Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 56 (2016) 171–178

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review of solar based hydrogen production methods

Fatih Yilmaz a,n, M. Tolga Balta b, Reşat Selbaş c
a
Department of Electrical and Energy, Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Aksaray University, 68100 Aksaray, Turkey
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Aksaray University, 68100 Aksaray, Turkey
c
Department of Energy Systems Engineering Faculty of Technology, Suleyman Demirel University, 32200 Isparta, Turkey

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Hydrogen is one of the most promising fuel options for the future and it is considered as a green energy
Received 13 July 2015 carrier. Nowadays, hydrogen can be produced from several energy resources, including those that are
Received in revised form renewable and non-renewable. In this context, solar energy has a significant and unique potential in
2 November 2015
renewable based hydrogen production methods. The utilization of solar energy for hydrogen production
Accepted 22 November 2015
promises to be one of the most viable options to replace fossil-based hydrogen production. In this paper,
Available online 10 December 2015
various solar-based hydrogen production methods are discussed and compared in terms of their pros
Keywords: and cons.
Hydrogen & 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Renewable
Solar
Electrochemical photochemical
Thermochemical

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
2. Hydrogen production methods from solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2.1. Hydrogen production from photoelectrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2.2. Hydrogen production from solar electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
2.3. Hydrogen production from photobiological generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
2.4. Hydrogen production from concentrated solar thermal energy and thermochemical processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3. Background on hydrogen production from solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

1. Introduction crises [2]. In this context, the utilization of renewable energy

sources has become far more important than previously but cur-
The global energy demand of the world is growing day by day rently, fossil based energy sources are still more significant in
due to the rapid growth in population, urbanization and indus- many areas such as industry. In the U.S., there are over 225 million
trialization [1]. Nowadays, total primary energy consumption of cars and light vehicles that travel over 7 billion miles a day and
the world is based on non-renewable energy sources, such as coal, consume 8 million barrels of oil a day. Although it is the 3rd largest
natural gas and oil account for more than 85%. The use of non- oil producer in the world, the amount of imported petroleum in
renewable energy sources creates environmental and economic the US is expected to rise to 60% by 2025 [3–6].
issues such as acid rain, ozone depletion, local pollutions, global Despite the increasing consumption of fossil fuels, they are
warming, which, in turn, brings about economic and political regarded as a finite resource and reserves worldwide are decreasing
[7] alongside considerable increases in the price. In addition to the
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 90 382 288 2504; fax: þ 90 382 280 2481. increasing cost of the fossil fuels, there are significant environ-
E-mail address: fatihyilmaz@aksaray.edu.tr (F. Yilmaz). mental concerns. The need for a clean energy supply is obvious due

