Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
By
Will Hawkins (Chu)
I hereby declare that, except where specifically indicated, the work submitted herein is my
own original work.
Signed: Date:
Will Hawkins
Will Hawkins, Churchill College 1
Prestressed Ceramics
Technical Abstract
During this project a number of prestressed ceramic structures were designed,
constructed and tested in order to investigate the effectiveness of prestressing in
improving the structural performance of common brittle materials. It was hoped that an
increase in strength and ductility could be achieved, overcoming the naturally low tensile
strength and low deformation of failure associated with ceramics.
An portable beam testing rig was designed and built, enabling testing to be carried out
quickly and with a high level of consistency. A pre-tensioned 'test' beam was constructed
using terracotta tiles, with the primary aim of assessing the feasibility of working with
and stressing aramid fibres for use as prestressing tendons. After successful fabrication,
test results showed good agreement with theoretical predictions and thus also confirmed
the accuracy of the completed testing rig.
Prestressing tendons of aramid fibre were used throughout the project, giving insight into
the behaviour of a non-typical tendon material and allowing the development of a novel
post-tensioning system. Multiple loops of aramid yarn were passed through structures
and secured at each end, before being extended by the separation of loading plates via a
pair of large screws. Hence no loading jack was required to apply the prestress. After
refinement of the initial concept, this system proved to be highly effective and paved the
way for the construction of a number of unique prestressed structures.
After the successful construction and promising testing of a prototype, five prestressed
glass beams were produced incorporating a similar post-tensioning system. Variations in
tendon eccentricity, bond and prestressing force were investigated. The prestressing
forces were estimated from the crack reopening moments and section geometry, and
were consistently found to be within expected values. A considerable degree of ductility
was achieved by bonding the tendon to the glass. Theoretical cracked elastic analyses
were shown to accurately predict beam behaviour, subject to the limitations of the model.
The use of glass allowed excellent observation of cracking, and enabled an informed
assessment of cracked behaviour and failure modes.
Finally a prestressed ceramic truss structure was designed and built, incorporating the
same post-tensioning system and a number of fabrication techniques developed earlier in
the project. Weighing only 6.5 kg, the triangulated bridge was able to support a maximum
central point load of 3.5 tonnes over a span of 880 mm, and observation of the behaviour
suggested ways in which the design could potentially be improved upon. The bilinear
behaviour predicted by theory was observed in the measured results.
Some discrepancies were noted between the Young's Modulus values found from
preliminary tests and those estimated from measured uncracked stiffness gradients of
the structures. In some cases these could be partially explained by the simplifying
assumptions of the theoretical models, but they did also suggest some inaccuracies were
present in the results or the values assumed.
Since there was insufficient time to fully develop the concepts explored in this project, a
number of recommendations for continued investigations were made.
Will Hawkins, Churchill College 3
Prestressed Ceramics
Contents
Technical Abstract ............................................................................................................................................. 1
Nomenclature...................................................................................................................................................... 4
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 5
6. Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................. 47
References ......................................................................................................................................................... 50
Nomenclature
A Total effective area L2 Length of truss compression strut
Ac Area of ceramic Leff Effective length for an Euler column
At Area of tendon P Assumed prestressing force
At, eff Effective area of tendon Pi Initial prestressing force
b Total ceramic width T1 Tension in truss tension strut
d Depth to tendon T2 Compression in truss compression strut
Ec Ceramic Young's Modulus x Neutral axis depth
Et Tendon Young's Modulus Δεt Change in tendon strain
Fc Force in ceramic εc,max Maximum ceramic strain
F Total force applied to beam δ Deflection
h Total section depth θ Rotation angle between segments
I Transformed second moment of area σ Extreme fibre stress
K Tendon stiffness σb Maximum Bending Stress
l Length from beam support to load point κ Curvature
L Tendon gauge length Truss strut angle
L1 Length of truss tension strut Truss frame inclination
1. Introduction
Prestressing is a technique commonly used to improve the structural performance of
materials with a low tensile strength. By applying compressive prestress the strength
characteristics of the material are effectively shifted, and tensile strains caused by the
applied loading can be accommodated while the bulk material remains in compression.
Furthermore, by varying the distribution of prestress within a structure its performance
can be tailored to match a specific loading requirement. Prestressing therefore provides a
range of opportunities for creating highly efficient structures using common building
materials. Prestressed concrete is the most common example of this.
Prestressing tendons must be stressed very highly in order to minimise losses due to
elastic shortening and creep. This presents a number of challenges concerning both the
application of prestress and its effective transfer to the bulk material. There are a variety
of ways of achieving this, which can be grouped into two categories; pre-tensioning,
where the bulk of the structure is formed around already stressed tendons, and post-
tensioning, where the tendons are stressed and anchored after the structure is fully
formed.
