Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sleep Medicine Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/smrv

CLINICAL REVIEW

Parent-child bed-sharing: The good, the bad, and the burden of

evidence
Viara R. Mileva-Seitz a, b, *, Marian J. Bakermans-Kranenburg a, Chiara Battaini c,
Maartje P.C.M. Luijk b, d, e
a
Center for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
b
Department of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry / Psychology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
c
Department of Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry, Niguarda Ca' Granda Hospital, Milan, Italy
d
The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
e
School of Pedagogical and Educational Sciences, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

a r t i c l e i n f o s u m m a r y

Article history: The practice of parent and child sharing a sleeping surface, or ‘bed-sharing’, is one of the most
Received 29 August 2015 controversial topics in parenting research. The lay literature has popularized and polarized this debate,
Received in revised form offering on one hand claims of dangers, and on the other, of benefits e both physical and psychological e
3 March 2016
associated with bed-sharing. To address the scientific evidence behind such claims, we systematically
Accepted 7 March 2016
Available online 15 March 2016
reviewed 659 published papers (peer-reviewed, editorial pieces, and commentaries) on the topic of
parent-child bed-sharing. Our review offers a narrative walkthrough of the many subdomains of bed-
sharing research, including its many correlates (e.g., socioeconomic and cultural factors) and pur-
Keywords:
Parent-child
ported risks or outcomes (e.g., sudden infant death syndrome, sleep problems). We found general design
Bed-sharing limitations and a lack of convincing evidence in the literature, which preclude making strong general-
Co-sleeping izations. A heat-map based on 98 eligible studies aids the reader to visualize world-wide prevalence in
Systematic review bed-sharing and highlights the need for further research in societies where bed-sharing is the norm. We
Prevalence urge for multiple subfields e anthropology, psychology/psychiatry, and pediatrics e to come together
with the aim of understanding infant sleep and how nightly proximity to the parents influences chil-
dren's social, emotional, and physical development.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Child sleep practices
To bed-share or not to bed-share? This seemingly innocuous
question has been labeled the ‘single most controversial topic
related to pediatric sleep’ [1]. Bed-sharing (the practice of parent
and child sharing a sleeping surface) and co-sleeping (shared sleep
that includes room-sharing, bed-sharing, and everything in be-
tween) are hotly debated. The literature is often polarized, filled
with interesting questions, creative designs, and ultimately, insuf-
ficient evidence.
Historically, humans have followed the mammalian pattern:
mothers sleep in direct proximity to their young. In many cultures
* Corresponding author. Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Institute of
Education and Child Studies, PO Box 9555, 2300 RB Leiden, The Netherlands.
Tel.: þ31 071 527 3973; fax: þ31 071 527 3815.
E-mail address: viara.mileva@gmail.com (V.R. Mileva-Seitz).
around the world today, this practice persists and traditional wis-
dom condones and encourages it; a Korean proverb goes, “A baby
must not sleep in an empty room alone, and an adult must keep
watch next to it” [2]. In Tokyo, putting babies alone in a nursery is
considered ‘cold and cruel’ [3]. Over the last two centuries, per-
manent dwellings and cribs became available in industrialized
nations, and bed-sharing ceased to be necessary for infant survival.
Shifting cultural values put increasing emphasis on individualism,
romantic love, and the sanctity of marriage; bottle feeding and
formula became viable feeding alternatives [4]. Bed-sharing began
to be regarded as psychologically harmful [4]. From the 20th cen-
tury until now, putting infants to sleep on a separate surface has
been the norm throughout North America, Europe, and Western-
ized Asian nations. From the early 1990s, there has been a growing
literature on sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) risk when bed-
sharing. Campaigns and interventions have been implemented in
much of the West in response.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2016.03.003
1087-0792/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
Abbrevations
AAP American Academy of Pediatrics
ASD autism spectrum disorder
EW epochal awakenings
GERD gastro-esophageal reflux disease
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
REM rapid eye movement
SES socioeconomic status
SIDS sudden infant death syndrome
TA transient arousals
WEIRD Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and
democratic (nations)
WPPSIeR Wechsler preschool and primary scale of
intelligenceerevised
Controversy surrounding bed-sharing is not new. Mothers have
been historically blamed for the death of the infant if it occurred in
the shared bed [5]. The dangers of bed-sharing are referenced in the
Bible (I Kings iii, 19), as well as in the teachings of the Greek
physician and medical writer Soranus of Ephesos (ca 100AD), who
says, ‘the newborn should not sleep with the wetnurse, especially in
the beginning, lest unawares she roll over and cause it to be bruised or
suffocated.’ [6].
The past decades have presented conflicting medical recom-
mendations to parents, and the debate over bed-sharing has any-
thing but quieted. Hundreds of publications in some way address
bed-sharing. Some offer a broad moral or cultural perspective [7].
A strongly phrased commentary piece in Pediatrics [8] argues Dr.
Freud and Dr. Spock have encouraged a ‘cult of independence’: the
belief that the most important developmental goal for children is to
become independent at a very early age (p 271) (also see [9]).
Here we offer a narrative to guide the reader through the sub-
literatures on co-sleeping, including research on sleep problems,
autonomy, maternal mental health, and breastfeeding, as well as
the predominant theme of research on SIDS risk. We illustrate the
complexities of research in this field, and identify current gaps in
knowledge. The ‘burden’ is on the multiple sub-disciplines to pro-
vide conclusive evidence in the risks versus benefits debate, evi-
dence which can be informative to parents and practitioners alike.
Aims and method of the study
Following the taxonomy proposed by Cooper [10], this review is
designed to exhaustively outline the research findings and associ-
ated debate on the topic of bed-sharing. Our goals are twofold: 1) to
integrate the past literature, and 2) to identify central issues in the
literature. The thorough and systematic review enabled us to create
a world-wide ‘heat map’ (chloropleth) of bed-sharing prevalence.
The review is organized thematically, grouping studies relating to
the same idea and aiming for a neutral stance, first presenting ar-
guments and evidence by the original authors and then reviewing
this evidence critically. Our overall aim is to provide suggestions for
progressing the field, including the adoption of a new subfield of
inquiry, which we term psychoanthropediatrics.
Article selection
We conducted the search between November 2012 and January
2016. We used the following databases: PubMed, PsycInfo, ERIC,
Google Scholar, and EMBASE; and an extensive set of keywords to
capture as exhaustively as possible the literature in this field: “bed-
5
shar*”, “co-sle*”, “room-shar*”, “sleep location”, “unsafe sleep
practices” (for a full list, please see Appendix 1). We selected all the
scientific papers published from 1973 until the 1st of January 2016.
We included quantitative studies written in English, with a
complete abstract, reported statistics, and participants <18 y and
their parents. Commentaries, debates, and letters to the editor/
author were included to capture the complexities of the debate.
Reviews, meta-analyses, and all other research synthesis articles
were also included. We excluded abstracts published in conference
proceedings or symposia, to prevent overlap with published pa-
pers. We also excluded articles focused on bed-sharing involving
humans and animals (e.g., bed-sharing with pets), between adults
(e.g., bed-sharing with a spouse), and articles where the co-
sleeping/bed-sharing/room-sharing practice was not clearly indi-
cated. Peer-reviewed manuscripts presenting research based on
tabulations of advice or themes in parenting and self-help books
were included.
The search yielded 3092 papers of which 1816 were excluded on
first pass because they did not address bed-sharing, 595 were
subsequently excluded after careful reading of the text due to the
exclusion criteria above, 22 could not be found in full text. The final
number was therefore 659. For a decision tree of the inclusion
process, see Fig. 1.
We chose not to employ meta-analytic approaches to this re-
view. The most important reason for this decision was that the
current empirical evidence within each of the specific reviewed
subdomains (e.g., breastfeeding, maternal mood, SIDS) is prohibi-
tive of conducting an informative meta-analysis. For example, pa-
pers reporting on the depressive symptoms of bed-sharing versus
non-bed-sharing mothers do not provide sufficient information
about the timing of the two variables to discern if depression pre-
cedes or follows (or emerges in tandem with) bed-sharing. The SIDS
literature suffers from its own methodological flaws, which will be
reviewed. A narrative review seems to be adequate and timely also
for other reasons: 1) multiple topics are covered in the review,
some of which have been recently meta-analyzed (e.g., SIDS; [11]);
2) a quantitative synthesis of previously published work cannot
capture fully our intent to indicate the lasting limitations in the
existing literature and; 3) the conceptual and methodological ap-
proaches to the research on bed-sharing have changed over time
and show considerable heterogeneity and differences in quality.
Thus, the primary focus of the current review is on thematic
overview and does not aim to combine contradictory findings
through quantitative integration.
Prevalence of bed-sharing around the world
To present the prevalence of bed-sharing practices around the
globe, all studies were scrutinized for reported frequencies of bed-
sharing. We used the following decision rules: we included only
studies reporting prevalence rates for population-based (rather
than clinical or high-risk) samples. For population-wide interven-
tion studies, we considered the post-intervention sample preva-
lence rate, which was thought to provide the most recent stable
estimate. If the intervention was applied to a small sample selected
from a wider population-based sample, we used the pre-
intervention prevalence statistic. Excluded were studies older
than 20 y (published since 1995 or where samples were recruited
after 1995), studies with samples smaller than 40, and studies that
did not report on bed-sharing at or before 12 mo of infant age.
Finally, when studies report bed-sharing prevalence at multiple
ages of the infant, we used the test statistic that reflects highest
prevalence in the first 12 mo of age.
In multi-ethnic random population-based samples, we included
the prevalence statistic as reported. When one ethnic or
6 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27

studies reported prevalence of bed-sharing for the same country,

these rates were averaged for that country. The rates were orga-
Initial search
nized into a world map, leading to a ‘chloropleth’ or ‘heat-map’ of
bed-sharing around the world, see Fig. 2. This chloropleth was
k = 3092
created using the online software GunnMap 2 (website: http://lert.
co.nz/map/).

Heat map

Bed-sharing assessed Perhaps not surprisingly, there is great diversity in the fre-
quency of bed-sharing around the world. Western nations exhibit
k = 1276 generally lower reported rates of bed-sharing than developing
nations. African and Asian countries have higher reported bed-
sharing prevalence than Europe and North and South America,
but for many countries prevalence rates are not known. Notable are
cases of wide variability in prevalence within a single nation (e.g.,
Canada, in which population-based prevalence ranges from 72% in
Study characteristics
Manitoba [12] to 12% in a cross-Canadian sample using online
- English
questionnaires [13]). This could reflect both methodological issues
- Complete abstract
e for instance, divergent methods used in collecting data, different
- Original research, meta-analyses,
questionnaires and ages of infants e and true intra-population
reviews differences in bed-sharing prevalence. Regional prevalence esti-
- Quantitative studies mates can be imprecise when multiple ethnicities and cultural
- Reports statistics groups live in the same region, when prevalence rates shift over
- Participants < 18 years geographic location within a region/country, and when practices
- Bed-sharing with humans have changed over time, as for example after the introduction of
campaigns and educational interventions aimed at modulating
k = 681 rates of bed-sharing [14].

Why parents bed-share: predictors and descriptors

Full text, included in review Reactive versus intentional bed-sharing

k = 659, among which
k = 98 on prevalence :
- population-based samples
- separate samples
- bed- versus room-sharing
k = 100 on SIDS
Fig. 1. Decision tree for inclusion of papers in the review.
socioeconomic group was overrepresented, we included this
prevalence in Table 1 (all shortlisted studies to include in the heat
map), but did not subsequently include it in the heat map and
Table 2 (final country-specific averaged prevalence based on
Table 1, excluding prevalence obtained from samples that are not
population-based [i.e., oversampled]).
Articles that did not distinguish between room-sharing and
bed-sharing were excluded. When there was no information about
the frequency of bed-sharing the prevalence statistic was based on
‘any’ amount of bed-sharing. When information on the frequency
and duration of bed-sharing was provided, we used bed-sharing
longer than two hours in duration per night, and excluded occa-
sional bed-sharers from the prevalence estimations in an attempt
to capture routine bed-sharing prevalence. Studies were checked to
ensure they did not report on the same sample. A single study with
prevalence data in multiple countries was used to obtain separate
prevalence statistics for the countries that were included. This se-
lection procedure left 98 studies for inclusion. When multiple
A cross-cultural study indicated that bed-sharing rates (higher
for predominantly Asian countries than predominantly Caucasian
countries) are stable during preschool years, suggesting little
change over this period once bed-sharing becomes established
[15]. However, parents bed-share for many reasons. Aside from
tradition, reasons to bed-share include breastfeeding facilitation,
infant irritability or illness, parental ideology, parental own sleep
experiences, convenience, anxiety, child safety, parent and child
emotional needs, better infant sleep, unavailability of other beds,
enjoyment, physical proximity to the infant, and better caregiving
[16e23], as well as, potentially, socioeconomic factors [24]. Inter-
estingly, bed-sharing was sometimes used as a strategy to coun-
teract the risk of prone sleeping, e.g., in an African American sample
of US mothers [25]. Thus on one hand, bed-sharing can occur pro-
actively, as a matter of routine and intention, whether due to cul-
tural beliefs and practices or parenting preference [26]. Parents can
be aware of potential risks and bed-share intentionally for its
benefits [27], or they can assert that bed-sharing has no risks
[19,28].
On the other hand, bed-sharing can be reactive, influenced by
factors, including the children, that directly or indirectly lead to the
initiation of bed-sharing [29]. In Western societies, bed-sharing
frequently emerges in response to problematic circumstances
[30]. Even when parents do not express intention to bed-share,
many e indeed, sometimes a majority of parents in a given popu-
lation e end up bed-sharing at least occasionally [31e34]. Unlike
intentional bed-sharers, reactive bed-sharers more often expressed
concern about their practice [35]. The distinction between reactive
and intentional bed-sharing is crucial for the interpretation of the
evidence and recommendations. Unfortunately, this distinction is
mostly absent in the literature to date.
 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27 7

Table 1 Table 1 (continued )

Individual reports of prevalence of bed-sharing around the world (multiple entries
per country). Country Sample size (N) Prevalence (%) Reference

Country Sample size (N) Prevalence (%) Reference Russia 204 14.2 [248]
Russia 163 25.0 [122]
Argentina 81 15 [522] Saudi Arabia 289 75.0 [552]
Australia 200 2.5 [320] Scotland 220 25 [522]
Australia 44 27.0 [523] Scotland 202 14.3 [553]
Australia 738 3.0 [524] Singapore 1001 35.9 [13]
Australia 1073 8.6 [13] South Korea 1036 61.4 [13]
Australia 225 30 [522] Sri Lanka 60 82.0 [554]
Austria 199 25 [522] Sweden 241 65 [522]
Austria 200 35 [522] Sweden 5600 19.9 [555,556]
Brazil 44 100.0* [525] Taiwan 896 60.2 [13]
Brazil 3907 45.8 [135] Thailand 3692 60.6 [557]
Brazil 4231 48.3 [67] Thailand 988 77.2 [13]
Brazil 233 31.2 [526] Turkey 87 2.2 [522]
Brazil 3906 46.4 [216] Turkey 150 16.0 [391]
Cameroon 78 100.0 [527] Ukraine 489 9 [522]
Canada 70 80.0* [528]* UK 97 73.0* [63]
Canada 293 72.0 [12] UK 800 12.1 [13]
Canada 230 23 [522] UK 2560 7.1 [558]
Canada 501 12.4 [13] UK 3082 7.2 [83]
Central African Republic NA 100.0 [529] UK 40 42.5 [31]
Chile 226 64 [522] UK 253 47 [81]
China 1129 57.8 [117] UK 261 50 [62]
China 7505 67.6 [13] UK 7447 15.1 [64]
China 524 60 [107] UK 203 28 [57]
China 82 73 [530] US 10,355 22 [61]
China (excl. Hong Kong) 556 69.3 [522] US 100 41.0* [559]
Denmark 360 39 [522] US 185 10.2 [560]
England 253 47.4 [16] US 944 11.7 [561]
France 144 38.9 [405] US 309 36.9 [562]
Germany 998 8.9 [531] US 1867 35.2 [563]
Germany 121 23 [522] US 41 24.4 [60]
Hong Kong 99 32.0 [532] US 4505 5.0 [13]
Hong Kong 314 30.3 [522] US 2791 45.9* [91]
Hong Kong 1049 27.6 [13] US 5273 8.5 [564]
India 3982 70.7 [13] US 218 61.0* [317]
Indonesia 967 72.6 [13] US 126 48.0* [565]
Ireland 197 23.0 [533] US 101 88.0* [566]
Ireland 11,067 11.2 [73] US 394 48.0* [82]
Ireland 322 21 [522] US 8453 19.4 [567]
Israel 608 6.0 [534] US 708 32.5 [568]
Italy 704 18.3 [535] US 194 37.1* [569]
Italy 200 24 [522] US 944 21.9* [95]
Italy 2889 2.3 [536] US 2405 11.0 [570]
Japan 253 38.0 [105] US 259 30.4 [571]
Japan 872 69.7 [13] US 55 27.3* [572]
Japan 287 37 [522] US 77 51.0 [171]
Japan 52 40.4 [162] US 1778 14.4 [573]
Japan 1307 51.7 [537] US 359 16.6 [129]
Kenya ~100þ 100.0 [538] US 66 55.4* [574]*
Malaysia 682 73.5 [539] US 193 36.8 [200]
Malaysia 263 65.4 [540] US 18,945 13.5 [575]
Malaysia 997 44.0 [13] US 6595 69 [576]
Mongolia 80 100 [541] US 148 36 [577]
Mozambique 1994 100 [542] US 2486 59 [93]
Netherlands 1628 6.4 [359] Vietnam 1000 83.2 [13]
Netherlands 4782 20.9 [124] Wales 148 13.5 [578]
Netherlands 193 10.0 [202]
Netherlands 163 5.0 [203] NOTE: * indicates prevalence rates reported in studies using samples that were not
Netherlands 146 5.0 [543] population-based; rather these studies selected specific subgroups including ethnic
New Zealand 918 18.2 [544] or socioeconomic minorities; these studies were excluded from the final averaging
New Zealand 1376 54.9* [545]* of prevalence rates due to this oversampling (and because it was unclear to what
New Zealand 200 16.0 [17] extent the oversampling would affect the overall representativeness of the preva-
New Zealand 299 65.0* [495]* lence rates reported therein).
New Zealand 1081 5.8 [13]
New Zealand 209 13 [546] Parenting and children's books in the West and elsewhere give a
New Zealand 249 19 [522]
Nigeria 382 66.9 [547]
mixed message about desirable sleep practices and often lack an
Norway 9682 47.0 [548] underlying evidence-base [36e39]. They are typically dominated
Norway 55,831 28 [108] by a medical perspective which opposes bed-sharing and supports
NZ þ Australia 2154 7.2 [549] sleep training [40]. Rarely, when bed-sharing is encouraged, it is in
Pacific Islands 1376 50.0 [550]
lactation consultant programs that encourage breastfeeding [41],
Philippines 1034 65.1 [13]
Russia 192 15.1 [260] for adopted children after institutionalization [42], or as part of
Russia 120 26.0 [551] non-mainstream Western parenting philosophies (e.g., Attachment
Parenting e note that this does not directly relate to ‘attachment
8 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27

Table 2
Country-based averages of prevalence rates of bed-sharing around the world.

Country Total sample size (N) Average prevalence (%) Reference

Argentina 81 15 [522]
Australia 2280 8.5 [13,320,522e524]
Austria 399 30 [522]
Brazil 12,277 46.6 [67,135,216,526]
Cameroon 78 100.0 [527]
Canada 1024 31.8 [12,13,522]
Central African Republic NA 100.0 [529]
Chile 226 64 [522]
China 8786 66.2 [13,107,117,522,530]
Denmark 360 39 [522]
England 253 29.4 [16]
France 144 38.9 [405]
Germany 1119 10.4 [522,531]
Hong Kong 1462 28.5 [13,522,532]
India 3982 70.7 [13]
Indonesia 967 72.6 [13]
Ireland 11,264 11.7 [73,522,533]
Israel 608 6.0 [534]
Italy 3593 6.4 [522,535,536]
Japan 2771 54.4 [13,105,162,522]
Kenya ~100þ 100.0 [538]
Malaysia 1942 57.3 [13,539,540]
Mongolia 80 100 [541]
Mozambique 1994 100 [542]
Netherlands 6912 16.5 [124,202,203,359,543]
New Zealand 2657 12.7 [13,17,544,546]
Nigeria 382 66.9 [547]
Norway 65,513 30.8 [108,548]
Pacific Islands 1376 50.0 [550]
Philippines 1034 65.1 [13]
Russia 679 19.1 [122,248,260,551]
Saudi Arabia 289 75.0 [552]
Scotland 422 19.9 [522,553]
Singapore 1001 35.9 [13]
South Korea 1036 61.4 [13]
Sri Lanka 60 82.0 [554]
Sweden 5821 21.6 [522,555,556]
Taiwan 896 60.2 [13]
Thailand 4680 64.1 [13,557]
Turkey 237 10.9 [391,522]
Ukraine 489 9 [522]
UK 14,646 13.2 [13,31,62,64,81,83,558]
US 65,885 23.0 [13,60,61,93,129,171,200,560e563,567,568,570,571,573,575e577]
Vietnam 1000 83.2 [13]
Wales 148 13.5 [578]

NOTE: Averaged prevalence rates represent averages of all studies reporting prevalence rates for the same country (weighted based on the respective sample size (N) reported
by each study). Prevalence rates from studies using samples that are not population-based (i.e., oversampled for specific minority groups) are excluded from these averages.

