation flow and of cognition.
and through surgery. We have a level of control All in all, we have succeeded in building
of our physical destiny that would have aston- successful models of the matter in the universe
nished ourancestors in virtually any past period and its behavior, in a way that is wonderful
OUR PRESENT PICTURE OF THE UNIVERSE

and powerful. It is a collective achievement world in all its beauty—and fascinating and
of an order incomparable with almost any wonderful as it is to live in it — depends on
previous human achievement. Our modern this achievement.

3 /THE WEAKNESS OF THE PRESENT WORLD-PICTURE

And yet, there is something wrong! Although experience of self is somehow an artifact of the
this modern picture is powerful and remarkable, interaction of matter, a consequence of the play
and must be appreciated for its great intellectual of machines.1 Yet thinking so does not contrib
beauty—not merely for its practical effective ute any understanding of the self that we experi
ness— still, there is something that does not ex- ence each day. The self— in each one of us —
acdywork. In order to create this effective scien continues to exist. It is more palpable, more
tific world-picture we had to use a device: the present, in our daily experience than is the world
intellectual device of treating entities in nature of mental and mathematical mechanisms. Yet
asif theywereinert, asif theywerelumps ofgeo our present world-picture has no place in it for
metric substance, without feeling, without this self. The self does not figure in the present
life — in effect, merely mechanical elements in world-picture as a real thing. Nor does con
a larger machine. sciousness. Nor does love. Nor does the experi
This mental trick was invented by Roger ence of unity.
Bacon, Descartes, Newton, and others — and There are thus two worlds in our minds.
has been the foundation of our modern under One is the scientific world which has been pic
standing. Even the models of quantum mechan tured through a highlycomplex system of mech
ics— they are mathematical mechanisms, to be anisms. The other is the world we actually expe
sure, not actual physical mechanisms — work rience. These two worlds, so far, have not been
because they work like mechanisms. The ele connected in a meaningful fashion. Alfred
ments are defined, and the rules of interaction North Whitehead, writing about 1920, was one
are defined, and everything then follows when of the first philosophers to drawattention to this
this mechanism is let loose. modern problem, which hecalled the bifurcation
Yet we human beingsalso have, in our daily of nature.2 Whitehead believed that we will not
experience of the world, something different, an have a proper grasp of the universe and our place
immediate awareness of self. We are conscious. in it, until the self which we experience in our
We are aware of our own selves. We have feel selves, and the machinelike character of matter
ings.We experience love. Sometimes we experi we see outside ourselves, can be united in a single
enceunity. As I have shownin Book i, theseex picture. I believe this. AndI believe thatwe shall
periences of selfare profoundly connected with not have a credible view that shows how human
the existence of life in buildings and in our life and architecture are related until White
surroundings. head's bifurcation is dissolved.3 Indeed, until it is
Within the era of the mechanical world- dissolved, we cannot help — at least partially —
picture, we have been taught to think that the thinking of ourselves as machines!

13
THE LUMINOUS GROUND

4 / THE NEEDS OF ARCHITECTURE

It is little wonder that the mechanistic view of Franz Kafka, colored onlyby the banality of
of man has been accompanied by a kind of its machinelike poindessness.
hopelessness and despair. Who wants to live, // is the nature of matter itself which is at
who can live, when we believe that we are stake. Our despair and hopelessness follow from
individually indeed nothing but meaningless thebelief, orcertainty, that matteris machinelike
machines? in its nature and that we then, being matter also,
Some people seek meaning, and solace for are machinelike too.
their loneliness, in religion. To try and offset And architecture, too, where is it? Religion
the meaningless and hopeless picture, without cannot inject meaning into architecture, trans
meaning, without purpose, spiritualism has re form what is banal, geometrically, into some
entered the world with a vengeance. Churches thing that has life and gains life artistically.
are growing. Fundamentalist movements Again, it is the nature of matter itself which is
throughout the world punish their followers for at stake. The lumps of passive matter, which we
any departure from traditional or conservative arrange, must somehow become meaningful as
canonsofbehavior. Beliefin astrology, visits from we try to make them live. But how is that to be
outer space, telepathy, are rife. Movements mix done, in a universe which is, in large part,
ing therapy with spiritualism, beliefin afterlife, mechanical?
belief in the goodness of man, efforts to exist Throughout the nature of order I have
within somecanon of a religious sort, havecome presented a varietyof propositions about living
back, and groweveryday. These religious move structure. All thesepropositions are, in one sense
ments try, somehow, to shield us from the awful oranother, results ofobservation. I have presented
import of mechanisticscience. They try to make observations aboutthe degree of life in things —
the world bearable, by leavening the machines evenin buildings, evenin concreteand brick and
which we ourselves are, with the incantations of wood — andthesurprising waythisvaries. I have
prophesy, of goodness, of liberation, of heaven, presented comments about the nature ofwhole
perhaps too of hell. ness in theworld, and its dependence on centers.
But none of this can really work. I do not I have presented definitions ofgeometric proper
believe that religion can improve the situation. ties, correlatedwith degreeoflife—which seem
Even the most holy, the most serious of these pervasive in buildings and artifacts and in many
zen monks, new-age priests, new brethren of the parts of nature.
new churches in Texas, in the Philippines, in I have tried to show howto make things, in
Japan,in Africa—what can theyhopeto accom our time, which are truly beautiful. I have pre
plish? The fundamental root of our troubles, of sented conclusions about the impact of human
our meaninglessness, lies in our viewof the na process and procedural sequence on the evolution
ture of matter. If matter is indeed machinelike, of coherent livingstructure.I have presented ex
and if then we are indeed ourselves machines — amples — manydetailed examples — of harmo
what good is it to call on spirits, to sing hymns nious process anditsimpactonplanning ofbuild-
ofpraise, to lookforGod? The devastating truth ings, structure of buildings, on the detailed
is that if'the world is made of machinelike mat geometry of buildings and the way a building is
ter— and we are ourselves therefore ma constructed from material. I have presented rather
chines—we are then doomed to live, for a very surprising facts aboutthe apparent correlation of
short time, in the meaningless and living hell the mirror of the self test with observed life in

H
OUR PRESENT PICTURE OF THE UNIVERSE

thousands of centers. I have presented observa revisions would remaintoodisturbingly inconsis


tions about the way that human feeling seems to tent with that person's picture ofthe world.
correlate with life in materialsystems. Unless our world-picture itself \s changed
The ideas I have brought forward — some and replaced by another, more consistent with
solid, some more tentative — are in many ways the felt reality of life in buildings and in our
unlike the ideas that are common in our daily surroundings — the idea of life in buildings it
experience of science and technology. Many of self, evenwith all its ensuing revisions in archi
them rely, explicidy, on unusual methods of ob tectural practice, will not be enough. The old
servation. Many are based on feeling. They are world-picture will constantly gnaw at our at
capable of teachingus a newattitude towards the tempts to find a wholesomearchitecture, disturb
art of building.They are capable, in principle, of our attempts, interfere with them — to such an
transforming our physical world for the better. extent that they cannot be understood or used
But I believe these arguments will be ig successfully.
nored— or rejected by the reader as a matter of That is the reason why I choose, now, in
practical necessity— unless the reader also faces, the fourth of these four books, to go — at
and masters, the changes in world-view which last—directly to the question of cosmology.
these arguments require. A person who adheres What is the universe made of? What might
to a 19th-or 20th-century beliefabout the nature a fully adequate picture of it be like? What
of matter, will not be able to accept the revisions is the nature of matter? What is its fundamen
in building practice that I propose, because these tal character?