1.1 Motivation
Ceramics are non-metallic, inorganic solids covering a broad range of engineering
materials, from bricks and tiles commonly used in construction to high performance
technical ceramics such as tungsten carbide, one of the hardest and stiffest materials used
in industry. They exhibit good environmental and thermal resistance, and perform well
across a range of demanding engineering applications.
All ceramics behave in a brittle manner due to their low fracture toughness. Typically, a
ceramic’s compressive strength is ten times larger than its strength in tension. Governed
by material flaws, tensile failure is sudden, difficult to predict and usually catastrophic. By
applying large compressive forces through prestressing, these undesirable characteristics
can be overcome and a variety of new structural applications can be potentially unlocked.
One example of such an application is in gas turbine engines where the temperature of
combustion, and hence the efficiency, is limited by the thermomechanical properties of
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Prestressed Ceramics
the turbine blade material. The melting temperature, corrosion resistance, stiffness and
density of technical ceramics such as silicon nitride compare favorably with the nickel
superalloys currently widely used, however safety concerns over catastrophic brittle
failures exist. These could be prevented through prestressing of the blades, eliminating
tensile stresses.
The components manufactured in this project use more commonly available ceramics.
New structural and architectural uses for these materials could be made possible through
prestressing, by increasing strength and enabling safe ductile failure modes. Safe, simple
and low cost prestressing methods are required if a practically viable technology is to be
developed.
1.2 Aims
To investigate the effectiveness of prestress in improving the structural behaviour
of common brittle materials.
To assess the validity of theories related to prestressed structures through
experimentation and analysis.
To explore the possibilities of prestressed ceramic structures in terms of design,
fabrication and performance.
Ceramic T-beams have also been constructed, using steel studding as the tension element
(Grant, 2012). Shear transfer between the web and flange required complex fabrication
methods, and problems were encountered with local crushing at loading plates and
failure of the studding (which has a much lower yield strength than cable). Again, a large
stressing rig was required to construct the beams.
Will Hawkins, Churchill College 7
Prestressed Ceramics
2. Preliminary Work
2.1 Materials
Using materials commonly found in construction, rather than high specification technical
ceramics, presented a number of advantages:
A smaller and hence more easily achievable prestressing force was required to
alter the behaviour of weaker materials.
Potentially more widespread applications could be demonstrated by using
common materials.
Materials could be quickly and inexpensively obtained, and shaped using standard
equipment.
Identical tests were carried out on samples of each material in order to determine key
properties for use in beams, with results shown in Table 2.1.
The Young's Modulus was found from a three-point bending test. Knowing the second
moment of area I and the beam length L, the Young's Modulus was calculated from the
force-deflection gradient using the following formula:
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Prestressed Ceramics
A value of the bending strength was also determined from four-point bending tests, by
assuming a linear stress distribution in order to calculate the extreme fibre stress at
failure. For each of the tiles, the glossy surface was placed on the tensile side, as shown
for the terracotta tile in Figure 2.1. Since tensile failure of ceramic materials is brittle and
governed by fracture mechanics, it is
determined by the maximum flaw size and
can hence be expected to vary between
samples. To improve reliability and assess
variability, three identical samples of each
material were tested.
Figure 2.1 - Terracotta Tile in Preliminary Testing
A correlation between bending strength and Young's Modulus was apparent in the
results. The terracotta tiles were found to be considerably less stiff and strong than the
porcelain tiles, and both types showed some variation between strength tests. An
approximate standard deviation was calculated to give some indication of variability. The
coefficients of variation for the terracotta and porcelain tiles were 3.8% and 3.7%
respectively. The consistency of these results suggests that the microstructure and
fracture processes were similar.
Typically, soda-lime glass has a Young's modulus of 68-72 GPa (Ashby, 2011) and
therefore the value of 59.50 GPa obtained is lower than expected. A greater variation in
bending strength was observed between samples for the glass than the tiles, with an
approximate coefficient of variation of 11.8% calculated. The smooth surface, sharp edges
and amorphous molecular structure of the glass is likely to make its strength highly
sensitive to flaw size, and hence more variable.
The material's high strength derives from its molecular alignment inter-chain bonding.
Creep and relaxation is low for Kevlar 49 compared to other synthetic fibres, but can be
significant at high stresses as shown in Figure 2.3 (Ericksen, 1976). Creep-rupture is also
observed, whereby sudden tensile failure can occur after a long period of time under
sustained load. This is shown in Figure 2.4 (Du Pont, 1991), and is particularly relevant
for prestressing applications.