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.11.060
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
172 F. Yilmaz et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 56 (2016) 171–178
to decreasing fossil energy resources, environmental pollution, cli-
mate change and increasing dependency on fossil fuels exporting
countries. Since fossil fuel combustion causes adverse environ-
mental impacts, researchers are motivated to seek environmentally
clean alternative fuels. These alternatives are required to fulfill cri-
teria such as no or less release of emission, suitability for both
mobile and stationary applications and being within an affordable
price range [8].
For world's energy utilization problems, hydrogen can be a key
solution and it is considered one possible solution to the envir-
onmental issues [9]. If it is produced from renewable energy
resources, there are several advantages since it has high yields in
fuel cells without any greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions such as
carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides [10,11]. Hydro-
gen has high energy density, it is sustainable and has a minimal
environmental impact compared with fossil fuels. Furthermore,
the storage capabilities, energy density versatility, transportable
and environmental impacts of the hydrogen are considered very
important aspects in the assessment of their viability and utiliza-
tion [12]. However, for hydrogen to become a common source of
energy there needs to be technological developments that facil-
itate the reduction of costs with new renewable hydrogen pro-
duction methods [13].
The literature contains studies on hydrogen being produced by
renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar energy [14–28]
thus, using new technologies for production hydrogen in a sus-
tainable way which can be highly effective and efficient together
with the eradication or substantial reduction of GHG.
Abanades and Flamant [16] presented thermochemical hydro-
gen production from a two-step solar-driven water-splitting cycle
based on cerium oxides (CeO2/Ce2O3). In this study, a new ther-
mochemical cycle for H2 production based on CeO2/Ce2O3 oxides
has been successfully demonstrated. It consists of two chemical
steps; (1) reduction, 2CeO2- Ce2O3 þ0.5O2; and (2) hydrolysis,
Ce2O3 þH2O -2CeO2 þH2. The results have shown that the cerium
oxide two-step thermochemical cycle is a promising process for
hydrogen production.
A review of solar–hydrogen/fuel cell hybrid energy systems for
stationary applications has been carried out by Yilanci et al. [17]. In
this study, solar hydrogen production methods are assessed for
their current status. Solar–hydrogen/fuel cell hybrid energy sys-
tems for stationary applications, up to the present day are also
discussed, and preliminary energy and exergy efficiency analyses
are performed for a photovoltaic–hydrogen/fuel cell hybrid energy
system in Pamukkale University in Denizli, Turkey. They concluded
that the overall energy and exergy efficiency values of the system
under examination vary between 0.88–9.7% and 0.77% and 9.3%,
respectively.
The prospects of solar thermal hydrogen production processes
were critically examined by Pregger et al. [18]. They provided a
critical discussion of prospects of solar thermal hydrogen pro-
duction in terms of technological and economic potentials and
their possible role for a future hydrogen supply. The study
described solar driven steam methane reforming, thermochemical
cycles, high temperature water electrolysis and solar methane
cracking.
Liu et al. [19] investigated hydrogen production by integrating
methanol steam reforming with a 5 kW solar reactor that can
produce 150–300 °C at atmospheric pressure and found that the
thermochemical efficiency of solar thermal energy converted into
chemical energy is in the range of 30–50%.
The exergetic assessment of solar hydrogen production meth-
ods was investigated by Joshi et al. [20]. They classified the solar
hydrogen production system based on the energy input and solar
thermal, type of chemical reactants and for different hydrogen
production processes involved for example, electrolysis, reforming,
