TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

Lecturer : Dr. Ir Hermagasantos Zein, M.Sc

By :
Cahya Ginanjar (141734008)
Iqbal Muwahid (141734016)
Ira Pramitha Dewi R (141734017)
Permana Imanudin (141734021)
R. Nizar Fadhlillah S (141734023)
Raden Dewi Ghita G.P (141734024)
Silmi Muharam (141734028)
Yulinda Ayunani Putri (141734031)

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY CONVERSION ENGINEERING

D-4 ENERGY CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
2016/2017
 ABSTRACT
Transmission And Distribution
An electric power system is a network of electrical components used to supply, transfer and use
electric power, The majority of these systems rely upon three-phase AC power—the standard for
large-scale power transmission and distribution. Specialized power systems that do not always rely
upon three-phase AC power are found in aircraft, electric rail systems, ocean liners and
automobiles. Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a
generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. Kind of type transmission based
on the installation, the transmission line is divided into to two categories, namely: Overhead
transmission & Underground transmission. Based on the electrical current, the transmission line is
divided into two categories, namely: AC Transmission & DC Transmission. Based on the voltage,
the transmission line is divided into: High Voltage (30 kV – 150 kV), Extra High Voltage (200 kV
- 500 kV), Ultra High Voltage (above 500 kV). And then, Distribution systems have two categories,
namely: Primary distribution & Secondary distribution. Transmission and Distribution
Components is Transformers, Cable and conductors, Power and
Controllers and protection equipment. The Workings of the transmission and distribution, Power
plants such as hydroelectricity, wind power, generated electricity, etc. Electric power generated by
large power plants with a voltage of 11 kV to 24 kV. Voltage is increased by the transformer
substations with a step-up voltage to 70 kV, 154kV, 220kV or 500kV then transmitted through the
transmission line. The purpose of raising the voltage is to minimize power losses in the
transmission line. In the transmission line, the voltage is lowered again to 20 kV. Transformer
substations lowering the voltage on the distribution, then the system voltage electric power
distribution done by the primary distribution line. From this primary distribution channel,
distribution substations take the voltage to be lowered into a distribution transformer voltage with
low voltage systems, ie 220/380 Volt. Furthermore channeled by a secondary distribution line to
consumers. Transmission and distribution of electrical energy require cables and power
transformers, which create three types of energy loss: The Joule effect, where energy is lost as heat
in the conductor (a copper wire, for example) Magnetic losses, where energy dissipates into a
magnetic field The dielectric effect, where energy is absorbed in the insulating material

Key Words: Transmission System, Distribution System, Energy Losses

Problem Formulation

1. What is transmission and distribution systems?

2. What is the component of the transmission and distribution systems?
3. How transmission and distribution work?
4. What is losses in transmission and distribution?
5. How to reduce energy losses?
6. What the problem of application at the high voltage transmission?

Purpose

1. To know the transmission and distribution systems

2. To know the component of the transmission and distribution systems
3. To know how transmission and distribution work
4. To know losses in transmission and distribution
5. To know how to reduce energy losses
6. To know the problem of application at the high voltage transmission
Discussion

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

An electric power system is a network of electrical components used to supply, transfer

and use electric power. An example of an electric power system is the network that supplies a
region's homes and industry with power—for sizeable regions, this power system is known as the
grid and can be broadly divided into the generators that supply the power, the transmission system
that carries the power from the generating centres to the load centres and the distribution system
that feeds the power to nearby homes and industries. The majority of these systems rely upon three-
phase AC power—the standard for large-scale power transmission and distribution. Specialised
power systems that do not always rely upon three-phase AC power are found in aircraft, electric
rail systems, ocean liners and automobiles.

A. Electric Power Transmission and Distribution

Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating
site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines which facilitate
this movement are known as a transmission network. While, an electric power distribution system
is the final stage in the delivery of electric power; it carries electricity from the transmission system
to individual consumers. Distribution substations connect to the transmission system and lower
the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and 35 kV with the use of
transformers.