Figure 2.3 - Variation of Creep Strain Rate with Stress for Figure 2.4 - Creep-Rupture Charactaristics of
Aramid (Ericksen, 1976) Kevlar (Du Pont, 1991)
Aramid fibres also undergo a loss of strength with exposure to UV radiation, and
therefore those used throughout this project were stored in a dark environment
whenever possible. Steps were also taken to minimise handling of the fibres to prevent
damage.
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Prestressed Ceramics
Figure 2.6 shows the bending moments and shear forces arising from this particular
loading arrangement (assuming small displacements). A central region of uniform
maximum moment and zero shear was
created, enabling a simple analysis of
beam behaviour. The maximum design
load F was 5 kN. Allowing for 25 mm
overhang at each end, the length l could
vary from 200 mm to 450 mm depending
on the position of the supports, and hence
the maximum applied moment was in the
range of 500 Nm to 1,125 Nm. Figure 2.6 - Bending and Shear in Four-point Bending
The loading system was powered by a variable speed electric motor, connected to a
gearbox. Torque characteristics were determined by winching known weights. Keeping
the rate of displacement low was a key consideration, since stiffer beams could then be
tested in a controlled manner. An additional 3.7:1 reduction in rotation was achieved
using components from a bicycle drive chain. A Dyneema® rope, proof tested to 10kN,
was wrapped around the winch shaft and applied the load to the beam via the load cell
and loading bar. A synthetic rope was chosen due to its high strength and flexibility,
which allowed simple fastening with knots and the winch shaft diameter to be minimised,
further reducing the rate of displacement.
Three wire transducers allowed the curvature of the central region to be measured.
These were attached directly to the beam at each of the loading points and at the centre.
Assuming a constant curvature a circular arc is formed. The curvature κ is hence
calculated from the central deflection δ and the length of the maximum moment region
(300 mm) as follows:
The transducer bodies were attached to the top of the frame, which remained unloaded
during testing and so provided a fixed datum from which to precisely measure distance.
The four data signals were recorded at one second intervals by a data logger, and
calibrated using Scorpio® software. This enabled moment curvature plots to be produced.
The aramid yarn was found to be easy to work with, and could be successfully secured
using a knot. The load appeared to be well distributed between each loop and the average
tensile force of 185.2 kN per yarn was achieved (a stress of 1040 MPa).
Ac 720 mm2
2.3.2 Theoretical Predictions
At 9.61 mm2
Using formula derived in Appendix A, predictions of cracked and b 40 mm
uncracked beam behaviour were made. The assumed section and d 10 mm
h 20 mm
material properties are shown in Table 2.1. In this case the I 26640 mm4
adhesive and tendon layer was not included in calculating section Ec 18.54 GPa
Et 112 GPa
properties. A first cracking moment of 80.5 Nm was predicted. The σb 17.74 MPa
crack re-opening moment, which depends on prestress only, was Pi 10000 N
Table 2.1 - Beam 1
predicted to be 33.3 Nm. Assumed
Parameters
2.3.3 Results & Discussion
Figure 2.9 shows the measured results along with the theoretical predictions. The initial
gradient closely matched the predicted results, suggesting that the measured tile Young's
Modulus was accurate. Crack reopening was observed at approximately 26 Nm,
corresponding to a prestress of 7.8 kN. A revised cracked prediction was therefore made,
and can be seen to more accurately fit the data. Five weeks had passed between the
beam's construction and its testing, during which some degree of relaxation of the tendon
is likely to have taken place.
First cracking occurred at 49 Nm, corresponding to a tensile strength in the ceramic of 8.6
MPa. This is much lower than the expected value of 17.7 MPa, due to the size dependent
strength of brittle materials. This phenomenon is described in Section 4.6 of this report.
Most importantly, the results confirmed that the aramid fibres had worked effectively as
a prestressing tendon material. The agreement between the theoretical predictions and
observed behaviour also provided further evidence of the testing rig's accuracy.
tension zones within a larger body of lightweight aggregate concrete, which contributes
little strength but stabilises the reinforcement (Hertz, 2009). The pearl-chain
reinforcement therefore forms a truss or mesh, which is prestressed and inspected before
being cast into the final structure.
Complex and highly optimised mesh
shapes could potentially be achieved
by shaping the individual pre-cast
elements accordingly. An example of a
beam, with compressive arch and
Figure 3.1 - Potential Design of a Deep Beam Using
tensile tie, is shown in Figure 3.1. Pearl-chain Reinforcement (Hertz, 2009)
Ceramics are an ideal material with which to test this concept, having similar properties
to high-strength concrete. The pearl-chain concept was taken forward as inspiration for
Beam 2, with the aim of investigating the behaviour unbonded segmental prestressed
beams as well as developing the post-tensioning system.
