Starting methods of three phase induction motors

Starting of squirrel cage motors

Starting in-rush current in squirrel cage motors is controlled by applying reduced voltage to
the stator. These methods are sometimes called as reduced voltage methods for starting of
squirrel cage induction motors. For this purpose, following methods are used:

1. By using primary resistors

2. Autotransformer
3. Star-delta switches

1. Using primary resistors:

Obviously, the purpose of primary resistors is to drop some voltage and apply a reduced
voltage to the stator. Consider, the starting voltage is reduced by 50%. Then according to the
Ohm's law (V=I/Z), the starting current will also be reduced by the same percentage. From
the torque equation of a three phase induction motor, the starting torque is approximately
proportional to the square of the applied voltage. That means, if the applied voltage is 50% of
the rated value, the starting torque will be only 25% of its normal voltage value. This method
is generally used for a smooth starting of small induction motors. It is not recommended to
use primary resistors type of starting method for motors with high starting torque
requirements.
Starting of slip-ring motors

Slip-ring motors are started with full line voltage, as external resistance can be easily added in the
rotor circuit with the help of slip-rings. A star connected rheostat is connected in series with the
rotor via slip-rings as shown in the fig. Introducing resistance in rotor current will decrease the
starting current in rotor (and, hence, in stator). Also, it improves power factor and the torque is
increased. The connected rheostat may be hand-operated or automatic.
As, introduction of additional resistance in rotor improves the starting torque, slip-ring motors can
be started on load.
The external resistance introduced is only for starting purposes, and is gradually cut out as the motor
gathers the speed.

Speed control methods of induction motor

Induction motor speed control from stator side

1. By changing the applied voltage:

From the torque equation of induction motor,

Rotor resistance R2 is constant and if slip s is small then (sX2)2 is so small that it can be
neglected. Therefore, T ∝ sE22 where E2 is rotor induced emf and E2 ∝ V
Thus, T ∝ sV2, which means, if supplied voltage is decreased, the developed torque
decreases. Hence, for providing the same load torque, the slip increases with decrease in
voltage, and consequently, the speed decreases. This method is the easiest and cheapest, still
rarely used, because

1. large change in supply voltage is required for relatively small change in speed.
2. 2. By changing the applied frequency
 3. Synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field of an induction motor is given by,

4.
5. where, f = frequency of the supply and P = number of stator poles.
Hence, the synchronous speed changes with change in supply frequency. Actual speed
of an induction motor is given as N = Ns (1 - s).

Speed control from rotor side:

2. Cascade operation

In this method of speed control, two motors are used. Both are mounted on a same shaft so
that both run at same speed. One motor is fed from a 3phase supply and the other motor is fed
from the induced emf in first motor via slip-rings. The arrangement is as shown in following
figure.

Motor A is called the main motor and motor B is called the auxiliary motor.
Let, Ns1 = frequency of motor A
Ns2 = frequency of motor B
P1 = number of poles stator of motor A
P2 = number of stator poles of motor B
N = speed of the set and same for both motors
f = frequency of the supply

Now, slip of motor A, S1 = (Ns1 - N) / Ns1.

frequency of the rotor induced emf in motor A, f1 = S1f
Now, auxiliary motor B is supplied with the rotor induce emf

therefore, Ns2 = (120f1) / P2 = (120S1f) / P2.

now putting the value of S1 = (Ns1 - N) / Ns1

 At no load, speed of the auxiliary rotor is almost same as its synchronous speed.
i.e. N = Ns2.
from the above equations, it can be obtained that

With this method, four different speeds can be obtained

1. when only motor A works, corresponding speed = .Ns1 = 120f / P1
2. when only motor B works, corresponding speed = Ns2 = 120f / P2
3. if commulative cascading is done, speed of the set = N = 120f / (P1 + P2)
4. if differential cascading is done, speed of the set = N = 120f (P1 - P2)

Parallel Operation of Alternator

Alternator is really an AC generator. In alternator, an EMF is induced in the stator (stationary wire)
with the influence of rotating magnetic field (rotor) due to Faraday’s law of induction. Due to the
synchronous speed of rotation of field poles, it is also known as synchronous generator. Here, we
can discuss about parallel operation of alternator. When the AC power systems are interconnected
for efficiency, the alternators should also have to be connected in parallel. There will be more than
two alternators connected in parallel in generating stations.