5 / SCIENTIFIC EFFORTS TO BUILD AN IMPROVED


WORLD-PICTURE

Because ourworld-picture isinadequate, during Brian Goodwin, John Holland, Stuart Kauf-
the second half of the 20th century many scien mann, Mae-Wan Ho.5 As a result of their work,
tists began a serious attempt to repair the world- especially during the last decade ofthe 20th cen
picture.4 There was a spate ofserious effort, pri tury, a new attitude began to emerge.
marily concentrated on the importance of This new attitude began with results in
wholeness, and ofthe whole. This attitude came quantum mechanics which showed that an
from a confluence of quantum physics, system accurate picture of local particle behavior, can
theory, chaos theory, the theory of complex not be reached merely by looking at the local
adaptive systems, biology, genetics, and other structure of physical events; rather, that in
sources. It set out to paint a more holistic picture some compelling way the behavior of each
ofthe universe — a picture ofthe universe as an local event must be considered to be influenced
unbroken whole. The picture was widely pre by the whole. In a few cases there have even
sented to thepublic, andwidely discussed among been indications that the local events are influ
scientists. It was a large effort, made joindy by enced by, or been subject to, behavior and
scientists in manydifferentfields, manyof them structure of the universe as a whole, including
physicsts and biologists. They included, among influences and interactions which propagate
others, Erwin Schrodinger, David Bohm, Fran faster than the speed of light.6 The vital thing,
cisco Varela, John Bell, Eugene Wigner, Roger anyway, was that behavior of physical systems
Penrose, Ilya Prigogine, Benoit Mandelbrot, is always "behavior of the whole," and cannot
THE LUMINOUS GROUND

be well-understood as a conglomerate of local profound and mysterious inferiority (Teilhard de


events acting by themselves. Chardin's phrase), in which self-organizing
In parallel with thesedevelopments, a simi structures cohere and communicate, in which in
lar new attitude was developing in biology. In terdependence emerges froma fifteen billionyear
19th-century science and in early 20th-century shared story at all levels of scale, in which pro
science there had been insufficient attention to found lifeshimmers forth from the veryfabric of
the coordinating functions of the organism; to the universe . . ."9
the appearance of complex structure in the This is optimisticand positive. And indeed,
course of evolution and in the daily working the newly propagated wisdom seems to suggest
of ecological systems; to the evolution of whole that the world-picture has been so profoundly
ecologies and individual organisms. These defi reformulatedby these new events in science,that
ciencies were answered by an attempt to show it is a wholly new picture in which even the old
that complex systems, systems in which many aspirations of religion are encompassed.
variables interact, have new properties — some It is certainly true that within these new sci
times called "emergent" properties — that arise entific writings, one encounters passages of
merely because of the organized complexity in beauty andinspiring thought. Forexample, Mae-
herent in the network character of the system, Wan Ho writes ofthe activity within the organ
itsvariables, and their interactions. The develop ism,"Whatonemustimagineisan incredible hive
ment of chaos theory, the theory of complex of activity at every level of magnification —of
systems, fractals, the idea of autopoesis in com music being madeusing more than two thirds of
plexsystems, have led to remarkable new results, the 73 octaves of the electromagnetic spec
which show how unexpected and complex be trum — locally appearing asthough chaotic, and
haviors arise in richly interconnected systems. yetperfectly coordinated as awhole. Thisexqui
Theorems have been proved to show how com site music is played in endless variations subject
pelling order arises, almost spontaneously, in to ourchanges ofmood andphysiology, each or
these systems.7 ganism andspecies withitsown repertoire. . ,"10
Thus biology, ecology, the emerging fields The passage is humane and beautiful. Yet
of complex systems theory, and physics, have all even such passages, when examined closely, re
begun topointtheway towards a new conception main mechanistic in their detail. Theydeal with
of the world in which the local system is influ thewhole andtheydescribe wondrous behavior in
enced by, and compelled by, the behavior of the movement of the whole; the writer is deeply
the whole. holistic in her attitude. But what she describes are
Some science writers have claimed that these still mechanisms. No matter how dedicated she is
developments herald a future newworldvision in to a new vision, how hard she tries to bring in the
which humanity, and wonder, and self, are in new understanding of wholeness in physics, the
cluded. FritjofCapra, inthe tao of physics,was language ofmechanistic science keeps getting in
oneofthe first to express thispointofview.8 More the way. Thewholeness itselfdoes notyet appear
recently, referring to the tradition of late-20th- in the actual calculations as a structure.
century science, the ecologist Stuart Cowan Some ofthe scientists referred to imply, and
wrote me a letter, in which he said: "There is, in perhaps believe, that the problem ofthe bifurca
bothscience and theology, a long andimportant tion of nature has been solved; that the thor
tradition of seeing consciousness, spirit, whole oughgoing emphasis on the whole which has
ness, and life immanent in the world of space- been achieved will now create a vision of the
time,ofmatterand energy, ofthe structureofthe universe in which we may at last be at home;
universe itself. It is a view ofembodiment and in that the enigma of the felt self, coexisting with
carnation, in which even a hydrogen atom has a the machine-like play of fields and atoms, has

16
OUR PRESENT PICTURE OF THE UNIVERSE

been resolved bythenew emphasis onthecoordi mechanistic difficulties.However, the new vision
nation of complex systems and the physicist's which has emerged from these events in science
new way of paying attention to the whole.11 has still only improved the earlier mechanistic
I believe their optimism is misplaced. The science by focusing better on the whole.
centraldilemma, the split betweenselfand mat Thepersonal, the existence offelt "self" in the
ter—Whiteheads bifurcation — continues to universe, the presence ofconsciousness, andthe vital
day almost as strongly as before. It has been relation between selfand matter— none of these
alleviated, perhaps just a littie, by the prospect have entered the picture yet, in a practical or
of a new vision and by the prospect of a vision scientifically workable way. In that sense the
of the whole. But that vision has not yet been world picture, even as modified, still deals only
achieved, scientifically, in a form which allows with the inert—albeit as a whole. The most
the human self to find its place. Because these fundamental problem with the mechanistic
new theories explicidy concern themselves with worldpicture has still not — yet — been solved.
the whole, they appear to have overcome the Whitehead s rift remains.

6 /THE CONTINUING LACK OF A UNIFYING COSMOLOGY

Can religion help? Could there be some modi gion or spirituality, as practiced or conceived to
fication of science by religion, to "combine" day, has the powerto change it.
(somehow) the materialdescription given bysci Briefly stated, the problem is that the many
ence, with a spiritual description given by spiritual suggestions and beliefs which resound
religion? in the world today are not coherent with the un
During the last twenty years there has derlyingmechanistic picture ofthe substance of
been — worldwide— a surge of renewed inter the world. They are not on the same playing
est in religion, among scientists and, of course, field. Spiritual overlays on our underlying pic
among others in the world at large.12 There has ture are, in my view, insights— hopes, fears, in
been rekindled interest in various forms of spiri tuitions, aspirations, a mixture of spiritual
tuality, schools of religion flourish, seventy per truths and wishful thinking — but they are in
cent of scientists readily admit to believing in sights which do not add to our understanding of
God in some sense, there is almost a wave to re the way the universe actually works. They are
unite some form of religion, ancient or modern undoubtedly sincere. But they are not made to
or super-modern, with our understandingofthe square with the underlying mechanicalpicture. The
world. Some forms are invented. Some are com underlying physical picture has too little room
binations of eastern and western, or of primitive for them, cannot yet accommodate them, has not
with sophisticated. Some of the recent science yet, in myview, been modified to make it possi
describedabove,in section 4, has an almost spir ble to include them. The substance which the
itual tone, or a quasi-spiritual leaning. 20th-century world was made of remained the
But does any of this activity have the capac inert, mechanical space-time of Descartes,
ity to change our world picture, and make it Newton and Einstein, of quantum mechanics
more accurate, more believable, or more able to and the string theorists. This mechanical sub
cement us to the world, more able to unite our stance is our cake. So far, our spiritual viewsand
our knowledge of matterwith our feeling of self? ethical views are only frosting on this cake,
I do not think so. The trouble is that our whichdo not penetrateor affectthe waythe cake
view of matter is flawed: and nothing about reli works. And make no mistake, quantum me-