theory’ in psychology e which promotes close contact, breast-
feeding, and bed-sharing [43,44]). The actual relationship between
bed-sharing and responsive night-time care e and its purported
benefits e needs yet to be established.
Ramos et al. [45,46] are among the few authors who make the
distinction between intentional and reactive bed-sharing (also see
[47,48]), and they show that intentional bed-sharing parents are
more likely to bed-share all night, to endorse and be more satisfied
with bed-sharing; in contrast, parents of reactive bed-sharers are
more likely to have tried a ‘cry-it-out-method’ of sleep training and
to report more night-time difficulties. These differences might be
explained by differing parental perceptions. American mothers who
viewed bed-sharing more favorably placed less emphasis on their
children learning to sleep through the night early and reported less
struggle with their children sleeping through the night [49].
Reactive bed-sharing might have adverse or complicated effects
on the family, particularly in societies where bed-sharing is not the
norm or is considered undesirable. Mothers' and fathers'
endorsement of bed-sharing was highly correlated within families
in an American sample [50]. Furthermore, marital difficulties can be
associated with differences in parental perceptions of problems in
child's sleep behaviors, potentially a ‘spill-over’ effect in which
problems with children's sleep behaviors carry over to other areas
of family life [22,51]. Canadian parents who bed-shared in reaction
to infant nighttime problems reported lower marital satisfaction
than parents who intentionally bed-shared [52], and Italian parents
of bed-sharers (reactive or intentional) reported more psychologi-
cal and couple distress [53]. Parental satisfaction was also higher in
non-bed-sharing (including room sharing here) Israeli parents [54].
On the other hand, an older study of US parents from Boston reports
that parents who bed-shared as a response to night-visiting by
their children viewed this as the child's need for contact or security
and perceived bed-sharing as a “nurturant aspect of family life”
[55]. Thus even if reactive, bed-sharing might be seen as desirable.
Childrearing attitudes across ethnicities further influence how
parents interpret children's behavior [56]. Also, a recent report
argues that parental endorsement of attunement and structure,
two key parenting principles, also influences types of parenting
practices; accordingly, bed-sharing was positively associated with
attunement (reliance on infant cues and physical contact) [57]. This
concept is similar to Roncolato et al.'s [26,48] notion that parents
fall into two types: regulators (mother-led caregiving) or
 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
Fig. 2. Chloropleth of bed-sharing prevalence rates across the world. For additional information, see Tables 1 and 2 Gray shading indicates countries for which there are no data on
bed-sharing prevalence.
facilitators (infant-led caregiving). Without longitudinal and
experimental designs, it is impossible to untangle the cause-effect
relationships in these complex family dynamics. A long-standing
challenge is the need for information about whether bed-sharing
happens intentionally or reactively (e.g., [50]), and on the respec-
tive correlates of these two types of bed-sharing. Furthermore, the
distinction between the two might shift over time, such that some
parents who began bed-sharing reactively might eventually come
to value and enjoy the practice, and therefore become ‘intentional’
bed-sharers. Though it is not always a clear-cut distinction, it is
important to ask parents about the nature of their practices and
what caused them, if anything, to choose one practice over another.
Breastfeeding
One of the most common reasons given for bed-sharing is the
facilitation of breastfeeding. There is a well-established link between
breastfeeding and bed-sharing [58], but current evidence is mostly
correlational (reviewed in [5,59]). A positive association has been
found in small and large samples from the US (n ¼ 41e10,355) [60,61],
Great Britain (n ¼ 75e7500) [16,62e66], Sweden (n ¼ 1028e5605),
Brazil (n ¼ 2866) [67], Barbados (n ¼ 226) [68], New Zealand
(n ¼ 1529) [69], the Netherlands (n ¼ 96) [70], Canada (n ¼ 293) [12],
Malaysia (n ¼ 682) [71], Australia (n ¼ 4507) [72], Ireland (n ¼ 11,134)
[73], and in a worldwide sample of over 17 countries published by the
International child care practices study (ICCPS) [74]. One study of
African American mothers reports that the association only exists in
lower socioeconomic status (SES) groups [75].
Breastfeeding and bed-sharing appear to be mutually reinforc-
ing. Breastfeeding facilitation was one of the significant predictors
of bed-sharing initiation in Italy and the US [76e78]; whereas
breastfeeding termination was reported to be the only significant
predictor of bed-sharing duration [63]. Infants routinely bed-
sharing since birth breastfeed three times longer than routinely
solitary sleeping infants [79,80]. Bed-sharing at three months was
protective against weaning up to age 12 mo in a large sample of
Brazilian mothers [67]. One British study provided evidence that
over the first three months of life, bed-sharing promotes breast-
feeding, with declines in breastfeeding over time being smaller in
9
the bed-sharing group [81]. A single identified publication reports a
lack of association between breastfeeding and bed-sharing (in a
low income, inner city US sample) [82]. The association between
breastfeeding and bed-sharing can differ between ethnicities: in a
large multi-ethnic British study, the relationship between breast-
feeding and bed-sharing was stronger for British white parents
than for Pakistani parents [83].
In one of the few randomized trials of infant sleep location,
infants in the maternal bed or in a side-car (attached to the
maternal bed) were breastfed more frequently than infants in
stand-alone cots on a hospital ward in the UK [84], seeming to
corroborate the idea that close-proximity sleeping promotes
breastfeeding. Furthermore, in a laboratory observation with
manipulated infant sleep location, breastfeeding episodes were
significantly longer and more frequent on the bed-sharing nights
than on the solitary sleeping nights [80]. In naturalistic laboratory
observations, bed-sharing infants woke up and fed more often [85],
and routinely bed-sharing infants had more feeds and shorter
between-feed intervals per night than routinely solitary sleeping
infants [86].
Suggested improvements to these studies include the inclusion
of the daytime between-feed intervals and the complementary use
of polysomnography, actigraphy, and sleep diaries [87]. Further-
more, replication with larger samples is necessary, though often
cost-prohibitive.
Further research is indisputably required before we can
conclusively determine the direction of causality between bed-
sharing and breastfeeding. Current evidence supports a bi-
directional model where bed-sharing is both a consequence of
breastfeeding e mothers who breastfeed might more often opt to
bed-share to make feeding at night easier e and a facilitator for
continued breastfeeding (for debate on this topic, see [88]).
Mood/depression
There are reports of a positive association between bed-sharing
and depressive symptoms: bed-sharing mothers had more despair
and anxiety in a sample from Barbados [68], and greater depressive
symptoms in Australia [89], Ireland [73], and in the US [50,90]. The
10 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
relationship between depression and bed-sharing might be
dependent on ethnicity. Maternal depression was associated with
increased bed-sharing for black mothers, but not for white mothers
in the United States [91]. In a large multi-ethnic cohort from the
Netherlands, depression was positively associated with bed-
sharing but only in Dutch mothers, and not in Turkish, Moroccan,
or Caribbean-descent mothers [92]. Different SES variables associ-
ated with bed-sharing across ethnicities were also found in a US
sample [93].
As with breastfeeding, the direction of influence is unclear.
Mothers who are more anxious or depressed might be more likely
to wake up a sleeping infant, and bring that infant to their own bed
for monitoring (e.g., [94]). Conversely, mothers who perceive bed-
sharing as problematic might suffer from greater anxiety because
of it [53]. Maternal negativity similarly might influence sleep ar-
rangements: in a longitudinal study in low-income US families,
maternal negative regard (hostility or rejection of the child) pre-
dicts bed-sharing [95], whereas in South Germany, maternal
distress about crying in the first five months predicts bed-sharing
at 56 mo [96]. In a Russian study, lower quality of infant care
(less developmental stimulation and environmental organization)
by mothers was associated with more bed-sharing [97].
The difficulty with interpreting findings on the relation between
mood and bed-sharing is that maternal mood as a function of infant
sleep location has not been a topic of interest on its own right, and
has most often been reported incidentally and typically only if
mood associates with bed-sharing. Thus both the breastfeeding and
mood literature emphasize the need to distinguish between reac-
tive and proactive bed-sharing.
Fathers
Very little research has explored the triadic bed-sharing expe-
rience, or characteristics and behavior of fathers who bed-share.
Ball et al. [98] showed that first-time fathers had anxieties about
bed-sharing with their infants, and that after using strategies to
overcome these initial anxieties they took pleasure in the pro-
longed intimate contact with their infants. However, reactive
parenting strategies (e.g., reactive co-sleeping, or sharing a room
with an infant at a later stage than early infancy) were associated
with fathers' declined satisfaction with the sleep arrangements
(compared with early bed-sharers or early co-sleepers) [22].
Physiologically, bed-sharing in fathers in the Philippines was
associated with significantly lower evening testosterone and a
greater diurnal decrease in testosterone from waking to evening
[99]. One study revealed that bed-sharing fathers rarely have
contact with the infant during the night [100]. More research is
needed on the role of partners in bed-sharing, and their role in
triadic bed-sharing.
‘Consequences’ and ‘Risks’ of bed-sharing
In the following paragraphs, we discuss associations between
bed-sharing and multiple dimensions of child development. For the
same reasons bed-sharing prevalence is difficult to establish e e.g.,
rates vary across cultures and socioeconomic clusters e it is also
challenging to establish the relation between bed-sharing and
many of the purportedly related risks or benefits.
Sleep problems
Despite the directional nature of the questions asked, the liter-
ature on sleep problems and sleep practices (reviewed by [101]) has
not resolved the underlying direction of associations. It is most
frequently assumed that parents who bed-share create sleep
problems in their children. Alternatively, parents who bed-share
might choose this practice in response to pre-existing sleep prob-
lems, as in the case of reactive bed-sharing parents. Or, parents who
bed-share might under-report or over-report the presence of sleep-
problems, according to their attitudes about bed-sharing or their
sheer proximity to the child. Each assumption is supported by some
evidence.
Bed-sharing has been widely associated with infant and child
sleep problems [47] including frequent night-waking [102e104]
and/or time spent awake at night [60], nighttime crying [105], re-
quests for comfort and getting out of bed at night [104], nightmares
[106], and less nighttime sleep [107]. A large Norwegian study
(N ¼ 55,831) indicated that bed-sharing was an independent and
graded predictor of both night-time awakenings and sleep duration
[108]. In preschool-aged children adopted from China (mostly
girls), sleep problems were more often reported in children who
bed-shared or shared a bedroom with parents [109]. A similar
finding was reported for school-aged children [110] and adoles-
cents in China [111]. Bed-sharing has also been associated with
sleep-wake transition disorders and sleep-breathing disorders in
older children [112]. Bed-sharing American preschoolers were less
likely to sleep in their bed all night, to fall asleep in their own bed,
to fall asleep alone, to keep a regular bedtime, or to use a nightlight
[113]. In the UK, partial-solitary sleeping infants (bed-sharing less
than two hours a night) were 1.8e1.9 times more likely to have
slept regularly through the night at eight weeks of age than regu-
larly bed-sharing infants [114]. Solitary sleeping American pre-
schoolers slept through the night earlier, weaned earlier, and fell
asleep alone earlier than bed-sharing children [115]. In school-age
Italian children, bed-sharers had a significantly later bedtime,
shorter nighttime sleep duration, higher bedtime resistance, and
higher sleep anxiety [53]. Bed-sharing was associated with
increased night waking and bedtime resistance among lower SES
white children and higher SES black children in the US [56]. Thus
SES has complex and potentially ethnicity-specific associations
with bed-sharing and related behaviors, and these ought to be
further explored.
Interestingly, children in special schools had more sleep prob-
lems, including greater rates of sleeping in the parents' bed; and
parents of these children were postulated to be more indulgent or
anxious, thus ‘inadvertently encouraging sleep problems’ [116].
However, children with special needs and developmental disabil-
ities might experience communication and self-soothing diffi-
culties. A developmental perspective would be interesting as a
follow-up in these samples.
There is mixed or inconclusive evidence on the association be-
tween sleep-problems and bed-sharing as well. In Chinese infants
(1e23 mo), bed-sharing was not associated with sleep problems
[117], whereas in preschoolers (3e4 y) from the same sample it was
[118]. Chinese bed-sharing school-age children had more anxiety
and daytime sleepiness, but were not different from solitary
sleeping children on parasomnias (sleep disorders such as sleep-
walking, sleep terrors, and sleep paralysis) [119]. Similarly, in a
large Canadian sample, bed-sharing children had greater odds to
belong to a persistently short-duration sleeping trajectory across
early school years [120]. In a Russian study, low birth weight infants
did not routinely bed-share more than controls, but did need more
parental assistance at bedtime, and were brought into the parental
bed more often after awaking at night [121], in another Russian
sample, the practice of swaddling, often used to reduce sleep
problems, was not associated with bed-sharing [122].
The nature of bed-sharing might impact the findings. There was
a lower risk of sleep-onset and night-awakening difficulties for
Canadian children who bed-shared at sleep onset compared with
children who bed-shared after night-awakenings [123]. The
 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
distinction has parallels to reactive versus intentional bed-sharing:
when parents bed-share with children from the beginning of the
night, this suggests they are intentionally doing so; whereas when
bed-sharing occurs in response to, or following a night-awakening
event, this is a more reactive approach. In a large, multi-ethnic
cohort from the Netherlands, bed-sharing at 24 mo (but not at
two mo) was associated with significantly greater odds of sleep
problems at 24 mo, but this effect disappeared when controlling for
child sleep problems at 18 mo [124]. This might indicate that sleep
problems are related to the emergence of bed-sharing after the
infancy period and supports a reactive bed-sharing strategy. Early
infancy bed-sharing and nighttime awakening in Swedish children
did not predict childhood bed-sharing and sleep problems [125]. In
a very large international online survey (n ¼ 29,287 parents), sol-
itary sleeping children obtained more sleep, woke less at night, had
less difficulties at bedtime, fell asleep faster, and were perceived as
having fewer sleep problems than bed-sharing children; these
differences were mainly observed in the predominantly Caucasian
countries, and not in the predominantly Asian countries; it seemed
it was not bed-sharing that predicted these differences, but
parental presence at bedtime, which was much higher in the pre-
dominantly Asian countries [126,127]. Once more, the compara-
bility of reports by bed-sharing and solitary sleeping parents is
challenging to establish. Bed-sharing parents might better tabulate
sleep awakenings, simply due to their night-time proximity to their
children [128], leading to higher frequencies; or, they may dismiss
night-time awakening events as ‘normal’, leading to under-
reporting.
Finally, multiple studies report no association between bed-
sharing and sleep problems in healthy [125,129e132] and clinical
samples [133,134], many of which are from non-Western nations
with higher rates of bed-sharing. In a large study from Brazil bed-
sharing was not an independent determinant of nighttime
waking [135]. Kawasaki et al. [136] argue that the relative absence
of sleep problems in Japanese infants may be due to both these
infants' predisposition to easier habituation to night-time negative
stimuli and also to a nighttime environment that promotes
extensive close physical contact between parents and infants, as co-
rooming and bed-sharing are the norm in Japan. A study that
compared Japanese and US children aged 6e48 mo indicated that
more US children had bedtime struggles, and bed-sharing in the US
sample was related to more bedtime struggles, nighttime awak-
enings, and overall stressful sleep problems; in the Japanese sample
bed-sharing was associated only with night awakening [137,138]. In
another Japanese sample, it was bedtime rather than bed-sharing
that predicted sleep disturbances [131]. In Singapore, where bed-
sharing with parents, siblings, relatives, and maids is normal, sol-
itary sleepers had significantly more nightmares and more sleep-
disruptions [139]. Less frequent bad dreams in bed-sharers was
also observed in a Canadian sample [140]. The heterogeneity of
findings indicates that dependent on the nature of bed-sharing,
pre-existing problems, type of assessment, SES, and cultural prac-
tices, the association between bed-sharing and sleep problems can
differ. Furthermore, the bi-directional nature of parental and child
behaviors surrounding sleep should be taken into account [141] in
future studies to disentangle the equivocal bed-sharing-sleep
problems association. Very few studies have explored the associa-
tion between bed-sharing and parental sleep quality, but those that
did indicate a negative association (e.g., [142,143]).
Sleep problems as a cultural construct
The previous paragraph highlights one of the difficulties with
bed-sharing studies: Sleep problems can be a cultural construct
[144,145] and bed-sharing is said to be one of the parental practices
most influenced by cultural practice and beliefs [2]. Blunden,
11
Thompson, and Dawson [146] argue that night-time waking and
lack of consolidated sleep in infancy are culturally constructed as
‘sleep problems’, and necessitate subsequent behavioral training
and treatment programs which have led to the “quest for solo
sleep” and a strong emphasis on early acquisition of independent
skills by children and ‘self-soothing’ [147,148]. In this cultural
framework, bed-sharing is thought to interfere with self-
regulation; to prevent or delay night-time sleep consolidation; or
to give rise to parent-child interaction patterns which encourage
problematic sleep-related behavior in children. For instance, bed-
sharing is said to “block the development of appropriate stimulus
control and prevent the development of appropriate sleep” [149],
or seen as the primary grounds for the development of disorders
with sleep initiation or sleep maintenance [150]. It is suggested that
in some cultures bed-sharing might be easier because of better
regulated infant temperament (e.g., the Japanese), rather than the
other way around. France and Blampied call bed-sharing a ‘coercive
behavior trap’, where parents bed-share in order to reduce the
aversive events of infant distress [151]; this trap, however, is seen to
apply to parents who view bed-sharing and child sleepetime ac-
tivities as problematic [147], which might be framed by cultural
context [152e157].
Cultural factors might thus create a bias in bed-sharing research.
The majority of research in the present review comes from Western
nations where bed-sharing is not the norm. In fact, such Western,
educated, Industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) societies
are “among the least representative populations one could find for
generalizing about humans” [158]. In the many cultures where bed-
sharing is the norm, this practice is far less likely to be given a focus
in the first place. In a commentary, Katherine Dettwyler argues that
for people in ‘bed-sharing’ cultures, “it isn't a matter of being
accepted or encouraged, [bed-sharing] is simply what they do”; and
that describing other cultural staples with similar words (e.g., “Rice
eating is overtly accepted, if not encouraged, in Asian countries”)
would make equally little sense [159]. Underrepresented are
studies of children who are among the minority if solitary-sleeping.
A single study of sleep problems in India indicated that lack of bed-
sharing was associated with increased sleep problems [160].
Cultural factors not only create biases in sample representation,
but also in the methodologies used to assess sleep practices. For
instance, a novel infant sleep questionnaire asks parents to report
on the frequency of bringing baby into bed and how long this
‘problem’ has persisted [161]; it does not provide parents who
intentionally bed-share an option to report this. Furthermore, reli-
ability of the children's sleep habits questionnaire was lower in a
Chinese sample [128], and the higher rate of bed-sharing in China is
one of the explanations suggested for this lower reliability. Such
questionnaires would be difficult to implement in non-Western
settings. Finally, cultural factors influence how parents report on
sleep practices. This is important, as most of the statistics obtained
in these studies rely exclusively on parent-reports of children's
sleep problems and practices.
Parental perceptions
Culture and immediate context influence parental perceptions of
infants' sleep. For instance, American mothers who reactively bed-
shared (in this case, after one year of age, but not in infancy) re-
ported significantly more sleep awakenings and found these awak-
enings more problematic than mothers who bed-shared from early
infancy, or those who did not bed-share [115]. In another American
study, both reactive and intentional bed-sharers had higher re-
ported sleep problems (resisting bedtime and night-time awak-
ening) than solitary sleepers but when the scores were weighted for
parental perceptions of problematic behavior, reported sleep prob-
lems for the intentional bed-sharers decreased [46]; furthermore,
12 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
reactive bed-sharers were the most likely to be dissatisfied with the
sleep arrangements. Increased vigilance or awareness of night-time
problems in bed-sharing parents might also play a role, as for
example in explaining the rate of nightmares and other sleep
problems in bed-sharing Saudi school-aged children [106]. Indeed,
the accuracy of sleep diary records can be affected by the distance
between mothers and infants at night [162].
Bed-sharing in response to pre-existing sleep- and other problems
Bed-sharing can emerge as a sleep inducing parenting technique
[163,164], or as a reaction to infants' nighttime awakenings [165].
Accordingly, sleep problems up to three years prior were predictive
of bed-sharing at 56 mo [166]. Parents can bring children into their
bed in response to night-time difficulties throughout infancy and
later childhood, including nightmares, illness, or fear [167].
Accordingly, problematic bedtime behavior or disruptive behavior
during the night was a significant predictor of bed-sharing initiation
in Italy [76]. Similarly, a greater proportion of enuretic four-year olds
had a habit of sleeping in the parents' bed after urinating in the
diaper compared with non-enuretic children [168], and an associ-
ation between enuresis and bed-sharing was also reported in a
Chinese sample of schoolchildren [169]. In autistic children, bringing
the child into the parents' bed was one of the most frequently tried
parental solutions to promote sleep in their children [170].
Bed-sharing is also associated with mothers' perceptions of in-
fant separation distress, dysregulation, negative mood, and man-
agement difficulty, which suggests that bed-sharing is initiated in
response to problematic child behavior, rather than the cause of it
[60]. Significant predictors of bed-sharing include past history of
sleep problems, bedtime resistance, sleep anxiety, and night
awakenings and nighttime fears [53]. Not many quantitative
studies have examined this relation. Sleep and fatigue in the first
month postpartum in a sample of 72 families from San Francisco
were not related to bed-sharing [171], but more sleep was obtained
by a sample of mothers who breastfed and bed-shared, compared
with bottle-feeding mothers [172]. In sum, culture and context
influence what parents say, do, and think about their children's
sleep and their own strategies to deal with their children's sleep. A
fruitful discussion about the consequences of bed-sharing should
begin by considering these factors.
Physiological correlates of the bed-sharing child
A series of small studies have examined physiological and physical
characteristics of bed-sharing infants in the lab or at home (see
[173e176]). Compared with solitary sleepers, bed-sharing infants
more often sleep on their side [85,177] and do so facing the mother
[100,178,179] and in close proximity to her [180]. However, there is
inconsistent evidence for whether bed-sharing infants are exposed to
more or less expired air, and whether this is a protective or potentially
dangerous aspect of bed-sharing [100,178,179,181]. In laboratory
studies, head covering occurred far more frequently for bed-sharing
infants [177], but the majority of head covering events (80%) and
head uncovering events (68%) were facilitated by the mother [100].
Thus mothers both caused airway covering and facilitated uncovering
[182]. Bed-sharing parents also looked at or touched their infants
more often than parents of cot-sleeping infants [177].
Physiologically, bed-sharing infants have been reported to have
higher baseline body temperatures [183,184], a greater increase in
temperature after sleep onset [85], higher axillary temperatures
during non-rapid-eye-movement-sleep (REM) [185], and generally
warmer thermal conditions (including more bedding [186] and
face-covering events) than solitary sleepers [85]. In contrast, Ball
[187] found no differences in temperature between bed-sharing
and solitary sleeping infants, and no evidence of lowered oxygen
saturation in bed-sharing infants [182]. Although rates of bed-
sharing between preterm and term infants did not differ in US in-
fants [188], another report indicated that bed-sharing preterm in-
fants had temperature acrophases (peaks) that occur more typically