A significant practical challenge involved creating a segment with a tendon duct running
through its centre. By modifying a standard tile cutter so that the grinder did not cut
through the entire thickness of the tile, thin grooves could be cut, multiples of which
could be built up into a channel as shown in Figure 3.2. The stronger porcelain tiles
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Prestressed Ceramics
proved to be better able to resist damage during this process. By gluing two identical
channeled tiles together using Araldite®, a segment with a square duct was created. A
5mm rubber shrink-wrap tube was positioned within the duct in order to provide a non-
abrasive surface against which the tendon could slide. During setting of the adhesive, this
was held open using a length of M5 studding.
Figure 3.3 - Dead (Left) and Live (Right) Ends of Initial Version of Post-tensioning System
A new post-tensioning system was developed, whereby a looped tendon was held in place
at either end by pins and stressed by increasing the separation distance between plates at
the live end, as shown in Figure 3.3. This was achieved by tightening a pair of M12 bolts,
which passed through threaded holes in the outer plate and rested in circular
indentations on the inner plate to ensure stability under load. Each plate contained a
central hole through which the tendon passed. The pins incorporated a deep groove
around their centre, tear-drop shaped in section, aiming to minimise pinching of the
tendon in this region. Square pins were chosen to reduce bearing stresses against the
steel end plates.
The components were designed to withstand a 10 kN prestressing force, and were made
as compact as possible to minimise steel weight and bulk. The live end plates were
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Prestressed Ceramics
The tendon consisted of a single length of aramid yarn, looped 40 times to create a total
area of 7.12 mm2. To create the tendon each pin was clamped in place at the required
separation, and the yarn looped by hand. An even tension was ensured to avoid any slack.
The reel of yarn was held horizontally and allowed to rotate during this process, as
shown in Figure 3.4, since this was found to minimise accumulated twist. After the
required number of loops, the yarn was trimmed and tied securely. The completed
tendon was then threaded through each segment and the end assemblies using a piece of
wire, before being fixed in place by the insertion of the pins. The entire beam was
stiffened and held together by the application of prestress.
The desired 10 kN of prestress corresponded to an average force of 250 N per yarn, well
within the individual breaking limit. The unloaded length of the tendon was 850 mm. The
extension required to achieve this force was therefore calculated as follows:
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Prestressed Ceramics
A further issue concerned the straightness of the beam. Small variations between the
length of each tile piece resulted in some rotation at each tile interface, which the rubber
pieces were ineffective at eliminating.
The issue was eventually resolved by grinding the ends of each segment flat, using the
edge of a tile cutter blade. It was found that the tile was strong enough to avoid local
crushing at segment interfaces under full prestress without the need for rubber or
plaster. The segment interfaces also achieved maximum stiffness in this way.
A simple test was performed by dragging the tendon through the beam and measuring
the frictional resistance with a spring force gauge. The resistance was measured to be
only 5 N/m, insignificant compared with the desired 10 kN prestressing force. The
frictional force per unit length was assumed not to vary with the tendon force since the
tendon duct was straight, and therefore the effects of shaft friction were concluded to be
insignificant.
As a potential way of eliminating slackness, the idea of forming the tendon into a rope
was explored. The yarn has a built-in direction of twist, and a 'string' can be formed by
twisting yarns together in the opposite direction.
These 'strings' can then be twisted together into a
rope. Two twisted ropes were formed, each made up
of 18 yarns, using the twisting pattern shown in Figure
3.9. These were identical apart from the number of
twists per unit length. Twisting was achieved using a
hand drill and a hooked piece of wire to hold the yarn.
Figure 3.10 shows the completed ropes.
Figure 3.11 - Use of a Round End Pin, Polishing of Steel Surfaces and Counter-sinking of Holes to Avoid
Premature Tendon Failure
The number of yarns were also increased to 44 (tendon area 7.832 mm2) in order to
further reduce the chance of tendon failure. A beam incorporating the modifications
described was finally constructed, prestressed successfully to 10 kN and tested.
The central region contained a single segment interface at its centre. This was modelled
as a single crack over the entire depth of the section.
Beyond this point behaviour is no longer linear. At the segment interface, the beam
behaves as cracked. The neutral axis position rises with increasing moment, and the local
curvature can be calculated as in Appendix A (cracked). Predicting the average curvature
(measured in the test) would involve an assumption of the length of the region of
influence of the central crack. This problem concerns local stress fields and was not
included in this analysis.