l7
THE LUMINOUS GROUND

chanics too, though widely heralded as "non- beliefin ourselves. It has destroyed us and our
mechanistic," is still a picture in which every architecture, ultimately, by forcing a collapse
thing takes place in the space time ofinert sub of meaning.
stance ... the play ofconfigurations, albeit won In order to have an architecture in which
derful configurations, on the canvas of inert our own lives and the quality of our surround
space and matter. ings, the buildings, too, have meaning, we must
Even the Pope and the Dalai Lama today find a new form of physics, a modified physics
have a mechanical view ofthe nature of matter. in which self and matter can be reconciled. We
Allpeople alive today are living, for thelarge part, have not been sufficiendy aware to what extent
in a mentalworldwhich isdominatedbyamecha our own 20th-century cosmology—because of
nist picture, even when they consider themselves to its focus on the inert—has undermined our ca
be spiritual, even when they hold spiritual, or reli pacity to produce buildings that have life. Of all
gious, or ethicalbeliefs, andtry to live by these beliefs, the periods of human history, ours is perhaps
because there is no alternative. That, at core, is the period in which architecture has been most
the rub.A conviction about spirituality isnotthe barren spiritually, most infected by banality. I
same as a coherentpicture of things in the world myself have become aware only slowly during
within which spiritualityor goodness make sense. the last thirty years, of the way that this artistic
It is this ongoing rift between the barrenness follows directly from our contempo
mechanical-material pictureofthe world(which rary mechanism-inspired cosmology. But I have
we accept as true) and our intuitions about self finally cometo believe that it isjust the prevailing
and spirit (which are intuitivelyclearbut scien views we hold about the mechanical nature of
tifically vague) that has destroyed our architec the universe whichhaveled direcdyto a situation
ture. It is destroying us, too. It has destroyed in which great buildings — even buildings of
our sense of self-worth. It has destroyed our true humility—almost cannot be made.13

7 / TEN TACIT ASSUMPTIONS WHICH


UNDERLIE OUR PRESENT PICTURE OF THE UNIVERSE

To underscore the gravity ofthe need for modi ception of the universe. Strictly speaking, the
fication, I shall nowdescribe ten assumptions — facts of physics and astrophysics do not imply
tacit, but widely held in today's world—which that the universe is meaningless. But the way
must disappearfrom our world-picture in order these facts are presently drawn, the larger con
to make a vital architecture possible. ception of the world which we have formed at
Scientists often like to saythat the material thesame timewehave beenforming ourphysics,
istview ofpresent-day science ispotentially con does suggest—even strongly imply—that the
sistent with nearly anyview of ethics or religion world is meaningless. It does this, because along
because it says nothing about these subjects.14 with legitimate assumptions that underlie phys
Stricdy speaking, the logicof this viewcan ics and biology, deeper-lying tacit assumptions
be upheld. But what governs peoples viewofthe are also carried in.
world is not only logic, but also what is implied Indeed, tacit assumptions have entered our
by this logic, what is drawn by extension from pictureofthe world so pervasively that it is from
this logic. This is what I meant to say earlier them that we have got the picture ofthe universe
about the meaninglessness of our present con thatisdistressing us.Thoughtheywere originally

18
OUR PRESENT PICTURE OF THE UNIVERSE

inspired by mechanistic philosophy, they them A further tacit assumption moredirecdyas


selves go far beyond the strict discoveries of sci serts the meaninglessness of the world:
ence. It is these &)w?</-mechanistic or ultra- tacit assumption 4. The basic matter of
mechanistic assumptions whichcontrol muchof the world is neutral with regard to value. Matter
what wesay and think and do today, and did say is inert. The universe is made of inert material
and think and do throughout the 20th century.In which blindly follows laws of combination and
myviewtheseassumptionspersistasassumptions transformation. (Discussion in the note)18
aboutmatter, evenin the contextofthe newspiri The meaninglessness ofthe mechanist cos
tualized holistic science I have discussed above. mology we have inherited is further due to the
These ultra-mechanistic assumptions about disconnection, within our picture, of what we
matter—not strictly justified by mechanistic seeas beingoutside ourselves (the matter which
science itself, but inspired by it and encouraged we see as a mechanism) and our experience of
byit — haveshapedour attitude to art and archi what seems to be inside us (which we experience
tecture and societyand environment. They have as self). This may be summarized as:
made good architecture almost impossible. tacit assumption 5. Matter and mind,
To keepthe text brisk, I have placed discus the objective outer world and the subjective inner
sion of these ten assumptions in the notes at the world are taken to be two entirely different realms,
end of the chapter. That way, a reader to whom different inkind, and utterly disconnected. (Discus
these assumptions are already obvious, will not sion in the note)19
need to struggle through them. The disconnection between the outer world
of physics, and the innerworld of self, finds vivid
expression in the strange and nearly meaningless
The first tacit assumption which has crept in is viewof art which dominated a considerable part
an exaggerated form of an ideathat, in a modest of 20th-century life.This viewmight be charac
form, is essential as a tool in science: terized as:
tacit assumption i. What is true, is only tacit assumption 6. Art is an intense
the body ofthosefacts which can be represented as and powerful socialphenomenon, but one that has
lifeless mechanisms. (Discussion in the note)15 no deep importance in the physical scheme ofthings,
A damaging offshoot from assumption # 1is and therefore no basic role in the structure of the
the widespread and nowadays accepted assump universe. (Discussion in the note)20
tion that value issubjective. This assumption has The "lost" role of art comes nowhere into
become nearly the centraltenetof modern archi view asstrongly, in mymind, asin our perception
tecture. Thus: of the rift between ornament and function in a
tacit assumption 2. Matters of value in building. I believe that, without knowing why,
architecturearesubjective. (Discussion in thenote)16 20th-century people learned to subscribe to:
The pressure to view all matters of value tacit assumption 7. Ornament and
as personal and idiosyncratic has been further function in a building are separate and unrelated
intensified as a result of a further assumption categories. (Discussion in the note)21
something like this: The separated roles given to ornament and
tacit assumption 3. Modern conceptions function come to a head in a still more "outra
ofhuman liberty require that all values be viewed geous," though more veiled, tacit assumption:
as subjective. The subjective nature of value gives tacit assumption 8. At aprofound level,
the private striving of each individual person — architecture isirrelevant. The task ofbuilding has no
even when vacuous or image-inspired or greed- special importance, except insofaras itcontributes to
inspired— the same weight. Attempts to putvalue practicalfunction through engineering, or to mate
on an objectivefooting are to be viewed with suspi rial wealththrough image. (Discussion in the
cion. (Discussion in the note)17 note)22

