Lecture 8: Linear Wire Antennas – Dipoles and Monopoles

(Small electric dipole antenna. Finite-length dipoles. Half-wavelength

dipole. Method of images - revision. Vertical infinitesimal dipole above
a conducting plane. Monopoles. Horizontal infinitesimal dipole above a
conducting plane.)

The dipole and the monopole are two most widely used antennas for
wireless mobile communication systems. Arrays of dipoles are
commonly used as base-station antennas in land-mobile systems. The
monopole is perhaps the most common antenna for portable equipment,
such as cellular telephones, cordless telephones, automobiles, trains, etc.
It has attractive features such as simple construction, relatively
broadband characteristics, small dimensions at high frequencies. An
alternative to the monopole antenna for hand-held units is the loop
antenna, the microstrip patch antenna, the spiral antennas, and others.

1. Small dipole
λ λ
z <l≤ (8.1)
50 10
l /2 If one assumes that R ≈ r and condition (8.1)
z' holds, the maximum phase error in ( β R ) that
can occur is
0 I (z) βl π
emax = = ≈ 18D ,
I0 2 10
at θ = 0 . Reminder: a maximum total phase
D

error of π / 8 is acceptable since it does not G

−l / 2 affect substantially the integral solution for A .
The assumption R ≈ r will be made for both,
the amplitude and the phase factors in the
kernel of the VP integral.

1
The current is a triangular function of z ' :
  z' 
 0  l / 2  , 0 ≤ z ' ≤ l / 2
I ⋅  1 −
I ( z ') =  (8.2)
 I ⋅ 1 + z '  , − l / 2 ≤ z ' ≤ 0
 0  l / 2 
The VP integral is obtained as:
G µ  0  z '  e− jβ R
l/2
 z '  e − jβ R 
4π  − l∫/ 2  l / 2  R ∫0 0  l / 2  R  (8.3)
A = zˆ ⋅  I 0 1 +  dz '+ I 1 − dz '

The solution of (8.3) is particularly simple when it can be assumed that

R ≈ r:
G 1 µ e− jβ r 
A = zˆ ⋅  I 0l
r 
(8.4)
2  4π
The further away from the antenna the observation point is, the more
accurate the expression in (8.4). Note G that the result in (8.4) is exactly
one-half of the result obtained for A of an infinitesimal dipole, if I 0
were the current uniformly distributed along the dipole. This is to be
expected because we made the same approximation for R, as in the case
of the infinitesimal dipole with a constant current distribution, and we
1
integrated a triangular function along l, whose average is obviously I 0 .
2
Therefore, we need not repeat all the calculations of the field
components, power and antenna parameters. We shall make use of our
knowledge of the infinitesimal dipole field. The far-field components of
the small dipole are simply half those of the infinitesimal dipole:
β I 0l e − j β r
Eθ  jη sin θ
8π r
β I 0l e − j β r
Hϕ  j sin θ , β r  1 (8.5)
8π r
Er = Eϕ = H r = Hθ = 0

2
The normalized field pattern is the same as that of the infinitesimal
dipole: E (θ , ϕ ) = sin θ (8.6)
The power pattern: U (θ , ϕ ) = sin 2 θ (8.7)
1
θ = 0D

0.5 sin θ
sin 2 θ

0 θ = 90D

-0.5

-1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
The beam solid angle:
2π π
ΩA = ∫ ∫ sin θ ⋅ sin θ dθ dϕ
2

0 0
π
4 8π
Ω A = 2π ⋅ ∫ sin 3 θ dθ =2π ⋅ =
0
3 3
The directivity:
4π 3
D0 = = = 1.5 (8.8)
ΩA 2
As expected, the directivity (and the beam solid angle, as well as the
effective aperture) is the same as those of the infinitesimal dipole,
because the normalized patterns of both dipoles are the same.