in daytime hours, suggesting beginning entrainment to a daye-
night pattern [189]. Other differences include a higher heart rate
and lower heart rate variability in bed-sharers [190]. Furthermore,
infant nicotine levels are higher in infants of smokers, and bed-
sharing is a contributing factor [191].
Laboratory studies reveal sleep architecture differences be-
tween bed-sharers and solitary sleepers, but these studies use very
small sample sizes and the results are not always consistent. Total
sleep duration and sleep-wake rhythms do not differ between
groups [180,192], although bed-sharing infants wake more often
[85], have reduced stage 3e4 sleep, and greater overlap with
maternal arousals [9,193]. Japanese bed-sharing (and co-rooming)
infants had significantly more active sleep than solitary sleepers
[130]. In solitary sleepers, there was a paucity of epochal awaken-
ings (EW) and transient arousals (TA) in stage 3e4 sleep, compared
with stage 1e2 or REM sleep, which supports the premise that
infant arousability is diminished in stage 3e4. In bed-sharing
dyads, EWs and TAs were more frequent [194]. In fact, bed-
sharing is suggested to promote infant arousability, which the au-
thors argue might protect against SIDS [195]. Conversely, when not
sleeping with their parents, routinely bed-sharing infants had more
quiet sleep and longer bouts of quiet sleep at five weeks; and
showed less active sleep, fewer arousals in active sleep, and less
wakefulness at six months [196]. The authors argue bed-sharing is
stressful and that the ‘extreme’ sleep patterns of bed-sharers e
both during bed-sharing and during solitary sleep e predispose
these infants to SIDS. Unfortunately, no study has examined the
development of these patterns of sleep behavior from birth.
Furthermore, physiological evidence is not strong that bed-sharing
in fact represents an ‘extreme’ sleep environment.
Interestingly, there is evidence to suggest mother-infant sleep
rhythms could be linked [197] via physiological synchrony [198]. In
a laboratory study comparing solitary sleeping and bed-sharing in
the same dyads, bed-sharing reduced the amount of maternal stage
3e4 sleep (quiet sleep), increased the amount of stage 1e2 sleep,
but did not alter REM sleep and total sleep duration [199]. Similar
findings were reported in the same sample for child sleep: reduc-
tion of stage 3e4 sleep and increase in stage 1e2 sleep on the bed-
sharing night compared to the solitary sleeping night [195]. Un-
fortunately these studies employed rather small samples, and no
replication studies have followed. A single recent study in a
community-based sample of American mothers reported steeper
diurnal cortisol curves in mothers in the non-bed-sharing group
compared with the bed-sharing group [200].
Population-based epidemiological studies of physiological var-
iables and bed-sharing reveal inconsistent and inconclusive find-
ings. One study reports that compared with solitary sleepers, bed-
sharing children have greater physiological reactivity (cortisol in-
crease) in response to inoculation at six and twelve months [201].
This may indicate either an adaptive or maladaptive response in the
face of lacking literature to support either claim. Other studies
found that a history of bed-sharing predicted lower cortisol reac-
tivity to stress [202]; more specifically, solitary sleepers had higher
cortisol in response to a bathing session at five weeks of age, but no
differences were found in response to a vaccination at two months
[203]. Neonatal weight loss in the first week postpartum was not
associated with bed-sharing status in rural Central Africa [204].
Taken as a whole, these few studies on the physiological correlates
of bed-sharing in both epidemiological and laboratory designs
highlight the multiple gaps in our understanding of healthy
‘optimal’ infant sleep and sleep architecture. It seems rather logical
 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
that the long course of evolutionary history might have led to the
evolution of adaptive mechanisms for physiological regulation
during parent-infant bed-sharing, and the research has pointed in
this direction. To further test these assumptions, cross-cultural
studies of substantial sample size should include the collection of
physiological and polysomnographic data from infants (and their
parents) during sleep in multiple settings (e.g., bed-sharing, room-
sharing, solitary sleep).
Somatic disorders
A number of disorders are associated with increased rates of
bed-sharing, including somatic and genetic disorders like migraine
and tension-type headaches in children and adolescents
[205e207], gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) [208],
dermatitis [209], epilepsy [210,211], febrile seizure [212], Down
syndrome [213], and intellectual disability [214].
Colic in infancy was not associated with bed-sharing at four
years of age in a Swedish study [215]. Bed-sharers had greater odds
of being obese in a large sample of Chinese preschoolers [118]. In
Brazil, children bed-sharing at the age of three months had higher
odds for hospital admission due to pneumonia, but only if they
were not breastfed; no increased odds were found for admission
due to diarrhea [216]. No difference was found between cases of
children with respiratory illness and controls in whether the chil-
dren shared their beds with others (though it was not specified
with whom, and as it pertained to children's bedrooms, it was likely
they shared with siblings) [217]. In a large multi-ethnic cohort, bed-
sharing at 24 months (but not at two months) was associated with
wheezing and asthma at ages three, four and six years [218]. In a US
study, maternal respiratory symptoms were not associated with
bed-sharing [219]. The direction of these mixed findings was often
not clear, and although it seems tempting to infer causality from the
associations, in the case of somatic disorders, bed-sharing as a
parental monitoring tool of existing health conditions can be just as
plausible [220,221]. This calls for cautious interpretation of such
findings, and careful design of future studies.
Infections, disease, and health
Bed-sharing has been examined as a risk factor for the spread of
infectious diseases and parasites. It has been associated with
infection with Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium that colonizes the
human stomach, and with gastric carcinoma and ulceration
[222e225], although these findings are inconsistent [226e229].
Bed-sharing within the family has also been described as a risk
factor for transmission of pertussis [230], hepatitis B [231], scabies
[232], respiratory diphtheria [233], and head lice [234e236]; un-
fortunately, most of these studies did not describe the nature of the
bed-sharing (i.e., between siblings or between children and par-
ents) and often include older children.
In a review, Bloomfield et al. [237] indicate that although
crowding and bed-sharing are often used as proxy indicators of
microbial exposure, it is yet to be elucidated how accurate these
are. No association was found between bed-sharing and tinea
capitis (ringworm on the scalp) [238], meningococcal disease [239],
or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in families of
HIV-infected children [240]. A small study in Canada indicates that
fungal concentrations in mattress dust samples were not correlated
with number of individuals sharing a bed [241]. Finally, a survival
analysis of children bed-sharing at age eleven indicated that these
children did not die earlier than non-bed-sharers [242].
13
Cognition
A Chinese cohort study shows a negative correlation between
bed-sharing and cognitive ability, as assessed using the Chinese
version and norms of the Wechsler preschool and primary scale of
intelligenceerevised (WPPSIeR) [243]. In a study of low-income
families in the US, bed-sharing was not related to cognitive out-
comes (letter-word identification, applied problems) after con-
trolling for maternal and child characteristics [95]. A longitudinal
sample of American families (including some ‘counterculture’
families who chose intentional bed-sharing from infancy) sug-
gested a positive effect of early bed-sharing on cognitive compe-
tence at six years of age [244]. The handful of studies and their
mixed findings perhaps indicate that not every outcome is readily
hypothesized as associated with bed-sharing, since explanations
for an association (or the lack thereof) are not self-evident.
Behavior problems
The evidence of an association between bed-sharing and child
behavioral problems is not clear. In Finland and the US, bed-sharers
did not differ from solitary sleeping children on internalizing or
externalizing problems or overall behavioral problems [47,245]. Bed-
sharing was not associated with three-year olds' symptoms of anxiety
or depression in a large multiethnic cohort in the Netherlands [124],
nor with anxiety in a sample of Turkish children [246]. In a Chinese
sample [247], bed-sharing was not associated with child behavior
regulation. However, it was associated with more empathy and con-
science, but only in children of mothers with positive attitudes to-
wards co-sleeping. On the other hand, 14.2% of bed-sharing healthy
infants from St. Petersburg had significantly less mother-reported
infant positive mood and appeared less persistent (i.e., were less
able to maintain a specific activity for a longer period of time) [248]. In
the US, bed-sharing infants were found to be more reactive, less
adaptable, and less rhythmic than solitary sleepers [113].
In a clinical sample of children with behavior problems, asso-
ciations were reported between bed-sharing and tantrums, lack of
self-confidence, and aggressive behaviors [249]. Bed-sharing was
also more prevalent in children with mental and behavioral disor-
ders like autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and severe learning dif-
ficulties [250e255].
In the one of the few longitudinal studies, bed-sharing was
assessed at ages five months, three, four and six years; no positive
or negative effects were found at age six on measures of behavioral
and emotional maturity, including mood and affect, school
adjustment, interpersonal relationships, self-acceptance,
vandalism, crimes, and substance use [244]. This study did, how-
ever, find a small positive association of bed-sharing with cognitive
competence in six-year-olds [244].
The mixed findings of such studies might be based on mothers'
different motives for bed-sharing [5]. Finally, some have argued that
in cultures with high rates of bed-sharing, there is an absence of the
child problems that are found in North America to be associated with
bed-sharing, particularly emotional and behavior problems [153].
Attachment, dependence, transitional objects
Parental attitudes and societal wisdom in Western nations
reflect the idea that placing children on a separate sleeping surface
as early as birth encourages autonomy, self-soothing, self-reliance,
and later independence. Klackenberg [256] reported that bed-
sharing was ‘difficult to shake off’, with evidence of persisting
bed-sharing tendencies for children who bed-shared at age four.
American mothers and fathers of solitary sleeping children viewed
their arrangement as important for children's independence [22].
14 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
At the same time, advocates of bed-sharing cite the encour-
agement of autonomy as one of the positive reasons for bed-sharing
[257]. Some pediatricians and psychiatrists argue that bed-sharing
enhances maternal-child attachment at night, during a develop-
mental period when the toddler is becoming more independent
during the day [258]. It is somewhat surprising then, that after such
ado about whether sleep location influences the development of
early childhood autonomy, nearly no empirical evidence exists to
support either side's claims. The few identified studies that tackle
this question show mixed evidence: early bed-sharers had a later
age of learning to sleep on their own, but the mothers of these
children also placed less importance on their children's ability to
fall asleep alone [49]. On the other hand, mothers of bed-sharing
preschoolers in South Carolina were more supportive of chil-
dren's independence [115]. Once more, the cross-sectional and
correlational designs of these studies make it difficult to determine
how parental intentions, attitudes, and beliefs, influence the extent
to which children's behavior is seen as problematic.
The association between bed-sharing and secure attachment e
the measure of parent-child bonding that is a staple of develop-
mental psychology e has not been directly tested. One study
indicated that ambivalent attachment was related to sleep prob-
lems, which were in turn associated with active physical comfort-
ing strategies (including bed-sharing) [163]. According to the
authors, the association between ambivalence and sleep problems
is related to inconsistent maternal availability, which acts as a
‘intermittent reinforcer of both infant distress during nighttime
separations and interactive behaviors such as [bed-sharing]’ [259].
However, the questionnaire used to assess parental comforting
strategies did not have good psychometric properties.
A handful of studies have considered attachment objects or
comforting behaviors in bed-sharers. For instance, nearly half of a
sample of children with autism bed-shared with parents, and
moved closer to their parents and physically reached out to parents
during the night, which the authors argue resembles the comfort
and proximity seeking behaviors described in attachment research
[255]. Bed-sharing was not associated with pacifier use in healthy
Russian infants [260], but was associated with less sucking
behavior (pacifier or thumb) in a small observational study of
British infants [261]. A study from the US indicated that the pres-
ence of a parent at the onset of sleep rather than where the child
slept for the night (alone, in parents' room or in parents' bed) was
the biggest predictor of using a transitional object or thumb-
sucking [262]. One study examining the parenting practice
Attachment Parenting (close contact, breastfeeding, bed-sharing)
revealed a low rate of use of transitional objects [263]. In Cauca-
sian middle-class families from Maine, US, solitary sleepers had
more longstanding and stronger attachment to transitional objects
and sleep aids [77]. As with previous sections, the majority of these
studies are cross-sectional and correlational and do not take into
account parental intentions.
Sexual adjustment
The early literature contains references to Freudian and other
theories of psychological harm befalling bed-sharing children.
Childhood exposure to parental nudity, bed-sharing, and ‘primal
scenes’ were suggested to be damaging to the development of a
normal sexual identity, and has been even likened to child sexual
abuse, yet there was no evidence of negative or harmful effects that
actually stem from these practices [264,265]. Similarly, the authors
of an old, small study of a US psychiatric outpatient sample of bed-
sharing children aged twelve years and under conclude that chil-
dren share the bed for three categories of motives: “reduction of
phobic anxiety, reduction of separation anxiety, and the
gratification of sexual impulses” [266]. These theories were based
on psychiatric populations and reflect outdated thinking about
child development, but sometimes persist in the literature [267].
Newer studies with both healthy and psychiatric populations fail to
support the earlier notions of sexualized bed-sharing infants. A study
assessing the effects of early bed-sharing on later sexual adjustment
(using retrospective questionnaires to assess bed-sharing) indicated
different results for males and females: males who had bed-shared
with their parents between birth and five years of age had greater
self-esteem, less guilt and anxiety, greater frequency of sex, and
greater tendency toward casual sexual relationships; for girls, bed-
sharing between birth and five years of age was related to less
discomfort about physical contact/affection in adulthood [268]. Chil-
dren's receiving names from the parents for their genitals was also
associated with bed-sharing, among other factors [269]. Findings from
an eighteen-year longitudinal study suggest that early bed-sharing is
not related to negative psychosexual outcomes [244].
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
A substantial portion of the reviewed literature deals with
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) either directly or indirectly.
Since bed-sharing was first identified as a potential risk factor for
SIDS, the association between the two has been addressed in
multiple countries, across multiple time-points, and with multiple
types of designs. The studies were initially retrospective non-
controlled and small-sample assessments of location of infant
death. Over the years they have come to incorporate control groups
e recruited in various ways e and multiple covariates, including
parental use of drugs, alcohol, smoking, type of sleeping surface,
breastfeeding, and others. The literature is summarized in
Supplementary Table 1 and has been reviewed extensively
[59,270e299]. The literature includes some position papers [300],
and reviews from an evolutionary framework [301e304]. For a
recent meta-analysis, see [11]. Here we review the potential risk
mechanisms for SIDS in bed-sharing infants, interventions and
recommendations to reduce infant bed-sharing, and issues that
complicate the debate on bed-sharing as a risk factor for SIDS.
Risks
There are purported risks to bed-sharing infants of airway
covering or obstruction [305,306], overlying [307,308], asphyxia
[309], mechanical suffocation [310], strangulation [311], and nasal
hemorrhage and oronasal bleeding [312e314]. Observation and
laboratory studies show that some potentially unsafe practices
occur during bed-sharing. These include the use of sheepskin
bedding [315], soft bedding [316,317], bottle propping [316],
sleeping on the sofa [316], pillows [318], non-prone position [319]
(but see [317], and more thermal insulation [320]. In a small lab-
oratory study, the majority of bed-sharing infants spent some part
of the night with their airway passages covered, compared with
two out of 20 cot-sleeping infants [182]. However, these covering
events did not correspond to significant differences in heart rate or
oxygen saturation, and mothers frequently uncovered their infants
at night [182]. One recent study shows that the multivariate risk of
bed-sharing after controlling for other hazardous circumstances is
not significant [321] and another suggests the evidence for the risks
of bed-sharing is ‘low quality’ [322].
There have also been suggested physiological benefits (e.g.,
breastfeeding, physiological regulation [257,323e326]) and safety
benefits (e.g., position infants flat on the mattress, below pillow
level, mother and infant oriented toward each other) of bed-sharing
[327]. Yet accidental asphyxia during breastfeeding is possible
[328], and much debate surrounds the issue [329e333].
 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
In the laboratory, bed-sharing was associated with more central
apneas, fewer obstructive apneas, and more periodic breathing than
in the solitary environment [334]. However, data from the New
Zealand cot death study show no association between apnea and
infant care practices known to be associated with SIDS, such as prone
sleep position, bed-sharing, lack of pacifier use and bottle feeding
[335]. There might be a genetic predisposition for SIDS risk, known
as ‘long QT syndrome’, although the benefits of studying this syn-
drome are debated [336]. Several other theories have been put forth,
including that bed-sharers and solitary sleepers might have differ-
ential mechanisms leading to SIDS. For instance, bed-sharing SIDS
cases exhibit a smaller male to female ratio (2:1 for solitary sleeping
and 0.8:1 for bed-sharing) [337], greater hypoxia exposure [338],
and lower levels of beta-amyloid precursor protein (a biomarker of
traumatic axonal injury) [339] compared with solitary sleeping SIDS
cases. Furthermore, bed-sharing is associated with a greater risk of
SIDS in the non face-down group of children, but not in the face-
down group of children [340]. Yet another theory suggests infants
dying of SIDS have a dietary insufficiency in selenium and iodine,
which can compromise nighttime thermoregulation and elevate
SIDS risks in bed-sharers [341]. The risk mechanisms associated with
SIDS are complex and multiform, hampering clear explanations
about the mechanisms behind the association between bed-sharing
and SIDS. A coupling of epidemiological research and physiological
observational studies must occur for these mechanisms to be un-
covered. Prospective studies of SIDS are nearly impossible, but at the
very least future studies ought to account for the parental intentions
surrounding bed-sharing in SIDS cases: was the decision to bed-
share made only on the night of SIDS death, and in response to
aberrant circumstances with the infant on that particular night? Or
was it a routine for that particular infant?
Recommendations and interventions
Recommendations against bed-sharing in the context of SIDS
reduction have been made multiple times since 1992 [342e362], but
they are often unclear, inconsistent, or contradictory [363e366], and
change over time [367,368]. For instance, guidelines for hospitalized
children urge against bed-sharing [369] whereas guidelines for
midwifery practice [370,371] and nursing [59,372] often indicate
there is “no right answer” [373e375] and bed-sharing is a “complex
practice” [58]. Although not government policy, many professionals
rely on the recommendations of the American Academy of Pediatrics
(AAP), which recommends no bed-sharing situation as safe
[376,377]. There are, however, disagreements within the AAP on
recommendations and advice [378e381]. On the internet, only 20%
of all websites located by Google Search using 13 key phrases
including “infant sleep position” and “infant sleep surface” offered
information in accordance with AAP recommendations [382].
At least in the US there is a call for a strong and no-nonsense
approach in recommending against bed-sharing [383e387], but at
the same time pediatricians are advised to be nonjudgmental and to
be aware of one's own cultural biases [388,389]. Yet clinicians' advice
against bed-sharing does not always influence the decision to bed-
share [18,390]. In Turkey and in the US, the majority of mothers
were aware of bed-sharing as a risk for SIDS [391,392]. Early cam-
paigns aimed at reducing SIDS risks found increases in the number of
bed-sharing and room-sharing families following the campaign
[393,394]. Interventions and risk-reduction campaigns to reduce
infant bed-sharing have had mixed success [156,295,395e406]. In-
terventions aimed at decreasing bed-sharing in older children e as
an attempt to curb sleeping problems e showed a mixed efficacy as
well [144,407,408]. A recent review suggests using a socio-ecological
model to explore multiple levels of influences on bed-sharing,
enabling the development of better interventions for target groups
[409]. Finally, portable sleeping spaces might be used in conjunction
15
with bed-sharing to allow parents peace of mind about safety while
sleeping within arms' reach of their infants [410].
Debate
The literature on SIDS is accompanied by a weighty controversy
and debate (e.g., [258,411e425]). The themes of the debate are often
polarized, either opposing bed-sharing as inherently risky [426] or
supporting bed-sharing as a ‘natural’ parental practice in which
context human-infant physiology has evolved [427], or having
falsely-presented, biased, or overestimated risks (e.g., [428e433]).
A hefty portion of the debate surrounds the limitations of SIDS
research that implicates bed-sharing, such as the failure to account
for ‘routine’ bed-sharing. Detailed clinical histories do not exist in
most SIDS studies, because “no one ever asks the parents” [434] and
thus an infant dying of SIDS on the only night it bed-shared creates
a coincidence which may lead to the potentially erroneous identi-
fication of bed-sharing as a risk factor [435]. Of two empirical
studies ever taking into account routine vs. night-of-death-only
bed-sharing, neither showed a significant relation between
routine bed-sharing and SIDS risk [14,436].
The field is also hampered by coroners and pathologists' use of
different terminology and varying criteria for SIDS diagnosis
[437e439]; and by a growing “reluctance to diagnose SIDS when
the death occurs while sharing the parental bed” [440]. For further
empirical and debate articles on this topic, see [441e444] [empir-
ical] and [445e449] [debate]. Other criticisms that have been
debated include inadequate design of studies purporting to show a
link between bed-sharing and SIDS [450e452], such as including
only numerator data [453,454] and not including relative data
about deaths in cots [310,455e463].
There is significant debate about whether bed-sharing has been
unnecessarily singled out among other risk factors and applied to all
groups regardless of existing other risk factors [446,464e473], or
whether a sweeping anti-bed-sharing message is best
[290,324,330,354,432,450,474e479]. Ultimately, this boils down to
the argument that causality cannot be inferred from epidemiological
or cross-sectional studies [480e482]. Some argue there is not enough
evidence to either support or reject bed-sharing [449,453,476,483e4
86], that the assertions of risks are unjustified [487] or should be
qualified to high-risk groups only [488], and that after identifying
significant SIDS risk factors ‘the benefit of any further message on
reducing the risk of SIDS is likely to be marginal at best’ [435].
In the case of the New Zealand cot death association, the rec-
ommendations target the highest risk groups who smoke [489],
including Maori mothers [490e496] who place a cultural emphasis
on bed-sharing [397] and express confusion that putting baby in a
cot would give it cot-death [497]. Anti-bed-sharing messages to
Maori parents might lead to distrust or disregard for safe sleeping
advice [472]. The Maori issue raises an important point in the
ongoing debate: culture can complicate discussions of bed-sharing
and sleep [438,498e503]. Some argue that there are actually lower
SIDS cases in countries in which bed-sharing is common (e.g.,
Zimbabwe, Hong Kong) even in the presence of high risk-factors
[456,504e508] and that culture-specific language can pathologize
bed-sharing [159] or reveal inherent Western-culture biases
against bed-sharing [426,479,509e511]. Practitioners in multi-
ethnic settings must often consider culture specific caregiving
practices [512] and might encourage room-sharing with the infant
sleeping on a separate, but proximal, sleep surface [389]. Fleming,
Pease, and Blair recently concluded that the evidence of risks of
bed-sharing for breastfeeding mothers who do not smoke, drink
alcohol, or use recreational drugs is “very limited” [513] Undoubt-
edly, most bed-sharing research, including research on SIDS, is
Western-centric and would greatly benefit from a more complete
examination of worldwide practices, risks, and patterns.
16 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
Discussion
Following an exhaustive narrative review of 659 studies address-
ing bed-sharing, we note a rather disproportionate emphasis in the
literature on the pathological, abnormal, and worrisome dimensions