Condition for Parallel Operation of Alternator

There are some conditions to be satisfied for parallel operation of the alternator. Before entering
into that, we should understand some terms which are as follows.

 The process of connecting two alternators or an alternator and an infinite bus bar system in
parallel is known as synchronizing.
 Running machine is the machine which carries the load.
 Incoming machine is the alternator or machine which has to be connected in parallel with
the system.

The conditions to be satisfied are

1. The phase sequence of the incoming machine voltage and the bus bar voltage should
be identical.
2. The RMS line voltage (terminal voltage) of the bus bar or already running machine
and the incoming machine should be the same.
3. The phase angle of the two systems should be equal.
4. The frequency of the two terminal voltages (incoming machine and the bus bar)
should be nearly the same. Large power transients will occur when frequencies are not
nearly equal.
General Procedure for Paralleling Alternators
The figure below shows an alternator (generator 2) being paralleled with a running power system
(generator 1).These two machines are about to synchronize for supplying power to a load.
Generator 2 is about to parallel with the help of a switch, S1. This switch should never be closed
without satisfying the above conditions.

1. To make the terminal voltages equal. This can be done by adjusting the terminal
voltage of incoming machine by changing the field current and make it equal to the
line voltage of running system using voltmeters.
2. There are two methods to check the phase sequence of the machines. They are as
follows
o First one is using a Synchroscope. It is not actually check the phase sequence
but it is used to measure the difference in phase angles.
o Second method is three lamp method (Figure 2). Here we can see three light
bulbs are connected to the terminals of the switch, S1. Bulbs become bright if
the phase difference is large. Bulbs become dim if the phase difference is
small. The bulbs will show dim and bright all together if phase sequence is the
same. The bulbs will get bright in progression if the phase sequence is
opposite. This phase sequence can be made equal by swapping the connections
on any two phases on one of the generators.
 3. Next, we have to check and verify the incoming and running system frequency. It should be
nearly the same. This can be done by inspecting the frequency of dimming and brightening
of lamps.
4. When the frequencies are nearly equal, the two voltages (incoming alternator and running
system) will alter the phase gradually. These changes can be observed and the switch, S1 can
be made closed when the phase angles are equal.

Advantages of Parallel Operating Alternators

 When there is maintenance or an inspection, one machine can be taken out from service
and the other alternators can keep up for the continuity of supply.
 Load supply can be increased.
 During light loads, more than one alternator can be shut down while the other will operate
in nearly full load.
 High efficiency.
 The operating cost is reduced.
 Ensures the protection of supply and enables cost-effective generation.
 The generation cost is reduced.
 Breaking down of a generator does not cause any interruption in the supply.
 Reliability of the whole power system increases.

What is a Stepper Motor?

These motors are also called
stepping motors or step motors. The
name stepper is used because this
motor rotates through a fixed angular
step in response to each input current
pulse received by its controller

When a train of pulses is applied, it gets turned through a certain angle. The angle through
which the stepper motor shaft turns for each pulse is referred as the step angle, which is
generally expressed in degrees.

The number of input pulses given to the motor decides the step angle and hence the position
of motor shaft is controlled by controlling the number of pulses.

Types of Stepper Motors

There are three basic categories of stepper motors, namely permanent magnet
stepper motor, variable reluctance stepper motor and hybrid stepper motor. In
all these motors excitation windings are employed in stator where the number of
windings refer to the number of phases.

Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

As the name suggests, the angular position of the rotor depends on the reluctance of
the magnetic circuit formed between the stator poles (teeth) and rotor teeth.

Construction of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor:

It consists of a wound stator and a soft iron multi-tooth rotor. The stator has a stack
of silicon steel laminations on which stator windings are wound. Usually, it is wound
for three phases which are distributed between the pole pairs.

The number of poles on stator thus formed is equal to an even multiple of the number of
phases for which windings are wounded on stator. In the figure below, the stator has 12
equally spaced projecting poles where each pole is wound with an exciting coil. These three
phases are energized from of a DC source with the help of solid state switches.

The relation of rotor poles in terms of stator poles for a three phase stepper motor is
given as, Nr = Ns ± (Ns / q). Here Ns = 12, and q= 3, and hence Nr = 12 ± (12 / 3) =
16 or 8. An 8-pole construction rotor without any excitation is illustrated below.