3
The radiated power will be four times less than that of an infinitesimal
dipole because the far fields are twice less:
1 π  I 0 ∆l  π  I 0 ∆l 
2 2

Π rad = ⋅ η   = η  (8.9)
4 3  λ  12  λ 
As a result, the radiation resistance is also four times less compared to
that of the infinitesimal dipole:
π  ∆l 
2 2
2  ∆l 
Rr = η   = 20π   (8.10)
6 λ λ

2. Finite-length infinitesimally thin dipole

A good approximation of the current distribution along the dipole’s
length is the sinusoidal one:
  l 
 I 0 sin  β  − z '  , 0 ≤ z ' ≤ l / 2
  2 
I ( z ') =  (8.11)
 I sin β   l  
  2 + z '   , − l / 2 ≤ z ' ≤ 0

0
 
It can be shown that the VP integral
G µ l/2 e− jβ R
4π −l∫/ 2
A = zˆ ⋅ I ( z ') dz ' (8.12)
R
has an analytical (closed form) solution. Nevertheless, we shall follow a
standard approach commonly used to calculate the far field. It is based
on the solution to the infinitesimal dipole field problem. The finite-
length dipole is subdivided into an infinite number of infinitesimal
dipoles of length dz ' . Each infinitesimal dipole produces the elementary
far field described as:
e− jβ r
dEθ  jηβ I e ( z ') sin θ ⋅ dz '
4π r
e− jβ r
dH ϕ  j β I e ( z ') sin θ ⋅ dz ' (8.13)
4π r
dEr = dEϕ = dH r = dHθ = 0

4
Here, I e ( z ') denotes the current value of the current element at z ' . Using
the far-zone approximations:
1 1
 , for the amplitude factor
R r (8.14)
R  r − z 'cosθ , for the phase factor
the following approximation of the elementary far field is obtained:
e− jβ r j β z 'cosθ
dEθ  jηβ I e e ⋅ sin θ dz ' (8.15)
4π r
Using the superposition principle, the total far field is obtained as:
e− jβ r
l/2 l/2
Eθ = ∫ dEθ  jηβ ⋅ sin θ ⋅ ∫ I e ( z ')e j β z 'cosθ dz ' (8.16)
−l / 2
4 π r −l / 2
The first factor
e− jβ r
g (θ ) = jηβ sin θ (8.17)
r
is called the element factor. The element factor in this case is the far
field produced by an infinitesimal dipole of unit current element
I ⋅ l = 1 (A ⋅ m) . The second factor
l/2
f (θ ) = ∫
−l / 2
I e ( z ')e j β z 'cosθ dz ' (8.18)

is called the space factor (or pattern factor, array factor). The pattern
factor is dependent on the amplitude and phase distribution of the current
at the antenna (the source distribution in space).
The element factor is well known, and is the same for any current
element, provided the angle θ is always associated with the current-
element axis.

5
 For the specific current distribution described by (8.11), the pattern
factor is:
 l 
0
f (θ ) = I 0 ⋅{ ∫ sin  β  + z '   e jβ z 'cosθ dz '
−l / 2  2 
(8.19)
 l 
l/2
+ ∫ sin  β  − z '   e j β z 'cosθ dz '}
0  2 
The above integrals are solved having in mind that
ecx
∫ sin(a + b ⋅ x)e dx = b2 + c 2 c sin ( a + bx ) − b cos ( a + bx ) (8.20)
c⋅ x

The far field of the finite-length dipole is obtained as:

  βl   βl 
− jβ r  cos  cos θ  − cos  
Eθ = g (θ ) ⋅ f (θ ) = jη I 0
e  2   2  ,
 
2π r  sin θ  (8.21)
 
E
Hϕ = θ
η

The amplitude pattern:

 βl   βl 
cos  cosθ  − cos  
E (θ , ϕ ) =  2   2  (8.22)
sin θ

6
Patterns (in dB) for some dipole lengths l ≤ λ :

7
The pattern of the dipole l = 1.25λ

8
The power pattern:
2
  βl   βl 
 cos  cos θ  − cos  
 2   2 
F (θ , ϕ ) =   (8.23)
 sin θ 
 
Note: The maximum of F (θ , ϕ ) is not necessarily unity, but for l < 2λ
the major maximum is always at θ = 90D .

The radiated power

First, the average power flux density is calculated as:
2
  βl   βl 
cos  cosθ  − cos   
G 1 | I 0 |2   2   2 
P = rˆ ⋅ | Eθ | = rˆ ⋅η 2 2 
2
 (8.24)
2η 8π r  sin θ 
 
The total radiated power is given by the integral:
G G 2π π
Π=w ∫∫ Pds = ∫ ∫ P ⋅ r sinθ dθ dϕ
2
(8.25)
0 0
2
  βl   β l 
cos  cos θ  − cos  
| I 0 |2   2
π
  2   dθ
4π ∫0
Π =η (8.26)
sin θ
  