The compressive reaction force in the ceramic is equal to the prestressing force P by
equilibrium. The moment is this force multiplied by the lever arm d, initially assumed to
be half the section depth:
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Prestressed Ceramics
As the angle θ increases, the total length of the prestressing tendon increases by ΔL with a
corresponding increase in tendon strain and force:
The beam therefore retains some degree of stiffness. A relationship between the moment
M and angle θ is hence found for the fully open case:
Uncracked
As predicted, the initial behaviour is uncracked linear-elastic. The predicted bending
stiffness of 1245.0 Nm2 was an overestimate. If it is assumed that I was correct, this
suggests that the value of Young's Modulus used was too large. This may have been due to
experimental errors made during materials testing. It is also possible that the Young's
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Prestressed Ceramics
Modulus is not uniform throughout the tile as was assumed. The dotted line shows a
revised prediction based on a Young's Modulus of 30 GPa, which can be seen to more
accurately fit the data.
First Cracking
As soon as the segment interface begins to open, a reduction in the effective section
causes a drop in stiffness. First cracking was observed at around 25 Nm (earlier than the
predicted value of 33 Nm). Since the first cracking moment depends only on the geometry
and the prestressing force, a reliable revised estimate of prestress was made. Assuming
the tendon remains at centroidal level, a first cracking moment of 25 Nm corresponds to a
prestressing force of 7.57 kN. A number of reasons why the prestressing force was lower
than the 10 kN intended were considered:
The required tendon elongation calculated did not account for the picking up of
slack as was observed in tendon testing (Figure 3.8). Increasing the elongation by
3mm to account for slack would have resulted in a additional 3.1 kN of force.
The tendon extension could not be measured to an accuracy greater than 1 mm, so
some degree of variability is expected in prestressing force.
Elastic shortening of the beam may have resulted in a reduction in tendon length. A
simple calculation can estimate this:
The assumption that the lever arm d (as defined in Figure 3.13) was half the section
depth at 9.5 mm was called into question. It is likely that the actual lever arm was less
than this value. Despite fitting fairly tightly within the duct, the tendon centroid is likely
to have moved upwards as a result of the curvature, by perhaps 1-1.5 mm. Also, the
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Prestressed Ceramics
assumption that the compressive force in the ceramic acts at the very top of the section is
an idealisation. As can be seen in Figure 3.15, it was observed that the depth of the
compression zone did not reduce below approximately 3 mm. The dotted line shows a
revised estimate with a lever arm of 7 mm, which better fits the experimental data.
Figure 3.15 - Central Segment Interface Immediately Before and After Failure
Annealed soda-lime glass was chosen as the primary construction material. Being
transparent, glass allows excellent observation of cracking patterns and failure modes,
and since large pieces are available joints along the beam are unnecessary.
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Prestressed Ceramics
The basic design is shown in Figures 4.1 and 4.2, and featured
two 1000 x 40 x 6 mm lengths of glass fixed together at four
points by 6 mm thick flat aluminium pieces secured using
Araldite® adhesives. These were located at each end and at the
loading points. The aluminium pieces created a gap between
each piece of glass and dictated the height of the tendon along
the beam. The tendon eccentricity could hence be optimised to Figure 4.1 - Beam 3 Section
Geometry
match the bending moment diagram.
A prototype, Beam 3.0, was constructed (of different dimensions to those specified in
Figures 4.1 and 4.2) in order to test the concept and refine the construction techniques.
This beam is shown in Figure 4.3. It was also tested in order to check the accuracy of the
rig for stiff beams, and to evaluate the success of the tendon bonding. Due to a failure of
the wire transducer attachment brackets, only the total central deflection was recorded.
The brackets were modified for future tests. The results (shown in Figure 4.4) were
promising, showing clearly distinct uncracked and cracked behaviour. The bond was
successful in allowing the beam to continue to function after cracking had occurred.
After inserting and pinning the tendon, a judgment was required on the point from which
to measure extension, since some slack was required to insert the pin. A variability of
around 1 mm was inherent in this process. As a result, a more accurate estimation of the
slack was not deemed to be necessary.
Once test data was obtained, a revised value of prestress could be found based on the
observed crack re-opening moment. From the initial uncracked gradient, a revised value
of the Young's Modulus of the glass could also be calculated. A second theoretical
prediction of moment-curvature behaviour was therefore made based on these revised
values. The revised prestressing force was also used to estimate the tensile strength of
the glass, based on first cracking. Both sets of predictions are included in Figures 4.8, 4.9,
4.11, 4.13 and 4.15, with revised predictions shown as dotted lines. A summary of key
numerical results and estimated parameters is shown in Table 4.2.
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Prestressed Ceramics
Supports were placed 20 mm from the ends of the glass pieces, hence the distance l was
330 mm (referring to Figure 2.6). The weight of the load cell and loading bar was taken
into account in calculating the applied moment for all tests.