19
THE LUMINOUS GROUND

The sequence of assumptions approaches its is scientifically useless. It has to be ignored as a


culmination in what is, perhaps, oneofthe most subject of serious scientific discussion. (Discussion
damaging assumptions of all: in the note)24
tacit assumption 9. The intuition that I believe these ten assumptions do exist
something profound is happening in a great work tacitly throughout our everyday lives today. Al
ofart is, in scientific terms, meaningless. (Discus though thousands of modern books and poems
sion in the note)23 and paintings have helped people assert and
And finally one mayformulate the following affirm their sense of meaning in the world,
assumption which bringsus face to face with the the world-picture itself the scientific world-
ultimate source of the meaninglessness we picture, continues to assert the blind meaning
experience: lessness of the physical matter in the world,
tacit assumption io. The instinct that and of the physical matter we ourselves are
there is some kind of deeper meaning in the world made of.25

8 / INSPIRATION FOR A FUTURE PHYSICS

You may privately consider my formulation ofthe Yet nearly every sensitive person who exam
tacit assumptions to be caricatures which do not ines his own feelings carefully will recognize
correspond to your own convictions aboutvalue, that he experiences great discomfort in the
or art, or the meaning of things in the world.25 framework of these tacit assumptions. Who has
Nevertheless, even at thevery moment of trying not had the feeling, listening to a Mozart's 40th
to preserve some thread of a connection to the symphony, or to Bach's B-minor Mass, that
value of existence —some way of doing it the something magnificent is happening, that in
homage which the intensity of feeling it evokes some inner sense, the heavens are opening, and
demands — in almost every attempt, themodern that this structure of sound somehow reaches in
personisprevented fromembracing hisownfeel and hits the heart? But nomatter how deep this
ings in any full sense, because today's cosmology feeling, the mechanistic cosmology contained in
and the undercurrents I have tried to articulate in the ten assumptions of the last few pages is not
the ten tacit assumptions simply don't allow it. consistent with it. According to this mechanistic
Sad as it is to insist on it, I believe we must cosmology, the Mozart is a soothing pattern of
admit to ourselves that, broadly speaking, some sound which happens (for physiological orcogni
version of these ten tacit assumptions does repre tive reasons) to besoothing. Perhaps it activates
sent the general a//ra-mechanistic tradition of some pleasure center in the brain. Butcertainly
20th-century science and technology, especially this cosmology cannot admit, or formulate, the
asthis tradition has impact on questions ofvalue idea that the Mozart somehow strikes to the core
and art, and on the art of building. These tacit of the cosmos ... and that our pleasure in it
assumptions form the mental prison which we happens because werecognize thisfact, and take
currently inhabit; they are the origin of the part in it. Thus the Mozart is, in the mechanistic
meaningless world-picture which quiedy makes framework, ultimately considered trivial.
people depressed andalienated. Even though we Whether itgives pleasure ornot, it certainly does
maykick, and rail, and protest that we are after not in any physicist's sense strike to the core
allconnected to some deeper substance, thissys of existence.
tem of assumptions is the current view of the Until now, thiskindofproblem hasnotbeen
universe in which we live. thought ofas aserious problem byphysicists. The

20
OUR PRESENT PICTURE OF THE UNIVERSE

lack ofa serious answer to the question: What is deep, as vitally important ... it lasts for a few
happening when you hear a piece ofMozart? has seconds, perhaps even for a few minutes ... and
notbeen seen as aproblem inphysics. Ifithas been then our rude cosmology dismisses it.
seen at all, it has been seen as a minor problem The same thing happens a thousand times a
in applied psychology, certainly not asa clue to a day. When we enter agreat building, see the deep
possible mismatch between the current physical blue of the light in the nave of Chartres fill the
picture oftheworld, andtheway theworld really church, orwalk down alane in aforgotten village
is. But that is the whole problem. In physics there in England, and thesame feelings pass across our
are repeatedenunciationsofthe idea that the laws consciousness ... again we rule it out. The same
ofphysics constitute, ormight constitute, atheory happens even with a fleeting moment at a chil
of everything. For example, Stephen Hawking, dren's birthday, when the cake isbrought in, can
Professor ofAstronomy at Cambridge, speaking dles flickering, glowing in the half dark, and for
ofphysics: "Our goal is nothingless than a com amomentasmallvoiceinusgasps.. .butquickly,
pletedescription ofthe universe we live in. In the once again, we are brought back (more truly, we
next chapter I will try to ... explain how people bring ourselves back) to our ordinary reality.
aretrying to fittogetherthe partial theories I have It happens even with the beauty of a flower
described to form a complete unified theory that at the roadside. Looking at this flower, again
would cover everything in the universe." and "A the feeling strikes: the knowledge that in this
complete consistent unifiedtheoryisonlythefirst miracle, somehow, lies the whole beauty of the
step; our goal is a complete understanding of the world. But again, because there is no room for
events around us, and ofour own existence."26 this thought in our cosmology, we brush away
This is the underlying belief shared widely, the thought, dismiss it as too soft, too romantic
sometimes perhaps unconsciously, by many edu ... and come back once again to our harsh reality
cated people in society. Physics has constructed in which space is neutral, the flower is neutral,
a pictureof reality, whichpurports to be a picture we are neutral, all well-behaved machines, fol
of everything and the way that everything really lowing the rules of our creation and behavior.
is— yetit fails to incorporate fundamental expe The ultra-mechanist cosmology we have
rience, and fundamental intuitions. We experi taken in with our 20th-century mother's milk
ence the fact, intuitively, that the Mozart seems therefore cuts across our experience constantly.
to have something essentialin it. But the present It forces us to dismiss, treat lighdy, all those
theory of physics cannot make sense of it. precious feelings we have, of meaning in the
So far, within the frameworkof physics, this world, of somethingwonderful ... and replaces
mismatch between feeling and theory has been it by a dull, gray, matter-of-factness which is
ignored. Butlookwhat happens asa result. What not matter-of-fact at all, but was invented by
it means is that we have a certain experience, Descartes and others of his time, and is now
momentary perhaps, something we consider a merely mouthed by us because we do not know
haze of emotion ... a feeling we recognize as of an alternative.2'

9 / THE CONFRONTATION OF ART AND SCIENCE

Let us go back to the essential question that In Book 1,1 described the inner life ofbuild
must lie at the root of any believable cosmology: ings as a real phenomenon. What kind of phe
What is the life that we discern in things?28 nomenon is that inner life? In chapter 6 of Book
THE LUMINOUS GROUND

