Precipitation

Meteorology of Precipitation

The formation of precipitation requires a four-step process

Cooling of air to (approximately) the dew point temperature

Condensation on nuclei to form cloud droplets or ice

crystals

Growth of droplets or ice crystals into rain drops, snow

flakes or hail stones

Importation of water vapor to sustain the process

 Physics of Precipitation

Cooling
Air Containing water vapor must be cooled to
dew point. A parcel of air can get cooled by
Radiation to cooler surroundings
Mixing with a cooler body of air
Can produce
Conduction to a cool surface like snow or cool only fog or
ocean water drizzle

Adiabatic cooling due to horizontal movement

to a region of lower pressure
Can cause
Adiabatic cooling due to vertical lift significant
amounts of
precipitation
Contd…(Physics of Precipitation)

Condensation
• Air containing water vapor with no impurities (such as dust or ions)
cooled to high degrees of super-saturation without the
formation of droplets.

• Condensation to occur near the dew point

foreign particles larger than 10-4 mm to which water molecules
are attracted through hydrogen bonds must be present to
provide substrate.
• Air usually contains large number of such particles called cloud
condensation nuclei (CCN) per c.c., so that surfaces of the size
required for stability are present.
Contd…(Physics of Precipitation)

Droplet Growth

• To grow to form rain drops of  0.4 – 4 mm, the cloud droplets (

0.001- 0.2 mm) have to grow by orders of magnitude.

• There are two processes by which the droplet growth occurs:

drop collision of different sizes occur due to differential fall

velocities. This results in coalescence of droplets sufficient to fall
out of the cloud.

ice-crystal growth: If the air is saturated and the temperature is

less than –40oC, then clusters of water molecules spontaneously
form ice crystals.
Contd…(Physics of Precipitation)

Importation of Water Vapor

• The concentration of liquid water and/or ice in moist clouds is

in the range of 0.1 – 1.0 g/m3.

equivalent to a potential of only 0.5cm of rainfall, assuming

that all the water initially present in the cloud would fall as
rain.

• Hence, a continuous supply of water vapour is to be imported

by winds that converge on the precipitation- producing
clouds.
 Adiabatic Cooling by Vertical Uplift

The cooling rates sufficient to produce hydrologically significant

precipitation occur only when cooling is effected through vertical
uplift.
A parcel of air rises, and cools adiabatically, i.e., without the
loss of heat.

The three known meteorological situations that yield significant

rates of adiabatic cooling by vertical uplift are:
Uplift due to convergence
Uplift due to convection
Uplift due to orography
Contd…(Adiabatic Cooling by Vertical Uplift)

Uplift due to convergence

• The horizontal air flow is induced by pressure gradients and
movement is generally toward regions of low pressure.
low pressure areas are the loci of convergence.

• The air converging from different directions is forced to rise

and this rise produces adiabatic cooling.

• Frontal Convergence (or Cyclonic Convergence) is

characteristics of the mid-latitudes and occurs at the
boundaries between air masses of contrasting temperatures.

• Nonfrontal Convergence is largely a tropical phenomenon

that occurs within a mass of warm, moist air
Contd…(Adiabatic Cooling by Vertical Uplift due to Convergence)

Frontal Convergence (or Cyclonic Convergence)

• Extra-tropical cyclones are dynamic, wave-like features that

form at the boundaries between air masses with contrasting
temperatures, moisture contents and densities.

centers of air masses are areas of high pressure

(anticyclones).

the typical development of an extra-tropical cyclone is

called cyclogenesis.
Contd…(Adiabatic Cooling by Vertical Uplift due to Convergence)
Cyclogenesis
The front develops in a low pressure trough
with relatively cold, denser air to the north
and warm, less dense air to the south

Cyclonic storms form when the frontal wave

develops further, such that the counterclock-
wise circulation around the wave apex
intensifies
Contd…(Adiabatic Cooling by Vertical Uplift due to Convergence)  Cyclogenesis

Cold fronts usually move faster than warm fronts, so the evolution of
an extra tropical cyclone typically follows a sequence as

Sections for two types

of fronts along dashed
line
Contd…(Adiabatic Cooling by Vertical Uplift due to Convergence)  Cyclogenesis

Final stage with fronts dissipated

Contd…(Adiabatic Cooling by Vertical Uplift due to Convergence)  Cyclogenesis

Weather map showing a typical extra-tropical cyclonic storm over North America
Contd…(Adiabatic Cooling by Vertical Uplift due to Convergence)

Non-frontal Convergence
• Non-frontal convergence is associated with
The quasi-permanent intertropical convergence zone
(ITCZ)
Temporary storms that form seasonally over the tropical
zones.