A detachable Perspex® safety screen was cut and fitted for the testing of glass beams.
Unlike the unbonded Beam 3.1, the load was maintained beyond first cracking. The
adhesive bond was effective in maintaining the position of the tendon and preventing
significant spalling.
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Prestressed Ceramics
Failure occurred suddenly at 273 Nm when the glass in compression appeared to burst
outwards. This did not occur at the peak moment, suggesting that the beam weakened
during loading and unloading.
Figure 4.11 shows the experimental and theoretical results. After first cracking, a distinct
plateau of maximum moment was observed. Both reload curves were observed to return
to this plateau before additional cracking took place, with some loss of material as shown
in Figure 4.12. A significant increase in the amount of cracks present during the second
unload-reload cycle was observed to cause a reduction in the cracked stiffness (to near
theoretical values). This suggests that uncracked regions were contributing to the
stiffness during the first unload-reload cycle.
The Young's Modulus of the glass was increased to 83 Gpa in order to match the
experimental data. Crack reopening at 64 Nm suggested that the prestressing force was
9.90 kN. Compressive failure in the glass was again sudden, resulting in total material loss
in the central region.
Once cracking had occurred (at the predicted moment of 233 Nm), the stiffness of the
beam was permanently reduced. By equilibrium, the neutral axis depth was predicted to
remain constant. After increasing the assumed Young's Modulus of the glass to 78 GPa,
cracked and uncracked predictions matched the data well. The positive offset in
curvature after cracking can be again attributed to cracks not fully closing on unloading.
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Prestressed Ceramics
Despite having zero prestress, the beam largely remained able to sustain load after
cracking. This suggests that it was the adhesive which held the cracked beam together
rather than the prestress itself. Since the tendon was at the very bottom of the beam, the
bond was able to 'hold up' cracked sections. Figure 4.14 shows Beam 3.4 after the first
instance of cracking.
The reduced prestress resulted in a lower crack reopening moment in both predicted and
observed results when compared to the similar Beam 3.2 (with 10 kN prestress). The
same negative curvature at zero load after cracking was again present in the results.
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First cracking occurred at 283 Nm and resulted in the sudden formation of a crack
pattern over the entire central region. The beam immediately prior to failure is shown in
Figure 4.16. The cracked stiffness was therefore similar between unload-reload cycles,
since only a small amount of additional cracking occurred. The estimated prestress was
4.66 kN and the Young's Modulus was revised to 110 GPa.
Table 4.2 summarises the key numerical results from testing, and includes the
parameters which were estimated using the measured data. The peak/failure moment
was taken as the maximum moment sustained by the beam. For Beams 3.4 and 3.5, this
was larger than the first cracking moment
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4.6 Discussion
The true stiffness of the beams would have been larger than predicted due to the
presence of a number of components which were not taken into account in the analysis.
These included:
Further analysis would be required to quantify the effects of each of these components in
increasing the stiffness of the beam.
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Prestressed Ceramics
The effects of elastic shortening were not taken into account, but can be quantified as in
Section 3.4.1. Assuming the glass has a Young's Modulus of 70 GPa in this case, the elastic
shortening due to a 10 kN force is 0.3 mm, corresponding to a drop in prestressing force
of 0.25 kN. This partially explains why the estimated prestressing forces were
consistently lower than design values. Additionally, some relaxation of the tendon would
also have occurred, since at least 24 hours was required between stressing and testing to
allow the Araldite® to set (for bonded beams).
Some consistency in crack spacing was observed in the central region, as Figure 4.19
shows. Tensile stresses which are relieved at a crack build up again away from the crack
at a rate which depends on the bond shear stress. Another crack then forms when
stresses are sufficient. This creates a minimum crack spacing.
When the central region was fully cracked, the theoretical prediction of behaviour was
reflected well in the measured results, although the predicted gradient was always
slightly lower than that measured. This can be explained by the model's assumption that
the ceramic has zero tensile strength. Whilst this is true in the cracked region, it is likely
that some tensile forces are present in the upper uncracked region of the beam (when the
neutral axis has passed above the cracks). There is hence a contribution to stiffness which
the model does not account for.
This is significantly lower than the estimated average compressive stress in the
uncracked region, which would be approximately half the maximum value (89 MPa).
Therefore it is entirely possible that minor axis buckling took place. Additional lateral
support would have been provided by the cracked material beneath, explaining the
higher stress achieved.
Slots were cut to allow the inclusion shrink-wrap duct, similar to the one featured in the
segments of Beam 2, to run the length of each of the horizontal tension struts. Both the
tension and compression struts are 30 mm deep, which was the smallest size considered
to be buildable. The section is therefore identical to that shown in Figure 3.12 (without
the central hole in the case of the compressive struts).