of bed-sharing. As a relatively new cultural phenomenon, the practice
of putting infants to sleep in a separate surface has come to dominate
the literature as the normal and correct strategy for infant sleep. The
reviewed literature has many common themes that warn of dangers
for bed-sharing parents e from the most ominous SIDS, to sleep
problems, maternal depression, suboptimal infant emotional devel-
opment, and many others. The discrete empirical evidence behind
each of these purported risks is often lacking. A sheer volume of
literature does not readily equate with quality designs, and many
covariates and confounders are different across studies, adding to the
heterogeneity of studies. This is most apparent in the SIDS literature,
the topic which appears to be the most polarizing, but also exists in
other subdomains of bed-sharing literature. For SIDS and bed-sharing,
the storm of controversy has brewed for over twenty years; and the
target has continually shifted: from bed-sharing in smoking and
drinking mothers, to e recently e all bed-sharing [514]. The under-
lying message of the opponents of bed-sharing is that it is a dangerous
practice, associated with harms for both infant and parent mental and
somatic health.
In the midst of this is the ongoing voice of the ‘pro-bed-sharing’
community, supported by a handful of laboratory studies evidencing
purported physiological and behavioral benefits of bed-sharing. This
side, too, is burdened by a lack of evidence. The underlying message
of this side is that bed-sharing is a natural, evolutionarily meaningful
practice with many benefits for both parents and their children, but
most of the associated studies are prohibitively small and lack
replication efforts. The conversation does not seem to have changed
in the last 25 y [506]. If bed-sharing is a natural, evolutionary
meaningful practice [515], then there must be supportive evidence
of underlying physiological, biological, or psychological correlates.
While McKenna and others have diligently pursued this line of work
for decades, with clever designs and intriguing first findings point-
ing to a synchrony between caregivers and their infants, more evi-
dence has not followed. McKenna and Gettler recently argued that
there is “no such thing as infant sleep, there is no such thing as
breastfeeding, there is only breastsleeping” [516], a concept which
has met some early opposition [517]. The differences in opinion
surrounding children's autonomy and sleep problems as a function
of bed-sharing have not been resolved. We do not know what
‘normal’ infant sleep architecture looks like. It is unclear whether
this lack of continued research into normative physiological and
psychological characteristics and potential benefits in bed-sharing
children stems from a cultural taboo on the practice, or whether
the SIDS research has stymied the exploration of bed-sharing in a
non-clinical context. Other factors that should be considered include
the widely varying cultural and ethnic backgrounds of the studies
reporting on parenting practices and bed-sharing, even within the
same nation; as well as the wide age-ranges across which studies on
bed-sharing have been conducted. Esposito et al. [518] call for a
multilevel approach to the analysis of predictors of bed-sharing,
with the goal of constructing a physio-bioecological analysis of
sleeping arrangements in early infancy.
The need for psycho-anthro-pediatrics
We argue that conclusive evidence is lacking not because of
negative findings, but rather because of a lack of focus on current
gaps in knowledge. The pediatric research has assumed for better
or for worse that bed-sharing is likely a risk to be eradicated, but
most such research is correlational and cross-sectional or
retrospective. The anthropological research has often assumed the
inherent ‘naturalness’ of this practice, but most research has been
either done on very small samples or has not been replicated.
Psychologists e particularly developmental psychologists and
attachment theorists who we believe are sorely needed e have
shied away from the conversation thus far, despite the widespread
lay use of terms such as ‘attachment’ in relation to bed-sharing.
Evidence that is to form the basis of world-wide recommendations
must be sound. McKenna, Ball, and Gettler have encouraged anthro-
pologists to become more involved in pediatrics research and have
called for a more holistic, integrative approach to the study of bed-
sharing [4]. To date, the literature and associated advice is predomi-
nantly informed by the pediatrics literature [519]. Thoman argues that
views on bed-sharing must continue to be informed by evidence from
epidemiology, physiology, and anthropology e if issues are to be
addressed by more than strongly held opinions [5], and a recent call
for cross-fertilization in this field has been made [377]. However,
developmental psychology has not been mentioned before and
therefore much work still needs to be done to foster an informed
discussion in this area [413]. Developmental psychology might be a
particularly helpful recruit in the pursuit of a more integrative disci-
pline. The study of bed-sharing from infancy through childhood re-
quires careful probing of different age-dependent covariates,
predictors, and consequences. The socio-emotional and physical
needs of children, and the effects of parental practices across child-
hood, must be examined through a developmental lens.
It is time for scientists to stray from the thick grooves made in the
field of bed-sharing. It is time for pediatrics/epidemiology, anthro-
pology/evolutionary psychology, and psychiatry/developmental
psychology, to join forces in a new subfield that we label
psychoanthropediatrics. Psychologists and psychiatrists (‘psycho’)
can assess normative and clinical developmental issues; sociologists
and anthropologists (‘anthro’) can inform the field about evolu-
tionary and cultural issues; and pediatricians can assess clinical
risks, health costs and benefits, and burdens on families of particular
rearing practices. The field of psychoanthropediatrics can and
should extend beyond sleep studies, to include other controversial
parenting practices and parent-child interactions that would benefit
from this multidisciplinary approach. Helping future studies move
forward could be achieved by the integration of expertise and,
potentially, by “adversarial collaboration” [377] between scholars on
opposite sides of the debate tasked with three common goals. First,
improving study designs, starting from longitudinal and cohort
designs, via observations of parenting practices to experimental
studies. Second, implementing more cross-cultural studies with
attention for cultural biases and beliefs which ‘can be so powerful
that parents are known to act on them, setting aside what their
senses might tell them about their own children’ [520]. Third, by
working from a psychoanthropediatrics framework, encompassing
knowledge from developmental, culture sensitive and clinical per-
spectives. These collaborative efforts will then allow scholars,
practitioners, and parents to make well-informed choices about
daily parenting practices [521], while keeping the healthy devel-
opment of the child e and the child's family e at the forefront.
Conclusion
If the reviewed literature is to be any indication, the debate
surrounding bed-sharing is not likely to disappear. An increasing
number of studies alleging SIDS risk in bed-sharing infants does not
equate to a simple majority-wins vote-count, particularly if publi-
cation bias and methodological flaws restrict the clarity of the ev-
idence. Much of the world bed-shares and appears to do so without
great risks. Similarly, stating the ‘naturalness’ of a practice does not
alleviate the stress that many parents report when bed-sharing.
 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
Cultural and societal factors cannot simply be discarded in these
discussions. Correlational and cross-sectional designs can only
carry us so far. Headway can be made when the major players face
the multi-faceted complexities of this parenting practice and
honestly appraise the methodology with which they aim to relieve
the burden of evidence.
Practice points
1. Parent and child bed-sharing is one of the most contro-
versial topics in parenting research, and parents and
practitioners often make decisions based on information
from the popularized and polarized debate.
2. Many studies that address bed-sharing focus either on
the problematic and dangerous effects, or on the positive
and natural side of the practice, but both sides struggle
without convincing empirical evidence.
3. The lack of sound study designs precludes making
strong public recommendations about the pros and cons
of bed-sharing. To improve advice, we call for an inte-
grated approach to study the practice of bed-sharing so
that both parents and practitioners are able to make
evidence-based decisions about sleeping arrangements.
Research agenda
1. Amidst a multitude of studies on parent-child bed-
sharing, there is a lack of research into normative phys-
iological and psychological characteristics of infant sleep
during bed-sharing and solitary sleeping, and potential
developmental benefits of bed-sharing vs. solitary
sleeping.
2. Without longitudinal and experimental designs, it is
impossible to untangle the cause-effect relationships
between parental perceptions, sleeping arrangements,
and later child development.
3. A long-standing challenge is the distinction between
bed-sharing that happens intentionally or reactively, and
the respective correlates of these two types of bed-
sharing.
4. Cross-cultural studies of substantial sample size are
needed, which include physiological, polysomno-
graphic, and diary data from infants (and their parents)
during sleep in multiple settings (e.g., bed-sharing,
room-sharing, solitary sleeping).
5. We urge for the multiple subfields e anthropology,
psychology/psychiatry, and pediatrics e to jointly study
infant sleep, encompassing knowledge from develop-
mental, culture-sensitive, and clinical perspectives. This
will allow scholars, practitioners, and parents to make
well-informed choices about daily parenting practices,
while keeping the healthy development of the child e
and the child's family e at the forefront.
Conflicts of interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.
17
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge the contribution of Marit Spillenaar
Bilgen, Nora Abdulgani Naji, and Afza Iqbal to the data collection.
We also would like to thank Marinus van IJzendoorn and Henning
Tiemeier for critical evaluation of the manuscript. The present
study was supported by grants from the Netherlands Organization
for Scientific Research (NWO): an NWO RUBICON prize no 446-11-
023 to VRM-S, and NWO VICI grant no. 453-09-003 to MJB-K. MJB-K
was also supported by the Gravitation programme of the Dutch
Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science and the Netherlands
Organization for Scientific Research (NWO grant number
024.001.003) and the European Research Council (AdG 669249).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2016.03.003.
References
[1] Ferber R. Solve your child's sleep problems: new, revised, and expanded
edition. New York: Simon & Schuster; 2006.
[2] Owens J. Sleep in children: cross-cultural perspect. 2004. p. 165e73.
[3] Sharts-Hopko NC. Co-sleeping. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 2005;30:142.
*[4] McKenna JJ, Ball HL, Gettler LT. Mother-infant cosleeping, breastfeeding
and sudden infant death syndrome: what biological anthropology has
discovered about normal infant sleep and pediatric sleep medicine. Am J
Phys Anthropol 2007;(Suppl. 45):133e61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/
ajpa.20736.
*[5] Thoman B. Co-sleeping, an ancient practice: issues of the past and pre-
sent, and possibilities for the future. Sleep Med Rev 2006;10:407e17.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2005.12.001.
[6] Alm B. To co-sleep or not to sleep? Acta Paediatr 2007;96:1385e6. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2007.00524.x.
[7] Weisner TS. Culture, development, and diversity: expectable pluralism,
conflict, and similarity. Ethos 2009;37:181e96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/
j.1548-1352.2009.01037.x.182.
[8] Valentin SR. Commentary: sleep in German infantsethe “cult” of inde-
pendence. Pediatrics 2005;115:269e71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/
peds.2004-0815J.
[9] Mosko SS, McKenna JJ, Dickel M, Hunt L. Parent-infant cosleeping: the
appropriate context for the study of infant sleep and implications for
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) research. J Behav Med 1993;16:
589e610.
[10] Cooper H. Editorial. Psychol Bull 2003;129:3e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/
0033-2909.129.1.3.
[11] Zhang K, Wang X. Maternal smoking and increased risk of sudden infant
death syndrome: a meta-analysis. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2013;15:115e21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.legalmed.2012.10.007.
[12] Ateah CA, Hamelin KJ. Maternal bedsharing practices, experiences, and
awareness of risks. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 2008;37:274e81.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1552-6909.2008.00242.x.
*[13] Mindell J, Sadeh A, Wiegand B, How TH, Goh DYT. Cross-cultural differ-
ences in infant and toddler sleep. Sleep Med 2010;11:274e80. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2009.04.012.
[14] Arnestad M, Andersen M, Vege A, Rognum TO. Changes in the epidemi-
ological pattern of sudden infant death syndrome in southeast Norway,
1984-1998: implications for future prevention and research. Arch Dis
Child 2001;85:108e15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.85.2.108.
[15] Mindell J, Sadeh A, Kwon R, Goh DYT. Cross-cultural differences in the
sleep of preschool children. Sleep Med 2013;14:1283e9. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.sleep.2013.09.002.
*[16] Ball HL. Reasons to bed-share: why parents sleep with their infants.
J Reprod Infant Psychol 2002;20:207e21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
0264683021000033147.
[17] Hutchison L, Stewart AW, Mitchell E. SIDS-protective infant care prac-
tices among Auckland, New Zealand mothers. N Z Med J 2006;119:
U2365.
[18] Chianese J, Ploof D, Trovato C, Chang JC. Inner-city caregivers' perspectives
on bed sharing with their infants. Acad Pediatr 2009;9:26e32. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2008.11.005.
[19] Glover M, Waldon J, Manaena-Biddle H, Holdaway M, Cunningham C.
Barriers to best outcomes in breastfeeding for Maori: mothers'
* The most important references are denoted by an asterisk.
18 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
perceptions, whanau perceptions, and services. J Hum Lact 2009;25:
307e16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0890334409332436.
[20] Joyner BL, Oden RP, Ajao TI, Moon R. Where should my baby sleep: a
qualitative study of African American infant sleep location decisions. J Natl
Med Assoc 2010;102:881e9.
*[21] Tikotzky L, Sharabany R, Hirsch I, Sadeh A. “Ghosts in the Nursery:” infant
sleep and sleep-related cognitions of parents raised under communal
sleeping arrangements. Infant Ment Health J 2010;31:312e34. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1002/imhj.
[22] Germo GR, Chang ES, Keller MA, Goldberg WA. Child sleep arrangements
and family life: perspectives from mothers and fathers 2007;456:433e56.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/icd.
[23] Aviezer O, Scher A. Children's sleep regulation is linked to mothers' sleep-
related childhood experiences. Early Child Res Q 2013;28:271e81. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.07.004.
[24] Doering JJ. The physical and social environment of sleep in socioeco-
nomically disadvantaged postpartum women. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal
Nurs 2012;42:E33e43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1552-
6909.2012.01421.x.
[25] Oden RP, Joyner BL, Ajao TI, Moon R. Factors influencing African American
mothers' decisions about sleep position: a qualitative study. J Natl Med
Assoc 2010;102:870e2. 875e80.
[26] Roncolato W, McMahon C, Grant K-A. Facilitators and regulators: ante-
natal maternal orientation and postnatal parenting practices. J Reprod
Infant Psychol 2014;32:214e29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
02646838.2014.904962.
[27] Volpe LE, Ball HL. Infant sleep-related deaths: why do parents take risks?
Arch Dis Child 2015;100:603e4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-
2014-307745.
[28] Fowler AJ, Evans PW, Etchegaray JM, Ottenbacher A, Arnold C. Safe sleep
practices and sudden infant death syndrome risk reduction: NICU and
well-baby nursery graduates. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2013;52:1044e53.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0009922813506038.
[29] Jain S, Romack R, Jain R. Bed sharing in school-age childreneclinical and
social implications. J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Nurs 2011;24:185e9. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6171.2011.00293.x.
[30] Taylor N, Donovan W, Leavitt L. Consistency in infant sleeping arrange-
ments and mother-infant interaction. Infant Ment Health J 2008;29:
77e94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/imhj.
[31] Hooker E, Ball HL, Kelly PJ. Sleeping like a baby: attitudes and experiences
of bedsharing in northeast England. Med Anthropol 2001;19:203e22.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01459740.2001.9966176.
[32] Ball HL, Hooker E, Kelly PJ. Where will the baby sleep? Attitudes and
practices of new and experienced parents regarding cosleeping with their
new-born infants. Am Anthropol 1999;101:143e51. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1525/aa.1999.101.1.143.
[33] Tully KP, Holditch-Davis D, Brandon D. The relationship between planned
and reported Home infant sleep locations among mothers of late preterm
and term infants. Matern Child Health J 2015;19:1616e23. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-015-1672-7.
[34] Hauck FR, Tanabe KO, McMurry T, Moon RY. Evaluation of bedtime basics
for babies: a national crib distribution program to reduce the risk of sleep-
related sudden infant deaths. J Community Health 2015;40:457e63.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10900-014-9957-0.
[35] Crowell J, Keener M, Ginsburg N, Anders T. Sleep habits in toddlers 18 to
36 months old. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1987;26:510e5.
[36] Giannotti F, Cortesi F. Family and cultural influences on sleep develop-
ment. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2009;18:849e61. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2009.04.003.
[37] Connell-Carrick K. Trends in popular parenting books and the need for
parental critical thinking. Child Welf 2006;85:819e36.
[38] Chou W-H. Co-sleeping and the importation of picture books about
bedtime. Child Lit Educ 2008;40:19e32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
s10583-008-9074-8.
[39] Joyner BL, Gill-Bailey C, Moon R. Infant sleep environments depicted in
magazines targeted to women of childbearing age. Pediatrics 2009;124:
e416e22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-3735.
[40] Ramos KD, Youngclarke DM. Parenting advice books about child sleep:
cosleeping and crying it out. Sleep 2006;29:1616e23.
[41] Lee N. Observations based upon multiple telephone contacts with new
breastfeeding mothers. J Hum Lact 1997;13:147e50. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1177/089033449701300217.
[42] Gribble KD. A model for caregiving of adopted children after institution-
alization. J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Nurs 2007;20:14e26. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1111/j.1744-6171.2007.00076.x.
[43] Hotelling BA, Dona CD. Styles of parenting 2004;13:42e4.
[44] Green KE, Groves MM. Attachment parenting: an exploration of de-
mographics and practices. Early Child Dev Care 2008;178:513e25. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004430600851199.
[45] Ramos KD. Intentional versus reactive co-sleeping. Sleep Res Online
2003;5:141e7.
[46] Ramos KD, Youngclarke D, Anderson JE. Parental perceptions of sleep
problems among co-sleeping and solitary sleeping children. Infant Child
Dev 2007;16:417e31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/icd.
[47] Madansky D, Edelbrock C. Cosleeping in a community sample of 2- and 3-
year-old children. Pediatrics 1990;86:197e203.
[48] Roncolato W, McMahon C. Facilitators and regulators: infant sleep prac-
tices and maternal subjective well-being. J Reprod Infant Psychol 2013;31:
134e47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2013.766922.
[49] Germo GRG, Goldberg WA, Keller MA. Learning to sleep through the
night: solution or strain for mothers and young children? Infant Ment
Health J 2009;30:223e44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/imhj.
[50] Countermine M, Teti D. Sleep arrangements and maternal adaptation in
infancy. Infant Ment Health J 2010;31:647e63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/
imhj.
[51] Rothrauff T, Middlemiss W, Jacobson L. Comparison of American and
Austrian infants' and toddlers' sleep habits: a retrospective, exploratory
study. N Am J Psychol 2004;6:125e44.
[52] Messmer R, Miller LD, Yu CM. The relationship between parent-infant bed
sharing and marital satisfaction for mothers of infants. Fam Relat 2012;61:
798e810. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2012.00734.x.
[53] Cortesi F, Giannotti F, Sebastiani T, Vagnoni C, Marioni P. Cosleeping versus
solitary sleeping in children with bedtime problems: child emotional
problems and parental distress. Behav Sleep Med 2008;6:89e105. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1080/15402000801952922.
[54] Dollberg D, Shalev O, Chen P. “Someone”s been sleeping in my bed!’
parental satisfaction associated with solitary and parent-child co-sleeping
in Israeli families with young children. Early Child Dev Care 2010;180:
869e78.
[55] Hanks C, Rebelsky F. Mommy and the midnight visitor: a study of occa-
sional co-sleeping. Psychiatry 1977;40:277e80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/
00332747.1977.11023940.
[56] Lozoff B, Askew GL, Wolf AW. Cosleeping and early childhood sleep
problems: effects of ethnicity and socioeconomic status. J Dev Behav
Pediatr 1996;17:9e15.
[57] Winstanley A, Gattis M. The baby care questionnaire: a measure of
parenting principles and practices during infancy. Infant Behav Dev
2013;36:762e75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2013.08.004.
[58] The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine. ABM clinical protocol #6:
guideline on co-sleeping and breastfeeding. Revision, March 2008.
Breastfeed Med 2008;3:38e43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/bfm.2007.9979.
[59] Buswell SD, Spatz DL. Parent-infant co-sleeping and its relationship to
breastfeeding. J Pediatr Health Care 2007;21:22e8. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.pedhc.2006.04.006.
[60] DeLeon CW, Karraker KH, Hildebrandt K, Karraker KH. Intrinsic and
extrinsic factors associated with night waking in 9-month-old infants.
Infant Behav Dev 2007;30:596e605. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.infbeh.2007.03.009.
[61] McCoy RC, Hunt CE, Lesko SM, Vezina R, Corwin MJ, Willinger M, et al.
Frequency of bed sharing and its relationship to breastfeeding. J Dev
Behav Pediatr 2004;25:141e9.
[62] Blair P, Ball HL. The prevalence and characteristics associated with parent-
infant bed-sharing in England. Arch Dis Child 2004;89:1106e10. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2003.038067.
[63] Ball HL. Bed-sharing practices of initially breastfed infants in the first 6
months of life. Infant Child Dev 2007;16:387e401. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1002/icd.
[64] Blair P, Heron J, Fleming P. Relationship between bed sharing and
breastfeeding: longitudinal, population-based analysis. Pediatrics
2010;126:e1119e26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-1277.
[65] Clements MS, Mitchell E, Wright SP, Esmail A, Jones DR, Ford RP. In-
fluences on breastfeeding in southeast England. Acta Paediatr 1997;86:
51e6.
[66] Howel D, Ball HL. Association between length of exclusive breastfeeding
and subsequent breastfeeding continuation. J Hum Lact 2013;29:579e85.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0890334413492908.
[67] Santos IS, Mota DM, Matijasevich A, Barros AJD, Barros FCF. Bed-sharing at
3 months and breast-feeding at 1 year in southern Brazil. J Pediatr
2009;155:505e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.04.037.
[68] Galler JR, Harrison RH, Ramsey F. Bed-sharing, breastfeeding and maternal
moods in Barbados. Infant Behav Dev 2006;29:526e34. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.infbeh.2006.07.003.
[69] Ford RP, Mitchell E, Scragg RK, Stewart AW, Taylor BJ, Allen EM. Factors
adversely associated with breast feeding in New Zealand. J Paediatr Child
Health 1994;30:483e9.
[70] Weerheijm K, Uyttendaele-Speybrouck B, Euwe H, Groen HJ. Pro-
longed demand breast-feeding and nursing caries. Caries Res 1997;32:
46e50.
[71] Tan KL. Factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding among infants
under six months of age in peninsular malaysia. Int Breastfeed J 2011;6:2.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1746-4358-6-2.
[72] Galbally M, Lewis AJ, McEgan K, Scalzo K, Islam FA. Breastfeeding and
infant sleep patterns: an Australian population study. J Paediatr Child
Health 2013;49:E147e52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jpc.12089.
[73] Hughes A, Gallagher S, Hannigan A. A cluster analysis of reported sleeping
patterns of 9-Month old infants and the association with maternal health:
results from a population based cohort study. Matern Child Health J 2015:
1881e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-015-1701-6.
 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
[74] Nelson E, Yu L-MM, Williams S. International Child Care Practices study:
breastfeeding and pacifier use. J Hum Lact 2005;21:289e95. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1177/0890334405278489.
[75] Kadakia A, Joyner B, Tender J, Oden R, Moon RY. Breastfeeding in African
Americans may not depend on sleep arrangement: a mixed-methods
study. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2015;54:47e53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/
0009922814547565.
[76] Cortesi F, Giannotti F, Sebastiani T, Vagnoni C. Cosleeping and sleep
behavior in Italian school-aged children. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2004;25:
28e33.
[77] Hayes M, Roberts S, Stowe R. Early childhood co-sleeping: parent-child
and parent-infant nighttime interactions. Infant Ment Health J 1996;17:
348e57.
[78] McBean AL, Montgomery-Downs HE. What are postpartum women doing
while the rest of the world is asleep? J Sleep Res 2015;24:270e8. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12265.
[79] Huang Y, Hauck FRF, Signore C, Yu A, Raju TNK, Huang TT-K, et al. Influ-
ence of bedsharing activity on breastfeeding duration among US mothers.
JAMA Pediatr 2013;167:1038e44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/
jamapediatrics.2013.2632.
[80] McKenna JJ, Mosko S, Richard CA. Bedsharing promotes breastfeeding.