Convergence at the ITCZ

• The low latitude Halley cells create a zone of convergence

that circles the globe in tropical regions

• The ITCZ migrates seasonally and is spatially discontinuous

and intermittent, but it is persistent enough to create the
equatorial band of heavy precipitation.
Contd…(Adiabatic Cooling by Vertical Uplift due to Non-frontal Convergence)

Tropical Cyclones ( Hurricanes):

• These are cyclonic storms (not associated with fronts) that form
over the oceans between 5o- 20o latitude in both hemispheres.
• The formation begins with a small low- pressure disturbance in
a maritime tropical air mass.
• The cooling of this air then triggers condensation and the
accompanying release of latent heat further fuels the uplift.
• Thus, the cyclone is fed by evaporation driven by condensation.
• Under favorable conditions, the circulation will intensify until
winds near the center reach speeds as high as 65m/s (225
kmph).
Cyclone Nargis
1999 Orissa Cyclone
Hurricane Andrew
Contd…(Adiabatic Cooling by Vertical Uplift)

Uplift due to Convection

Convective precipitation occurs
as a result of adiabatic cooling
associated with “parcels” of air
that rise because they are less
dense than the air that
surrounds

To: initial surface temperature,

T1: temperature to which the surface is
warmed by conduction
E: Environmental lapse rate
D: Dry adiabatic rate
M: Moist adiabatic rate
Thermal Convection
S: Ambient temperature
Contd…Uplift due to Convection  Thermal – Convection Cells

• Cover areas of a few square kilometers

• Rates of uplifts can be very high – 10ms-1 to 30ms-1

• These cells produce – very intense rain often accompanied by

lightning, thunder, and hail

• Covers small areas and lasting less than an hour

 Thunderstorm Cell Model

Thunderstorm is associated as a
vertical column made up of three
parts:
• an inflow region near the ground
where warm, moist air is drawn into
the cell
• an uplift region in the middle where
moisture condenses as air rises,
producing precipitation
• an outflow region in the upper
atmosphere where outflow of cooler
drier air occurs.

This entire pattern is called

“convective cell circulation”.
 Uplift due to Orography
• Orographic effect – the relationship between the increasing long-term
mean precipitation with elevation
air moving horizontally encounters a topographic barrier and acquires a
vertical component of motion as it flows over that barrier
Result of convective, frontal, or cyclonic mechanism interacting with
topography
• It is not a separate precipitation-generation mechanism
• Orographic enhancement
150 to 180% for hills upto a few hundred meters relief
> 300% when relief exceeds 1-2 km
• Rate and Degree of Cooling
Horizontal wind speed, wind direction, steepness, height of the barrier,
temperature and humidity
Contd…Uplift due to Orography

• Clouds and Precipitation – windward slope

• Peak Precipitation – windward of the topographic crest
• Precipitation-elevation relation varies as a function of
aspect and inclination of individual slope facets
Relation to local topographic barriers

Rain Shadow
Downward air movement on the lee
side causes adiabatic warming
Warming – dissipates the clouds
– Turns off the precipitation
process
PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT
 MEASUREMENT OF POINT PRECIPITATION

• Accurate measurement of precipitation is essential

• Hydrologists are primarily concerned with the amount
and the rate of precipitation over an area (such as
drainage basin).
• Two points of accuracy concerning precipitation
measurements are:
How accurate are the point measurements?
How accurately the point measurements can be
converted to the measurements over an area?
 Types of Precipitation Gauges

• Non-recording storage gages:

Simple straight-sided cylinders or devices with funnels and

connecting vessels are used. The volume collected over time is

divided by the area of the opening and recorded as the depth of

precipitation.

• Weighing-recording gages:

The collected water is introduced to a vessel on a scale and the

accumulated weight is recorded

 contd…

• Tipping -bucket-recording gages:

Water is introduced to one of a pair of vessels with a known small
capacity being balanced on a fulcrum. When one vessel gets filled,
it tips and empties that quantity and records the time of this event,
and the other vessel is brought into position for filling. This goes
on alternately.