1. Transmission System
Most transmission lines are high-voltage three-phase alternating current (AC), although
single phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems.
Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (high voltage standards applicable in Indonesia is 70 kV
and 150 kV). The purpose of transmitted at high voltages is to minimize power losses in the
transmission line, which in this case, power loss is proportional to the square of the current flowing
(I2R). With the same power when its voltage value is enlarged, the current flowing is getting
smaller so that the power loss will be small.
 Kind of Type Transmission Line
a. Based on the installation, the transmission line is divided into two categories, namely:
1) Overhead transmission
It is transmission line that transmits electricity through wires strung on towers or poles isolator
between the transmission. Advantages of aerial transmission line is cheaper, easy care, easy to
locate the disturbance, easy to repair, and more. But it also has disadvantages, among others:
being in the open space, the weather affects the reliability, in other words easily occur
interference, such as short circuit, over voltage noise due to lightning and other disturbances.
In terms of aesthetics or beauty also less, so that the transmission line is not the ideal choice
for a transmission line in the city.
2) Underground transmission
It is transmission line that transmits electricity through a cable buried in the ground. Categories
transmission line as it is the favorite for installation in the city, because it is in the soil, it does
not interfere with the beauty of the city and also not easily occur interference due to weather
conditions or natural conditions. But also pick the shortage, such as the high investment costs
and the difficulty of determining the point of interruption and repairs.

b. Based on the electric current, the transmission line is divided into two categories, namely:
1) AC transmission
In the AC system, raising and decreasing the voltage is very easily done with the help of a
transformer. The advantages is that distributed power greater, the instantaneous value its
constant, and have two systems ( single phase and three phase AC )
2) DC transmission
In the DC transmission line, the usability or high efficiency because it has power factor = 1,
do not have a problem on the stability of the system, so it is possible for the supply remotely
and have a more simple isolation.
Associated with advantages and disadvantages, this adult transmission line in the world mostly
use AC transmission line. New DC transmission line can be considered to be economical if the
distance air duct between 400 km to 600 km, or for underground channel with a length of 50
km. it is because the cost of converter equipment from AC to DC and vice versa (converter and
 inverter) is still very expensive, so in terms of economic air conditioning ducts will still be the
belle of the transmission line.

c. Based on the voltage, the transmission line is divided into:

1) High Voltage (30 kV – 150 kV)
2) Extra High Voltage ( 200 kV - 500 kV)
3) Ultra High Voltage (above 500 kV)

2. Distribution System
 Primary Distribution
Primary distribution voltages are 22kV or 11 kV. Only large consumers are fed directly from
distribution voltages; most utility customers are connected to a transformer.
 Secondary Distribution
Electricity is delivered at a frequency of either 50 or 60 Hz, depending on the region. It is
delivered to domestic customers as single-phase electric power. This distribution system is the
part that directly relates to the consumer, so the system is in addition to functioning receiving
power from the resource (distribution transformers), also will transmit and distribute power to
the consumer.

B. Transmission and Distribution Components

 Transformers
Transformers are one of the fundamental building blocks of today’s electric grid;
essentially all energy delivered flows through at least one. Through electromagnetic coupling,
these components change the voltage of electric power, increasing it to transmit electricity
more efficiently over long distances and decreasing it to a safe level for final delivery to end
users.
There are generally two categories of transformers—power transformers and distribution
transformers. Power transformers are typically located at generator plants and substations,
while distribution transformers are typically located in industrial, residential, and commercial
areas, directly supplying power to the end user in low or medium voltage service.
 Cables and Conductors
Cables and conductors are the primary carriers of electricity and are critical components
for the reliable, efficient, and cost-effective delivery of power. Conductors are suspended
overhead from towers and poles and are generally not insulated except at lower voltage levels.
In contrast, cables are always insulated and are generally used in underground applications,
such as for dense urban areas where real-estate costs, safety concerns, and aesthetics restrict
the use of overhead lines. Underground cables are also used in applications where overhead
lines are hard to locate, such as water crossings, and are increasingly considered advantageous
for their resilience to wind and ice storms.
The operating temperature of conventional conductors should not exceed 100°C;
temperatures in excess of this may cause significant damage to the aluminum portion of the
conductor. Higher temperatures will result in more thermal expansion and greater sag between
towers and poles. Excessive sagging can result in safety hazards and increase the risk of power
failures if the line comes into close proximity or contact with other objects. Now, a class of
conductors referred to as high temperature low sag (HTLS) has come into use for transmission
of larger quantities of power by using existing right-of-ways. HTLS conductors are made of
stronger mechanical cores (e.g., steel or composite) that reduce line sag during operation at
increased temperatures, as shown in Table 1:

Underground cables are more complicated and expensive than overhead conductors due to
the need for insulation, shielding, thermal management, and extra considerations.
  Power Flow Controllers
Enhanced power flow capabilities within the transmission and distribution system will
fundamentally change how the grid can be controlled and managed. For example, if an area is
experiencing an outage due to damaged components, power flow controllers can route power
around those affected areas and continue to provide electricity to critical loads. Two categories
of power electronic systems that can provide enhanced flow control are High Voltage Direct
Current (HVDC) converters and Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS)
devices. HVDC converters decouple power flows from the synchronous nature of the grid,
whereas FACTS devices work within the synchronous nature of the grid and alter line
impedances to control power flows.
 Protection Equipment
As power flows and system dynamics change from the deployment and use of advanced
technologies, the role and configuration of protective equipment such as circuit breakers, fault
current limiters and surge arresters.
Circuit breakers are mechanical switches and protection devices that electrically isolate
circuits and components under normal operating conditions or automatically in emergency
situations such as sustained faults. The command to isolate the circuit is usually provided by
protective relays.
When faults occur, large currents (5 to 20 times nominal with some claiming up to 200
times nominal) can develop. Fault current limiters (FCLs) are devices that limit these excessive
currents in transmission and distribution networks to manageable levels. They operate by
rapidly inserting a large resistance or reactance to a line to absorb the excessive energy or limit
the current. While surge arresters operate by providing a path to ground when an undesirable
voltage is reached.

C. The Workings of the transmission and distribution

Power plants such as hydroelectricity, wind power, etc, generated electricity. Electric power
generated by large power plants with a voltage of 11 kV to 24 kV. Voltage is increased by the
transformer substations with a step-up voltage to 70 kV, 154kV, 220kV or 500kV then transmitted
through the transmission line. The purpose of raising the voltage is to minimize power losses in
the transmission line.
 In the transmission line, the voltage is lowered again to 20 kV. Transformer substations
lowering the voltage on the distribution, then the system voltage electric power distribution done
by the primary distribution line. Large-scale users can directly take electricity from the primary
distribution.
From this primary distribution channel, distribution substations take the voltage to be lowered into
a distribution transformer voltage with low voltage systems, ie 220/380 Volt. Furthermore
channeled by a secondary distribution line to consumers.

Picture 1 Transmission and Distribution System

D. Energy Losses in Transmission and Distribution

Transmission and distribution of electrical energy require cables and power transformers,
which create three types of energy loss:
 The Joule effect, where energy is lost as heat in the conductor (a copper wire, for example)
 Magnetic losses, where energy dissipates into a magnetic field
 The dielectric effect, where energy is absorbed in the insulating material

Energy losses essentially come about in transformers and cables. The efficiency of large
power transformers in step-up and step-down substations is quite high and may reach 99%, but
this depends mostly on the real power delivered, compared with the maximum power it could in
principle deliver. A transformer operating at power close to the assigned value has the best
efficiency. Medium and low voltage transformers are of different types and their efficiency may
range between 90% and 98%, depending on the power delivered.
For cables, it’s the contrary. Those carrying high current sustain more heating and therefore
endure more energy loss because of the Joule effect, which is an increase in heat resulting from
current flowing through a conductor. Essentially, electrical current passing through a conductor
raises its temperature and this heat bleeds away as lost energy. This raises design considerations
and underground ones which deliver energy from the step-down substations to the users.
Electricity supply companies generally try to limit energy losses in overhead lines to about
2.5%. So, between the power plant and the step-down substation the total losses range between
3% and 5%. Between the step-down substation and users the losses can be about the same or even
greater. Therefore the overall losses between the power plant and users can easily be between 8%
and 15%, which suggest that there is still some room to improve efficiency in the transmission and
distribution system.