Pediatrics 1997;100:214e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.100.2.214.
[81] Ball HL. Breastfeeding, bed-sharing, and infant sleep. Birth 2003;30:
181e8.
[82] Brenner RA, Simons-Morton BG, Bhaskar B, Revenis M, Das A, Clemens JD.
Infant-parent bed sharing in an inner-city population. Arch Pediatr Ado-
lesc Med 2003;157:33e9.
[83] Ball HL, Moya E, Fairley L, Westman J, Oddie S, Wright J. Bed- and sofa-
sharing practices in a UK biethnic population. Pediatrics 2012;129:
e673e81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1964.
[84] Ball HL, Ward-Platt MP, Heslop E, Leech SJ, Brown KA. Randomised trial of
infant sleep location on the postnatal ward. Arch Dis Child 2006;91:
1005e10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2006.099416.
[85] Baddock SA, Galland BC, Beckers MGS, Taylor BJ, Bolton DPG. Bed-sharing
and the infant's thermal environment in the home setting. Arch Dis Child
2004;89:1111e6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2003.048082.
[86] Gettler LT, McKenna JJ. Evolutionary perspectives on mother-infant sleep
proximity and breastfeeding in a laboratory setting. Am J Phys Anthropol
2011;144:454e62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21426.
[87] Pires GN, Tufik S, Andersen ML. May the association of mother-Infant
proximity and breastfeeding be extended to a 24 h framework?ea
comment on Gettler and McKenna. Am J Phys Anthropol 2011;146:150e1.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21552.
[88] Adler MR, Hyderi A. Co-sleeping discussion omitted breastfeeding: the
authors respond. J Fam Pract 2007;56:110e1.
[89] Hiscock H. Infant sleep problems and postnatal depressionea community-
based study 107-1317. Pediatrics 2001;107(6):1317e22.
[90] Teti DM, Crosby B, Mcdaniel BT, Shimizu M, Whitesell CJ. Marital and
emotional adjustment in mothers and infant sleep arrangements during
the first six months. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 2015;80:160e76. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/mono.12150.
[91] Broussard DL, Sappenfield WM, Goodman DA. The black and white of
infant back sleeping and infant bed sharing in Florida, 2004e2005.
Matern Child Health J 2012;16:713e24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-
011-0768-y.
[92] Luijk MPCM, Mileva-Seitz VR, Jansen PW, van IJzendoorn MH,
Jaddoe VWV, Raat H, et al. Ethnic differences in prevalence and de-
terminants of mother-child bed-sharing in early childhood. Sleep Med
2013;14:1092e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2013.04.019.
[93] Salm Ward TC, Ngui EM. Factors associated with bed-sharing for African
American and White mothers in Wisconsin. Matern Child Health J 2014:
720e32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-014-1545-5.
[94] Teti DM, Crosby B. Maternal depressive symptoms, dysfunctional cogni-
tions, and infant night waking: the role of maternal nighttime behavior.
Child Dev 2012;83:939e53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
8624.2012.01760.x.
[95] Barajas RG, Martin A, Brooks-Gunn J, Hale L. Mother-child bed-sharing in
toddlerhood and cognitive and behavioral outcomes. Pediatrics 2011;128:
e339e47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-3300.
[96] Wolke D, Riegel K. Co-morbidity of crying and feeding problems with
sleeping problems in infancy: concurrent and predictive associations
1995;4:191e207.
[97] Kelmanson IA, Adulas EI. Environmental characteristics and sleep in two-
month-old infants. Klin P€ adiatrie 2004;216:259e63. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1055/s-2004-44903.
[98] Ball HL, Hooker E, Kelly PJ. Parent e infant co-sleeping: fathers' roles and
perspectives. Infant Child Dev 2000;74:67e74.
[99] Gettler LT, McKenna JJ, McDade TW, Agustin SS, Kuzawa CW. Does
cosleeping contribute to lower testosterone levels in fathers? Evidence
from the Philippines. PLoS One 2012;7:e41559. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0041559.
[100] Baddock SA, Galland BC, Taylor BJ, Bolton DPG. Sleep arrangements and
behavior of bed-sharing families in the home setting. Pediatrics 2007;119:
e200e7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-0744.
19
[101] El Shakankiry HM. Sleep physiology and sleep disorders in childhood. Nat
Sci Sleep 2011;3:101e14. http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/NSS.S22839.
[102] Mao A, Burnham MM, Goodlin-Jones BL, Gaylor EE, Anders TF.
A comparison of the sleep-wake patterns of cosleeping and solitary-
sleeping infants. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 2004;35:95e105. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10578-004-1879-0.
[103] Kozyrskyj AL, Kendall GE, Zubrick SR, Newnham JP, Sly PD. Frequent
nocturnal awakening in early life is associated with nonatopic asthma in
children. Eur Respir J Off J Eur Soc Clin Respir Physiol 2009;34:1288e95.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00040509.
[104] Coulombe JA, Reid GJ. What do preschool-aged children do when they
wake at night: toward an understanding of night-waking behaviors
among community children. Behav Sleep Med 2014;12:89e105. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1080/15402002.2013.764527.
[105] Fukumizu M, Kaga M, Kohyama J, Hayes M. Sleep-related nighttime crying
(yonaki) in Japan: a community-based study. Pediatrics 2005;115:217e24.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-0815C.
[106] BaHammam A, Alameri H, Hersi A. Cosleeping and its correlates in Saudi
school-aged children. Int J Behav Med 2008;15:336e40. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1080/10705500802365623.
[107] Huang X-N, Wang H-S, Chang J-J, Wang L-H, Liu X-C, Jiang J-X, et al.
Feeding methods, sleep arrangement, and infant sleep patterns: a Chinese
population-based study. World J Pediatr 2015:1e10. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1007/s12519-015-0012-8.
[108] Hysing M, Harvey AG, Torgersen L, Ystrom E, Reichborn-Kjennerud T,
Sivertsen B. Trajectories and predictors of nocturnal awakenings and sleep
duration in infants. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2014;35:309e16. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000064.
[109] Xing T, Marfo K, Dedrick RF. Preschool-age adopted chinese children's
sleep problems and family sleep arrangements. Infant Child Dev
2009;440:422e40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/icd.
[110] Touchette E, Co ^te S, Petit D, Liu X. Short nighttime sleep-duration and
hyperactivity trajectories in early childhood. Pediatrics 2009;124:
e985e93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-2005.
[111] Chen T, Wu Z, Shen Z, Zhang J, Shen X, Li S. Sleep duration in Chinese
adolescents: biological, environmental, and behavioral predictors. Sleep
Med 2014;15:1345e53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2014.05.018.
[112] Bruni O, Verrillo E, Miano S, Ottaviano S. Clinical and historical predictors
of sleep disturbances in school-age children. Sleep Hypn 2000;2:147e51.
[113] Hayes M, Parker KG, Sallinen B, Davare AA. Bedsharing, temperament, and
sleep disturbance in early childhood. Sleep 2001;24:657e62.
[114] Adams S, Jones DR, Esmail A, Mitchell E. What affects the age of first
sleeping through the night? J Paediatr Child Health 2004;40:96e101.
[115] Keller MA, Goldberg WA. Co-sleeping: help or hindrance for young chil-
dren's independence. Infant Child Dev 2004;388:369e88. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1002/icd.
[116] Quine L. Sleep problems in primary school children: comparison between
mainstream and special school children. Child Care Health Dev 2001;27:
201e21.
[117] Jiang F, Shen X, Yan C, Wu S, Jin X, Dyken M, et al. Epidemiological study of
sleep characteristics in Chinese children 1e23 months of age. Pediatr Int
2007;49:811e6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-200X.2007.02449.x.
[118] Jiang F, Zhu S, Yan C, Jin X, Bandla H, Shen X. Sleep and obesity in preschool
children. J Pediatr 2009;154:814e8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.jpeds.2008.12.043.
[119] Liu X, Liu L, Wang R. Bed sharing, sleep habits, and sleep problems among
Chinese school-aged children. Sleep 2003;26:839e44.
[120] Touchette E, Co ^ te
 SSM, Petit D, Liu X, Boivin M, Falissard B, et al. Short
nighttime sleep-duration and hyperactivity trajectories in early childhood.
Pediatrics 2009;124:e985e93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-2005.
[121] Kelmanson IA, Adulas EI. Low birth weight and sleep behaviour in two-
month-old infants. 2002.
[122] Kelmanson IA. Swaddling: maternal option and sleep behaviour in two-
month-old infants. Child Care Pract 2013;19:36e48. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1080/13575279.2012.712035.
[123] Simard V, Nielsen TA, Tremblay RE, Boivin M, Montplaisir JY. Longitudinal
study of preschool sleep disturbance: the predictive role of maladaptive
parental behaviors, early sleep problems, and child/mother psychological
factors. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2008;162:360e7. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1001/archpedi.162.4.360.
[124] Jansen PPW, Saridjan NNS, Hofman A, Jaddoe VWV, Verhulst FC,
Tiemeier H. Does disturbed sleeping precede symptoms of anxiety or
depression in toddlers? The generation R study. Psychosom Med 2011;73:
242e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e31820a4abb.
[125] Jenni OG, Fuhrer HZ, Iglowstein I, Molinari L, Largo RH. A longitudinal
study of bed sharing and sleep problems among Swiss children in the first
10 years of life. Pediatrics 2005;115:233e40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/
peds.2004-0815E.
*[126] Mindell J, Sadeh A, Kohyama J, How TH. Parental behaviors and sleep
outcomes in infants and toddlers: a cross-cultural comparison. Sleep Med
2010;11:393e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2009.11.011.
[127] Zhang L, Wang H, Huang X. Sleep patterns amongst Chinese children. Biol
Rhythm Res 2010;41:203e15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
09291011003687965.
20 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
[128] Liu Z, Wang G, Geng L, Luo J, Li N, Owens J. Sleep patterns, sleep distur-
bances, and associated factors among Chinese Urban Kindergarten chil-
dren. Behav Sleep Med 2014;2002:1e18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
15402002.2014.963581.
[129] Byars KC, Yolton K, Rausch J, Lanphear B, Beebe D. Prevalence, patterns,
and persistence of sleep problems in the first 3 years of life. Pediatrics
2012;129:e276e84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-0372.
[130] Shinohara H, Kodama H. Relationship between duration of crying/fussy
behavior and actigraphic sleep measures in early infancy. Early Hum
Dev 2012;88:847e52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.20
12.06.005.
[131] Iwata S, Iwata O, Matsuishi T. Sleep patterns of Japanese preschool chil-
dren and their parents: implications for co-sleeping. Acta Paediatr
2013;102:e257e62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/apa.12203.
[132] Chng SY. Sleep disorders in children: the Singapore perspective. Ann Acad
Med Singap 2008;37:706e9.
[133] Atmawidjaja RW, Wong SW, Yang WW, Ong LC. Sleep disturbances in
Malaysian children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2014:1e5.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.12399.
[134] Adiga D, Gupta A, Khanna M, Taly AB, Thennarasu K. Sleep disorders in
children with cerebral palsy and its correlation with sleep disturbance in
primary caregivers and other associated factors. Ann Indian Acad Neurol
2014;17:473e6. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0972-2327.144044.
[135] Santos IS, Mota DM, Matijasevich A. Epidemiology of co-sleeping and
nighttime waking at 12 months in a birth cohort. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2008;84:
114e22. http://dx.doi.org/10.2223/JPED.1766.
[136] Kawasaki C, Nugent JK, Miyashita H, Miyahara H. The cultural organization
of infants' sleep. Child Environ 1994;11:135.
[137] Latz S, Wolf AW, Lozoff B. Cosleeping in context: sleep practices and
problems in young children in Japan and the United States. Arch Pediatr
Adolesc Med 1999;153:339e46.
*[138] Yoshida M, Shinohara H, Kodama H. Assessment of nocturnal sleep ar-
chitecture by actigraphy and one-channel electroencephalography in early
infancy. Early Hum Dev 2015;91:519e26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.earlhumdev.2015.06.005.
[139] Mahendran R, Vaingankar JA, Mythily S, Cai YM. Co-sleeping and clinical
correlates in children seen at a child guidance clinic. Singap Med J
2006;47:957e9.
[140] Simard V, Nielsen TA, Tremblay RE, Boivin M, Montplaisir JY. Longitudinal
study of bad dreams in preschool-aged children: prevalence, demographic
correlates, risk and protective factors. Sleep 2008;31:62e70.
[141] Sadeh A, Tikotzky L, Scher A. Parenting and infant sleep. Sleep Med Rev
2010;14:89e96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2009.05.003.
[142] Ko S-H, Chen C-H, Wang H-H, Su Y-T. Postpartum women's sleep quality
and its predictors in Taiwan. J Nurs Scholarsh 2014;46:74e81. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/jnu.12053.
[143] Volkovich E, Ben Zion H, Karny D, Meiri G, Tikotzky L. Sleep patterns of co-
sleeping and solitary sleeping infants and mothers: a longitudinal study.
Sleep Med 2015;16:1305e12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.sleep.2015.08.016.
[144] Blunden S. Behavioural treatments to encourage solo sleeping in pre-
school children: an alternative to controlled crying. J Child Health Care
2011;15:107e17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1367493510397623.
[145] Sadeh A, Mindell J, Rivera L. “My child has a sleep problem”: a cross-
cultural comparison of parental definitions. Sleep Med 2011;12:478e82.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2010.10.008.
[146] Blunden S, Thompson KR, Dawson D. Behavioural sleep treatments and
night time crying in infants: challenging the status quo. Sleep Med Rev
2011;15:327e34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2010.11.002.
[147] France KG, Blampied N, Henderson JMT. Infant sleep disturbance. Curr
Pediatr 2003;13:241e6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0957-5839(03)00004.
[148] Owens JA. Challenges in managing sleep problems in young children.
West J Med 2000;173:38.
[149] Blampied N, France KG. A behavioral model of infant sleep disturbance.
J Appl Behav Anal 1993;26:477e92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1901/
jaba.1993.26-477.
[150] Touchette E, Petit D, Tremblay RE, Montplaisir JY. Risk factors and con-
sequences of early childhood dyssomnias: new perspectives. Sleep Med
Rev 2009;13:355e61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2008.12.001.
[151] France KG, Blampied N. Infant sleep disturbance: description of a problem
behaviour process. Sleep Med Rev 1999;3:265e80. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1053/smrv.1999.0071.
[152] Rosen LA. Infant sleep and feeding. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs
2008;37:706e14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1552-6909.2008.00299.x.
[153] Cassels TG. ADHD, sleep problems, and bed sharing: future considerations.
Am J Fam Ther 2013;41:13e25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
01926187.2012.661653.
[154] Scho €n RA, Silve
n M. Natural parentingeBack to basics in infant care. Evol
Psychol 2007;5:102e83.
[155] Anders TF, Taylor TR. Babies and their sleep environment. Child Environ
1994;11:123e34.
[156] Schlarb AA, Brandhorst I. Mini-KiSS online: an internet-based intervention
program for parents of young children with sleep problems e influence on
parental behavior and children's sleep. Nat Sci Sleep 2012;4:41e52. http://
dx.doi.org/10.2147/NSS.S28337.
[157] El-Sheikh M, Sadeh AI. Sleep and development: introduction to the
monograph. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 2015;80:1e14. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1111/mono.12141.
[158] Henrich J, Heine SJ, Norenzayan A. The weirdest people in the world?
Behav Brain Sci 2010;33:61e83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/
S0140525X0999152X. discussion 83e135.
[159] Dettwyler KA. On parents and children sleeping together. Am J Ortho-
psychiatry 1996:159e60.
[160] Murthy CLS, Bharti B, Malhi P, Khadwal A. Sleep habits and sleep problems
in healthy preschoolers. Indian J Pediatr 2015;82:606e11. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12098-015-1728-0.
[161] Morrell JMB. The infant sleep questionnaire: a new tool to assess infant
sleep problems for clinical and research Purposes. Child Psychol Psychi-
atry Rev 1999;4:20e6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1360641798001816.
[162] Asaka Y, Takada S. Comparing sleep measures of infants derived from
parental reports in sleep diaries and acceleration sensors. Acta Paediatr
2011;100:1158e63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2011.02204.x.
[163] Morrell J, Cortina-Borja M. The developmental change in strategies par-
ents employ to settle young children to sleep, and their relationship to
infant sleeping problems, as assessed by a new questionnaire: the
parental interactive bedtime behaviour scale. Infant Child Dev 2002;11:
17e41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/icd.251.
[164] Toselli M, Farneti P, Salzarulo P, Psicologia D, Niccolo S, Wiley J. Maternal
representation and care of infant sleep 1998;78:73e8.
[165] Touchette E, Petit D, Paquet J, Boivin M, Japel C, Tremblay RE, et al. Factors
associated with fragmented sleep at night across early childhood. Arch
Pediatr Adolesc Med 2005;159:242e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/
archpedi.159.3.242.
[166] Wolke D, Meyer R, Ohrt B, Riegel K. The incidence of sleeping problems in
preterm and fullterm infants discharged from neonatal special care units:
an epidemiological longitudinal study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1995;36:
203e23.
[167] Rosenfeld AA, Wenegrat AO, Haavik DK, Wenegrat BG, Smith CR. Sleeping
patterns in upper-middle-class families when the child awakens ill or
frightened. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:943e7.
[168] Christmanson L, Lisper H-O. Parent behaviors related to bed-wetting and
toilet-training as etiological factors in primary enuresis. Scand J Behav
Ther 1982;11:29e37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16506078209456224.
[169] Ma J, Li S, Jiang F, Jin X, Shen X, Li F. Co-sleeping and childhood enuresis in
China. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2014;35:44e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/
01.DBP.0000439104.37513.44.
[170] Williams G, Sears L, Allard A. Parent perceptions of efficacy for strategies
used to facilitate sleep in children with autism. J Dev Phys Disabil 2006;18:
25e33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10882-006-9003-y.
[171] Gay CL, Lee K, Lee S-Y. Sleep patterns and fatigue in new mothers and
fathers. Biol Res Nurs 2004;5:311e8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/
1099800403262142.
[172] Quillin SI, Glenn LL. Interaction between feeding method and co-sleeping
on maternal-newborn sleep. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 2004;33:
580e8.
[173] McKenna JJ, Mosko SS, Richard C, Drummond S, Hunt L, Cetel MB, et al.
Experimental studies of infant-parent co-sleeping: mutual physiological
and behavioral influences and their relevance to SIDS (sudden infant
death syndrome). Early Hum Dev 1994;38:187e201.
[174] McKenna JJ, Mosko SS. Evolution and infant sleep: an experimental study
of infant-parent co-sleeping and its implications for SIDS. Acta Paediatr
1993;82(Suppl. 3):31e6.
*[175] McKenna JJ, Mosko SS. Sleep and arousal, synchrony and independence,
among mothers and infants sleeping apart and together (same bed): an
experiment in evolutionary medicine. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1994;397:
94e102.
[176] Kelmanson IA. Infant temperament characteristics related to sudden in-
fant death syndrome and its risk factors. Early Child Dev Care 2006;176:
505e20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004430500147292.
[177] Baddock SA, Galland BC, Bolton DPG, Williams SM, Taylor BJ. Differences in
infant and parent behaviors during routine bed sharing compared with cot
sleeping in the home setting. Pediatrics 2006;117:1599e607. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-1636.
[178] Mosko SS, Richard C, McKenna JJ, Drummond S, Mukai D. Maternal
proximity and infant Co2 environment during bedsharing and possible
implications for SIDS research. Am J Phys Anthropol 1997;103:315e28.
doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199707)103:3<315::AID-AJPA2>3.0.CO;2-P.
[179] Richard C, Mosko SS, McKenna JJ, Drummond S. Sleeping position,
orientation, and proximity in bedsharing infants and mothers. Sleep
1996;19:685e90.
[180] Buckley P, Rigda RS, Mundy L, McMillen IC. Interaction between bed
sharing and other sleep environments during the first six months of life.
Early Hum Dev 2002;66:123e32.
[181] Baddock SA, Galland BC, Bolton DPG, Williams SM, Taylor BJ. Hypoxic and
hypercapnic events in young infants during bed-sharing. Pediatrics
2012;130:237e44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-3390.
[182] Ball HL. Airway covering during bed-sharing. Child Care Health Dev
2009;35:728e37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.00979.x.
[183] Tuffnell CS, Petersen SA, Wailoo MP. Higher rectal temperatures in co-
sleeping infants. Arch Dis Child 1996;75:249e50.
 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
[184] Petersen SA, Wailoo MP. Interactions between infant care practices and
physiological development in Asian infants. Early Hum Dev 1994;38:
181e6.
[185] Richard C. Increased infant axillary temperatures in non-REM sleep during
mother-infant bed-sharing. Early Hum Dev 1999;55:103e11.
[186] Shapiro-mendoza CK, Colson ER, Willinger M, Rybin DV. Trends in infant
bedding use: national infant sleep position study, 1993 e 2010. Pediatrics
2015;135:10e7.
[187] Ball HL. Triadic bed-sharing and infant temperature. Child Care Health Dev
2002;28(Suppl. 1):55e8.
[188] Hwang S, Lu E, Cui X, Diop H, Barfield W, Manning S. Home care practices
for preterm and term infants after hospital discharge in Massachusetts,
2007 to 2010. J Perinatol 2015;35:880e4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/
jp.2015.90.
[189] Thomas K, Burr R. Preterm infant temperature circadian rhythm: possible
effect of parental cosleeping. Biol Res Nurs 2002;3:150e9. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1177/1099800402003003005.
[190] Richard C, Mosko SS. Mother-infant bedsharing is associated with an in-
crease in infant heart rate. Sleep 2004;27:507e11.
[191] Joseph DV, Jackson JA, Westaway J, Taub NA, Petersen SA, Wailoo MP.
Effect of parental smoking on cotinine levels in newborns. Arch Dis Child
Fetal Neonatal Ed 2007;92:F484e8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/
adc.2006.108506.
[192] Burnham MM. The ontogeny of diurnal rhythmicity in bed-sharing and
solitary-sleeping infants: a preliminary report y. Infant 2007;16:341e57.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/icd.
[193] Kahn A, Groswasser J, Franco P, Scaillet S, Sawaguchi T, Kelmanson IA, et al.
Factors influencing the determination of arousal thresholds in infants e a
review. Sleep Med 2000;1:273e8.
[194] Mosko S, Richard C, McKenna J. Infant arousals during mother-infant bed
sharing: implications for infant sleep and sudden infant death syndrome
research. Pediatrics 1997;100:841e9.
[195] Mosko S, Richard C, McKenna J, Drummond S. Infant sleep architecture
during bedsharing and possible implications for SIDS. Sleep 1996;19:
677e84.
[196] Hunsley M, Thoman B. The sleep of co-sleeping infants when they are not
co-sleeping: evidence that co-sleeping is stressful. Dev Psychobiol
2002;40:14e22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dev.10009.
[197] Tsai S-Y, Barnard KE, Lentz MJ, Thomas KA. Mother-infant activity syn-
chrony as a correlate of the emergence of circadian rhythm. Biol Res Nurs
2011;13:80e8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1099800410378889.
[198] McKenna JJ, Mosko SS, Dungy C, McAninch J. Sleep and arousal patterns of
co-sleeping human mother/infant pairs: a preliminary physiological study
with implications for the study of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).
Am J Phys Anthropol 1990;83:331e47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/
ajpa.1330830307.
[199] Mosko S, Richard C, McKenna JJ. Maternal sleep and arousals during
bedsharing with infants. Sleep 1997;20:142e50.
[200] Simon CD, Adam EK, McKinney CO, Krohn JB, Shalowitz MU. Breastfeed-
ing, bed-sharing, and maternal cortisol. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2015 Sept 1:
1e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0009922815601981.
[201] Lucas-Thompson R, Goldberg WA, Germo GR, Keller MA, Davis EP,
Sandman CA. Sleep arrangements and night waking at 6 and 12 months in
relation to infants' stress-induced cortisol responses. Infant Child Dev
2009;18:521e44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/icd.636.
*[202] Beijers R, Riksen-Walraven JM, de Weerth C. Cortisol regulation in 12-
month-old human infants: associations with the infants' early history of
breastfeeding and co-sleeping. Stress 2013;16:267e77. http://dx.doi.org/
10.3109/10253890.2012.742057.
[203] Tollenaar MS, Beijers R, Jansen J, Riksen-Walraven JMA, de Weerth C.
Solitary sleeping in young infants is associated with heightened cortisol
reactivity to a bathing session but not to a vaccination. Psychoneur-
oendocrinology 2012;37:167e77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.psyneuen.2011.03.017.
[204] Fischer PR, Dind Y. Co-sleeping and neonatal weight loss. Ann Trop Pae-
diatr 1991;11:189e91.
[205] Bruni O, Fabrizi P, Ottaviano S, Cortesi F, Giannotti F, Guidetti V. Prevalence
of sleep disorders in childhood and adolescence with headache: a case-
control study. Cephalalgia 1997;17:492e8.
[206] Miller VA, Palermo TM, Powers SW, Scher MS, Hershey AD. Migraine
headaches and sleep disturbances in children. Headache 2003;43:362e8.
[207] Carotenuto M, Esposito M, Precenzano F, Castaldo L, Roccella M.
Cosleeping in childhood migraine. Minerva Pediatr 2011;63:105e9.
[208] Douglas PS. Excessive crying and gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in
infants: misalignment of biology and culture. Med Hypotheses 2005;64:
887e98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2004.12.009.
[209] Chamlin SL, Mattson CL, Frieden IJ, Williams ML, Mancini AJ, Cella D, et al.
The price of pruritus: sleep disturbance and cosleeping in atopic derma-
titis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2005;159:745e50. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1001/archpedi.159.8.745.
[210] Ong LC, Yang WW, Wong SW, AlSiddiq F, Khu YS. Sleep habits and dis-
turbances in Malaysian children with epilepsy. J Paediatr Child Health
2010;46:80e4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1754.2009.01642.x.
[211] Larson AM, Ryther RCC, Jennesson M, Geffrey AL, Bruno PL, Anagnos CJ,
et al. Impact of pediatric epilepsy on sleep patterns and behaviors in
21
children and parents. Epilepsia 2012;53:1162e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/
j.1528-1167.2012.03515.x.
[212] Wirrell E, Turner T. Parental anxiety and family disruption following a first
febrile seizure in childhood. Paediatr Child Health 2001;6:139e43.
[213] Carter M, McCaughey E, Annaz D, Hill CM. Sleep problems in a down