• Optical Precipitation gages

It is a promising new technology in which the rate of precipitation
is measured as proportional to the disturbance to a beam between
an infra-red light-emitting diode and a sensor. These gages can
measure rain or snow. Problems due to wind, splash, evaporation
and mechanical failure are averted. Direct recording to a data-
 Measurement of Rainfall

• Non-Recording Gauges

• Recording Gauges

Weighing Bucket Gauge

Tipping Bucket Gauge

Float-type Gauge
Standard Rain Gauge
Contd…(Measurement of Rainfall)
Weighing type Rain Gauge
Tipping Bucket Rain gauge
 Factors affecting Measurement Accuracy of
Conventional Gages:

• Size of orifice
• Orientation of orifice
• Orifice height
• Wind shielding
• Distance to obstruction
• Splashing
• Evaporation and Wetting losses
• Instrument errors
• Observer errors
• Errors due to differences in observation time
• Errors due to occult precipitation
• Errors due to low-intensity precipitation
contd…
• Size of orifice
Orifice diameter should not be less than 30mm.
Above this diameter, the size of the opening has little effect on
gage catch of rain. However, small diameter gages are not
suitable for snow measurement.
This type of small diameter gages should be calibrated
volumetrically or gravimetrically, since even small variations in
manufacture may affect the true size of the opening of a small
diameter gage and hence the catch.
Water adhering to the walls of the gage (wetting loss) is high in
plastic gages.
Also, evaporation has a greater relative effect on catch and so
such gages should be read and emptied often
contd…

• Orientation of orifice

The gage orifice should be level, because the depth of

precipitation falling on a horizontal surface represents the

hydrological input.

Exception

In cases where very strong upslope winds are accompanying the

rain, it may be appropriate to orient the orifice parallel to the

ground surface.

• Height of orifice

P i i i h j b d f i d
contd…
• Wind shielding: For unshielded gages, the catch deficiencies are about 10% for
rain and over 50% for snowflakes. Some corrections are applied to take care of
this. If shielding is provided approximately, then, the above effect is reduced.
It is expensive to install ground-level gages or to convert the
existing gages projecting above ground to ground level-gages.
Also, ground-level gages are useless when a snowpack accumulates.
Conversion will also complicate the analysis of historical rainfall data.

• To correct for this, daily measured precipitation values (after

applying for evaporation, wetting losses, and other factors), should
be multiplied by the corresponding factor, depending on whether
The gage is catching rain or snow or both
The gage is shielded or otherwise
Rain Gauge with orifice at ground level – protected by egg-crate
to eliminate in-splashing
contd…

Distance to obstructions

• Gages be located in open space in a fairly uniform enclosure of trees,

shrubs, fences or other objects, so that the wind effects are reduced.

• However, more of the surrounding objects should intrude into the conical
space defined by a 45o semi-vertical angle.

• Individual, isolated objects can produce wind eddies that can reduce the
gage catch, especially if they are taller than the gage.