gasification and cracking. In a case study, they analyzed the sus-
tainability of a solar PV based hydrogen system through an exergy
efficiency and sustainability index
The solar-based method of generating hydrogen from the
copper–chlorine water-splitting cycle was developed and eval-
uated by Ghandehariun et al [21]. They performed through an
analysis of solar plants with different hydrogen production capa-
cities at three locations across Canada. The operating parameters
of the solar field and the storage units were presented. Also the
thermal efficiency was calculated as 49% and the cost parameters
of the hydrogen plant were examined.
González at el. [22] presented review of the available technol-
ogies for hydrogen generation using solar energy as main source.
Photochemical, electrochemical and thermochemical processes
for producing hydrogen with solar energy were analyzed from a
technological and economic perspective.
Dincer and Zamfirescu [23] investigated the theory of renew-
able energy based integrated multi-generation energy systems to
evaluate energy and exergy efficiencies and a better sustainability.
The available technologies for hydrogen generation using solar
energy as the main source were investigated by Ngoh and Njomo
[24]. They analyzed photochemical, electrochemical and thermo-
chemical processes for producing hydrogen with solar energy from
a technological, environmental and economic point of view. They
concluded that developments of improved processes for hydrogen
production via solar resource are likely to continue in order to
reach competitive hydrogen production costs.
Ozturk and Dincer [25] have undertaken a thermodynamic analysis
of a solar-based multi-generation system with hydrogen production.
This system consists of four main sub-systems; the Rankine cycle,
organic Rankine cycle, absorption cooling and heating, and hydrogen
production and utilization. Exergy destruction ratios and rates, power
or heat transfer rates, energy and exergy efficiencies of the system
components were measured. The energy and exergy efficiencies for
the multi-generation system were calculated as 52.92% and 57.84%,
respectively, at a direct solar radiation flux of 1000 W/m2.
Ozcan and Dincer [26] provided a performance assessment,
using energy and exergy methods, of a solar driven hydrogen
production plant running on an Mg–Cl cycle. Considering a solar
heat input, the overall energy and exergy efficiencies of the system
were found to be 18.8% and 19.9%, respectively.
Comparative exergo-environmental assessments of solar based
hydrogen production systems were carried out by Ratlamwala and
Dincer [27] in a study that focused on two solar based integrated
systems to produce hydrogen namely; (a) solar heliostat field
system integrated with a Cu–Cl cycle and a Kalina cycle (as system
1) and (b) solar heliostat field system integrated with a Cu–Cl
cycle, a Kalina cycle and a photocatalytic reactor (as system 2). The
overall exergy efficiencies of the integrated systems were found to
increase from 45.6% to 47.79% for system 1 and from 54.94% to
56.41% for system 2, regarding the increase in solar light intensity.
It was also observed that the rise in ambient temperature has no
effect on the energy efficiencies of either system, but the exergy
efficiencies of systems 1 and 2 increased from 47.98% to 50.82%
and 56.87% to 59.64%, respectively. The hydrogen production rates
of the photocatalytic reactor and system 2 observed to decrease
from 47.2 L/s (366.74 kg/day) to 42.23 L/s (328.1 kg/day) and
282.5 L/s (2195 kg/day) to 277.5 L/s (2156.2 kg/day), respectively
with the increase in mass flow rate of zinc sulfide from 0.45 kg/s to
0.70 kg/s.
Agrafiotis et al. [28] reviewed solar thermal syngas production
via redox pair-based water/carbon dioxide splitting thermo-
chemical cycles. They described the development, evolution and
current status of Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) aided syngas
production via redox-pair-based thermochemical cycles. The study
presented various solar reactor concepts that were proposed and
 F. Yilmaz et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 56 (2016) 171–178 173