E. Ways to Reduce Energy Losses

In the transmission and distribution of electrical energy from power plant to the users, through
by conductor. This conductor can dissipate the electrical energy, so the users receive electrical
power have been reduced from the initial power delivered. The longer a conductor, the higher the
resistance. So the losses will be high, because the length of wire is proportional to the resistance
value.
𝐿
R=ρ
𝐴
Where :
R = Resistance (Ω)
ρ = Resistivity (Ω.m)
L = Length (m)
A = Area (m2)
Based on the length of conductor, the highest losses will be found in transmission line than
distribution line. So the dissipated power if AC 3 phase transmission is:
Pt = 3 .I2R
Where :
Pt = Power Dissipation of Transmission (W)
I = Current Transmission (A)
R = Transmission Wire Transmission (Ω)
Current Transmission of AC 3 Phase :
P
I=
√3 x Vr x Cos ∅
Where :
P = Power load on the receiving end of the transmission (watt)
Vr = Voltage phase to phase at the receiving end of the transmission (volt)
Cos φ = Load power factor

So if the current transmission equation is substituted into the power dissipation equation:
P2 .𝑅
P𝑡 =
𝑉𝑟 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅

So from the above equation transmission power loss can be reduced by:
 Reduce the Resistance of Conductor
If you want to reduce the resistance of the conductor (R), so the conductor sectional area should
𝐿
be enlarged. Because the resistance is inversely proportional to the sectional area (R = ρ𝐴).

 Raise the Voltage Transmission

Between plant and transmission linked by substation as raising voltage, it is called step-up
substation. So that the generator voltage is increased before it is transmitted to reduce losses power.
Losses power of transmission is proportional with resistance and inversely proportional to the
quadratic voltage transmission, so the reduction of power losses obtained because raising the
transmission voltage is much more effective than the reduction of power losses by reducing the
resistance value.
 Improve Power Factor
Losses Power of transmission is inversely proportional to the quadratic power factor.
Getting better power factor (approaching 1), the losses power will be decrease To compensate for
the power factor can be done with the installation of capacitors. Because the power factor is
influenced by the load and the load used every time differently, so the capacitor must be adjusted
to the load (Cos Phi). Do not let rising voltage in the user because of capacitor.
In implementation of above efforts there is very important factor. It is safety, safety for human,
environment, load, which determine boundary in implementation these efforts.
F. The Problem of Application at the High Voltage Transmission
In practice, raising the transmission voltage should be considered because it can cause
some problems, among others:
 High voltage can cause corona on transmission wires. This corona will cause power losses and
may cause interference to radio communications. Corona itself is a phenomenon of the ionizing
ions in the air around the conductor which pose a dim light in conjunction with a hissing sound
accompanied by the liberation of ozone. While ionisation occurs when the air surrounding the
conductor comprising ions stressed dielectric. When the voltage on the transmission line is still
low, the stress experienced by the air dielectric surrounding the conductor is not sufficient to
ionize the air around the conductor. But when the voltage on the transmission line increased
exceeds about 30 kV, known as the critical point disruptive voltage, then the air around the
conductor under stress high enough that occurs ionization of the ions contained in the air.
 If the voltage is higher, then the transmission and substation equipment will require more
insulation volume that such equipment is able to bear the high voltage flowing. This will result
in increased investment costs.
 When the event of termination and closure of the transmission circuit (switching operation),
will arise over the surge voltage circuit so that the electrical power system equipment must be
designed to be able to bear the overvoltage. It also resulted in the increase in investment costs
 If the voltage elevated transmission, the transmission towers must be higher to ensure the safety
of living beings around transmission. The elevation will result in easy transmission tower was
struck by lightning. Lightning strikes on transmission will cause overvoltage surge lightning
on the power system, so that the equipment electrical power system should be designed to be
able to bear the lightning surge overvoltage.
 Hardware systems need to be equipped with protective equipment to avoid damage due to over
voltage surge circuit and lightning surge. The addition of protective equipment will add to the
cost of investment and maintenance.
Conclusion
Electricity generated by the plant to go through transmission and distribution channels that
reach users like homes, industries, hotels and other commercial buildings. The electricity is then
piped to increased voltage transmission line. Furthermore, the voltage is lowered and into the
primary distribution line, and secondary distribution line. From secondary distribution, electricity
with low voltage of 220V / 380V distributed to consumers.
At the time of transmission and distribution, losses will occur, where the losses during
transmission is greater than the time of distribution. The losses can be reduced by:
 Reduce the resistance of conductor
 Raise the voltage transmission
 Improve power factor
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