• As a general rule, an isolated obstruction should not be closer than four

times its height above the gage.
Cone Centered at Rain Gauge
contd…
• Splash:
If the surface of water captured in a rain gage is too near the
orifice, the drops falling in may cause splashing. This is
prevented by using deep gages, with walls that are vertical or
sloping outward below the orifice, by conducting the collected
water to a covered vessel or by emptying frequently. For gages
with the orifice at ground level, the drops falling near the gages
may splash in. This is to be prevented.
• Evaporation:
Evaporation from the collected water surface can be reduced by
leading it to a closed vessel. A non-volatile immiscible oil that
would prevent evaporation by floating on the collected water.
• Wetting Losses:
Wetting the walls of the gage may result in catch deficiency
which ranges from 0.03 mm for each rainfall event to 0.15 mm for
each snowfall event.
 Annual Precipitation (mm) at Station
Year A B C D E
1970 1010 1161 780 949 1135
Problem 2. The table gives annual
1971 1005 978 1041 784 970
precipitation measured over a 17yr
1972 1067 1226 1027 1067 1158
period at five gages in a region.
1973 1051 880 825 1014 1022
Gage C was moved at the end of
1974 801 1146 933 923 821
1974. Carry out a double-mass-
1975 1411 1353 1584 930 1483
curve analysis to check for
1976 1222 1018 1215 981 1174
consistency in that gage’s record,
1977 1012 751 832 683 771
and make proper adjustments to
1978 1153 1059 918 824 1188
correct for any inconsistencies
1979 1140 1223 781 1056 967
discovered.
1980 829 1003 782 796 1088
1981 1165 1120 865 1121 963
1982 1170 989 956 1286 1287
1983 1264 1056 1102 1044 1190
1984 1200 1261 1058 991 1283
1985 942 811 710 875 873
1986 1166 969 1158 1202 1209
Annual Precipitation (mm)
ABDE avg ABDE Cum C Cum
Year A B C D E 0 0
1970 1010 1161 780 949 1135 1063.75 1063.75 780.00
1971 1005 978 1041 784 970 934.25 1998.00 1821.00
1972 1067 1226 1027 1067 1158 1129.50 3127.50 2848.00
1973 1051 880 825 1014 1022 991.75 4119.25 3673.00
1974 801 1146 933 923 821 922.75 5042.00 4606.00
1975 1411 1353 1584 930 1483 1294.25 6336.25 6190.00
1976 1222 1018 1215 981 1174 1098.75 7435.00 7405.00
1977 1012 751 832 683 771 804.25 8239.25 8237.00
1978 1153 1059 918 824 1188 1056.00 9295.25 9155.00
1979 1140 1223 781 1056 967 1096.50 10391.75 9936.00
1980 829 1003 782 796 1088 929.00 11320.75 10718.00
1981 1165 1120 865 1121 963 1092.25 12413.00 11583.00
1982 1170 989 956 1286 1287 1183.00 13596.00 12539.00
1983 1264 1056 1102 1044 1190 1138.50 14734.50 13641.00
1984 1200 1261 1058 991 1283 1183.75 15918.25 14699.00
1985 942 811 710 875 873 875.25 16793.50 15409.00
1986 1166 969 1158 1202 1209 1136.50 17930.00 16567.00
 Double Mass Curve example (contd…)
C Corrected
2mass curve
780.00
18000.00 1041.00
16000.00 1027.00
14000.00
825.00
12000.00
10000.00 933.00
2mass curve
8000.00 1584.00
6000.00 1215.00
4000.00 1007.28
2000.00
1111.40
0.00
0.00 5000.00 10000.00 15000.00 20000.00 945.53
946.75
1047.23
Original Slope 1.039231 1157.40
1334.16
Modified Slope 0.858392
1280.89
Correction factor 859.58
(correction to 1401.96
original slope) 1.210672
Missing Rainfall Data Estimation:

Example:
Rainfall of different stations of following Fig. is given in following Table
with missing record at station A. Estimate the rainfall at A from the record of
surrounding stations.

Fig: Four quadrants surrounding precipitation station A

Solution:

The procedure for estimating the missing rainfall record at station A is given in Table.

Table: Computations of Point Rainfall and at A from Data at Nearby Gauges

P 
 PW 316.37
  3.78cm
W 83.63
A
 Example: Areal Precipitation

The figure below shows rain stations and their annual rainfall in
centimeters for a region. Find the average depth of precipitation using: (a) the
arithmetic mean method, (b) the thiessen polygon method, and (c) the isohyetal
method

Fig:
Watershed Plan
With location of
rain gauge
Stations and
their observed
rainfalls
 Solution:

a) Arithmetic Mean method:

Three rain gauge stations outside the basin are omitted from
analysis.
 41 . 8  34 . 8  43 . 7  70 . 1  46 . 7  61 . 3  39 . 2 
 
1   37 . 3  49 . 8  57 . 7  43 . 5  41 . 6  46 . 7  
P 
22  49 . 1  61 . 8  53 . 6  52 . 7  49 . 0  71 . 9 
 
  61 . 7  54 . 0 

=1099.9/22 = 50.0 cm 
b) Theissen Polygon Method

• Theissen Polygons of rain gauge stations of watershed are drawn below

 Calculation for Average Rainfall Depth
S.No Rainfall ,P (cm) Area of Polygon, A Area*Rainfall
(2)*(3) (*10^3)
1 52 200 10.40
2 41.8 360 15.10
3 39.2 500 19.50
4 31.9 950 30.30
5 43.5 670 29.10
6 61.8 430 26.60
7 71.9 450 31.4
8 54 470 25.4
9 61.7 400 24.7
10 49.1 647 31.7
11 57.7 465 26.8
12 61.3 495 30.4
13 76.2 395 30.1
14 70.1 1090 76.5
15 61.8 70 4.3
16 34 795 27.7
17 43.7 980 42.8
S.No Rainfall ,P (cm) Area of Polygon, A Area*Rainfall
(2)*(3) (*10^3)
18 37.3 935 34.8