4, I shall go further to describe how in a great religious, as professional scientists they will
building or great painting where the most pro tend —today—to assume thatsome "zapping"
found color phenomena occur, something some model of the first kind must explain the phe
times happens that I call inner light, a state nomenon, even though wedo not yetknow how
where colors are both subdued and shining bril such a zapping model works! Theywill tend to
liantly. I suggest you look at the examples on wantto say that all that is happening is that the
pages 158-239. Theinner light isanextension of nervous system, its cognitive structure, is some
the life in things, a deeper version of the phe howbeing zapped.
nomenon of life.What is this inner light which Painters, musicians, and architects, on the
can occur in paintings? other hand— especially the better ones—will
Contemporary science —if it tried to deal say that in some form it is the second of these two
with the phenomenon of life in works of art— which mustbe true. The zapping ideais too triv
would probably have to say something along the ial and ridiculous to be taken seriously.
following lines: Perhaps when the colors are Here lies a confrontation. It is not true that
combined in a verysubde and harmonious way, scientists don't appreciate art. Many appreciate
somehow a special resulting structure or condi art very deeply. But they have not, usually,
tion arises, and this structure or condition then thought about art as a phenomenon in the deep
causes an effect, or a reverberation, or response, and seriousscientificway they think about other
in the body, or in the central nervous system. phenomena. They enjoy art, they appreciate it.
Perhaps it is an archetypal connection to inner But in their presentmode of thought, ifforced to
cognitive structures. Crudely put, the arrange consider some particular event in art — like the
ment of colors zapsthe centralsystem. And there shining ofthe inner light in a great painting—
youare.29 then they will feel virtually forced to assume
Yet I am quite certain, intuitively, that what some kind of model ofthe cognitive system be
is happening when colors form inner light in a ing zapped, because that is the only kind of
great painting, is something more significant, model they know at the moment. It is the only
somethingwhich has real meaning. Somehow, I waythey can imagine, of making sense.
believe that it touches to the core of things. This, precisely, is mypoint.The onlyreason
Somehow, something deep and essential in the scientists might have a naive picture ofthe phe
universe— not just in us — is being awakened nomenon is that, as scientists, they haven't
by the inner light of a great painting. In short, I thought about this kind of thing verycarefully.
believe in the seriousness and significance ofthe What I have presentedin the nature of order
phenomenon. is an extension of science, written by someone
The present-day scientific modeof thinking who has thought about these kinds of phenom
is forced to bypass this intuition. It has no good ena carefully, and has begun—just begun— to
way of letting it be true. But we still face the seewhat the structure of these phenomenamust
question,What isthe inner light which occursin be. According to what I have described in these
a greatpainting byFraAngelico or in the nave of four books, it seems that matter-space must
Chartres? Is this merely a subjective phenome somehow be a potentially living kind of stuff,
non where a certain arrangementof colors zaps perhaps even a potentially conscious stuff—
the central nervous system? Or is it a phenome anyway, at the veryleast, center-making stuff, or
non in which something penetrates to the heart whole-making stuff.
of existence, to the heart of what the universe is"? Somehow, and for some reason, the more
Today'sscientists, especially the more tech intensely that centers are createdin anygiven re
nologically oriented, maytend to believe the for gion in space, the more intensely this region of
mer. Whether or not they are privately artisticor space becomes connected with the human per-

22
OUR PRESENT PICTURE OF THE UNIVERSE

son or the human self. That is the origin of life verse is made of. It is a confrontation between
and inner light. But there is simply nothing in the idea that the world is made of purely me
our present scientific pictureofthe physical uni chanical stuff, similar in essence to the kind of
verse which hints at anything like that. inert and abstractCartesian matter-space scien
The apparent confrontation between art tists have taken for granted for the last three
and science is not reallybetween "art" and "sci hundred years ... and the idea that it must be
ence" as two disciplines. Rather, it is between some other kind of stuff, more personal, and far
two different views ofwhat kind of stuffthe uni more mysterious in its nature.

10 / A FUSION OF SELF AND MATTER

Physicists, certainly, must face this confronta the universe, somethingwhich must be givenits
tion. Architects, too, mustface it. status, together with space and time, aspart of a
What I haveto sayin the next chapters,rests new view of living structure in a more compre
on the search for such a new cosmology: one in hensive materialviewof things.
which the idea of great art is possible — even In these chapters, and finally in the conclu
necessary— as something which connects us to sion ofthe book on pages 317-38,1 put forward a
the universe, something which can provide a sketch of a modified cosmology that extends
proper underpinning forthe art ofbuilding. physics —away ofextending ourview ofmatter
The cosmology which I describe, as I work that leaves our present physics nearly intact, yet
my way through the task of reaching a deeper adds to it and injects into it new features, not
view of building, rests on the recognition ofthe presendy partofourpicture of matter, butcapa
I — the source of our own self— as something ble, inprinciple, ofmaking better sense ofevery
real, existing together with space and matter in thing, and making better sense ofarchitecture.

NOTES

1. A sophisticated example of thisattempt to see the losophy to analyze how these various elements of nature
selfwhich we experience as a by-product ofthe play of are connected.. .What I amessentially protestingagainst
matter (neurological process, etc), istobefound inDaniel is the bifurcation of nature into two systems of reality,
Dennett, consciousness explained (Boston: Little, which, insofar as theyare real, are real in different senses.
Brown and Co,1991). This is a sophisticated book, with One reality would bethe entities such as electrons which
an attempt tobuild aworkable and believable theory. But are the studyofspeculative physics. Thiswouldbethe real
it does not, in the least, explain theinterior awareness of itywhich is there for knowledge; although on this theory
self. The argument simply sidesteps the real question, as it is neverknown. For what is known is the other sort of
any mechanistic explanation isbound tohave todo. reality, which is the byplay ofthe mind. Thus there would
2. As Whitehead says, "How unfortunate that we betwo natures, one istheconjecture, andtheother isthe
should be forced to conclude that in its own sad reality dream." From Alfred North Whitehead, the concept of
nature is a dull affair, soundless, scendess, colorless; nature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1920).
merely the hurrying of material, endlessly, meaning- See, also, Laurence Bright, O. P., whitehead's philoso
lessly..." from Alfred North Whitehead, science and phyof physics(London andNewYork: Sheed andWard,
the modern world (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer 1958), 19-24.Whitehead's problem remains unsolved today.
sity Press, 1925, reissued 1932), 69. Andagain: "For us the 3. For a fuller explanation of my views, please see
red glow ofthesunset should beas much part ofnature as Book1, chapters 7-10, especially chapter 8.
are the molecules andelectric waves bywhichmenof sci 4. The text of this section was inspired by a series
ence would explain thephenomenon. It isfor natural phi ofvery stimulating discussions with Stuart Cowan. Stu-