employed for such reactions and gave information on their current those used in PVs [43]. Photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells offer a pro-
status of development. mising method of hydrogen production driven directly by solar
In recent years, many researchers have carried out studies energy; however, limitations of the materials have significantly hin-
concerning on solar-based hydrogen production methods includ- dered their efficiency. The objective of this research is to improve the
ing those detailed above. However, a few studies have taken a efficiencies of PEC cells by identifying and engineering corrosion-
comparative approach, thus the main purpose in the current paper resistant semiconductors that exhibit the optimal conduction and
is to discuss and compare the various solar based hydrogen pro- valence band edge alignment for PEC applications. PEC cells utilize
duction methods given in the literature. light energy (photons) to perform a chemical reaction, in this case the
splitting of water into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) gases. They
consist of an anode and a cathode immersed in an electrolyte and
2. Hydrogen production methods from solar energy connected in an external circuit [44].
In general, PEC devices are composed of two different photo-
There are three different classes of the primary energy-supply electrodes, photocathode and photoanode, where reduction and
system which can be used to implement the hydrogen economy; oxidation of water occur with response to sunlight. This provides
fossil fuels, nuclear and renewable energy [29]. Due to the arrival an ideal and feasible scheme for solar driven overall water split-
of new technological concepts and the creation of new solar ting. Photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells are useful devices designed
thermodynamic stations, the production of hydrogen has attained for the chemical process of generating hydrogen via electrolysis of
a state of effectiveness and maturity [30]. water under irradiation of sunlight [45].
Currently, hydrogen is generally used as a raw chemical mat- Basically, photoelectrolysis of water is the dissociation of a semi
erial for ammonia production (fertilizer industry), and in oil refi- conducting photocatalyser by an electric current via light. The PEC
neries in the range of 400–500 billion N m3/year. Of this quantity, system combines photon energy absorption with the electrolysis of
approximately 97% is represented by captive or internal produc- water in one-step process, which occurs in a single module. PEC uses
tion, and only about 3% is provided from merchant sources [21]. photoelectrochemical light collecting systems to power the electrolysis
Approximately 99% of hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels and of water as given in a schematic in Fig. 2 adapted by Ref. [46].
natural gas. The annual worldwide production rate of hydrogen is The principle of PEC depends on the conversion of photon
approximately 50 million tons (45 billion kg), which represents 2% energy into electricity within a cell involving two electrodes an
of the global energy demand [31]. Based on the current production anode and a cathode. These electrodes are submerged in an aqu-
methods, cost of hydrogen production is still high, for example, eous electrolyte emit the light to produce electricity for the
2 US$/kgH2 for coal gasification and 7 US$/kgH2 for solar hydrogen
using photovoltaic (PV) cells and water electrolysis; however, the
US Department of Energy expect that in 2015 these costs will drop
to about 1.4 US$/kgH2 and 4 US$/kgH2 respectively [32].
This use of fossil fuels is forecast to be reduced in the coming
years once renewable sources are more fully utilized along with
the development of other production processes which can achieve
sustainability.
Solar-based hydrogen production can be classified into four main
types; (i) photovoltaic, (ii) solar thermal energy, (iii) photo-electrolysis
and (iv) bio-photolysis [26]. The solar thermal energy can be utilized in
low temperature and high temperature applications which are called
concentrated solar energy. This type of solar energy can also be uti-
lized to produce steam and then electricity, which can be utilized to
produce hydrogen via electrolysis and in hybrid cycles.
The main concern of those engaged in solar energy research is how
to develop a process for the production from solar. Among the solar
energy candidates, hydrogen holds a preeminent position due to its
high energy content, low environmental effect, storage compatibility Fig. 1. From solar energy hydrogen production methods adopted by [37,38].
and distribution [33–35]. Solar hydrogen is described as a potential
energy storage medium to offset the variability of solar energy [36].
From solar energy hydrogen production methods are shown in
Fig. 1, which is adapted from [37,38]. Some methods involve estab-
lished industrial processes, whereas others are the laboratory stage
and need considerable research and development [39]. Electricity
production from solar energy by appropriate power generating tech-
nologies can be used to produce hydrogen by electrolysis technique
[40]. Solar energy technologies enable the transformation of solar
radiations convert into heat up to a temperature between 200 °C and
2000 °C. This primary heat is later converted to an energy of hydrogen.
Many different projects have been undertaken to promote solar
energy as primary source of energy production [24,41,42]. Each
method will be described in the following subsections.