19 46.7 900 42.1

20 41.6 805 33.6

21 46.7 708 33

22 49.8 458 22.8

23 53.6 560 30

24 52.7 650 34.3

25 49 500 24.5

Total ∑A=14783 ∑AP =737.9

P=737900/14783=50 cm
c) Isohyetal Method

Fig: Isohyets are drawn and areas are

planimetered between two isohyets
Table: Average Rainfall- Isohyetal Method

Average Depth = 670000/13550

= 49.5 cm
 Hypsometric Method
Problem: The tables below gives area-elevation data for a drainage
basin and the average annual precipitation measured at six gages in
the basin. The basin has an area of 269km2, and a minimum
elevation of 311m, and a maximum elevation of 1600m.
(a) Compare the average annual precipitation for a basin using the
hypsometric method
(b) Compare the value computed in (a) with the arithmetic average.

Area-Elevation Data Precipitation Data

Elevation Range Fraction of Area within Gage Elevatio Average Annual
(m) Range n (m) Precipitation (mm)

311-400 0.028 1 442 1392

400-600 0.159 2 548 1246
600-800 0.341 3 736 1495
800-1000 0.271 4 770 1698
1000-1200 0.151 5 852 1717
1200-1400 0.042 6 1031 1752
1400-1600 0.008
Solution (1a)
Hypsometric Method
Precipitation Data
442 1392
548 1246
Linear Approximation
736 1495
p=0.8405z+936.55
770 1698
852 1717
1031 1752

Z (m) Z average ppt at z average (1) ah (2) (1)*(2)

311-400 355.5 1235.35 0.03 34.59
400-600 500 1356.80 0.16 215.73
600-800 700 1524.90 0.34 519.99
800-1000 900 1693.00 0.27 458.80
1000-1200 1100 1861.10 0.15 281.03
1200-1400 1300 2029.20 0.04 85.23
1400-1600 1500 2197.30 0.01 17.58
1612.95 mm
Solution (1b)

Arithmetic
Average Precipitation = 1550mm

precipitation data

2000
y = -0.0002x 2 + 1.1175x + 842.76
1500
Avg. Ann. ppt

1000

500

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
elevation
Double – Mass Analysis
Example
The following table gives the annual rainfall at station
A and the average, annual rainfall of 10 stations in the
vicinity for a period of 30 years. It is suspected that there has
been a change in the location of the rain gauge at A during
the period of this record. Determine the year when the
change has occurred and the corrected rain gauge readings
prior to this year.
Solution:
The cumulative totals of station A and the average of 10
stations are plotted in following figure. The change is found
in 1931 when the slope of 1.19 changes to 0.81.

Fig: Double Mass Curve

Correlation factor = 325/475 = 0.6842
Table: Corrected values of rainfall
Missing Rainfall Data Estimation:
Example:
Rainfall of different stations of following Fig. is given in
following Table with missing record at station A. Estimate
the rainfall at A from the record of surrounding stations.

Fig: Four quadrants surrounding precipitation station A

Solution:
The procedure for estimating the missing rainfall record at station A is
given in Table.

Table: Computations of Point Rainfall and at A from Data at Nearby

Gauges
P 
 PW 316.37
  3.78cm
W 83.63
A
 Example: Areal Precipitation
The figure below shows rain stations and their
annual rainfall in centimeters for a region. Find the average
depth of precipitation using: (a) the arithmetic mean
method, (b) the thiessen polygon method, and (c) the
isohyetal method

Fig:
Watershed Plan
With location of
rain gauge
Stations and
their observed
rainfalls
 Solution:

a) Arithmetic Mean method:

Three rain gauge stations outside the basin are
omitted from analysis.
 41 . 8  34 . 8  43 . 7  70 . 1  46 . 7  61 . 3  39 . 2 
 