23
THE LUMINOUS GROUND

art felt, at first, that myemphasis on cosmological shift, 14. This is a verycommonly expressed point of view.
as presented in this book, gave too little credit to the John Polkinghorne — both professor of mathematical
emerging theories ofthe manywriters mentioned in this physics at the University of Cambridge and an Anglican
chapter. I, on myside,feltthat theenormous contribution priest— has, among many others, emphasized it, and
made bythese scientists did notyetsolve thecore problem. written about it. See, for instance, John Polkinghorne,
In the courseof severalmonths of 1998 and 1999, in a series the particle play (Oxford: WH. Freeman and Co.,
of conversations Stuart and I succeeded in reconciling our 1981), especially 124-26.
views, and the text of this chapter, and of chapter6, the 15. Articles in thousands of scientific journals pres
blazing one, both benefitedgreatlyfromour discussions. entlycontrolour growingpicture ofthe world. Each year
I am deeply grateful to him. theycontainhundredsof thousandsof pages of argument.
5. The work of these scientists may be found in a These pages of scientific argument have one common
longlist of publications includingthe following keytitles: thread: they are all built on the assumption that what is
H. R. Maturana and Francisco Varela, the tree of discussable in science is the totality of models that can
knowledge (Boston: Shambala, 1987); Stuart Kauf- be represented, in one form or another, as inanimate
mann, the origins of order, self-organization and mechanisms. Even biological life itselfis represented in
selection in evolution (NewYork: Oxford University such a fashion, as a phenomenon in a system of non
Press, 1993); David Bohm wholeness and the impli living parts.
cate order (London: Routledge 8c Kegan Paul, 1980); This was the central invention of Bacon and Des
J. S. Bell, SPEAKABLE AND UNSPEAKABLE IN QUANTUM cartes, and hasbeenthe prototype forvirtually all scien
mechanics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, tificexplanations since the time of Descartes. Of course,
1987); Mae-Wan Ho, the rainbow and the worm: the word mechanism is crude, and a more accurate mod
the physicsof organisms (Singapore: World Scientific ern version ofthe same idea would use the word "model"
Publishing Co, 1998); Brian Goodwin, how the leop instead, where a model is understood to be any abstract
ard changed his spots (New York: Simon and Schus mathematical system or mechanism, susceptible to exact
ter, 1994). thought, operating according to exactly formulated rules
6. Results mainly stemming from Bell's theorem, such as those formulated bymodern philosophers ofsci
andsince thenwidely discussed. For Bell's original paper, ence such as Percy Bridgeman and Karl Popper.
see J. S. Bell, speakable and unspeakable in quan As scientists, we propagate this assumption among
tum mechanics, 1987. ourselves, in order to understand how things work. We
7. For example, in Stuart Kaufmann, the origins focus onmodels, to make themodels help usunderstand
of order, self-organization and selection in evo what is goingon. But the careful use of models does not
lution, 1993. require us, also, toinject gratuitous assumptions about the
8. Fritjof Capra, the tao of physics (Berkeley: inertness ofthe models intoourthought, or intotheaura
Shambala, 1975). of thoughtwith whichwesurroundthe models. Most sci
9. Quoted from a letterStuartwrote to me in 1998. entists willtellyouthat you areentitledto holdwhatever
In this letter, Stuart also referred to the works of Teilhard additional extrabeliefs you wish. But the "extras" willbe
de Chardin, Thomas Berry, Brian Swimme, Erich characterized as beliefs thus excluding them once again
Jantsch, Lee Smolin, and Matthew Fox as major contribu from theworld-picture, while thematerial inthescientific
tors to the new emerging vision. journals will be characterized as hypothesis aboutfact.
10. Mae-Wan Ho, the rainbow and the worm : As a result, although the use of Cartesian models
the physics of organisms, 1998, pp. io-n and 115. in science is beautiful, and useful, and powerful, it does
11. Such confidence is implied, for instance, in the not yet provide us with a wholly accurate picture of the
last pages of Stuart Kaufmann's at home in the uni way things are. Its use means that vital aspects ofreality,
verse (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). especially those which we can only see accurately through
12. See, for example, Henry Margenau and Roy Abra feeling—such as the degree oflife inbuildings — can
ham Varghese, cosmos, bios, theos (Illinois: La Salle, be represented only in a crude and distorted fashion.
1992). Inanother book, Ken Wilbur assembled quotations Oursociety iscorrupted by this approach. Thetacit
from Heisenberg, Schroedinger, Einstein, De Broglie, assumption that what is true is only that which can be
Jeans, Planck, Pauli and Eddington, showing that every represented as a mechanical model, almost prohibits us
one ofthese men was a mystic, and "the very compelling from seeing life around us, orlife inbuildings, as it really
reasons that they all became mystics," quantum ques is. Love, feeling, faith, art— the human dignities —
tions (Boston: New Science Library, 1984). have been subtly undermined because, regardless what
13. I say thateven humble buildings cannot bemade, theirreal status is,theyhave become second-class citizens
because the infection which comes from our mechanistic in the world of ideas. That has happened because they
cosmology, ismainlyoneof arbitrariness — and the arbi cannot be fitted nicely into the world of mechanisms.
trariness breeds pretension. In the presence of preten 16. Before the age of enlightenment there was, in
tiousness, true humility is almost impossible. A truly most cultures, somegroup of values to which one could
humble cottage even, seems beyond the reach of most appeal, and to which people did appeal while building
builders today. the parts of their world. The source of these values was

24
OUR PRESENT PICTURE OF THE UNIVERSE

different in different cultures. In some it was thought to pluralism in which nearly "anything goes," and in which
be "God," in others "ancestors," in others "tradition" or it had become intellectually almost impossible to assert
"law." Whatever the source, there was no doubt, at that the Tightness of any value — since to do so, wouldchal
time, that there was indeed a (partially) uniform source lenge, and possibly undermine again, the political free
of value widely understood throughout the culture, and doms which had been so hard won.
ofsuch akind thatnearly any act might bejudged against Thus the idiosyncratic and private view of value,
it, inspired by it. which began with the scientific revolution of the 17th
Today the situation isdifferent indeed. Whoamong century, has led to the assumption that value, valuation,
us has not had the uneasy feeling that it is best not to andjudgment and taste, are so deeply embedded in the
assert one's own feelings of value too strongly in public, realm of individual rights that theyalmostcannot beseen
except aspersonal expressions of individual tasteor opin as based on an objective reality.
ion? It is socially acceptable to state values publicly— Perhaps because of this tacit assumption # 3, efforts
but only so long as they are clearly presented as matters to identify the living character of buildings are too often
ofopinion, hence asmatters ofprivate value? Few people met with skepticism, even anger.
today will dare to assert that some value they perceive is 18. Even the enormous changes in physics whichhave
in any sense actually true. takenplace duringthe 20th century, have not fundamen
Among architects sober, public discussion of value tally changed this view. In the 19th century physicists
in buildings is rare. (One exception was the symposium thought that the world was made of little atoms, like
held in Austin, Texas, March 1998, under the chairman billiard balls,movingand rearrangingthemselves on the
ship of Michael Benedikt, which explicitly invited and billiard table of space. Today, we have a conception of
encouraged architects to discuss value in buildings, and ultimate matter which is vastly more interesting, where
to do so in a waywhich took valueas a real phenomenon, particles are more like whirlpools of energy,wavelike in
not as a subjective one.) Newspaper critics only rarely try character, and where the process of combination and
to discuss valueof buildings as if it were something real, destruction, more resembles some beautiful dance.
not merely an idiosyncracy. Even then, there is little However, the physicist's idea that this matter or
public debate about buildings. That is because the lack energy is essentially lifeless, and moves blindlyaccording
of a basis forjudging the life of buildings is a profound to the laws of its process, has not changed. The particles
embarrassment within the architecture profession. The and fields are more interesting now— they even go so
greatsecret that contemporary architecture has no sound far as to includethe possibilityof instantaneousconnec
ethical basis, would be let out of the bag the moment tionofparticles on opposite sidesofthe universe in a great
serious debate about right and wrong, or good and bad undivided wholeness (demonstrated by Bell'stheorem, J.
in buildings, were to begin. So public discussion of the S. Bell, op cit., by the experiments of Freedman and
merits of buildings is kept to a minimum, in order to Clauser, and by the experiments of AlainAspect and his
avoid revealing the arbitrary and private character of coworkers, J. Clauser, M. Horn, A. Shimony and R.
the discussion. Holt, phys. rev. lett, volume 28, 1972, 934-41, and A.
17. During the 18th and 19th centuries, European Aspect, P. Grangier, and G. Roger, phys. rev. lett,
and American imperialism created a view of the world volume 47,1981, 460-66). Even the provocative and star
in which many people on earth were considered igno tling conceptions introduced by these physicists, retain
rant, and in which it was taken for granted that the a viewof inert matter, following certain rules,asthe basis
views of white Victorian gentlemen were correct. At of theirrevisions in physics). Butin spite of this advance,
the end of the 19th century the new discipline of the underlying philosophical ideahaschanged verylittle.
anthropology was gradually able to attackthis Victorian The matter, or energy, is still conceived as essentially
point of view, byestablishing the idea that each culture machine-like, following certain rules, blindlybuffeting,
is coherent in its own terms. This crucial idea helped pushing, changing, fascinating, capable of amazing sur
to dissolve racist and imperialist mentality, and helped prises and great combinations, but still, nevertheless, at
to forge a mental platform on which one could assert bottom a machine madeof inert parts dancing neutrally
that eachculture had its own dignity, its own Tightness according to the rules. Sir James Jeans's words "The
in its own terms. universe begins tolookmore likeagreatthoughtthanlike
In the last decades of the 20th century this move agreat machine," written in 1930, have, sofar, remained a
mentwas extended to protect the rights of many groups beautiful and inspiring, but still empty, promise. (See
in society. Many distinguishable groups are now able the mysterious universe [Cambridge: Cambridge
to assert the dignity of their values — whether it be University Press, 1930], 148.) And it should be said, too,
handicapped people, people with various sexual prefer that recent developments in complexity theory, for all
ences, subcultures of ethnic or religious particularity, their ability to simulate complex life-like systems, also
groups of particular age, and so on. But the importance remain machine-like in their ultimate character. They
of these movements, and the increase in human dignity illustrate the advances made in our understanding of
theyhave created, make it almost more difficult to assert complexity, and ourability to define machines (models)
general truths in the realm of value. So, by the end of whichcreate life-like structures. Butour cosmology itself,
the 20th century, the liberality and freedom ofthe centu themachine-like picture ofspace, substance, andprocess,
ry's early years had helped to create an atmosphere of remains unaltered by these developments.