Working Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor:

Consider the schematic diagram of a 3-phase, 6 stator poles and 4 rotor teeth is
shown in figure below. When the phase A-A’ is supplied with a DC supply by closing
the switch -1, the winding become a magnet which results one tooth become North
and other South. So the stator magnetic axis lies along these poles.

Due to the force of attraction, stator coil North Pole attracts nearest rotor tooth of
opposite polarity, i.e., South and South Pole attract nearest rotor tooth of opposite
polarity, i.e., North. The rotor then adjusts to its minimum reluctance position where
the rotor magnetic axis exactly matches with stator magnetic axis.

When the phase B-B’ is energized by closing switch -2 keeping phase A-A’ remain
de-energized by opening switch-1, winding B-B’ will produce the magnetic flux and
hence the stator magnetic axis shifts along the poles thus formed by it. Hence the
rotor shifts to the least reluctance with magnetized stator teeth and rotates through
an angle of 30 degrees in the clockwise direction.

When the switch-3 is energized after opening switch-2, the phase C-C’ is energized,
the rotor teeth align with new position by moving through an additional angle of 30
degrees. By this way, the rotor moves clockwise or counterclockwise direction by
successively exciting stator windings in a particular sequence. The step angle of this
3-phase 4-pole rotor teeth stepper motor is expressed as, 360/ (4 × 3) = 30 degrees
(as step angle = 360 / Nr × q).

The step angle can be further reduced by increasing the number of poles on the
stator and rotor, in such case motors are often wound with additional phase
windings. This can also be achieved by a adopting different construction of stepper
motors such as multistack arrangement and reduction gear mechanism.

Stepping Modes of a Stepper Motor

Half step

It is the combination of both wave and full step modes. In this, single phase and dual
phase excitations are carried out alternatively, i.e., one-phase ON, two-phases ON,
and so on. The step angle in this mode becomes half of the full step angle. This drive
mode has highest torque and stability compared to all other modes. The table
containing phase pulsing sequence for a 4-phase motor in half stepping is given

below.

Wave Step

Wave step mode is the simplest of all other modes in which only one winding is
energized at any given time. Each coil of the phase is connected to the supply
alternatively. The table below shows the order through which coils are energized in a
4-phase stepper motor.

In this mode motor gives maximum step angle compared to all other modes. It is the
simplest and most commonly used mode for stepping; however the torque produced
is less as it uses some part of the total winding at a given time.
Full Step

In this drive or mode, two stator phases are energized simultaneously at any given
time. When two phases are energized together, the rotor will experience the torque
from both phases and comes to the equilibrium position, which will be interleaved
between two adjacent wave step positions or 1-phase excitations. So this step
provides better holding torque than wave step. The table below shows the full step
drive for 4-phase stepper motor.

Advantages of stepper motors :

 Low cost
 Ruggedness
 Simplicity of construction
 Low maintenance
 Less likely to stall or slip
 Will work in any environment
 Excellent start-stop and reversing responses

Disadvantages of stepper motors :

 Low torque capacity compared to DC motors

 Limited speed
 During overloading, the synchronization will be broken. Vibration and noise occur
when running at high speed.

What are Servo Motors?

A servo motor is a linear or rotary actuator that provides fast precision position control for closed-
loop position control applications. Unlike large industrial motors, a servo motor is not used for
continuous energy conversion.
Working Principle of AC Servo Motor

The schematic diagram of servo system for AC two-phase induction motor is shown in the
figure below. In this, the reference input at which the motor shaft has to maintain at a certain
position is given to the rotor of synchro generator as mechanical input theta. This rotor is
connected to the electrical input at rated voltage at a fixed frequency.

The three stator terminals of a synchro generator are connected correspondingly to the
terminals of control transformer. The angular position of the two-phase motor is transmitted
to the rotor of control transformer through gear train arrangement and it represents the control
condition alpha.

Initially, there exist a difference between the synchro generator shaft position and control
transformer shaft position. This error is reflected as the voltage across the control
transformer. This error voltage is applied to the servo amplifier and then to the control phase
of the motor.

With the control voltage, the rotor of the motor rotates in required direction till the error
becomes zero. This is how the desired shaft position is ensured in AC servo motors.