1   37 . 3  49 . 8  57 . 7  43 . 5  41 . 6  46 . 7  
P 
22  49 . 1  61 . 8  53 . 6  52 . 7  49 . 0  71 . 9 
 
  61 . 7  54 . 0 
 
=1099.9/22 = 50.0 cm
b) Theissen Polygon Method

• Theissen Polygons of rain gauge stations of watershed

are drawn below
 Calculation for Average Rainfall Depth
S.No Rainfall ,P (cm) Area of Polygon, Area*Rainfall
A (2)*(3) (*10^3)
1 52 200 10.40
2 41.8 360 15.10
3 39.2 500 19.50
4 31.9 950 30.30
5 43.5 670 29.10
6 61.8 430 26.60
7 71.9 450 31.4
8 54 470 25.4
9 61.7 400 24.7
10 49.1 647 31.7
11 57.7 465 26.8
12 61.3 495 30.4
13 76.2 395 30.1
14 70.1 1090 76.5
15 61.8 70 4.3
16 34 795 27.7
17 43.7 980 42.8
S.No Rainfall ,P Area of Polygon, Area*Rainfall
(cm) A (2)*(3) (*10^3)
18 37.3 935 34.8
19 46.7 900 42.1
20 41.6 805 33.6
21 46.7 708 33
22 49.8 458 22.8
23 53.6 560 30
24 52.7 650 34.3
25 49 500 24.5
Total ∑A=14783 ∑AP =737.9

P=737900/14783=50 cm
c) Isohyetal Method

Fig: Isohyets are drawn and areas are

planimetered between two isohyets
Table: Average Rainfall- Isohyetal Method

Average Depth = 670000/13550

= 49.5 cm
PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT
 MEASUREMENT OF POINT
PRECIPITATION

Accurate measurement of precipitation is essential

Hydrologists are primarily concerned with the amount and
the rate of precipitation over an area (such as drainage
basin).
Two points of accuracy concerning precipitation
measurements are:
o How accurate are the point measurements?
o How accurately the point measurements can be converted to
the measurements over an area?
 Types of Precipitation Gauges

Non-recording storage gages:

o Simple straight-sided cylinders or devices with funnels and connecting

vessels are used. The volume collected over time is divided by the area

of the opening and recorded as the depth of precipitation.

Weighing-recording gages:

o The collected water is introduced to a vessel on a scale and the

accumulated weight is recorded

contd…

Tipping -bucket-recording gages:

o Water is introduced to one of a pair of vessels with a known small
capacity being balanced on a fulcrum. When one vessel gets filled, it tips
and empties that quantity and records the time of this event, and the
other vessel is brought into position for filling. This goes on alternately.

Optical Precipitation gages

o It is a promising new technology in which the rate of precipitation is
measured as proportional to the disturbance to a beam between an infra-
red light-emitting diode and a sensor. These gages can measure rain or
snow. Problems due to wind, splash, evaporation and mechanical failure
are averted. Direct recording to a data-storage device is possible with
accurate measurement and well suited for remote locations.
 Factors affecting Measurement Accuracy of
Conventional Gages:
Size of orifice
Orientation of orifice
Orifice height
Wind shielding
Distance to obstruction
Splashing
Evaporation and Wetting losses
Instrument errors
Observer errors
Errors due to differences in observation time
Errors due to occult precipitation
Errors due to low-intensity precipitation
contd…
Size of orifice
o Orifice diameter should not be less than 30mm.
o Above this diameter, the size of the opening has little effect on gage
catch of rain. However, small diameter gages are not suitable for snow
measurement.
o This type of small diameter gages should be calibrated volumetrically or
gravimetrically, since even small variations in manufacture may affect
the true size of the opening of a small diameter gage and hence the
catch.
o Water adhering to the walls of the gage (wetting loss) is high in plastic
gages.
o Also, evaporation has a greater relative effect on catch and so such
gages should be read and emptied often.
contd…

Orientation of orifice

o The gage orifice should be level, because the depth of precipitation

falling on a horizontal surface represents the hydrological input.

Exception

o In cases where very strong upslope winds are accompanying the rain, it

may be appropriate to orient the orifice parallel to the ground surface.

Height of orifice

o Precipitation gages that project above ground surface cause wind eddies

that tend to reduce the catch of the smaller raindrops and snowflakes.
contd…
Wind shielding: For unshielded gages, the catch deficiencies are about 10% for
rain and over 50% for snowflakes. Some corrections are applied to take care of
this. If shielding is provided approximately, then, the above effect is reduced.
o It is expensive to install ground-level gages or to convert the
existing gages projecting above ground to ground level-gages.
o Also, ground-level gages are useless when a snowpack accumulates.
o Conversion will also complicate the analysis of historical rainfall data.