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Prestressed Ceramics
The two layers of tiles were fixed together using Araldite®. During setting, these were
clamped to a wooden jig to ensure that the two frames were accurately matched and that
each was precisely flat. This was crucial since lateral imperfections would be expected to
reduce the buckling capacity of the compression struts. Again, 5 mm studding was
inserted to hold open the tendon duct, which was removed by screwing after setting.
As shown in Figure 5.3, inclined slots 3 mm deep were machined into the loading plates
into which the ceramic frames could fit. These provided a bearing surface to laterally
restrain the frames.
Figure 5.4 shows the assembled live end connections. New smaller outer bearing plates
were constructed (which do not make contact with the ground) in order to further
minimise steel use.
Figure 5.5 - Top Loading Plate Figure 5.6 - Attached Bearing Pad and Tendon Duct
It was vital to ensure that the load was applied precisely in-line with the plane of each
frame to avoid reducing the buckling capacity of the compression struts through load
eccentricities. An inclined bearing surface was hence created using a CNC process. The
loading plate was fixed to the tile frames using a thick layer of Araldite® in order to
eliminate stress concentrations.
Figure 5.6 shows one of the 40 mm long steel bearing pads which were fixed to either end
the frames. These were machined to the correct inclination to create a horizontal bearing
surface, and also to eliminate stress concentrations which may have lead to local crushing
of the tiles.
The test was displacement controlled, at a rate of approximately 0.8 mm per minute. Load
and displacement were recorded at one second intervals by a data logger. The structure
was loaded until failure.
5.4.1 Deflection
Appendix B shows how the top deflection can be related to the applied load, assuming the
truss to be pinned and the supports free to slide outward. In the uncracked state, both the
tension and compression members were assumed to have the stiffness of the ceramic
section. Assuming the value of Young's Modulus from preliminary testing, this gives:
It was assumed that the tension members would crack when the prestress had been
overcome and the tensile strength reached. An estimate of the load at which this occurs
can be made, although this depends heavily on the tensile strength of the ceramic. Taking
this to be the bending strength of 76.27 MPa and assuming full prestress we have:
This corresponds to a total load Q of 116.7 kN, but is likely to be an overestimate since
the true tensile strength will be considerably less than the bending strength. If zero
tensile strength is assumed, the predicted cracking load is reduced to 22.7 kN.
After cracking, the stiffness of the tension members reduces to that of the tendon:
Will Hawkins, Churchill College 45
Prestressed Ceramics
Hence bi-linear behaviour was predicted, whereby the stiffness of the structure was
expected to reduce on cracking of the tension member.
5.4.2 Failure
One possible mechanism of failure is breaking of a tendon. Assuming 44 tendons with a
strength of 444.6 N each, the total tendon strength is 19.6 kN and the expected failure
load would be 44.4 kN. It is likely that individual tendons would fail before this load is
reached, as had been observed previously.
This corresponds to a load of 85.8 kN. Eccentricities in load, material heterogeneities and
geometric imperfections can be expected to reduce the true buckling load.
Some non-linearity was observed up to around 5 kN, likely due to settling of the supports.
The uncracked gradient was lower than that predicted. This may indicate that the
assumed Young's Modulus of 72.83 GPa was an overestimate, as was also suggested by
earlier results from Beam 2.
Some bending stresses would have arisen at this joint as the structure deformed, and
would have been greatly amplified by stress concentrations at the sharp inner corners.
The section was therefore deemed to be cracked prior to full unloading of the prestress in
the tension members, and the tensile capacity of the ceramic was hence never mobilised.
This hypothesis is supported by the fact that no drop in load was observed upon cracking,
as would have been expected if tensile stresses had been relieved.
After the cracks had opened, a reduction in stiffness was observed. The measured cracked
gradient was larger than predicted, possibly due to the rotational stiffness of the tiles at
the top connection.
At a load of 25.0 kN, a single yarn of one tendon failed at the live end. This can be seen in
Figure 5.9. A small drop in load is visible in the results at this point due to the reduction
in stiffness. The total force in the tendon at this point was calculated to be 11.0 kN. Since
all other yarns remained intact throughout the test, the failure is likely to have been
caused by localised damage or pinching.
Will Hawkins, Churchill College 47
Prestressed Ceramics
Ultimate failure occurred at 33.9 kN, and was sudden. Figure 5.10 shows one of the
compression struts suddenly breaking at both ends. The compression was 17.3 kN in the
strut at failure. This is significantly lower than the predicted Euler buckling load, and it is
clear that minor axis buckling has not taken place. The rotation of the piece suggests that
bending moments were present at each end. It is possible that stress concentrations (in
the same location as caused first
cracking) lead to local failure. Each
of the compression members failed
in the same locations, likely due to
progressive collapse. The end
connections and bearing pads were
successful in laterally restraining
the frames.