25
THE LUMINOUS GROUND

19. This is the core of Whitehead's bifurcation. But of music could have anyinherent value. At best, for expla
historically it goes back much further in time. The idea nations of artto be coherent with the present mechanistic
thattheouterworldcanbethoughtof ashavingastructure framework, theymightbebased onsocial realism (ascrib
which is distinct from ourselves, the division ofworld into ing functional importance to works which help society),
mind and matter, goes backatleast tothescholastics ofthe or psychological realism (describing the value of works
14th century. (See, for example, thediscussion throughout of art in terms which appeal to human emotion).
Pierre Duhem, medieval cosmology: theories of in These ideas are deeply conflicted. Is it not undeni
finity, place, time, void, and the plurality of ably true that certain works of art— works that we de
worlds [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985]). scribe as great works of the spirit — go much further
Andtheassumption thatthestructure oftheouterworld is than mere social or psychological impact? For a person
separate from ourown selfcombined withtheassumption who is inspired by the last paintings of van Gogh, by
that we can only reach truth by distinguishing objective Bach's Goldberg Variations, by Mahler's 9th symphony,
(agreed-upon) outer reality from individual (and not by the sculptures of Jean Arp or Constantin Brancusi,
agreed-upon) inner reality, isthe very foundation ofmod or by the Baptistry in Florence, it is hard to escape
ernscience. It isthe ideathat observations andexperiments the certainty that these works are somehow genuinely
must be madeindependent ofthe observer. profound anddo, somehow, interact with the fundamen
The first 20th-centurycracks in the iceberg of this tal scheme of things in the universe. Yet so far, in our
assumption arrived within physics itself. They came with scientific picture of the world, such an intuition has no
Bohr's and Heisenberg's demonstrations that completely coherent place at all.Within the material universe of our
observer-free observations cannot exist at the level of current cosmology, the intuition cannot even be
photons andelectrons (Niels Bohr, "The Quantum Pos formulated.
tulate and the Recent Development of Atomic Theory," 21. Why isthis acosmological matter? It haditsorigin
nature [1928], volume 121,580-90and Werner Heisen- in the 19th century, when ornament became something
berg, "The Physical Content of Quantum Kinematics to be applied, not something arising organically from its
and Mechanics" [1927J, reprinted in J. A. Wheeler and context. Adolf Loos, trying to overcome a spurious and
W H. Zurek, quantum theory and measurement disconnected attitudeto ornament, beganthe early 20th-
[Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983], 62-86). But century revolt against irrelevant and decadentornament.
today, seventy years after Heisenberg, mind and self still In pursuit of a less decadent form of art, he argued, in
do not havea statusin the world-picture that iscompara a famous catchword, that "ornament is a crime." See
bleto the statusofthe underlyingentitiesof20th-century Adolf Loos, ornament and crime: selected essays,
physics. Even among the scientistswho acceptthe exis 1897-1900 (Riverside, California: Ariadne Press, 1998).
tence of cognitivestructures, it is still generally accepted By mid-20th century, later versions of this assumption
that a cognitive structure is an artefact or product of then said, essentially, that all ornament should be re
some particular neurological activity. Even amongthose moved from buildings and that their geometry should
who agree that manycognitivestructures are similar from be derived from function. This hinged on the tacitmes
one personto another,there are few who believethat the sage thatwhatispractical isonlymechanical; andthatany
innerexperience of self hasany fundamental connection ornamentor formwhich is not mechanical, is removable,
to the outer structures we observe in physics. unecessary. A profound way of seeing form in which
The mental conditions imposed on us by assump bothornament and function arose from a single evolving
tion # 5 make it hardto be at peace with oneself. Within morphology, did not yet exist.
such a dualistic world-picture the self cannot itself be Mid-century purity lasted until about 1970, when
successfully included into the larger view ofthe universe architects started again, like builders of old, bringing in
(Again,Whitehead, the concept of nature.). Yet self ornament and shape out of sheer enjoyment. But even
is what we experience of ourselves. How, then, couldthe then, in the post-1970's postmodern works of the 20th
universe seem comfortable to us? century (which often have a frivolous attitude to shape
20. I canimagine areader reacting to this formulation and ornament) the conceptual splitcaused by ourmecha
with angrydenial. T would neverhold sucha crass view," nistic world-picture still exist. There is a functioning
onecanimagine the reader thinking... "onthe contrary, part (the practical part), and animage part (the art part).
many would insist that art is important, vital." In some ofthe latest buildings, builtduring thelast three
Yet how can the view that art is truly important be decades of the 20th century, this image part, because of
taken seriously, or even make sense, if it has to be consis the conceptual context, became truly arbitrary and
tent with a mechanist view of the universe? Since the absurd.
mechanical view of the world makes no room for value, The separation of ornamentfrom function is a cos
exceptasanoutpouring of personal idiosyncracy, it creates mological matter because it fits, andsupports, andstems
no serious basis for artexcept as anoutpouring of private from, the mechanistic view. In a machine, the geometry
value, orasacynical construction of artificial images. And of a thing exists in order to perform in a certain way.
that is exacdy what the 20th century— in architecture The alternative — that both geometry and function are
anyway—created time and again. part ofone greater whole — implies thatorder, geometry,
A mechanistic cosmology makes it difficult to for ornament, mighthave meaning andsignificance together
mulate the idea that a building,or a painting, or a piece with function, asone body. This is indeedwhat I would