To correct for this, daily measured precipitation values (after

applying for evaporation, wetting losses, and other factors), should
be multiplied by the corresponding factor, depending on whether
o The gage is catching rain or snow or both
o The gage is shielded or otherwise
Rain Gauge with orifice at ground level – protected by egg-crate
to eliminate in-splashing
contd…
These corrections are expressed as a function of
the wind speed at the orifice gage.

Rain catch in unshielded gage:

o Kru=100 exp (-4.605+0.062va0.58)

Rain catch in gage with Alter shield:

o Krs=100 exp (-4.606+0.041va0.69)

Mixed precipitation in unshielded gage:

o Kmu=1/(1.008-0.0834va)
contd…

Mixed precipitation in gage with alter shield:

o Kms=1/(1.010-0.0562 va )

Snow in unshielded gage:

o Ksu=100 exp (-4.606+0.157 va 1.28)

Snow in gage with Alter shield:

o Kss=100 exp (-4.606+0.036 va 1.75)

where va: wind speed at the gage orifice in m/s

Gauge Catch Deficiency for Rain, Mixed Precip’, snow
contd…

Orientation of Orifice:
o The gage orifice should be level, because the depth of precipitation
falling on a horizontal surface represents the hydrological input.

o Exception
• In cases where very strong upslope winds are accompanying the
rain, it may be appropriate to orient the orifice parallel to the
ground surface.

Height of Surface:
o Precipitation gages that project above ground surface cause wind eddies
that tend to reduce the catch of the smaller rain drops and snow flakes.
These eddies prevent the entry of the small rain drops and snow flakes
contd…

Wind Shielding

For unshielded gages, the catch deficiencies are about 10% for rain

and over 50% for snow flakes. Some corrections are applied to take

care of this. If shielding is provided appropriately then, the above

effect is reduced.

o It is expensive to install ground to a ground-level gauges.

o Also, ground-level gages are useless when a snowpack accumulates.

o Conversion will also complicate the analysis of historical rainfall data.

Wind effects of projecting rain gauges
contd…

Distance to obstructions

Gages be located in open space in a fairly uniform enclosure of trees,

shrubs, fences or other objects, so that the wind effects are reduced.

However, more of the surrounding objects should intrude into the conical
space defined by a 45o semi-vertical angle.

Individual, isolated objects can produce wind eddies that can reduce the
gage catch, especially if they are taller than the gage.

As a general rule, an isolated obstruction should not be closer than four

times its height above the gage.
Cone Centered at Rain Gauge
contd…
Splash:
o If the surface of water captured in a rain gage is too near the orifice, the
drops falling in may cause splashing. This is prevented by using deep
gages, with walls that are vertical or sloping outward below the orifice,
by conducting the collected water to a covered vessel or by emptying
frequently. For gages with the orifice at ground level, the drops falling
near the gages may splash in. This is to be prevented.
Evaporation:
o Evaporation from the collected water surface can be reduced by leading
it to a closed vessel. A non-volatile immiscible oil that would prevent
evaporation by floating on the collected water.
Wetting Losses:
o Wetting the walls of the gage may result in catch deficiency which
ranges from 0.03 mm for each rainfall event to 0.15 mm for each snowfall
event.
Problem (1). The tables below give area-elevation data for a
drainage basin and the average annual precipitation measured at six
gages in the basin. The basin has an area of 269km2, and a
minimum elevation of 311m, and a maximum elevation of 1600m.
(a) Compare the average annual precipitation for a basin using the
hypsometric method
(b) Compare the value computed in (a) with the arithmetic average.

Area-Elevation Data Precipitation Data

Gage Elevation Average Annual
Elevation Range (m) Fraction of Area within Range
(m) Precipitation (mm)
311-400 0.028
1 442 1392
400-600 0.159
2 548 1246
600-800 0.341
3 736 1495
800-1000 0.271
1000-1200 0.151 4 770 1698

1200-1400 0.042 5 852 1717

1400-1600 0.008 6 1031 1752

Solution (1a)
Hypsometric Method
Precipitation Data
442 1392
548 1246 Linear Approximation
736 1495
p=0.8405z+936.55
770 1698
852 1717
1031 1752

Z (m) Z average ppt at z average (1) ah (2) (1)*(2)