2.1. Hydrogen production from photoelectrolysis

Photoelectrolysis uses sunlight to directly decompose water into

hydrogen and oxygen, and uses semiconductor materials similar to Fig. 2. A schematic of a photoelectrochemical cell (adapted from Ref. [34]).
174 F. Yilmaz et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 56 (2016) 171–178
decomposition of water [17,47]. Similarly, the PEC device is sub-
merged in an aqueous electrolyte or in water and illuminated by
solar light which can decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen.
The decomposition process of water can be achieved through
thermal decomposition or thermoelectrochemical decomposition
using solar energy. In the process, the H þ ions pass through the
anode to the cathode in the electrolyte [43] and the subsequent
reaction can be expressed as follows;
2h þ þH2O (l)4½O2(g) þ2H þ
where h is Planck’s constant [48].
PEC cells described in the literature have various configura-
tions; single photoelectrode [46], bi-photoelectrode [49], hybrid
photoelectrode [50,51] and sensitized photoelectrode systems
[52]. The energy conversion efficiency of water photoelectrolysis is
determined principally by the properties of the materials used for
the photoelectrodes [48]. In order to create the required efficient
photoelectrodes, the following criteria are met; (a) higher stability,
(b) made of inexpensive material, (c) have a low conduction band
that is higher than the H2/ H2O level and a maximum valence band
that is lower than the H2O/ O2 level, and (d) possess a head of
absorption capability of most of the photons of the solar spectrum
[53,54]. Currently photoelectrochemical processes are still in the
investigation stage, thus their implementation is only expected in
the long term.
2.2. Hydrogen production from solar electricity
The hydrogen production from the electrolysis of water using
the electricity produced by the PV cells began in 1970 [53–56].
Solar energy is converted into electrical energy by the photovoltaic
cells. The electrolysis of water can be carried out by a current
generated by the PV cells. The efficiency of modern photo-
converters (i.e. PVs) and electrolyzers is about 20% and 80%,
respectively [57] and the total efficiency of solar radiant energy
transformed to chemical hydrogen energy is nearly 16% [17].
Currently, this technology is not cost effective as the PV technology
is expensive thus, there is a need for extensive and elevated res-
earch in this area. A schematic diagram of PV unit for hydrogen
production is given in Fig. 3. Electrolysis technology is based on
direct electric current being applied to water to dissociate the
water (H2O) molecules. The advantage of this process is that the
hydrogen obtained has a purity that can exceed 99.999 vol%.[58]
However, the challenges for the widespread use of water electro-
lysis are the reduction of energy consumption, costs and system
Fig. 3. Schematic of a PV unit for hydrogen production system.
maintenance and to increase energy efficiency, safety, durability
and reliability [59,60].
2.3. Hydrogen production from photobiological generation
Photobiological hydrogen generation is receiving considerable
attention in solar energy-based biotechnological research as a
potential source of renewable and pollution-free fuel This form of
hydrogen production is potential environmentally acceptable since
(1) it uses sunlight as the primary energy source and this process does
not liberate carbon dioxide during combustion [61].
Photobiological hydrogen production uses the same processes
found in plant and algal photosynthesis, but it adapts these pro-
cesses to generate hydrogen gas instead of carbon containing
biomass. Microorganisms such as algae, cyanobacteria and pho-
tosynthetic bacteria can produce hydrogen using renewable resou-
rces such as solar energy, biomass or water [62].
Photobiology or biophotolysis is the decomposition of water
into hydrogen and oxygen molecules using solar energy under
anaerobic conditions carried out by microalgae and cyanobacteria
[31]. In biophotolysis, the microalgae emit solar energy to generate
electrons, which are mediated by ferredoxin and the electrons
are accepted by the hydrogenase enzyme to produce hydrogen
[63,38]. Biological hydrogen production is photofermentation of
organic compounds via photosynthetic bacteria [33]. Biological
hydrogen production is the combination of dark fermentation and
photofermentation. In dark fermentation, hydrogen is produced by
anaerobic bacteria which decompose organic compounds without
light while photofermentation is possible with light [64].
Photobiological hydrogen production is currently in the early
development stage of laboratory-scale testing or small scale
(o10 ml) outdoor demonstration systems [65,38]. Nakada [66]
examined the photosynthetic production of hydrogen using Rho-
dobactor sphaeroides 8703 bacterium and the efficiency of the
system was determined as 1.9%. In addition, Dante [67] investi-
gated photobiological hydrogen production and found that a
100 m3 algae culture gave an average of 240 W power for 100 h
with a maximum fuel cell efficiency of 0.64%.
2.4. Hydrogen production from concentrated solar thermal energy
and thermochemical processes
Thermochemical methods for the production of hydrogen from
solar energy include; direct thermolysis of water, thermochemical
cycles and cracking, reforming and gasification of hydrocarbons.
These processes use concentrated solar radiation as high tem-
perature heat source to achieve the endothermic reaction. Fig. 4
shows a hydrogen production using a CSP solar-based system for
the decomposition of water. Despite CSP systems having many
variants, they are all based on the same principle of using hun-
dreds of mirrors to concentrate direct sunlight and transform it
into heat or electricity. The energy required for hydrogen gen-
eration is absorbed by the CSP through a, a parabolic dish or
trough, a power tower and most recently using a reflective tower
with heliostats [68].
The single-step thermal dissociation of water is known as
water thermolysis. As discussed above, this reaction requires a
high-temperature heat source of above 2500 K in order to achieve
a reasonable degree of dissociation, and an effective technique for
separating H2 and O2 to prevent the creation of an explosive
mixture.
In the thermochemical and hybrid cycles, water is separated
into hydrogen and oxygen through separated chemical reactions
using middle level elements that are recycled within the process. A
schematic concept of this cycle is given in Fig. 5. These processes
allow for the possibility of operating at lower temperatures
 F. Yilmaz et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 56 (2016) 171–178 175

compared to the thermolysis process but producing the same
global reaction. The separation between oxygen and hydrogen
is easy since both are obtained in separate reactions. Thermo-
chemical cycles currently have high hydrogen production costs;
however, these processes might gain a more competitive edge if
the price of fossil fuels rises and if it is possible to achieve an
industrial scale production of these devices.
In common with a conventional reforming process, natural gas
is pre-treated and syngas is cleaned once pure hydrogen is willing
to be produced. The cleaning of the syngas takes place in a CO
conversion reactor, where H2 and CO2 are produced. The next
step is the separation of H2 and then CO2 is separated and stored.
The gasification process is similar to reforming; however, heavy
hydrocarbons are used as feedstock. These are transformed into
cleaner fuels for a combined cycle or the process can be continued
to produce hydrogen. As a result, the concentrated thermal energy
can be directly used to produce steam followed by using a steam
turbine/engine the thermal energy can be converted to mechanical
energy and then electricity can be produced with a turbine/gen-
erator [20].

