Types of quantitative research

 Experimental
 Survey
 Descriptive
 Correlational
 Case study

Advantages

 Replicable and reliable

 Control over independent variable
 Useful for testing hypothesis
 Controlled environment
 Can establish cause and effect relationships
 Possible to match control and experimental groups on key variables
 Reflects natural science methodology

Disadvantages

 Artificial environment
 Cannot control variable outside the experimental environment
 Impossible to repeat the same conditions (field research )
 “Hawthorne effect “ / observer effect – behaviour changes as the result of the researcher's
presence or the knowledge of being the subject an experiment .
 Results generalizable to the real world
 Can cover time spans over a year
 Rea

Survey quantitative research that use contemporary survey methodology to answer questions
about a population

 Polls about public opinion public health surveys

 Market research surveys
 Government surveys
 Census

Advantages

 Can be used with population of varying sizes

Disadvantages

 The cost
 Time consuming
 Respondents willingness to participate
 Response accuracy

Qualitative research

Collect a subjective data such as information about people’s emotions , feelings and values .
 The researcher usually interacts directly with respondents (i.e face to face ) or by actually joining
in their everyday life
Best for

 Real world observations / dilemma

 Identify the cause / reason
 Identify why people bleach

Advantages

 Close to reality
 More personal
 In depth feelings and meanings
 Rich description

Disadvantages

 Subjective
 Unreliable
 Not measurable
 Not scientific
 Lacks credibility
 Misinterpretation

Data collection methods features

 Structure – plan of how and what info is to be gathered

 Objectivity – free from bias
 Qualifiability - analysis of data collected
 Obtrusiveness – extent to which participants are aware of purpose of research

Interview

 Face to face
 Non-numerival data collected
 Stricter or unstructured
 Structured – precisely formulated questions
 Unstructured – participants allowed to speak for as long as they want to question , use of
follow -up questions.

Advantages

 The validity of the data is enhanced by the following

 Researcher can detect lies or inconsistencies by observing facial reactions and body
language
 Misunderstanding can be clarified
 The researcher can understand the world from the point of view of the interviewee
 Researcher can gain info that he never thought about asking
 Allows flexibility
Disadvantages

 The validity is reduced by the following:

o Observer effect
o Deliberate lies on the part of the interviewee
 Time consuming
 Larger quantities of info can pose problem for analysis
 Some interviewees cab have limited knowledge of a particular topic
 Not cost effective
 Researcher's bias
 Difficulty in setting up interview session

Participant observation

 Researcher studies people in their natural environ. By joining their daily activities
 The researcher must remain as objective – overly involved - as possible
 Researcher can be overt – letting the group members know that they are being studied
 Or covert – choose to keep his identity secret
 Unlike interviews , trust must be gained from the start.
 First – hand information gathered

Advantages

 The researcher witnesses the group first hand

 Observer effect is minimised
 Questions can be asked to clarify events and actions of the group
 Not prone to bias

Disadvantages

 Validity may be compromised by the following :

 Covert observer may forget info
 Covert observer may provide his own interpretation
 Overt observation may produce the observer effect
 There is no standardised way to study human behaviour
 Observer's presence may cause bias emotions presence may cause bias
 Emotions prejudices may lead to flaws inferences
 It is costly
 It is time – consuming

Questionnaires

 Used when numerical data is required

 Results analysed statistically
 Provides factual info
 Provides info about attitudes – use sentiment scales eh. On a scale of 1 (strongly agree) to
10
 Can be administered in person /telephone / electronic media
Strengths of questionnaire

 Data collected from a large sampling

 Easily administered
 Easily and reliably scored
 Allows for anonymity( your not suppose to have the person write their name on the
questionnaire )

Weakness of questionnaire

 Limited scope of probing responses ( cant ask follow up questions)

 Inflexibility (can change it to suit a certain person)
 Responses can be misleading
 Limitations due to literacy of respondents
 Respondents cooperation is imperative

Questionnaire

 Respondents know answers (don’t ask anything they cant answer)

 Simple language ( no big words)
 No embarrassing questions (like have you every been raped)
 Only one piece of information at a time
 No ambiguous questions( start forward)
 Start with easier questions(then move to harder ones)
 Ask all respondents the questions in the same way( same questionnaire must be
administered to everyone)
 Education/personal experience of respondents

Types of questions on questionnaire

 Closed ended fixed choice is given between two or more response eh. Yes, no
 Scale questions (strongly agree, disagree)
 Open-ended questions
 Respondents express opinions without being influenced by research

Focus groups

A qualitative method of research where a group of 6 – 12 persons are brought together in a guided
discussion on the topic

Advantages

 Flexible
 Little to no cost
 Quick result
  Captures real life data
 Quicker than survey
 Participants feed off each other

Disadvantages

 Less control
 Group dynamics can prove troublesome
 Groups can be difficult to bring about
 Can be affected by bias
 One member may be dominant speakers , wont get enough info
 Might not get the full feedback of the population because not everyone might be able to
come.

LISTENING
Objectives:

 Differentiate between listening and hearing.

 Identify at least 3 devices that are used in the listening comprehension.
 Identify three questions that are always on the listening comprehension.

Devices Used

 Oxymoron
 Simile
 Metaphor
 Onomatopoeia
 Personification
 Irony (situational and verbal irony)

Questions Asked

 What is the main idea?

 What is the writer’s intention or purpose?

STEPS FOR LISTENING COMPREHENSION:

Step 1

Read the questions that you are given. Identify the key terms and expressions.
Step 2

Listen for the gist of the extract. Don’t write anything for the first reading. Just scribble.

Step 3

Look out for specific info and details to help you to understand the passage. Look out for devices and
key words and answer the questions.

 Transferred Epithet:- figure of speech in which an epithet or adjective grammatically

qualifies a noun other than the person or thing it is actually describing
 Different types of tones:- neutral, defensive, annoyed, passionate, sarcastic, disgusted,
admiration, sentimental, compassionate, condescending, sad (THE TONE IS CONNECTED TO
THE PURPOSE).

Notes before this

Purposes of language

Reflective, communicative - , phatic - able to exchange pleasances /small talk ( hey), expressive and
ritualistic- allows us to participate in sermons eg. Weddings and church

Difference between language and a language

Language – is a system of human communication has to do with mofology, phonology, syntax, etc.

A language – is one recognizable entity used by one or more communities of speakers eh. Spanish,
Latin ,English etc.

FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE.

Social factors:-

 how well do you want to fit in

 Creole is only used in certain context like when you’re with fiends/ family, angry, surprised.
There has been a shift in how creole is perceived. Creole is being used on radio and
television but first time it was all in standard English. It was formerly used only in theatre
and music.
 Politicians have started using creole. Creole is used in campaigns.
 Used in folklore to give jokes.

Environmental factors:-

 In your homes your language is more relaxed

 At church you use the frozen formal ceremonial register.
 At school you tend to use formal register

Gender factors:-

 The name of the male should go first.

 Pronouns ( you normally say lady doctor or lady lawyer etc.)
 Men call women names such as, darling, sweetheart.
 Men are praised for being a manwhore while women are discriminated.
Education factors:-

 Resources available. (Some students don’t have textbooks)

 Level of literacy

Economic factors:-

 Can you afford to educate yourself

 Travelling can help you to better learn the language

Geographic location factors:-

Assimilate the language by going to a different place