26
OUR PRESENT PICTURE OF THE UNIVERSE

argue. The goal of architecture is to intensifythe degree byour presentcosmological assumptions, weshallcontin
of life in space. Function cannot then be a practical ually accept (and create) a world in which the shaping
matter separate from beauty. All functional forms will of buildings has only the most banal kind of practical
also be ornamental, as they are in nature. The artist, importance.
workingfromthis spirit,will naturallyand spontaneously 23. Millions of people haveexperienced, in the pres
bring color, detail, and ornament into his work, because ence of some ancient work of art, the conviction that
it is necessary to bring that space to greater life. And if something of massive importance is going on there. Yet
that is true, it will imply, right away, that this thing is our prevailing cosmology provides no way in which this
not a machine. So, it is no surprise at all, that at the conviction may be understood coherently together with
outset of the 20th century Adolf Loos established the the rest of our scientific knowledge. By default,our cos
doctrine that ornament is a crime. And it is no surprise mology relegates art to the statusof an interestingpsycho
at all that in the late 20th century,when beauty of shape logical phenomenon. Certainly it does notallow art equal
could no longer be entirely ignored, a new and drastic status with the awe-inspiring realities of the atom, or of
formof separation betweenformand functionwasintro the galactic universe.
duced in architecture, whereby shapes often became triv This is not to say that scientists, like others, do not
ial— sometimes even funny or ridiculous. To see such have instinctswhich makethem feelthe deep importance
buildings which border on the absurd because of drastic that a work of art can have. But, scientificallyspeaking,
separation of form and function, one has only to look that is only a vague instinct at best. So far, it has no
through thepages ofanyavant-garde magazine on archi place in the body of thoughts and concepts which make
tecture. Oudandish examples, made for reasons having up our fundamental picture of the world.
to do with image, not truth, are presented every month 24. That is what our scientific civilization has been
for the pleasure of their readers. telling us for three to four hundred years. Yet it is hard
22. Few people would willingly admitthat they make to deny the fact that many of us have instincts about
this assumption. And yet I do believe that in our tacit deeper meaning in the world. The experience may come,
mechanistic world this assumption, too, exists without perhaps, as a result of love, as a result of gazing at the
acknowledgement. It isvisible daily throughout contem ocean, at a small flower.
porary behavior and practice. Is it notcommonplace, for The official position of 20th-century scientific phi
instance, that the design of a building startswith a pro losophy said, explicitly, thatscience is neutral: it neither
gram that defines different numbers of square feet to confirms nor denies the instinct that this experience is
different functions, and that these square footage esti important (A nice discussion ofthe official position" is
mates arethenused byclient, architect, banker, planning to be found several writings ofJames Wilk, forexample,
committee,and soon, asa basisfordecidingthe adequacy "Metamorphology: Mind, Nature and theEmerging Sci
of the design? This is true in most of the houses and ence ofChange," in Diederik Aerts, ed., einstein meets
office-buildings built in technological society. magritte, volume 6, the blue book [New York:
Yetl have proved inBooks 2and 3thataliving build KluwerAcademicPublishers,1995]). However,the actual
ing cannot be conceived this way, because the inner laws state ofmind encouraged byourcurrent scientific cosmol
ofcenters, thewholeness ofthe conception, the relation to ogy is not neutral but negative. Since there is no official
the surroundings, are pushed into asubsidiary position by place for an instinct ofdeeper meaning tobe realized as
too great anemphasis onthe program. (In Book 2,1 have part ofthe consequences ofpresent day science, adherents
given some idea ofthe negative impact that can be made ofthe current world-picture (our teenagers for example)
onabuilding design bythis kind ofmechanistic adherence are given little intellectual support for dwelling on such
toprogram.) Here isa tiny but clear example oftheway thoughts. The assumption therefore exists — nearly al
the building process in our society is routinely mecha ways tacit, ofcourse, rarely explicit — that experiences,
nized. Few contemporary architects would reject theuse ideas, which might lead toa feeling ofprofound meaning
ofa building program; few lay people would question it in the world are scientifically empty, and best kept at
either. It is the norm. Yet their acceptance of this norm arm's length, away from the body ofprecise thought about
(and thisisonly one tinyexample) means thatreal beauty, the world.
real life, are pushed into a subsidiary position while the 25. You the reader, yourself, may or may not make
building program, more concerned with efficiency ofad these ten assumptions. But I suspect, even ifyou believe
ministration than with life, stays in a higherposition. that you arc free ofthem, orrise above them — that, in
It is reasonable to conclude that architecture is viewed fact, to an extent which may surprise you, it is these
as irrelevant. Asociety in whichpeople routinely do something assumptions which inform your underlying picture of
different from that which creates life or beauty, cannot be yourself and your place in the world.
said tocare much about life or beauty. Our daily behavior There are two ways in which such hidden assump
proves again and again, in thousands of examples like tions maybe revealed within aperson's picture oftheworld.
this, that a tacit assumption about the irrelevance of Suppose a person tells you that he believes the earth is
architecture isindeed partofthe mechanistic world pic round, not flat. However, you notice that this person has
ture that we live by. However much one might want to asurprising reluctance to go far tothe cast, orfar tothe
say that buildings ought to be important in some deep west. Nomatter what hesays, you may wonder ifafter all,
sense, still, so long as we live in a mental world governed this person does not believe the earth is flat. With each of

27
THE LUMINOUS GROUND

the mechanistic assumptions, I have given examples ofthe physicist, but not for dealing with it, which he did not do.
kind of behaviorwhichwe mayeachfind in ourselves — 27. Foran artist the situation is perhapsevenworse.It
and which, in myview, showthat the moresubtleviewis isonlypossible to makethingswell, and deeply, out ofthe
just frosting, and that the mechanistic assumption does feelings that adeeperconsciousness ignites.Buthereagain,
exist in us — even if concealed. the old cosmology refuses to allow it in. Once again, if
It is my view that the mechanistic view does exist we want to retain our pictureofthe world, as it has been
in most of us as a mild form of practical certainty, while presented to usbyphysics andbiology, wemustconstandy
the morelife-centered or spiritualbeliefs do not—they attack,invade, undermine, refuse, thesefeelings. And on
are morelike empty decoration on the surface, which are the otherhand, if someone doeschoose to liveperpetually
not capable of having any coherentimpact, because they in the knowledge of thesefeelings, then the oldcosmology
do not all make practical sense together with everything itselfmustbeforced out, and this personthen lives without
else. In this sense, once again, I take the viewthat people a forceful or coherent scientific pictureofthe world.Is it
are still caught in the mechanistic paradigm. No matter anywonder that some of thosewecallartists,during the
what peoplesay, they often continue to behave as if these periodofthiscosmology, become insane,areforced to turn
assumptions are true. There is no practical certainty their backs upon the world?
attached to the other more spiritual views, which lead 28. I am very grateful to IngridFiksdahl-King, with
direcdy to different behavior, so once again the residue whom I had an extensive discussion about these matters
of behavior suggests that the ten assumptions are what in 1980. The text of the following section is based on
is, in fact, controlling our mental picture of ourselves our conversation.
and of the universe. 29. I have no doubt some readers will say to them
26. The quotations aretaken from Stephen Hawking, selves, "Here Alexander is going too far, surely no one
a brief history of time (New York: Bantam Books, could be silly enough to propose such a thing seriously."
1988), 13,153,169. Stephen Weinberg andother important No? As I write, a book by a prominent professor of
cosmologists and contemporary physicists commonly psychology has appeared, in which he describes the hu
make similar claims and assertions. Incidentally, al man mind asamechanical system, andwhere heexplicitly
though Hawking became famous for his reference to states thatwithin themind, music works merely as"audi
the mind of God (brief history, 175), nevertheless the torycheesecake." Steven Pinker,how the mind works,
substance of his cosmology remains steadfastly mecha (London: Allen Lane, 1998). See also the humorous re
nist, and addresses none of the problems I have raised view of Pinker's book byJames Langton, "The manwho
in this chapter. He may be commended for having the thinks he is a computer," the Sunday telegraph, De
instinct that the subject needed to be mentioned by a cember 7, 1997, Sunday Review, 3.

28

S-ar putea să vă placă și