311-400 355.5 1235.35 0.03 34.59
400-600 500 1356.80 0.16 215.73
600-800 700 1524.90 0.34 519.99
800-1000 900 1693.00 0.27 458.80
1000-1200 1100 1861.10 0.15 281.03
1200-1400 1300 2029.20 0.04 85.23
1400-1600 1500 2197.30 0.01 17.58
1612.95 mm
Solution (1b)

Arithmetic
Average Precipitation = 1550mm

precipitation data

2000
y = -0.0002x 2 + 1.1175x + 842.76
1500
Avg. Ann. ppt

1000

500

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
elevation
 Annual Precipitation (mm) at Station
Year A B C D E
1970 1010 1161 780 949 1135
Problem 2. The table gives annual
1971 1005 978 1041 784 970
precipitation measured over a 17yr
1972 1067 1226 1027 1067 1158
period at five gages in a region.
1973 1051 880 825 1014 1022
Gage C was moved at the end of
1974 801 1146 933 923 821
1974. Carry out a double-mass-
1975 1411 1353 1584 930 1483
curve analysis to check for
1976 1222 1018 1215 981 1174
consistency in that gage’s record,
1977 1012 751 832 683 771
and make proper adjustments to
1978 1153 1059 918 824 1188
correct for any inconsistencies
1979 1140 1223 781 1056 967
discovered.
1980 829 1003 782 796 1088
1981 1165 1120 865 1121 963
1982 1170 989 956 1286 1287
1983 1264 1056 1102 1044 1190
1984 1200 1261 1058 991 1283
1985 942 811 710 875 873
1986 1166 969 1158 1202 1209
Annual Precipitation (mm)
ABDE avg ABDE Cum C Cum
Year A B C D E 0 0
1970 1010 1161 780 949 1135 1063.75 1063.75 780.00
1971 1005 978 1041 784 970 934.25 1998.00 1821.00
1972 1067 1226 1027 1067 1158 1129.50 3127.50 2848.00
1973 1051 880 825 1014 1022 991.75 4119.25 3673.00
1974 801 1146 933 923 821 922.75 5042.00 4606.00
1975 1411 1353 1584 930 1483 1294.25 6336.25 6190.00
1976 1222 1018 1215 981 1174 1098.75 7435.00 7405.00
1977 1012 751 832 683 771 804.25 8239.25 8237.00
1978 1153 1059 918 824 1188 1056.00 9295.25 9155.00
1979 1140 1223 781 1056 967 1096.50 10391.75 9936.00
1980 829 1003 782 796 1088 929.00 11320.75 10718.00
1981 1165 1120 865 1121 963 1092.25 12413.00 11583.00
1982 1170 989 956 1286 1287 1183.00 13596.00 12539.00
1983 1264 1056 1102 1044 1190 1138.50 14734.50 13641.00
1984 1200 1261 1058 991 1283 1183.75 15918.25 14699.00
1985 942 811 710 875 873 875.25 16793.50 15409.00
1986 1166 969 1158 1202 1209 1136.50 17930.00 16567.00
 C Corrected
2mass curve
780.00
18000.00 1041.00
16000.00 1027.00
14000.00
825.00
12000.00
10000.00 933.00
2mass curve
8000.00 1584.00
6000.00 1215.00
4000.00 1007.28
2000.00
1111.40
0.00
0.00 5000.00 10000.00 15000.00 20000.00 945.53
946.75
1047.23
1157.40
Actual Slope 1.039231 1334.16
Old Slope 0.858392 1280.89
859.58
1401.96
Correction factor 1.210672
 Problem 3. Compute and compare the seasonality index and
average time of occurrence of monthly precipitation at the
following stations.
Monthly Precipitation (mm)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

New
Orleans 97 102 135 117 112 112 170 135 127 71 84 104

Seattle 145 107 97 61 43 41 20 25 53 102 137 160

Shillong 14 24 53 126 277 464 358 332 332 175 33 6
Fairbanks 23 13 10 8 18 36 46 56 28 23 15 13

Mid-month sines (top row) and cosines (bottom row)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Sine 0.272 0.706 0.961 0.970 0.718 0.272 -0.247 -0.706 -0.966 -0.966 -0.706 -0.255

Cosine 0.962 0.709 0.276 -0.243 -0.696 -0.962 -0.969 -0.709 -0.260 0.260 0.709 0.967