ℑ
ℑ is solved in terms of the cosine and the sine integrals:
1
ℑ = C + ln ( β l ) − Ci ( β l ) + sin ( β l )  Si ( 2 β l ) − 2Si ( β l )  +
2
(8.27)
1
+ cos ( β l ) C + ln ( β l ) + Ci ( 2 β l ) − 2Ci ( β l ) 
2
Here:
C  0.5772 is the Euler’s constant
x ∞
cos y cos y
Ci ( x) = ∫ dy = − ∫ dy is the cosine integral
∞
y x
y

9
 x
sin y
Si ( x ) = ∫ dy is the sine integral.
0
y
So, the radiated power can be written as:
| I 0 |2
Π =η ⋅ℑ (8.28)
4π
Radiation resistance:
2Π η
Rr = = ⋅ℑ (8.29)
| I0 | 2
2π
Directivity:
U Fmax
D0 = 4π max = 4π π 2π (8.30)
Π
∫ ∫ F (θ ,ϕ )sin θ dθ dϕ
0 0
where:
2
  βl   βl 
 cos  cos θ  − cos  
 2   2 
F (θ , ϕ ) =   is the power pattern (see (8.23) ).
 sin θ 
 
Finally,
2F
D0 = max (8.31)
ℑ

Input resistance
The radiation resistance given in (8.29) corresponds to the radiated
power but it is not equal to the input resistance because the current at the
dipole center (if its center is the feed point) is not necessarily of the
maximum amplitude. If the dipole is lossless, the input power is equal to
the radiated one:
| I in |2 | I 0 |2
Rin = Rr (8.32)
2 2
According to the sinusoidal distribution assumed in (8.11), the current at
the center of the dipole ( z ' = 0 ) is:

10
  l
I in = I 0 sin  β  (8.33)
 2
Rr
⇒ Rin = (8.34)
 l
sin 2  β 
 2

3. Half-wavelength dipole
λ
This is a classical and widely used thin wire antenna: l =
2

π 
cos  cosθ 
− jβ r
Ie
Eθ  jη 0 ⋅ 2 
2π r sin θ (8.35)
E
Hϕ = θ
η

Radiated power flow density:

2
 π 
 cos  cos θ 
η | I 0 |2 2  | I 0 |2
P = | Eθ | = η 2 2
2
   η 2 2 sin 3 θ (8.36)
2 8π r  sin θ  8π r
 
 

F (θ ) − normalized power pattern

Radiation intensity:
2
 π 
 cos  cos θ 
| I 0 |2 2  | I 0 |2 3
U = r P =η
2
  η sin θ (8.37)
8π 2  sin θ  8π 2

 

F (θ ) − normalized power pattern

11
3-D power pattern (not in dB) of the half-wavelength dipole:

Radiated power
The radiated power of the half-wavelength dipole is, of course, a
special case of the integral in (8.26).
2 π 
2 π cos  cosθ 
|I |
Π =η 0 ∫ 2  dθ
4π 0 sin θ
2π
| I 0 |2 1 − cos y
Π =η
8π ∫0 y dy , (8.38)
  

ℑ = 0.5772 + ln(2π ) − Ci (2π )  2.435

η
⇒ Π = 2.435 | I 0 |2 = 36.525 | I 0 |2 (8.39)
8π

Radiation resistance
2Π
Rr =  73 Ω (8.40)
| I 0 |2

12
Directivity
U max U 4 4
D0 = 4π = 4π /θ =90 = =
D
= 1.643 (8.41)
Π Π ℑ 2.435

Maximum effective area

λ2
Ae = D0  0.13λ 2 (8.42)
4π
Input resistance
Since l = λ / 2 ,
Rin = Rr  73 Ω (8.43)
The imaginary part of the input impedance is approximately
 + j 42.5 Ω . To acquire maximum power transfer, this reactance has to
be removed by matching (that is shortening) the dipole:
• thick dipole l  0.47λ
• thin dipole l  0.48λ

The input impedance of the dipole is very frequency sensitive; in

other words, it depends strongly on the ratio l / λ . This is to be expected
from a resonant structure operating near the resonance, such as the half-
wavelength dipole. It should be also kept in mind that the input
impedance is influenced in a non-negligible way by the capacitance
associated with the physical junction to the transmission line. The
structure used to support the antenna, if any, can also influence the input
impedance. That is why the curves that are given below describing the
antenna impedance should be considered just representative of a typical
behaviour.

13
 Below, measurement results for the input impedance of a dipole are
given.

Input resistance of dipole antenna

Note the strong influence of the dipole diameter on its resonant

properties.