Figure 5.10 - Truss Immediately After Failure
Additional bending moments may have arisen at the supports due to an eccentricity in
support load. The apex of the roller support was beneath the mid-point of the bearing
pad, but the centerlines of the two struts met at the end of the ceramic. There is therefore
a 20 mm offset which would have resulted in a hogging moment, appearing to match the
failure mode.
6. Conclusions
6.1 Main Findings
Investigations throughout this project have confirmed that prestressing is effective in
improving the strength of ceramic components, and that its effects can be theoretically
modelled with a good degree of accuracy by making reasonable simplifying assumptions
with reliable material data.
The use of aramid fibres and the post-tensioning system developed was instrumental in
allowing a wide range of investigations to be conducted. This was largely because the
tendon was highly flexible and could be incorporated into structures without limitations
on size, shape or construction. The system requires no specialist tools to use and could be
a feasible solution for small-scale prestressing applications. The prestressing force could
be applied with some accuracy from measurement of the tendon extension, but this could
be improved by the incorporation of a load cell (strain gauges) into the loading plates.
Will Hawkins, Churchill College 48
Prestressed Ceramics
Results from the glass beams showed that the effects of prestress and eccentricity were in
accordance with theory. The strength was dictated by the prestress and ductility was
successfully enabled by bonding of the tendon. The use of glass enabled excellent
observation of cracking, providing insight into the behaviour of the structure. In the
majority of beams there was a marked distinction in behaviour between the cracked and
uncracked state, since extensive cracking occurred instantaneously. In this respect, the
behaviour of prestressed glass contrasts with that of concrete where tensile cracks
extend in a more stable manner. This may be because the heterogeneities found in
concrete (which help to stabilise crack growth) do not exist in ceramic materials.
The glass beams could not be considered usable in a cracked state since unloading and
reloading resulted in deterioration of strength and stiffness. The ductility resulting from
bonding could still serve a useful purpose however since ultimate failure could
potentially be avoided in an overload situation.
Prestressing of the ceramic truss created an efficient structure which performed well
during testing. Modeling the truss as pin-jointed provided a useful insight into the
observed behaviour, which also gave clear indications of design modifications which
would further improve performance.
Inconsistencies in Young's Modulus values were notable between preliminary testing and
the results from Beams 2 and 3. This could have partly been a result of the simplifying
assumptions of the models, but does suggest some inaccuracy in results. This highlights
the importance of confirming the reliability of values obtained in preliminary testing.
Further investigation into the failure mode of the glass beams could be conducted. If the
proposed failure mode is correct, then restraining the compression zone against lateral
movement would lead to an improvement in strength and increased maximum
curvatures. This could be achieved by wrapping the beam in a membrane with a tensile
capacity, by including additional connection points between the two lengths of glass, or
by the addition of a top flange.
Improvements to the truss structure could be made by redesigning the ceramic parts to
avoid stress concentrations. Adding material at the corners and joints may prove
effective. The steel components could be reused since none were damaged during testing.
Appendices:
A - Uncracked and Cracked Elastic Beam Theory
B - Theoretical Predictions of Truss Behaviour
C - Risk Assessment Retrospective
Will Hawkins, Churchill College 50
Prestressed Ceramics
References
Du Pont, E. I. (1991). "Data manual for fibre optics and other cables", E. I. Du Pont de
Nemours and Co. (Inc.)
Uncracked
Use a transformed section to calculate
section properties:
Top fibre:
Bottom Fibre:
Cracked
For the cracked section, any ceramic in
tension is assumed ineffective. The
prestress force P is assumed to vary due
to the change in local stress, Δεt:
The compressive stress in the ceramic can be resolved into a single force:
By equating the horizontal forces, expressions can be obtained for moment and curvature in
terms of neutral axis depth:
The curvature must then be normalised (accounting for initial curvature due to prestress
eccentricity) for comparison with results.
Will Hawkins, Churchill College 52
Prestressed Ceramics
The forces in each strut are found through geometry. and . Since
deflections are small, angles are assumed constant:
The tension member and compression struts have axial stiffness and
respectively. Using the deformation mechanism shown, the the axial change in length can be
related to the force in each member:
An additional risk assessment was conducted prior to testing of the glass beams in order to
address the specific dangers of the potentially explosive failure of highly stressed glass. A
Perspex safety screen was built and fitted to the testing rig which was effective in protecting
observers and bystanders.