syndrome population. Arch Dis Child 2009;94:308e10. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1136/adc.2008.146845.
[214] Zarowski M, Vendrame M, Irons M, Kothare SV. Prevalence of sleep
problems in Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome. Am J Med Genet A 2011;155A:
1558e62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.a.34021.
[215] Canivet C, Jakobsson I, Hagander B. Infantile colic. Follow-up at four years
of age: still more “emotional”. Acta Paediatr 2000;89:13e7.
[216] Ngale KMA, Santos IS, Gonza lez-Chica DA, de Barros AJD, Matijasevich A,
Gonzalez-Chica DA. Bed-sharing and risk of hospitalisation due to pneu-
monia and diarrhoea in infancy: the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort.
J Epidemiol Community Health 2013;67:245e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/
jech-2012-201145.
[217] Cardoso MRA, Cousens SN, de Go es Siqueira LF, Alves FM, D'Angelo LAV.
Crowding: risk factor or protective factor for lower respiratory disease in
young children? BMC Public Health 2004;4:19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/
1471-2458-4-19.
[218] Luijk MPCM, Sonnenschein-van der Voort AMM, Mileva-Seitz VR,
Jansen PW, Verhulst FC, Hofman A, et al. Is parent-child bed-sharing a risk
for wheezing and asthma in early childhood? Eur Respir J 2015;45:661e9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00041714.
[219] d'Arcy H, Gillespie B, Foxman B. Respiratory symptoms in mothers of
young children. Pediatrics 2000;106:1013e6.
[220] Koinis-MItchell D, Craig T, Esteban C, Klein R. Sleep and allergic disease: a
summary of the literature and future directions for research. J Allergy Clin
Immunol 2012;130:1275e81. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/
07420528.2011.618896.Epigenetic.
[221] Evans S, Shelton F, Holden C, Daly A, Hopkins V, MacDonald A. Monitoring
of home safety issues in children on enteral feeds with inherited meta-
bolic disorders. Arch Dis Child 2010;95:668e72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/
adc.2008.148338.
[222] McCallion WA, Murray LJ, Bailie AG, Dalzell AM, O'Reilly DP, Bamford KB.
Helicobacter pylori infection in children: relation with current household
living conditions. Gut 1996;39:18e21.
[223] Siai K, Ghozzi M, Ezzine H, Medjahed N, Azzouz MM. Prevalence and risk
factors of Helicobacter pylori infection in Tunisian children: 1055 children
in Cap-Bon (northeastern Tunisia). Gastroente rologie Clin Biol 2008;32:
881e6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gcb.2008.03.021.
[224] Nguyen BV, Nguyen KG, Phung CD, Kremp O, Kalach N, Dupont C, et al.
Prevalence of and factors associated with Helicobacter pylori infection in
children in the north of Vietnam. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006;74:536e9.
[225] Hasosah M, Satti M, Shehzad A, Alsahafi A, Sukkar G, Alzaben A, et al.
Prevalence and risk factors of Helicobacter pylori infection in Saudi chil-
dren: a three-year prospective controlled study. Helicobacter 2015;20:
56e63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/hel.12172.
[226] Portorreal Miranda CA, Strehl Machado R, Koga da Silva ME, Kawakami E.
Seroprevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection among children of low
socioeconomic level in S~ ao Paulo. Sao Paolo Med J 2010;128:187e91.
[227] Nguyen TVH, Bengtsson C, Nguyen GK, Yin L, Hoang TTH, Phung DC, et al.
Age as risk factor for Helicobacter pylori recurrence in children in Viet-
nam. Helicobacter 2012;17:452e7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-
5378.2012.00968.x.
[228] Najafi M, Sobhani M, Khodadad A, Farahmand F, Motamed F. Reinfection
rate after successful Helicobacter pylori eradication in children. Iran J
Pediatr 2010;20:58e62.
[229] Neale KR, Logan RP. The epidemiology and transmission of Helicobacter
pylori infection in children. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1995;9(Suppl. 2):
77e84.
[230] Kayina V, Kyobe S, Katabazi FA, Kigozi E, Okee M, Odongkara B, et al.
Pertussis prevalence and its determinants among children with persistent
cough in urban Uganda. PLoS One 2015;10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0123240. e0123240.
[231] Atmore C, Milne A, Pearce N. Modes of hepatitis B virus transmission in
New Zealand. N Z Med J 1989;102:277e80.
[232] Fathy F, El-Kasah F, El-Ahwal A. Clinical and parasitological study on
scabies in Sirte, Libya. J Egypt Soc Parasitol 2010;40:707e31.
[233] Quick ML, Sutter RW, Kobaidze K, Malakmadze N, Nakashidze R,
Murvanidze S, et al. Risk factors for diphtheria: a prospective case-control
study in the Republic of Georgia, 1995e1996. J Infect Dis
2000;181(Suppl.):S121e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/315563.
[234] Slonka GF, McKinley TW, McCroan JE, Sinclair SP, Schultz MG, Hicks F,
et al. Epidemiology of an outbreak of head lice in Georgia. Am J Trop Med
Hyg 1976;25:739e43.
[235] Chouela E, Abeldan ~ o A, Cirigliano M, Ducard M, Neglia V, La Forgia M, et al.
Head louse infestations: epidemiologic survey and treatment evaluation
in Argentinian schoolchildren. Int J Dermatol 1997;36:819e25.
[236] Chunge RN. A study of head lice among primary schoolchildren in Kenya.
Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1986;80:42e6.
[237] Bloomfield S, Stanwell-Smith RE, Crevel R, Pickup J. Too clean, or not too
clean: the hygiene hypothesis and home hygiene. Clin Exp Allergy
2006;36:402e25.
22 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
[238] Pomeranz AJ, Sabnis SS, McGrath GJ, Esterly NB. Asymptomatic derma-
tophyte carriers in the households of children with tinea capitis. Arch
Pediatr Adolesc Med 1999;153:483e6.
[239] Stanwell-Smith RE, Stuart JM, Hughes AO, Robinson P, Griffin MB,
Cartwright K, et al. Smoking, the environment and meningococcal dis-
ease: a case control study. Epidemiol Infect 1994;112:315e28.
[240] Rogers MF, White CR, Sanders R, Schable C, Ksell TE, Richard L, et al. Lack
of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus from infected children
to their household contacts. Pediatrics 1990;85:210e4.
[241] Kovesi T, Creery D, Gilbert NL, Dales R, Fugler D, Thompson B, et al. Indoor
air quality risk factors for severe lower respiratory tract infections in Inuit
infants in Baffin Region, Nunavut: a pilot study. Indoor Air 2006;16:
266e75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2006.00423.x.
[242] Starr JM, Deary IJ, Whalley LJ. All-cause mortality in the Aberdeen 1921
birth cohort: effects of socio-demographic, physical and cognitive factors.
BMC Public Health 2008;8:307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-8-
307.
[243] Liu J, McCauley LA, Zhao Y, Zhang H, Pinto-Martin J. Cohort profile: the
China Jintan child cohort study. Int J Epidemiol 2010;39:668e74. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyp205.
*[244] Okami P, Weisner T, Olmstead R. Outcome correlates of parent-child
bedsharing: an eighteen-year longitudinal study. J Dev Behav Pediatr
2002;23:244e53.
[245] Sourander A. Emotional and behavioural problems in a sample of Finnish
three-year-olds. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2001;10:98e104.
[246] Kaymaz N, Go € kten ES, Uzun ME, Yıldırım Ş, Tekin M, Topalog lu N, et al.
Prolonged rooming-in in infancy is associated with generalized anxiety
disorder in the adolescent period. Int J Adolesc Med Health 2015;27:
383e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ijamh-2014-0045.
[247] Narvaez D, Wang L, Gleason T, Cheng Y, Lefever J, Deng L. The evolved
developmental niche and child sociomoral outcomes in Chinese 3-year-
olds. Eur J Dev Psychol 2013;10:106e27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
17405629.2012.761606.
[248] Kelmanson IA. Parent-infant bed sharing and behavioural features in 2-4-
Month-Old infants. Early Child Dev Care 1999;149:1e9.
[249] Pressman RM, Imber SC. Relationship of Children's daytime behavior
problems with bedtime Routines/Practices: a family context and the
consideration of Faux-ADHD. Am J Fam Ther 2011;39:404e18. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2011.601218.
[250] Quine L. Severity of sleep problems in children with severe learning dif-
ficulties: description and correlates. J Community Appl Soc Psychol
1992;2:247e68.
[251] Miano S, Ferri R. Epidemiology and management of insomnia in children
with autistic spectrum disorders. Paediatr Drugs 2010;12:75e84. http://
dx.doi.org/10.2165/11316140-000000000-00000.
[252] Vriend J, Corkum P. Clinical management of behavioral insomnia of
childhood. Psychol Res Behav Manag 2011;4:69e79. http://dx.doi.org/
10.2147/PRBM.S14057.
[253] Cotton S, Richdale A. Brief report: parental descriptions of sleep problems
in children with autism, Down syndrome, and Prader-Willi syndrome. Res
Dev Disabil 2006;27:151e61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2004.12.003.
[254] Liu X, Hubbard JA, Fabes RA, Adam JB. Sleep disturbances and correlates of
children with autism spectrum disorders. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev
2006;37:179e91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10578-006-0028-3.
[255] Honomichl R, Goodlin-Jones BL, Burnham MM, Hansen R, Anders TF.
Secretin and sleep in children with autism. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev
2002;33:107e23.
[256] Klackenberg G. Acta Padiatr Scand 1982;71:501e6. 501-506.
[257] McKenna JJ, McDade TW. Why babies should never sleep alone: a review
of the co-sleeping controversy in relation to SIDS, bedsharing and breast
feeding. Paediatr Respir Rev 2005;6:134e52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.prrv.2005.03.006.
[258] Stein M. Cosleeping (bedsharing) among infants and toddlers. Dev Behav
Pediatr 1997;18:408e12.
[259] Morrell J, Steele H. The role of attachment security, temperament,
maternal perception, and care-giving behavior in persistent infant
sleeping problems. Infant Ment Health J 2003;24:447e68. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1002/imhj.10072.
[260] Kelmanson IA. Use of a pacifier and behavioural features in 2e4-month-
old infants. Acta Paediatr 1999;88:1258e61.
[261] Pollard K, Fleming P, Young J, Sawczenko A, Blair P. Night-time non-
nutritive sucking in infants aged 1 to 5 months: relationship with infant
state, breastfeeding, and bed-sharing versus room-sharing. Early Hum
Dev 1999;56:185e204.
[262] Wolf A, Lozoff B. Object attachment, thumbsucking, and the passage to
sleep. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1989;28:287e92.
[263] Green KE, Groves MM, Tegano DW. Parenting practices that limit transi-
tional object use: an illustration. Early Child Dev Care 2004;174:427e36.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0300443032000153606.
[264] Okami P. Childhood exposure to parental nudity, parent-child co-sleeping
and primal scenes: a review of clinical opinion and empirical evidence.
J Sex Res 1995;32:51e64.
[265] Josephs L. How children learn about sex: a cross-species and cross-
cultural analysis. Arch Sex Behav 2015;44:1059e69. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1007/s10508-015-0498-0.
[266] Kaplan S, Poznanski E. Child psychiatric patients who share a bed with a
parent. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1974;13:344e56.
[267] Colarusso CA. “Cosleeping (bedsharing) among infants and toddlers”:
Comment. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1997:18.
[268] Lewis RJ, Janda LH. The relationship between adult sexual adjustment and
childhood experiences regarding exposure to nudity, sleeping in the
parental bed, and parental attitudes toward sexuality. Arch Sex Behav
1988;17:349e62.
[269] Fraley M, Nelson E, Wolf A, Lozoff B. Early genital naming. J Dev …
1991;12:301e4.
[270] Adams S, Good MW, Defranco GM. Sudden infant death syndrome. Am
Fam Physician 2009;79:870e4.
[271] Johnson P. Infant care practices and the investigation of physiological
mechanisms. Early Hum Dev 1994;38:165e79.
[272] Mitchell E, Scragg RK. Are infants sharing a bed with another person at
increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome? Sleep 1993:15e7.
[273] Sahni R, Fifer WP, Myers MM. Identifying infants at risk for sudden infant
death syndrome. Curr Opin Pediatr 2007;19:145e9. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1097/MOP.0b013e32808373b6.
[274] Gilbert R. The changing epidemiology of SIDS. Arch Dis Child 1994;70:
445e9.
[275] Kinney HC, Thach BT. The sudden infant death syndrome. N Engl J Med
2009;361:795e805.
[276] Loghmanee DA, Weese-Mayer DE. Sudden infant death syndrome:
another year of new hope but no cure. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2007;13:
497e504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MCP.0b013e3282efb98b.
[277] Moon R, Horne RSC, Hauck F. Sudden infant death syndrome. Lancet
2007;370:1578e87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61662-6.
[278] Gunn AJ, Gunn TR, Mitchell E. Is changing the sleep environment enough?
Current recommendations for SIDS. Sleep Med Rev 2000;4:453e69.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/smrv.2000.0119.
[279] McKenna JJ. Sudden infant death syndrome in cross-cultural perspective:
is infant-parent cosleeping protective? Annu Rev Anthropol 1996;25:
201e16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.25.1.201.
[280] Franco P, Kugener B, Dijoud F, Scaillet S, Groswasser J, Kato I, et al. Sudden
infant death syndrome from epidemiology to pathophysiology. Curr
Pediatr Rev 2007;3:177e89.
[281] Hunt CE, Hauck F. Sudden infant death syndrome. CMAJ 2006;174:1861e9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.051671.
[282] Berkowitz CD. Cosleeping: benefits, risks, and cautions. Adv Pediatr
2004;51:329e49.
[283] Minerva. BMJ 1998;317. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.317.7168.1330.
1330e1330.
[284] Abel S, Tipene-Leach DC. SUDI prevention: a review of Maori safe sleep
innovations for infants. N Z Med J 2012;126:1e9.
[285] Moreno MA. The controversial but common practice of bed sharing. JAMA
Pediatr 2014;167:1088.
[286] Task Force On Infant Positioning and SIDS. Changing concepts of sudden
infant death syndrome: implications for infant sleeping environment and
sleep position. Pediatrics 2013;105:650e6.
[287] Blair PS. Perspectives on bed-sharing. Curr Pediatr Rev 2010;6:67e70.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1197/jamia.M2207.Introduction.
[288] Scragg RK, Mitchell E. Side sleeping position and bed sharing in the
sudden infant death syndrome. Ann Med 1998;30:345e9.
[289] Horsley T, Clifford T, Barrowman N, Bennett S, Yazdi F, Sampson M, et al.
Benefits and harms associated with the practice of bed sharing: a sys-
tematic review. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2007;161:237e45. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.161.3.237.
[290] Mitchell E, Blair P. SIDS prevention: 3000 lives saved but we can do better.
N Z Med J 2012;125:50e7.
[291] Mitchell E. SIDS: past, present and future. Acta Paediatr 2009;98:1712e9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01503.x.
[292] Mitchell E. Bed sharing and the risk of sudden infant death: parents need
clear information. Curr Pediatr Rev 2010:1e14.
[293] Sauber-Schatz EK, Sappenfield WM, Shapiro-Mendoza CK. Comprehensive
review of sleep-related sudden unexpected infant deaths and their in-
vestigations: Florida 2008. Matern Child Health J 2015;19:381e90. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-014-1520-1.
[294] Adams SM, Ward CE, Garcia KL. Sudden infant death syndrome. Am Fam
Physician 2015;91:778e83.
[295] Hauck F, Tanabe KO. Sids. Clin Evid (Online) 2009;2009.
[296] Salm Ward TC, Balfour GM. Infant safe sleep interventions, 1990e2015: a
review. J Community Health 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10900-015-
0060-y.
[297] Mitchell EA, Krous HF. Sudden unexpected death in infancy: a historical
perspective. J Paediatr Child Health 2015;51:108e12. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1111/jpc.12818.
[298] Galland BC, Elder DE. Sudden unexpected death in infancy: biological
mechanisms. Paediatr Respir Rev 2014;15:287e92. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.prrv.2014.09.003.
[299] Evans A, Bagnall RD, Duflou J, Semsarian C. Postmortem review and ge-
netic analysis in sudden infant death syndrome: an 11-year review. Hum
Pathol 2013;44:1730e6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.humpath.2013.01.024.
[300] Mitchell E, Freemantle J, Young J, Byard RW. Scientific consensus forum to
review the evidence underpinning the recommendations of the
 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
Australian SIDS and Kids Safe Sleeping Health Promotion Pro-
grammeeOctober 2010. J Paediatr Child Health 2012;48:626e33. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1754.2011.02215.x.
[301] McKenna JJ, Mosko SS. Evolution and sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS): Part III: Infant arousal and parent-infant co-sleeping. Hum Nat
1990;1:291e330.
[302] McKenna JJ. Evolution and sudden infant death syndrome part I: infant
responsivity to parental contact. Hum Nat 1990;1:145e77.
[303] McKenna JJ. Evolution and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Part II:
why human infants? Hum Nat 1990;1:180e206.
[304] McKenna JJ. An anthropological perspective on the sudden infant death
syndrome: the neurological and structural bases of speech breathing and
why SIDS appears to be a species-specific Malady, part II. Birth Psychol
1988;2:149e79.
[305] Yukawa N, Carter N, Rutty G, Green MA. Intra-alveolar haemorrhage in
sudden infant death syndrome: a cause for concern? J Clin Pathol
1999;52:581e7.
[306] McIntosh CG, Tonkin SL, Gunn AJ. What is the mechanism of sudden infant
deaths associated with co-sleeping? N Z Med J 2009;122:69e75.
[307] Collins KA. Death by overlaying and wedging: a 15-year retrospective
study. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2001;22:155e9.
[308] Cote A. Sudden death of a three-month-old infant while cosleeping on a
sofa. Paediatr Child Health 2004;9:633e4.
[309] Randall BB, Wadee SA, Sens MA, Kinney HC, Folkerth RD, Odendaal HJ,
et al. A practical classification schema incorporating consideration of
possible asphyxia in cases of sudden unexpected infant death. Forensic Sci
Med Pathol 2009;5:254e60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12024-009-9083-
y.
[310] Drago DA, Dannenberg a L. Infant mechanical suffocation deaths in the
United States, 1980-1997. Pediatrics 1999;103:e59.
[311] Shapiro-Mendoza CK, Kimball M, Tomashek KM, Anderson RN, Blanding S.
US infant mortality trends attributable to accidental suffocation and
strangulation in bed from 1984 through 2004: are rates increasing? Pe-
diatrics 2009;123:533e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-3746.
[312] Becroft DM, Thompson JM, Mitchell E. Nasal and intrapulmonary hae-
morrhage in sudden infant death syndrome. Arch Dis Child 2001;85:
116e20.
[313] Krous HF, Nadeau JM, Byard RW, Blackbourne BD. Oronasal blood in
sudden infant death. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2001;22:346e51.
[314] Weber MA, Risdon RA, Ashworth MT, Malone M, Sebire NJ. Autopsy
findings of co-sleeping-associated sudden unexpected deaths in infancy:
relationship between pathological features and asphyxial mode of death.
J Paediatr Child Health 2012;48:335e41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-
1754.2011.02228.x.
[315] Mitchell E, Thompson JM, Ford RP, Taylor BJ. Sheepskin bedding and the
sudden infant death syndrome. J Pediatr 1998;133:701e4.
[316] Volpe LE, Ball HL, McKenna JJ. Nighttime parenting strategies and sleep-
related risks to infants. Soc Sci Med 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.socscimed.2012.05.043.
[317] Flick L, White DK, Vemulapalli C, Stulac BB, Kemp JS. Sleep position and
the use of soft bedding during bed sharing among African American in-
fants at increased risk for sudden infant death syndrome. J Pediatr
2001;138:338e43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1067/mpd.2001.111428.
[318] Tully KP, Ball HL. Postnatal unit bassinet types when rooming-in after
cesarean birth: implications for breastfeeding and infant safety. J Hum Lact
2012;28:495e505. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0890334412452932.
[319] Lindgren C, Thompson JM, Haggblom L, Milerad J, H€ aggblom L. Sleeping
position, breastfeeding, bedsharing and passive smoking in 3-month-old
Swedish infants. Acta Paediatr 1998;87:1028e32.
[320] Watson L, Potter A, Gallucci R, Lumley J. Is baby too warm? The use of
infant clothing, bedding and home heating in Victoria. Australia. Early
Hum Dev 1998;51:93e107.
*[321] Blair PS, Sidebotham P, Pease A, Fleming PJ. Bed-sharing in the absence of
hazardous Circumstances: Is there a risk of sudden infant death syn-
drome? An analysis from two case-control studies conducted in the UK.
PLoS One 2014;9:e107799. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0107799.
[322] Das RR, Sankar MJ, Agarwal R, Paul VK. Is “bed sharing” beneficial and safe
during infancy? A systematic review. Int J Pediatr 2014;2014:468538.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/468538.
[323] Pybus M, Fleming V. Bed sharing and cot death. N Z Med J 1995:112.
[324] Fournier R, Garpiel SJ. Should parents be advised against bed-sharing with
their infants. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 2002;27:8e9.
[325] Kyler D. Co-sleeping discussion omitted breastfeeding. J Fam Pract
2007;56:110. author reply 110, 112.
[326] McKenna JJ, Fleming P. Ethnicity and the sudden infant death syndrome:
important clues from anthropology. Arch Dis Child 1994;70:450.
[327] Ball HL. Parent-infant bed-sharing behavior. Hum Nat 2006;17:301e18.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12110-006-1011-1.
[328] Byard RW. Is breast feeding in bed always a safe practice? J Paediatr Child
Health 1998;34:418e9.
[329] Byard RW. Annotation is co-sleeping in infancy a desirable or dangerous
practice?. 1994. p. 198e9.
[330] McKenna JJ. In reply. Pediatrics 1998;102:663e4. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1542/peds.102.3.662a.
23
[331] Saririan S, Hauck F. New recommendations to reduce the risk of SIDS:
what should we advise parents? Am Fam Physician 2006;74:1839e40.
[332] Mitchell E, Stewart AW, Ford RP. Bottle feeding and the sudden infant
death syndrome. BMJ 1995;311:122e3.
[333] Kelmanson IA. Risk factors of sudden infant death syndrome and risk
factors for sleep disturbances. Early Child Dev Care 2011;181:681e90.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004431003794218.
[334] Richard C, Mosko S, McKenna JJ. Apnea and periodic breathing in bed-
sharing and solitary sleeping infants. J Appl Physiol 1998;84:1374e80.
[335] Mitchell E, Thompson JM. Parental reported apnoea, admissions to hos-
pital and sudden infant death syndrome. Acta Paediatr 2001;90:417e22.
[336] Glengarry JM, Crawford J, Morrow PL, Stables SR, Love DR, Skinner JR. Long
QT molecular autopsy in sudden infant death syndrome. Arch Dis Child
2014:635e40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2013-305331.
[337] Byard RW, Elliott J, Vink R. Infant gender, shared sleeping and sudden
death. J Paediatr Child Health 2012;48:517e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/
j.1440-1754.2011.02226.x.
[338] Cohen MC, Yong CY, Evans C, Hinchliffe R, Zapata-Vazquez RE. Release of
erythroblasts to the peripheral blood suggests higher exposure to hypoxia
in cases of SIDS with co-sleeping compared to SIDS non-co-sleeping.
Forensic Sci Int 2010;197:54e8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.forsciint.2009.12.022.
[339] Jensen LL, Banner J, Byard RW. Does b-APP staining of the brain in infant
bed-sharing deaths differentiate these cases from sudden infant death
syndrome? J Forensic Leg Med 2014;27:46e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.jflm.2014.07.006.
[340] Thompson JM, Thach BT, Becroft DM, Mitchell E. Sudden infant death
syndrome: risk factors for infants found face down differ from other SIDS
cases. J Pediatr 2006;149:630e3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.jpeds.2006.07.041.
[341] Foster H. SIDS and the New Zealand environment. J Orthomol Med
2004;19:85e91.
[342] de Jonge GA. Samen slapen en de veiligheid van de zuigeling. Ned Tijdschr
Geneeskd 1992;136:1953e6.
[343] Devitt M. Practice guidelines and other sleep-related deaths. 2012. p. 85.
[344] Adler MR, Hyderi A, Hamilton A, Brown P. Clinical inquiries: what are safe
sleeping arrangements for infants? J Fam Pract 2006;55:1083e4. 1087.
[345] Newton AW, Vandeven AM. Unexplained infant and child death: a review
of sudden infant death syndrome, sudden unexplained infant death, and
child maltreatment fatalities including shaken baby syndrome. Curr Opin
Pediatr 2006;18:196e200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/
01.mop.0000193296.32764.1e.
[346] Pelayo R, Owens J, Mindell J, Sheldon S. Bed sharing with unimpaired
parents is not an important risk for sudden infant death syndrome: to the.
Pediatrics 2006;117:993e4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-2748.
author reply 994e6.
[347] Henderson-Smart DJ, Ponsonby AL, Murphy E. Reducing the risk of sudden
infant death syndrome: a review of the scientific literature. J Paediatr
Child Health 1998;34:213e9.
[348] Stores G. Aspects of sleep disorders in children and adolescents. Dialogues
Clin Neurosci 2009;11:81e90.
[349] Alm B, Lagercrantz H, Wennergren G. Stop SIDSesleeping solitary supine,
sucking soother, stopping smoking substitutes. Acta Paediatr 2006;95:
260e2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08035250600582830.
[350] Task Force On Infant Positioning and SIDS. Does bed sharing affect the risk
of SIDS? Pediatrics 1997;100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.100.2.272.
272e272.
[351] Gettler LT, McKenna JJ. Never sleep with baby? Or keep me close but keep
me safe: eliminating inappropriate safe infant sleep rhetoric in the United
States. Curr Pediatr Rev 2010;6:71e7.
[352] Carsley S, James E, Fcfp R, Mclinsc EM, Patricia LLD, Frcpc L. Getting it right
from birth to kindergarten 2013;59:355e9.
[353] Rourke L, Leduc D, Constantin E, Carsley S, Rourke J. Update on well-baby
and well-child care from 0 to 5 years. Can Fam Physician 2010;56:
1285e90.
[354] Heinig MJ, Ban ~ uelos J. American Academy of Pediatrics task force on
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) statement on SIDS reduction: friend
or foe of breastfeeding? J Hum Lact 2006;22:7e10. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1177/0890334405285629.
[355] Moon R. SIDS and other sleep-related infant deaths: expansion of rec-
ommendations for a safe infant sleeping environment. Pediatrics
2011;128:1030e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-2284.
[356] Linke P, Leeson R. Sharing a bed with your Baby Every Child 2004;10:
10e1.
[357] O'Mara L. Review: bed sharing between parents and infants exposed to
smoke may increase the risk of sudden infant death syndrome. Evid Based
Nurs 2007;10:119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/ebn.10.4.119.
[358] Flinsenberg TWH, Ruys JH. Velzen-mol ACEHWM Van. Herziene richtlijn
“Preventie wiegendood” 2008;152:1370e5.
[359] Ruys JH, de Jonge GA, Brand R, Engelberts AC, Semmekrot BA. Bed-sharing
in the first four months of life: a risk factor for sudden infant death. Acta
Paediatr 2007;96:1399e403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-
2227.2007.00413.x.
[360] Wennergren G, Nordstrand K, Alm B, Mo €
€llborg P, Ohman A, Berlin A, et al.
Updated Swedish advice on reducing the risk of sudden infant death
24 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27