14
 Input reactance of a dipole antenna

One can calculate the input resistance as a function of l / λ using

equations (8.29) and (8.34). These equations, however, are valid only
for infinitesimally thin dipoles. Besides, it is important to compute the
exact reactance, too. In practice, dipoles are most often tubular, and they
have some finite diameter d. General-purpose numerical methods (such
as the Method of Moments or FDTD) are used to calculate the antenna
impedance. When finite-thickness wire antennas are to be analyzed and
no assumption is made for the current distribution along the wire, the
MoM is applied to the classical Pocklington’s equation or to its variation,
the Hallen’s equation. A classical method producing closed form
solutions for the self-impedance and the mutual impedance of straight-
wire antennas is the induced emf method, which will be discussed later.
The induced emf method does assume sinusoidal current distribution.

15
4. Method of images – revision

-
Jo Mo
+
+
Jo - Mo

electric conductor
- Ji Mi
Ji - +
Mi
+

-
Jo Mo
+
+
Jo - Mo

magnetic conductor
+ Ji Mi
Ji -
-
+ Mi

16
5. Vertical electric current element above perfect conductor

z
P
θ1 direct
G
actual source
r
G 1
r ct ed
le
ref
h θ
(ε1 , µ1 )

G conductor
h θ2 r2

image source

The field at the observation point P is a superposition of the fields of the

actual source and the image source, both radiating in a homogeneous
medium of constitutive parameters (ε1 , µ1 ) . The actual source is a
current element ( I 0 ∆l ) (infinitesimal dipole).
e− j β r1
Eθ = jηβ ( I 0 ∆l )
d
⋅ sin θ1
4π r1
− j β r2
(8.44)
e
Eθr = jηβ ( I 0 ∆l ) ⋅ sin θ 2
4π r2
G G G
Expressing the distances | r1 | and | r2 | in terms of | r | and h (using the
cosine theorem) gives:
r1 = r 2 + h 2 − 2rh cosθ
(8.45)
r2 = r + h − 2rh cos(π − θ )
2 2

We shall use the binomial expansion of r1 and r2 to obtain

approximations of the amplitude and the phase terms, which would
simplify the evaluation of the total far field and the VP integral.

17
For the amplitude term:
1 1 1
  (8.46)
r1 r2 r
For the phase term, we shall use a second order approximation (see also
the geometrical interpretation below).
r1  r − h cosθ
(8.47)
r2  r + h cosθ
z

r1

r
h θ
r2 y
h
σ =∞
2h cosθ
x

The total far field is:

Eθ = Eθd + Eθr (8.48)
( I ∆l )
Eθ = jηβ 0 ⋅ sin θ e (
− j β r − h cosθ )
+e (
− j β r + h cosθ )
 (8.49)
4π r 
e− jβ r
Eθ  jηβ ( I 0 ∆l ) sin θ ⋅  2cos ( β h cosθ )  , z ≥ 0
 
 4π r  

(8.50)
f (θ )
g (θ )

Eθ = 0 , z<0
Again, it should be noted that the far field expression can be
decomposed into two factors: the field of the elementary source g (θ )
and the pattern factor (also array factor) f (θ ) .
18
 The normalized power pattern is:
F (θ ) = sin θ ⋅ cos ( β h cosθ ) 
2
(8.51)

Elevation plane patterns of a vertical infinitesimal electric dipole for

different height above a perfectly conducting plane.

19
As the vertical dipole is moved further away from the infinite conducting
(ground) plane, more and more lobes are introduced in the power pattern.
This effect is called scalloping of the pattern. The number of lobes is
 2h 
n = nint  + 1
λ 

20
Total radiated power
G G 1 2π π / 2
∫∫ Pds = 2η ∫0 ∫0 | Eθ | r sin θ dθ dϕ
Π=w 2 2

π π /2
Π = ∫ | Eθ |2 r 2 sin θ dθ (8.52)
η 0
π /2
Π = ηβ ( I 0 ∆l ) ∫ sin θ ⋅ cos 2 ( β h cosθ ) dθ
2 2 2

 I ∆l   1 cos ( 2 β h ) sin ( 2 β h ) 
2

Π = πη  0   − 2 + 3  (8.53)
 λ   3 ( 2 β h ) ( 2 β h ) 
• As β h → 0 , the radiated power of the vertical dipole approaches
twice the value of the radiated power of a dipole of the same length
in free space.
• As β h → ∞ , the radiated power of both dipoles becomes the same.