3. Background on hydrogen production from solar energy

Table 1 presents the details of the studies that were assessed as

Fig. 4. Schematic of solar thermal hydrogen production.
Fig. 5. Schematic of thermochemical (a) and hybrid cycles (b) hydrogen production.
being relevant to the aims of the current study. For example,
Agrafiotis et al. [69] reviewed the hydrogen production through
thermochemical cycles which uses concentrated solar energy, thus
demonstrating the revived the interest of the scientific community
in such technologies. The current article presents the develop-
ment, evolution and status of CSP-aided syngas production via
such redox-pair-based thermochemical cycles. Ngoh and Njomo
[24] conducted an experiment into hydrogen production through
hybrid thermochemical cycles, which uses concentrated solar
energy. The solar-to-electricity conversion efficiency is the main
limitation in the improvement of the overall hydrogen production
efficiency. Yilancı et al. [17] performed the hydrogen production
through PV/fuel cell which uses concentrated solar energy. Xiao
et al. [70] reviewed the hydrogen production through thermo-
chemical cycle which uses solar energy. Their study proposed that
the major breakthrough for this technology will be the develop-
ment and demonstration of a reactor capable of simultaneous
synthesis and hydrolysis of reduced metal/oxides nanoparticles
with the ability to recover the regenerative oxide particles. Gon-
zález et al. [22] investigated hydrogen production using the fol-
lowing methods; photo-chemical, electrochemical and thermo-
chemical utilizing solar energy. Their reviews described the
underlying science and the technological advances in the field of
solar thermochemical production of hydrogen carried out by
Steinfeld [68]
Chaubey et al. [71] presented hydrogen production through
biological, electrochemical and thermochemical processes using
concentrated solar energy. They presented non-conventional
processes as emerging techniques that can be promising approa-
ches for hydrogen production from biomass, which is an abundant,
clean and renewable source.
Table 2 presents information on various studies concerning
solar–hydrogen production systems. This table shows that several
researchers produced hydrogen through thermochemical cycles
[7,21,26,27,73,76,79,83,85,88] with many of them analyzing the

Table 1
Many reviews of solar based hydrogen production.

Authors Type Process Source Year Country Ref.

Agrafiotis et al. Review Thermochemical cycles Concentrated Solar Power 2015 Germany [64]
Ngoh and Njomo Review Hybrid thermochemical Concentrated solar 2012 Cameroon [24]
Yilanci et al. Reviewþ case study PV/fuel cell hybrid Concentrated solar 2009 Turkey [17]
Xiao et al. Review Thermochemical cycle Solar energy 2012 China [70]
González et al. Review Photochemical, electrochemical and Solar energy 2011 Spain [22]
thermochemical
Steinfeld A. Review Thermochemical Concentrated solar radiation (high- 2003 Switzerland [68]
temperature)
Chaubey et al. Review Biological, electrochemical and thermochemical Renewable 2013 Indiana [71]
 176
Table 2
Various studies on solar–hydrogen production systems.