syndrome. Acta Paediatr 2015;104:444e8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/
apa.12966.
[361] Horne RSC, Hauck FR, Moon RY. Sudden infant death syndrome and advice
for safe sleeping. Bmj 2015;350. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h1989.
h1989eh1989.
[362] Davanzo R, De Cunto A, Paviotti G, Travan L, Inglese S, Brovedani P, et al.
Making the first days of life safer: preventing sudden unexpected post-
natal collapse while promoting breastfeeding. J Hum Lact 2014. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1177/0890334414554927.
[363] Obdeijn MC, Tonkin S, Mitchell E. An audit of the sudden infant death
syndrome prevention programme in the Auckland region. N Z Med J 1995:
99e101.
[364] Society CP. Creating a safe sleep environment for your baby Paediatr Child
Health 2004;9:665e74.
[365] Leduc D, Co ^ te
 A, Woods S. Position statement (CP 2004-02): recommen-
dations for safe sleeping environments for infants and children. Paediatr
Child Heal 2004;9:659e63.
[366] Moreno MA, Furtner F, Rivara FP. Infant sleep position: back to sleep. Arch
Pediatr Adolesc Med 2009;163:1168.
[367] Mitchell E. Co-sleeping and sudden infant death syndrome. Lancet
1996;348:1466.
[368] Mitchell E. Recommendations for sudden infant death syndrome pre-
vention: a discussion document. Arch Dis Child 2007;92:155e9. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2005.076752.
[369] Thompson DG. Safe sleep practices for hospitalized infants. Pediatr Nurs
2005;31:400e3. 409.
[370] Bredemeyer SL. Implementation of the SIDS guidelines in midwifery
practice. Aust J Midwifery 2004;17:17e21.
[371] Bedsharing and co-sleeping. RCM Midwives 2004;7:419e21.
[372] Blanchard DS, Vermilya HL. Bedsharing: toward a more holistic approach
in research and practice. Holist Nurs Pract 2007;21:19e25.
[373] Mesich HM. Mother-infant co-sleeping: understanding the debate and
maximizing infant safety. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 2005;30:30e7.
quiz 38e9.
[374] Sobralske MC, Gruber ME. Risks and benefits of parent/child bed sharing.
J Am Acad Nurse Pract 2009;21:474e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-
7599.2009.00430.x.
[375] Morgan KH, Groer MW, Smith LJ. The controversy about what constitutes
safe and nurturant infant sleep environments. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal
Nurs 2006;35:684e91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/J.1552-6909.2006.00
099.x.
[376] Beal J. Bed sharing. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 2015;40:59.
[377] Gordon RA, Rowe HL, Garcia K. Promoting family resilience through
evidence-based policy making: reconsidering the link between adult e
infant bedsharing and infant mortality. Fam Relat 2015;64:134e52. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/fare.12099.
[378] Bartick M. Bed sharing with unimpaired parents is not an important
risk for sudden infant death syndrome: to the. Pediatrics 2006;117:
992e3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-3165. author reply
994e6.
[379] Eidelman AI, Gartner LM. Bed sharing with unimpaired parents is not an
important risk for sudden infant death syndrome: to the editor. Pediatrics
2006;117:991e2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-2889. author reply
994e6.
[380] Lawrence RA. Solomon's wisdom. Breastfeed Med 2014;9:279e80. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1089/bfm.2014.9982.
[381] Darnall RA, Goodstein MH, Hauck FR, Moon RY. American Academy
of Pediatrics' Task Force on SIDS fully supports breastfeeding.
Breastfeed Med 2014;9:486e7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/bfm.2014.
0110.
[382] Chung M, Oden RP, Joyner BL, Sims A, Moon R. Safe infant sleep recom-
mendations on the Internet: let's google it. J Pediatr 2012;161:1080e4.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.06.004.
[383] Mitchell E. Sudden infant death and co-sleeping: stronger warning
needed. N Z Med J 2009;122:6e9.
[384] Moon R, Kington M, Oden R, Iglesias J, Hauck F. Physician recommenda-
tions regarding SIDS risk reduction: a national survey of pediatricians and
family physicians. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2007;46:791e800. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1177/0009922807303894.
[385] Price SK, Hillman L, Gardner P, Schenk K, Warren C. Changing hospital
newborn nursery practice: results from a statewide “Back to Sleep” nurses
training program. Matern Child Health J 2008;12:363e71. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-007-0243-y.
[386] Smith LA, Colson ER, Rybin D, Margolis A, Colton T, Lister G, et al. Maternal
assessment of physician qualification to give advice on AAP-
recommended infant sleep practices related to SIDS. Acad Pediatr
2010;10:383e8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2010.08.006.
[387] Andreotta J, Hill C, Eley S, Vincent D, Moore JM. Safe sleep practices and
discharge planning. J Neonatal Nurs 2015;21:195e9. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jnn.2015.04.003.
[388] Riter S, Wills L. Sleep wars: research and opinion. Pediatr Clin North Am
2004;51:1e13.
[389] Johnson L, Radesky J, Zuckerman B. Cross-cultural parenting: reflections
on autonomy and interdependence. Pediatrics 2013;131:631e3. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-3451.
[390] Morgan SK, Johnson CM. Infant sleep: resident recommendations and
socioeconomic status differences in patient practices. Fam Med 2001;33:
614e20.
[391] Yikilkan H, Unalan PC, Cakir E, Ersu RH, Cifcili S, Akman M, et al. Sudden
infant death syndrome: how much mothers and health professionals
know. Pediatr Int 2011;53:24e8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-
200X.2010.03202.x.
[392] Mathews A, Oden R, Joyner B, He J, McCarter R, Moon RY. Differences in
AfricaneAmerican maternal self-efficacy regarding practices impacting
risk for sudden infant death. J Community Health 2015. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1007/s10900-015-0088-z.
[393] Dwyer T, Ponsonby AL, Blizzard L, Newman NM. Cochrane J a. The
contribution of changes in the prevalence of prone sleeping position to
the decline in sudden infant death syndrome in Tasmania. JAMA
1995;273:783e9.
[394] Hiley CMH, Morley CJ. Evaluation of government's campaign to reduce
risk ofcot death. BMJ 1994;309:703e4.
[395] Hill SAR, Hjelmeland B, Johannessen NM, Irgens LM, Skjærven R. Changes
in parental risk behaviour after an information campaign against sudden
infant death syndrome (SIDS) in Norway. 2004. p. 250e4. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1080/08035250310008032.
[396] Essex C. New Zealand: campaign falters over bed sharing. BMJ 1995:310.
[397] Fa’alau F, Finau SA, Parks J, Abel S. SIDS among Pacificans in New Zealand:
an ecological perspective. Pac Health Dialog 2003;10:155e62.
[398] Rasinski KA, Kuby A, Bzdusek SA, Silvestri JM, Weese-mayer DE. Effect of a
sudden infant death syndrome risk reduction education program on risk
factor compliance and information sources in primarily black urban
communities. Pediatrics 2003;111:347e54.
[399] Poets CF, Southall DP. Recent developments in research into sudden infant
death. Thorax 1994;49:196e7.
[400] Trachtenberg FL, Haas EA, Kinney HC, Stanley C, Krous HF. Risk factor
changes for sudden infant death syndrome after initiation of Back-to-
Sleep campaign. Pediatrics 2012;129:630e8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/
peds.2011-1419.
[401] Stremler R, Hodnett E, Kenton L. Effect of behavioural-educational inter-
vention on sleep for primiparous women and their infants in early post-
partum: multisite randomised controlled trial 2013;1164:1e14. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f1164.
[402] Mason B, Ahlers-Schmidt CR, Schunn C. Improving safe sleep environ-
ments for well newborns in the hospital setting. Clin Pediatr (Phila)
2013;52:969e75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0009922813495954.
[403] Moon R, Oden R, Grady K. Back to Sleep: an educational intervention
with women, infants, and children program clients. Pediatrics 2004;113:
542.
[404] Ball HL, Ward-Platt MP, Howel D, Russell C. Randomised trial of sidecar
crib use on breastfeeding duration (NECOT). Arch Dis Child 2011;96:
630e4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2010.205344.
[405] D'Halluin AR, Roussey M, Branger B, Venisse A, Pladys P, Halluin ARD.
Formative evaluation to improve prevention of sudden infant death
syndrome (SIDS): a prospective study. Acta Paediatr 2011;100:e147e51.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2011.02331.x.
[406] Canter J, Rao V, Patrick PA, Alpan G, Altman RL. The impact of a hospital-
based educational video on maternal perceptions and planned practices of
infant safe sleep. J Spec Pediatr Nurs 2015;20:187e92. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1111/jspn.12114.
[407] High P, Hopmann M, LaGasse L, Linn H. Evaluation of a clinic-based pro-
gram to promote book sharing and bedtime routines among low-income
urban families with young children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1998;152:
459e65.
[408] Lee K, Gay CL. Can modifications to the bedroom environment improve
the sleep of new parents? Two randomized controlled trials. Res Nurs
Health 2011;34:7e19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/nur.20413.
[409] Salm Ward TC, Doering JJ. Application of a socio-ecological model to
mother-infant bed-sharing. Heal Educ Behav 2014;41:577e89. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1177/1090198114543010.
[410] Cowan S, Bennett S, Clarke J, Pease A. An evaluation of portable sleeping
spaces for babies following the Christchurch earthquake of February 2011.
J Paediatr Child Health 2013;49:364e8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jpc.12196.
[411] Haycock G, Greenough A. Sudden infant death, bed-sharing and dummies:
authors' reply. Arch Dis Child 2007;92:560.
[412] Lawrence RA. Co-sleeping and breastfeeding: is it safe? Breastfeed Med
2008;3:1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/bfm.2007.9980.
[413] Shweder R, Jensen L, Goldstein W. Who sleeps by whom revisited: a
method for extracting the moral goods implicit in practice. New Dir Child
Dev Cult Pract as Context Dev 1995:21e39.
[414] Hauck FR, Darnall RA, Moon RY. Bed sharing per Se is not dangerous: letter
to the editor. JAMA Pediatr 2014;168:387. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-
3016.2007.00855.x.Methods.
[415] Bergman A. Bed sharing per se is not dangerous: reply. JAMA Pediatr
2014;168:378e9.
[416] Krugman SD. Bed sharing per se is not dangerous: letter to the editor.
JAMA Pediatr 2014;168:386e7.
[417] Wennergren G. Why it is important to present all the available facts about
bed sharing and breastfeeding. Acta Paediatr 2015;105. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1111/apa.13250. n/a e n/a.
 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
[418] Blair PS. Co-sleeping and suffocation. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2015;11:
281e2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12024-014-9617-9.
[419] Gill JR. Co-sleeping and suffocation. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2015;11:
279e80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12024-014-9617-9.
[420] Mitchell EA. Co-sleeping and suffocation. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2015;11:
277e8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12024-014-9617-9.
[421] Sebire NJ. Co-sleeping and suffocation. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2015;11:
275e6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12024-014-9617-9.
[422] Ball HL. The BMJ illustrates hazardous co-sleeping. Bmj 2015;350. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h993. h993eh993.
[423] Colvin JD, Collie-Akers V, Schunn C, Moon RY. Sleep environment risks for
younger and older infants. Pediatrics 2014;134:e406e12. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-0401.
[424] Smith LJ, Wiessinger D, West D, Pittman T. Murky definitions, missing data
prevent meaningful conclusions. Pediatrics 2014;134. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1542/peds.2014-2794A. e1776ee1776.
[425] Cutz E. Risk factors and a true cause for SIDS. Pediatrics 2014;134:e1777.
[426] Tighe CM, Poppell SL. Bed-sharing with infants. MCN Am J Matern Child
Nurs 2002;27:193.
[427] Zealander N, Truby F, Ball HL, Blair P, Ward-platt MP. “New” practice of
bedsharing and risk of thyroxine adherence in primary hypothyroidism
for personal use. Only reproduce with permission from The Lancet pub-
lishing Group 2004;363:2004.
[428] Johnston JT, Johnston EA. On bed sharing. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs
2008;37:619e21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1552-6909.2008.00287.x.
author reply 621.
[429] Blair P, Fleming P. Putting bed-sharing findings into perspective. J Paediatr
Child Health 2012;48:947. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-
1754.2012.02566.x.
[430] Bergman AB. Bed sharing per se is not dangerous. 2013. p. 1e2. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b3666.the.
[431] Holborow P. Bed sharing or iron supplementation as a cause of cot death?
N Z Med J 1992 Oct 28;105(944):436e7.
[432] Owens J. Cosleeping. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2002;23:254e5. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004703-200208000-00010.
[433] Bartick M, Rosenberg KD, Lahr MB, Marinelli K. Study on sleep location
flawed, inconclusive. Pediatrics 2014;134:e1777. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1542/peds.2014-2794A.
[434] Fay M. Epidemiology or associated symptoms? BMJ 2001. http://www.
bmj.com/rapid-response/2011/10/28/epidemiology-or-associated-
symptoms.
[435] Wailoo M, Ball HL, Fleming P, Ward Platt MP. Infants bed-sharing with
mothers. Arch Dis Child 2004;89:1082e3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/
adc.2004.054312.
[436] Klonoff-Cohen H, Edelstein SL. Bed sharing and the sudden infant death
syndrome. BMJ 1995;311:1269e72.
[437] Sheehan KM, McGarvey CM, Devaney DM, Matthews T. How reliable are
SIDS rates? Arch Dis Child 2005;90:1082e3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/
adc.2004.062463.
[438] O'Hara MA, Harruff R, Smialek J, Fowler D. Sleep location and suffocation:
how good is the evidence? Pediatrics 2000;105:915e7.
[439] Byard RW. Bed sharing deaths in infancy e sids or asphyxia?
J Korean Med Sci 2013;28:1409. http://dx.doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2013.
28.9.1409.
[440] Fleming P, Blair P. How reliable are SIDS rates? The importance of a
standardized, multiprofessional approach to “diagnosis”. Arch Dis Child
2005;90:993e4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2005.079863.
[441] Gould SJ, Weber MA, Sebire NJ. Variation and uncertainties in the classi-
fication of sudden unexpected infant deaths among paediatric patholo-
gists in the UK: findings of a National Delphi Study. J Clin Pathol 2010;63:
796e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jcp.2010.079715.
[442] Krous HF. Sudden unexpected death in infancy and the dilemma of
defining the sudden infant death syndrome. Curr Pediatr Rev 2010;6:
5e12. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/157339610791317205.
[443] Limerick SR, Bacon CJ. Terminology used by pathologists in reporting on
sudden infant deaths. J Clin Pathol 2004;57:309e11.
[444] Sharma BR. Sudden infant death syndrome: a subject of medicolegal
research. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2007;28:69e72. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1097/01.paf.0000220934.18700.ef.
[445] Berry PJ. Intra-alveolar haemorrhage in sudden infant death syndrome: a
cause for concern? J Clin Pathol 1999;52:553e4.
[446] Blair P, Fleming P, Smith IJ, Platt MW, Young J, Nadin P, et al. Babies
sleeping with parents: case-control study of factors influencing the risk of
the sudden infant death syndrome. BMJ 1999;319:1457e61.
[447] Carter N, Rutty GN. Babies sleeping with parents and sudden infant death
syndrome. Invoking sudden infant death syndrome in cosleeping may be
misleading. BMJ 2000;321:1019. author reply 1020.
[448] Blair P. Putting co-sleeping into perspective. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2008;84:
99e101. http://dx.doi.org/10.2223/JPED.1775.
[449] Drago DA. In reply. Pediatrics 2000;105:915.
[450] Lahr MB, Rosenberg KD. Commentary on: Alexander RT, Radisch D. Sud-
den infant death syndrome risk factors with regards to sleep position,
sleep surface, and co-sleeping. J Forensic Sci 2005;50:1e5. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2006.00083.x. J Forensic Sci 2006;51:427;
author reply 428e9.
25
[451] Macfarlane A. Sudden infant death syndrome. More attention should have
been paid to socioeconomic factors. BMJ 1996;1996:313.
[452] Alexander RT, Radisch D. Authors' response. J Forensic Sci 2006;51. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2006.00084.x. 428e428.
[453] Rosenberg KD. Sudden infant death syndrome and co-sleeping. Arch
Pediatr Adolesc Med 2000;154:529e30.
[454] Nakamura S. Sudden infant death syndrome and co-sleeping: In reply.
Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2000;154:529e30.
[455] Sugrue T. Bedsharing and cot death.pdf. N Z Med J 1995:324.
[456] Kibel M, Molteno C, De Decker R. Cot death controversies. South Afr Med J
2008;95:853e7.
[457] Bourne AJ, Beal S, Byard RW. Bed sharing and sudden infant death syn-
drome. BMJ 1994;308:537e8.
[458] McAfee T. Bed sharing is not a “Consumer product”. Arch Pediatr Adolesc
Med 2000;154:530e1.
[459] Nakamura S, Wind M, Danello MA. Bed sharing is not a “Consumer
Product”: In reply. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2000;154:531.
[460] Rushton DI. Co-sleeping and sudden infant death syndrome. Lancet
1997;349:56e7.
[461] Mitchell JF. Sudden unexpected death in infancy e amazing progress but
still unanswered questions. Br J Pharmacol 1986;87:451e2.
[462] Casey TC. Separate sleep environment for infants. J Obstet Gynecol
Neonatal Nurs 2007;36:362e3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1552-
6909.2007.00152_1.x. author reply 363.
[463] Scheers NJ, Rutherford GW, Kemp JS. Where should infants sleep? A
comparison of risk for suffocation of infants sleeping in cribs, adult beds,
and other sleeping locations. Pediatrics 2003;112:883e9. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.112.4.883.
[464] Byard RW. Bed sharing and sudden infant death syndrome. J Pediatr
2012;160:1063. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.03.006. author
reply 1063.
[465] Cowan S. Bed sharing and cot death. N Z Med J 1995;108:278.
[466] Fleming P, Blair P, McKenna JJ. New knowledge, new insights, and new
recommendations. Arch Dis Child 2006;91:799e801. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1136/adc.2005.092304.
[467] Hauck F, Kemp JS. Bedsharing promotes breastfeeding and AAP Task Force
on infant positioning and SIDS. Pediatrics 1998;102:662e4. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.102.3.662a.
[468] Lahr MB, Rosenberg KD. Letter to the editor-commentary on authors'
response, Alexander et al. J Forensic Sci 2006;51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/
j.1556-4029.2006.00085.x. 429e429.
[469] Mermer CA. Babies sleeping with parents and sudden infant death syn-
drome. Down with smoking and babies sleeping in separate rooms. BMJ
2000;321:1019. author reply 1020.
[470] Pelayo R, Owens J, Mindell J, Sheldon S. Bed sharing with unimpaired
parents is not an important risk for sudden infant death syndrome: to the