Radiation resistance
2Π  1 cos ( 2 β h ) sin ( 2 β h ) 
 ∆l 
2

Rr = = 2πη    − 2 + 3  (8.54)
| I 0 |2 λ  3 ( 2 β h ) ( 2 β h ) 
• As β h → 0 , the radiation resistance of the vertical dipole
approaches twice the value of the radiation resistance of a dipole of
the same length in free space:
1
Rinmp = Rindp , β h = 0 (8.55)
2
• As β h → ∞ , the radiation resistance of both dipoles becomes the
same.

21
Radiation intensity
| Eθ |2 η  I 0 ∆l 
2

U =r P=r =   sin θ cos ( β h cosθ ) (8.56)

2 2 2 2

2η 2 λ 
The maximum of U (θ ) occurs at θ = π / 2 (except for β h → ∞ ):
η  I ∆l 
U max =  0  (8.57)
2 λ 
This value is 4 times greater than U max of a free-space dipole.

Maximum directivity
U max 2
D0 = 4π = (8.58)
Π 1 cos ( 2 β h ) sin ( 2 β h )
− +
3 ( 2 β h )2 ( 2β h )
3

If β h = 0 , D0 = 3 , which is twice the max. directivity of a free-space

current element ( D0id = 1.5 ) The maximum of D0 occurs when
β h = 2.881 ( h = 0.4585λ ). Then, D0 = 6.566 / β h=2.881 .

22
6. Monopoles
A monopole is a dipole that has been divided into half at its center
feed point and fed against a ground plane. It is normally λ / 4 long (a
quarter-wavelength monopole), but it might by shorter when space
restrictions dictate shorter lengths. Then, the monopole is a small
monopole whose counterpart is the small dipole (see Section 1, this
Lecture). Its current has linear distribution with its maximum at the feed
point, and its null at the monopole’s edge.
The vertical monopole is extensively used for AM broadcasting
(f=500 to 1500 kHz, λ =200 to 600 m), because it is the shortest most
efficient antenna at these frequencies, as well as because vertically
polarized waves suffer less attenuation at close to the ground
propagation. Vertical monopoles are widely used as base-station
antennas in mobile communications, too.
Monopoles at base stations and radiobroadcast stations are supported
by suitable towers and guy wires. The guy wires must be separated into
short enough ( ≤ λ / 8 ) pieces, which are insulated from each other to
suppress any parasitic currents. Special care is taken for proper
grounding of the monopole. Usually multiple radial wire rods, each
0.25 − 0.35λ long, are buried at the monopole base in the ground to
simulate perfect ground plane, so that the pattern approximates closely
the theoretical one, i.e. the pattern of the λ / 2 -dipole. Losses in the
ground plane cause undesirable deformation of the pattern as shown
below for an infinitesimal dipole above an imperfect ground plane.

23
 l

Monopole fed against a Practical monopole with radial

large solid ground plane wires to simulate perfect ground

Several important conclusions follow from the image theory and the
discussion in Section 5.
• The field distribution in the upper half-space is the same as that of
the respective free-space dipole
• The currents and the charges on a monopole are the same as on the
upper half of its dipole counterpart, but the terminal voltage is only
half that of the dipole. The input impedance of a monopole is
therefore only half that of the respective dipole:
1
Z inmp = Z indp (8.59)
2
(See also (8.55).)
• The total radiated power of a monopole is half the power radiated
by its dipole counterpart, since it radiates in half-space (but its field
is the same). As a result, the beam solid angle of the monopole is
half that of the respective dipole and its directivity is twice the
directivity of the dipole.
4π 4π
D0mp = mp = = 2 D0dp (8.60)
ΩA 1 dp
ΩA
2

24
The quarter-wavelength monopole

This is a straight wire of length l = λ / 4 mounted over a ground

plane. From the discussion above, it can be expected that the quarter-
wavelength monopole should be very similar to the half-wavelength
dipole in the hemisphere above the ground plane.
• Its radiation pattern is the same as that of a free-space λ / 2 -dipole,
only that it is non-zero only for 0D < θ ≤ 90D (above ground).
• The field expressions are the same as those of the λ / 2 -dipole.
• The radiated power of the λ / 4 -monopole is half that of the λ / 2 -
dipole.
• The radiation resistance of the λ / 4 -monopole is half that of the
λ / 2 -dipole: Z inmp = 0.5Zindp = 0.5 ( 73 + j 42.5 ) = 36.5 + j 21.25, Ω .
• The directivity of the λ / 4 -monopole is:
D0mp = 2 D0dp = 2 ⋅1.643 = 3.286