Alternatively, modern AC servo drives are embedded controllers like PLCs, microprocessors
and microcontrollers to achieve variable frequency and variable voltage in order to drive the
motor.
Mostly, pulse width modulation and Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) techniques are
used to control the desired frequency and voltage. The block diagram of AC servo motor
system using programmable logic controllers, position and servo controllers is given below.

Difference between the DC and AC Servo Motors

DC Servo Motor AC Servo Motor

It delivers high power output Delivers low output of about 0.5 W to 100 W

It has more stability problems It has less stable problems

It requires frequent maintenance due to It requires less maintenance due to the absence of
the presence of commutator commutator

The efficiency of AC servo motor is less and is about 5 to

It provides high efficiency
20%

The life of DC servo motor depends on

The life of AC servo motor depends on bearing life
the life on brush life

It includes permanent magnet in its The synchronous type AC servo motor uses permanent
construction magnet while induction type doesn’t require it.

These motors are used for high power

These motors are used for low power applications
applications
Hunting in Synchronous Motor
The word hunting is used because after sudden application of load the rotor has to search or hunt
for its new equilibrium position. That phenomenon is referred to as hunting in synchronous motor.

The phenomenon of oscillation of the rotor about its final equilibrium position is called Hunting. On
the sudden application of load, the rotor search for its new equilibrium position and this process is
known as Hunting. The Hunting process occurs in a synchronous motor as well as in synchronous
generators if an abrupt change in load occurs.

The steady state or stable operation of a synchronous motor is a condition of equilibrium. In

it, the load torque is equal as well as opposite to the electromagnetic torque. The rotor of the
motor runs at synchronous speed in the steady state condition, maintain a constant value of
the torque angle δ. The equilibrium gets disturbed if a sudden change occurs in the load
torque. Thus, a resulting torque takes place which changes the speed of the motor. It is given
by the equation shown below.

Where J is the moment of inertia

ωM is the angular velocity of the rotor in mechanical units.

The speed of the motor slows down temporarily, and the torque angle δ is sufficiently
increased. This is done to restore the torque equilibrium and the synchronous speed when
there is a sudden increase if the load torque.

The electromagnetic torque is given by the equation shown below.

If the value of δ is increased, the electromagnetic torque is also increased. As a result, the
motor is accelerated. As the rotor reaches the synchronous speed, the torque angle δ is larger
than the required value. Here the rotor speed continues to increase beyond the synchronous
speed.

As the rotor accelerates above synchronous speed, the torque angle δ decreases. The point
where the motor torque becomes equal to the load torque, the equilibrium is not restored
because now the rotor speed is greater than the synchronous speed. Therefore, the rotor
continues to swing backwards and as a result, the torque angle goes on decreasing.
When the load angle δ becomes less than the required value, the mechanical load becomes greater
than the developed power. Therefore, the motor starts to slow down. The load angle starts
increasing again. Thus, the rotor starts to swing or oscillates around the synchronous speed.

The motor responds to a decreasing load torque by a temporary increase in speed and a reduction of
the torque angle δ. Thus, the rotor swings and rotate around the synchronous speed. Thus, this
process of rotation of the rotor speed equal or around the synchronous speed is known as Hunting.
Since, during the rotor oscillation, the phase of the phasor Ef changes about phasor V. Thus, hunting
is known as Phase Swinging.

Causes of Hunting

The various causes of hunting are as follows:-

 Sudden changes of load.

 Faults were occurring in the system which the generator supplies.
 Sudden change in the field current.
 Cyclic variations of the load torque.

Effect of Hunting

The various effects of hunting are as follows:-

 It can lead to loss of synchronism.

 It can cause variations of the supply voltage producing undesirable lamp flicker.
 Large mechanical stresses may develop in the rotor shaft.
 The machine losses increases and the temperature of the machine rises.

Reduction of Hunting

The following technique given below is used to reduce the phenomenon of hunting.

 Use of damper windings

 Uses of flywheels

Reduction of Hunting in Synchronous Motor

Two techniques should be used to reduce hunting. These are –

 Use of Damper Winding: It consists of low electrical resistance copper / aluminum brush
embedded in slots of pole faces in salient pole machine. Damper winding damps out hunting
by producing torque opposite to slip of rotor. The magnitude of damping torque is
proportional to the slip speed.
 Use of Flywheels: The prime mover is provided with a large and heavy flywheel. This
increases the inertia of prime mover and helps in maintaining the rotor speed constant.