editor. Pediatrics 2006;117:993. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-
3165.
[471] Scragg RK. Bed sharing and cot death. N Z Med J 1995;108:277.
[472] Tipene-Leach DC. Bedsharing and smoking. N Z Med J 1995:300e1.
[473] Fleming PJ, Blair PS. Making informed choices on co-sleeping with your
baby Bmj 2015;350. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h563. h563eh563.
[474] Byard RW. Letters to the editor “co-sleeping in infancy: reply”. J Pediatr
1995;31:61.
[475] Fetherston CM, Leach JS. Analysis of the ethical issues in the breastfeeding
and bedsharing debate. Breastfeed Rev 2012 Nov;20(3):7e17.
[476] Heinig MJ. Bed sharing and infant mortality: guilt by association? J Hum
Lact 2000;16:189e91.
[477] McKenna JJ. “Cosleeping (bedsharing) among infants and toddlers”:
comment. Dev Behav Pediatr 1997;18:409e10.
[478] Eastwood J. Public Health Commission policy on bed sharing and SIDS. N Z
Med J 1995;108:277.
[479] Tappin D, Brooke H, Ecob R. Bedsharing and sudden infant death syn-
drome (SIDS) in Scotland, UK the laws of diminishing objectivity for
personal use. Only reproduce with permission from The Lancet 2004;363:
2004.
[480] Pharoah P. Bed-sharing and suddent infant death. Lancet 1996;347:7.
[481] Brand PL. Sudden infant death syndrome: the times are changing. Ned
Tijdschr Geneeskd 2005;149:1254e6.
[482] Blair P, Fleming P. Epidemiological investigation of sudden infant death
syndrome infantserecommendations for future studies. Child Care Health
Dev 2002;28(Suppl. 1):49e54.
[483] McKenna JJ, Gartner LM. To the editor. Pediatrics 2000;105:917e9.
[484] Grossman ER. Less than meets the eye: the consumer product safety
commission's campaign against bed-sharing with babies. Birth 2000;27:
277e80.
[485] Servan-Schreiber D. To the editor. Pediatrics 2000;105:915e20.
[486] Drago DA. In reply (3). Pediatrics 2000;105:920.
[487] Ezeonyeji A, Jewitt S, Poyser L, Stadward T. Babies sleeping with parents
and sudden infant death syndrome. Smoking may be residual confounder
in bed sharing. BMJ 2000;321:1019e20.
[488] Bartick M, Smith LJ. Speaking out on safe sleep: evidence-based infant
sleep recommendations. Breastfeed Med 2014;9:417e22. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1089/bfm.2014.0113.
[489] Elliott R. Bed sharing and cot death. N Z Med J 1995;108:370.
26 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
[490] Mitchell E. Authors' reply. Lancet 1997;349:1997.
[491] Tipene-Leach DC. Sudden infant death and co-sleeping: a better message.
N Z Med J 2010;123:137e8.
[492] Odent M. Sudden infant death syndrome. BMJ Br Med J 1993;306:
999e1000.
[493] Tonkin SL. Bed sharing and cot death. N Z Med J 1995:257.
[494] Tonkin SL. Sudden infant death syndrome in Maoris. BMJ Br Med J
1995;310:666.
[495] Tipene-Leach DC, Hutchison L, Tangiora A, Rea C, White R, Stewart AW,
et al. SIDS-related knowledge and infant care practices among Maori
mothers. N Z Med J 2010;123:88e96.
[496] Mitchell E, Becroft D. Authors' reply. BMJ 1993;306:1000.
[497] Gantley M. Ethnicity and the sudden infant death syndrome: anthropo-
logical perspectives. Early Hum Dev 1994;38:203e8.
[498] Cooper R, Potter A, Watson L, Yelland J. Letters to the editor “co-sleeping
in infancy”. J Pediatr 1995;31:57e63.
[499] Goldberg WA, Keller MA. Parent e infant co-sleeping: why the interest
and concern? Infant Child Dev 2007;339:331e9. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1002/icd.
[500] Kemp JS. Keep your eyes on the prize. J Pediatr 2009;155:462e3. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.06.016.
[501] Lumeng JC, Arbor A. The intersect of biology and culture in shaping
children's sleep. 2011.
[502] Ball HL. The latest on bed sharing and breastfeeding 2012;85:2011e3.
[503] Ball HL, Volpe LE. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) risk reduction
and infant sleep location e moving the discussion forward. Soc Sci Med
2013;79:84e91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.03.025.
[504] Davies DP, Gantley M, Murcott a. Reducing risks in the sudden infant
death syndrome. BMJ 1992;304:775.
[505] Keeley D. Reducing risks in sudden infant death syndrome. BMJ 1992;304:
775.
[506] Gregson R. Night, every night. 1989.
[507] Farooqi IS, Lip GY, Beevers DG. Bed sharing and smoking in the sudden
infant death syndrome. BMJ 1994;308:204e5.
[508] Davies DP, Gantley M. Ethnicity and the aetiology of sudden infant death
syndrome. Arch Dis Child 1994;70:349e53.
[509] McKinney J, Garland B. Patient's page. New screening techniques for colon
cancer. Is bed sharing safe? South Med J 2006;99:1019.
[510] Krouse A, Craig J, Watson U, Matthews Z, Kolski G, Isola K. Bed-sharing
influences, attitudes, and practices: implications for promoting safe infant
sleep. J Child Health Care 2012;16:274e83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/
1367493511432300.
[511] Rath FHJ, Okum ME. Letters to the editor. Am J Orthopsychiatry 1996:
160e2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1757913913505980.
[512] Bhavnagri NP, Gonzalez-Mena J. The cultural context of infant caregiving.
Child Educ 1997;74:2e8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
00094056.1997.10521906.
[513] Fleming P, Pease A, Blair P. Bed-sharing and unexpected infant deaths:
what is the relationship? Paediatr Respir Rev 2015;16:62e7. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.prrv.2014.10.008.
[514] Carpenter RG, McGarvey CM, Mitchell E, Tappin DM, Vennemann MM,
Smuk M, et al. Bed sharing when parents do not smoke: is there a risk of
SIDS? An individual level analysis of five major case-control studies. BMJ
Open 2013;3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2012-002299.
[515] McKenna JJ, Thoman B, Anders TF, Sadeh A, Schechtman VL, Glotzbach SF.
Infant-parent co-sleeping in an evolutionary perspective: implications for
understanding infant sleep development and the sudden infant death
syndrome. Sleep 1993;16:263e82.
[516] McKenna JJ, Gettler LT. There is no such thing as infant sleep, there is no
such thing as breastfeeding, there is only breastsleeping. Acta Paediatr
2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/apa.13161. n/a e n/a.
[517] Bonamy A-KE. Breastsleeping or not? Acta Paediatr 2015. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/apa.13263. n/a e n/a.
[518] Cabrera NJ, Fitzgerald HE, Bradley RH, Roggman L. The ecology of father-
child relationships: an expanded model. J Fam Theory Rev 2014;6:10e2.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12054.
[519] Rowe J. A room of their own: the social landscape of infant sleep. Nurs Inq
2003;10:184e92.
[520] Bornstein MH. Cultural approaches to parenting. Parent Sci Pract 2012;12:
212e21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2012.683359.
[521] Ball HL. Supporting parents who are worried about their newborn's sleep.
Editorials 2013;44:1e3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f2344.
[522] Nelson E, Taylor BJ, Jenik A, Vance J, Walmsley K, Pollard K, et al. Inter-
national child care practices study: infant sleeping environment. Early
Hum Dev 2001;62:43e55.
[523] Rigda RS, McMillen IC, Buckley P. Bed sharing patterns in a cohort of
Australian infants during the first six months after birth. J Paediatr Child
Health 2000;36:117e21.
[524] Hiscock H, Wake M. Infant sleep problems and postnatal depression: a
community-based study. Pediatrics 2001;107:1317e22.
[525] Reimao R, De Souza JC, Gaudioso CE. Sleep habits in Native Brazilian
Bororo children. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 1999;57:14e7.
[526] Issler RMS, Giugliani ERJ, Marostica PJC, Nieto F, Milani AR, Wolmeister AS,
et al. Bed-sharing in the first semester of life: prevalence and associated
factors. Cad Saude Publica 2010;26:942e8.
[527] Yovsi RD, Keller H. The architecture of cosleeping among wage-earning
and subsistence farming Cameroonian Nso families. Ethos 2007;35:
65e84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/ETH.2007.35.1.1.66.
[528] Wilson CE. Cree infant care practices and sudden infant death syndrome.
Can J Public Health 2000;91:133e6.
[529] Hewlett BSBL, Fouts HN, Boyette AH, Hewlett BSBL. Social learning among
Congo Basin hunter-gatherers. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci
2011;366:1168e78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0373.
[530] Lukowski AF, Liu X, Peirano P, Odio M, Bauer PJ. Disposable diaper use
promotes consolidated nighttime sleep and positive mother-infant in-
teractions in Chinese 6-month-olds. J Fam Psychol 2015;29:371e81.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/fam0000072.
[531] Vennemann MM, Findeisen M, Butterfass-Bahloul T, Jorch G, Brinkmann B,
Kopcke W, et al. Modifiable risk factors for SIDS in Germany: results of
GeSID. Acta Paediatr 2005;94:655e60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
08035250410024231.
[532] Nelson E, Chan PH. Child care practices and cot death in Hong Kong. N Z
Med J 1996;109:144e6.
[533] Cullen A, Kiberd B, Mcdonnell M, Mehanni M, Matthews TG, Regan MO.
Sudden infant death syndrome d are parents getting the message. 1996.
p. 40e3.
[534] Tauman R, Reisner SH, Amitai Y, Wasser J, Nehama H, Sivan Y. Sleep po-
sition in Israeli Jewish infants following the “back to sleep” campaign. Isr
Med Assoc J 2004;6:540e5.
[535] Bruni O, Baumgartner E, Psy D, Sette S, Psy D, Ancona M, et al. Longi-
tudinal study of sleep behavior in Normal infants during the first year of
life. J Clin Sleep Med 2014;10:1119e27. http://dx.doi.org/10.5664/
jcsm.4114.
[536] Ottaviano S, Giannotti E, Cortesi E, Bruni O, Ottaviano C. Pediatrics and
sleep sleep characteristics in healthy children from birth to 6 years of age
in the urban area of Rome 1996;19:1e3.
[537] Yamada F, Fujiwara T. Prevalence of self-reported shaking and smothering
and their associations with co-sleeping among 4-Month-Old infants in
Japan. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2014;11:6485e93. http://dx.doi.org/
10.3390/ijerph110606485.
[538] Alaii J a, van den Borne HW, Kachur SP, Shelley K, Mwenesi H, Vulule JM,
et al. Community reactions to the introduction of permethrin-treated bed
nets for malaria control during a randomized controlled trial in western
Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2003;68:128e36.
[539] Tan KL. Bed sharing among mother-infant pairs in Klang district, Penin-
sular Malaysia and its relationship to breast-feeding. J Dev Behav Pediatr
2009;30:420e5.
[540] Lope RJR, Kong WK, Lee VWM, Tiew WT, Wong SY. Sleep position and
infant care practices in an urban community in Kuala Lumpur. Med J
Malays 2010;65:45e8.
[541] Tsogt B, Manaseki-Holland S, Pollock J, Blair PS, Fleming P. Thermoregu-
latory effects of swaddling in Mongolia: a randomised controlled study.
Arch Dis Child 2015;1e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2014-
307908.
[542] Plucinski M, Chicuecue S, Macete E, Chambe G, Muguande O, Matsinhe G,
et al. Sleeping arrangements and mass distribution of bed nets in six
districts in central and northern Mozambique. Trop Med Int Heal 2015;20:
1685e95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12596.
[543] L'Hoir MP, Engelberts AC, van Well GT, Westers P, Mellenbergh GJ,
Wolters WH, et al. Case-control study of current validity of previously
described risk factors for SIDS in The Netherlands. Arch Dis Child 1998;79:
386e93.
[544] Mitchell E, Tuohy PG, Brunt JM, Thompson JM, Clements MS, Stewart AW,
et al. Risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome following the pre-
vention campaign in New Zealand: a prospective study. Pediatrics
1997;100:835e40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.100.5.835.
[545] Paterson J, Tukuitonga C, Butler S, Williams M. Infant bed-sharing among
Pacific families in New Zealand. N Z Med J 2002;115:241e3.
[546] Galland BC, Gray A, Sayers RM, Heath A-LM, Lawrence J, Taylor R, et al.
Safe sleep practices in a New Zealand community and development of a
sudden unexpected death in infancy (SUDI) risk assessment instru-
ment. BMC Pediatr 2014;14:263. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2431-
14-263.
[547] Ibeziako NS, Ibekwe RC, Ibe BC. Infant sleeping environment in south-
eastern Nigeria (sleeping place and sleeping position): a preliminary
survey. J Trop Med 2009;2009:283046. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2009/
283046.
[548] Hill SAR, Hjelmeland B, Johannessen NM, Irgens LM, Skjærven R. Changes
in parental risk behaviour after an information campaign against sudden
infant death syndrome (SIDS) in Norway. 2004. p. 250e5. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1080/08035250310008032.
[549] Teng A, Bartle A, Sadeh A, Mindell J. Infant and toddler sleep in Australia
and New Zealand. J Paediatr Child Health 2012;48:268e73. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1754.2011.02251.x.
[550] Schluter PJ, Paterson J, Percival T. Infant care practices associated with
sudden infant death syndrome: findings from the Pacific islands families
study. J Paediatr Child Health 2007;43:388e93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/
j.1440-1754.2007.01085.x.
[551] Kelmanson IA. Sleep disturbances in two-month-old infants sharing the
bed with parent (s). Minerva Pediatr 2010:62.
 V.R. Mileva-Seitz et al. / Sleep Medicine Reviews 32 (2017) 4e27
[552] Jan MM, Hasanain FH. Al-Dabbagh a a. Infant and child safety practices of
parents. Saudi Med J 2000;21:1142e6.
[553] Tappin D, Brooke H, Ecob R, Gibson A. Used infant mattresses and sudden
infant death syndrome in Scotland: case-control study. BMJ 2002;325:
1007.
[554] van den Berg M, Ball HL. Practices, advice and support regarding pro-
longed breastfeeding: a descriptive study from Sri Lanka. J Reprod Infant
Psychol 2008;26:229e43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02646830701691376.
[555] Alm B, Mo € llborg P, Erdes L, Pettersson R, Aberg N, Norvenius G, et al. SIDS
risk factors and factors associated with prone sleeping in Sweden. Arch
Dis Child 2006;91:915e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2005.088328.
[556] Mollborg P, Wennergren G, Norvenius SG, Alm B, Mo €llborg P,
Wennergren G, et al. Bed-sharing among six-month-old infants in west-
ern Sweden. Acta Paediatr 2011;100:226e30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/
j.1651-2227.2010.02008.x.
[557] Anuntaseree W, Mo-Suwan L, Vasiknanonte P, Kuasirikul S, Ma-A-Lee A,
Choprapawon C. Factors associated with bed sharing and sleep position in
Thai neonates. Child Care Health Dev 2008;34:482e90. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1111/j.1365-2214.2008.00832.x.
[558] Ball HL, Moya E, Fairley L, Westman J, Oddie S, Wright J. Infant care
practices related to sudden infant death syndrome in South Asian and
White British families in the UK. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2012;26:
3e12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3016.2011.01217.x.
[559] Vemulapalli C, Grady K, Kemp JS. Use of safe cribs and bedroom size
among African American infants with a high rate of bed sharing. Arch
Pediatr Adolesc Med 2004;158:286e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/
archpedi.158.3.286.
[560] Shields LBE, Hunsaker DM, Muldoon S, Corey TS, Spivack BS, Spivack S,
et al. Risk factors associated with sudden unexplained infant death: a
prospective study of infant care practices in Kentucky. Pediatrics
2005;116:e13e20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-2333.
[561] Montgomery-Downs HE, Gozal D. Sleep habits and risk factors for sleep-
disordered breathing in infants and young toddlers in Louisville, Ken-
tucky. Sleep Med 2006;7:211e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.sleep.2005.11.003.
[562] Li D-KK, Willinger M, Petitti DB, Odouli R, Liu L, Hoffman HJ. Use of a
dummy (pacifier) during sleep and risk of sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS): population based case-control study. BMJ 2006;332:18e22. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.38671.640475.55.
[563] Lahr MB, Rosenberg KD, Lapidus J a. Maternal-infant bedsharing: risk
factors for bedsharing in a population-based survey of new mothers and
implications for SIDS risk reduction. Matern Child Health J 2007;11:
277e86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-006-0166-z.
[564] Willinger M, Ko C-KW, Hoffman HJ, Kessler RC, Corwin MJ. Factors asso-
ciated with caregivers' choice of infant sleep position, 1994e1998. JAMA
2000;283:2135e41.
27
[565] Moon R, Omron R. Determinants of infant sleep position in an urban
population. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2002;41:569e73. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1177/000992280204100803.
[566] Weimer SM, Dise TL, Evers PB, Ortiz MA, Welidaregay W, Steinmann WC.
Prevalence, predictors, and attitudes toward cosleeping in an urban pe-
diatric Center. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2002;41:433e8. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1177/000992280204100609.
[567] Willinger M, Ko C-W, Hoffman HJ, Kessler RC, Corwin MJ. Trends in infant
bed sharing in the United States, 1993e2000. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med
2003;157:43e9.
[568] Fu L, Colson E, Corwin M, Moon R. Infant sleep location: associated
maternal and infant characteristics with sudden infant death syndrome
prevention recommendations. J Pediatr 2008;153:503e8.
[569] Fu L, Moon R, Hauck F. Bed sharing among black infants and sudden infant
death syndrome: interactions with other known risk factors. Acad Pediatr
2010;10:376e82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2010.09.001.
[570] Norton PJ, Grellner KW. A retrospective study on infant bed-sharing in a
clinical practice population. Matern Child Health J 2011;15:507e13. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-010-0600-0.
[571] Moon R, Tanabe KO, Yang DC, Young H a, Hauck F. Pacifier use and SIDS:
evidence for a consistently reduced risk. Matern Child Health J 2012;16:
609e14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-011-0793-x.
[572] Duzinski SV, Yuma-Guerrero PJ, Fung A, Brown JM, Wheeler T, Barczyk AN,
et al. Sleep behaviors of infants and young children: associated de-
mographic and acculturation characteristics among hispanic teen
mothers. J Trauma Nurs 2013;20:189e98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/
JTN.0000000000000011.
[573] Hauck F, Signore C, Fein SB, Raju TNK. Infant sleeping arrangements and
practices during. 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-1315.
[574] Iyasu S, Randall LL, Welty TK, Hsia J, Kinney HC, Mandell F, et al. Risk
factors for sudden infant death syndrome among northern plains Indians.
JAMA 2002;288:2717e23.
[575] Colson ER, Willinger M, Rybin D, Heeren T, Smith LA, Lister G, et al. Trends
and factors associated with bed-sharing: the national infant sleep position
study (NISP) 1993e2010. JAMA Pediatr 2014;167:1032e7. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.2560.Trends.
[576] Salm Ward TC, Robb SW, Kanu FA. Prevalence and characteristics of bed-
sharing among black and White infants in Georgia. Matern Child Health J
2015:1e16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-015-1834-7.
[577] Keene Woods N, Ahlers-Schmidt CR, Wipperman J, Williams T. Comparing
self-reported infant safe sleep from community- and health care-based
settings. J Prim Care Community Health 2015;6:205e10. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1177/2150131914567967.
[578] Shrivastava A, Davis P, Davies DP. SIDS: parental awareness and infant care
practices in contrasting socioeconomic areas in Cardi V. 1997. p. 52e3.