Authors Source Process Performance analysis Efficiency H2 production Year Country Ref.
type
η (%) ψ (%)

Ozcan and Dincer Solar energy Thermochemical (Mg–Cl) Energy and exergy 18.8 19.9 – 2014 Canada [26]

F. Yilmaz et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 56 (2016) 171–178

Ngoh et al. Solar Photovoltaic/ thermal Electrolysis Exergy – 75 0.064 (kg/s) 2014 Cameroon [72]
energy
Steinfeld et al. Solar energy Thermochemical Energy 20.4 – 1999 U.S.A [73]
Dagdougu et al. Solar and Wind Electrolysis – – – 26–19 (kWh/m2 yr) 2011 Italy [74]
Boudries R. Solar energy Electrolyzer-concentrating photovoltaic system – – – 0.14–0.17 (kg H2/day) 2013 Algeria [75]
Raissi A.T. Solar energy Thermochemical – – – – 2003 U.S.A [76]
Zamfirescu and Dincer Solar energy Photocatalysis, photovoltaics, thermal engine Energy 56.20 8 16 – 27.80 t/day 2014 Canada [77]
Ratlamwala and Dincer Solar energy Thermochemical (Cu–Cl), photocatalytic Energy and exergy 46.60– 56.41 47.98– 366.74– 328.1 (kg/day) 2014 Canada [27]
59.64 2195–2156.2 (kg/
day),
Wang et al. Solar energy Thermochemical, electrolytic, photo electrolytic and Energy 30 o – – 2012 Canada [78]
photochemical
Liberatore et al. Solar energy Thermochemical (H2SO4) Energy 34 – – 2012 Italy [79]
Joshi et al. Solar energy Photovoltaic, Photoelectrolysis, biophotolysis Exergy – 48.40 – 2010 Canada [20]
Shamim et al. Solar energy Photocatalytic Energy and exergy 0.085 0.074 0.1–0.21 (mmol/h) 2014 Canada [80]
Öztürk et al. Solar energy Solar thermal, photovoltaic, photoelectrochemical, Examination – – – 2011 Turkey [81]
photobiological
Villasmil and Steinfeld Solar energy Solar process hybrid process Claus process Energy 29–36 – 81–138 (million-kW h/ 2010 Switzerland [82]
yr)
Mallapragada and Solar energy Thermochemical Electrolysis Energy 79 – – 2014 U.S.A [83]
Agrawal
Scamman et al. Solar energy Electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer Energy 80.81 – – 2014 UK [84]
Hong et al. Solar energy Thermochemical Energy 20–28 – – 2012 China [85]
Balta et al. Solar energy Thermochemical (Mg–Cl) Energy and exergy 18.18 19.15 – 2014 Turkey [7]
Kelly and Gibson Solar energy Photoelectrochemical Energy 7–14 – – 2008 U.S.A [86]
Joshi et al. Solar energy Solar thermal photovoltaic Energy and exergy 10.42–12.92 30.60– – 2011 Canada [87]
63.10
Bhosale et al. Solar energy Thermochemical (IO–IS) Exergy – 39.56 – 2015 Qatar [88]
Ghandehariun et al. Solar energy Thermochemical (Cu–Cl) Energy 49 – – 2010 Canada [21]
Ghribi et al. Solar energy PV/PV/proton exchange membrane (PEM) – – – 20–29 (m3/year) 2013 Algeria [89]
Bozoglan et al. Solar energy PV-Electrolyzer Exergy – 86.70 17 kg/h 2012 Turkey [38]
Ozturk and Dincer Solar energy Power Cycles/polymer exchange membrane Energy/exergy 52.92 57.84 – 2013 Canada [25]
Shamim et al. Solar energy Photocatalytic (H2S) Energy–exergy 39 28 – 2014 Canada [90]
 F. Yilmaz et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 56 (2016) 171–178
considered system according to energy and/or exergy efficiency
[7,21,26,27,73,79,83,85,88].
4. Conclusions
The present study undertook a review of the literature con-
cerning solar based hydrogen production methods. From this
research, the following conclusions are presented;
 From the various hydrogen production methods that have been
examined and compared, solar-based hydrogen production
is one of the more important renewable based hydrogen prod-
uction for no or low emission of greenhouse gases during
production.
 Given the current technological status, solar-based hydrogen
production requires further research and development; firstly,
how to implement these systems and second, how to make
them more cost effective and efficient.
 Despite being at the developmental stage, solar-based hydrogen
production from thermochemical cycles they offers many
advantages; in particular providing an eco-friendly and sustain-
able option.
 The results of existing research show that solar based hydrogen
production through various methods can play a significant role
in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and offer sustainability
together with opportunities for creating a better environment.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support provided by
their universities.
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