Some approximate formulas for rapid calculations of the input resistance

of a dipole and the respective monopole:

βl l
G= =π , for dipole
Let
2 λ
l
G = β l = 2π , for monopole
λ
Then,
π
• if 0 < G <
4
Rin = 20G 2 ,dipole
Rin = 10G 2 , monopole

25
 π π
• if <G<
4 2
Rin = 24.7G 2.5 ,dipole
Rin = 12.35G 2.5 , monopole
π
• if <G<2
2
Rin = 11.14G 4.17 ,dipole
Rin = 5.57G 4.17 , monopole

7. Horizontal current element above a perfectly conducting plane

The analysis is analogous to that of a vertical current element above a
ground plane. The difference arises in the element factor g (θ ) because
of the horizontal orientation of the current element. Let’s assume that
G
the current element is oriented along the y-axis, and the angle between r
and the dipole’s axis (y-axis) is ψ .

r1
P

r
h θ
ψ
r2 y
ϕ
h
σ =∞
2h cosθ
x

26
 G G G
E ( P) = E d ( P) + E r ( P) (8.61)
e− j β r1
Eψ = jηβ ( I 0 ∆l )
d
sinψ (8.62)
4π r1
e− j β r2
Eψ = − jηβ ( I 0 ∆l )
r
sinψ (8.63)
4π r2
One can express the angle ψ in terms of (θ , ϕ ) .
cosψ = yˆ ⋅ rˆ = yˆ ⋅ ( xˆ sin θ cos ϕ + yˆ sin θ sin ϕ + zˆ cosθ )
⇒ cosψ = sin θ sin ϕ
(8.64)
⇒ sinψ = 1 − sin θ sin ϕ 2 2

The far-field approximations are:

1 1 1
= = , for the amplitude term
r1 r2 r
r1  r − h cosθ 
 for the phase term
r2  r + h cosθ 
Substituting the far-field approximations and equations (8.62), (8.63),
(8.64) in the total field expression (8.61) yields:

e− jβ r
Eψ (θ , ϕ ) = jηβ ( I 0 ∆l ) 1 − sin 2 θ sin 2 ϕ  2 j sin ( β h cosθ )  (8.65)
 4π r 
  

array factor f (θ ,ϕ )
element factor g (θ ,ϕ )

27
The normalized pattern
F (θ , ϕ ) = (1 − sin 2 θ sin 2 ϕ ) ⋅ sin 2 ( β h cosθ ) (8.66)

ϕ = 90D

As the height increases beyond a wavelength ( h > λ ), scalloping appears

with the number of lobes being:
 h
n = nint  2  (8.67)
 λ

ϕ = 90D

28
Following a procedure similar to that of the vertical dipole, the radiated
power and the radiation resistance of the horizontal dipole can be found.
π  I 0 ∆l   2 sin ( 2 β h ) cos ( 2 β h ) sin ( 2 β h ) 
2

Π = η   − − 2 + 3  (8.68)
2  λ   3 2β h
 

( 2β h ) ( 2β h ) 
R( β h )
2
 ∆l 
Rr = πη   ⋅ R ( β h ) (8.69)
λ
 
By expanding the sine and the cosine functions into series, it can be
shown that for small values of ( β h ) the following approximation holds:
32π 2  h 
2

R/ β h→0    (8.70)
15  λ 
It is also obvious that if h = 0 , then Rr = 0 and Π = 0 . This is to be
expected because the dipole is short-circuited by the ground plane.

Radiation intensity
r 2 G 2 η  I 0 ∆l 
2

U= | Eψ | =   (1 − sin θ sin ϕ ) sin ( β h cosθ ) (8.71)

2 2 2

2η 2 λ 
The maximum value of (8.71) depends on whether ( β h) is less than
π / 2 or greater:
π  λ
• If β h ≤  h ≤ 
2  4
η  I 0 ∆l 
2

U max =   sin ( β h ) /θ =0D

2
(8.72)
2 λ 
π  λ
• If β h >  h > 
2  4
η  I 0 ∆l 
2

U max =   π 
 /θ =arccos 2 β h ,ϕ =0D (8.73)
2 λ 
Maximum directivity
 sin ( β h ) 
2

For small β h , D0 = 7.5  

 βh 
29