The Process of Recreation Programming

Recreation Program
and Event Planning for

Diverse Populations
Sid Stevenson
2008
Chapter 1 Recreation and Leisure Review
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE RECREATION AND LEISURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Why Recreation Programming? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Recreation Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Perceived Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Leisure Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
CHAPTER TWO THE MARKETING CONCEPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

The Aim of Marketing in Leisure Service Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Defining Recreation Programming in Marketing terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Who are Recreation Programmers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
CHAPTER THREE UNDERSTANDING THE RECREATION CONSUMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

A Strategic Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Contents of a Strategic Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
................................................................... 29
Grouping Consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Market Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
RECREATION NEEDS AND FACILITY ASSESSMENT
.................................................................... 46
Stage in the Family Lifecycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
CHAPTER FOUR COMMUNITY AND AGENCY PROFILES STRATEGIC PLANNING . . . . 59

II. Community Profile: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Leisure Resources available in a Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Agency Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Comparison to Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
CHAPTER FIVE PREPARING A PLAN OF ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Objectives: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Program Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
HIERARCHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
FORMATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
LOGISTICAL ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Program Development Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
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Recreation and Leisure Review Chapter 1
CHAPTER SIX PRICING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Role in Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Who Should Pay? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Setting a Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
pricing methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Direct operating costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Overhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Scholarships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Specific pricing examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Pricing Worksheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
CHAPTER SEVEN PROMOTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Marketing Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Publicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Sales Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Personal Selling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
REGISTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Logos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Brochure Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Writing Activity Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
CHAPTER EIGHT AQUATICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Pool Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
The Family Aquatic Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Aquatic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Aquatic Activity Areas and Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
CHAPTER NINE SPORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Classifying Sports and Active Games Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Tools for the Competitive Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Leagues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Tournament Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Equalizing Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Sport Rule Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
CHAPTER TEN OUTDOOR PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Values and Benefits of Outdoor Recreation Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
The Club or Special Interest Group Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Residence Camps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
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CHAPTER ELEVEN RECREATION CENTERS AND PLAYGROUNDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Staffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Reservation Form & Contract Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Playgrounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
CHAPTER TWELVE SPECIAL EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Established Corporate Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Cautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Mis-perceptions of Economic Impacts (result: Copy-catting) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
The rise and fall of the Flint Hills Festival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Special Athletic Events (e.g. State Games) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
CHAPTER THIRTEEN SPECIAL GROUPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

At Risk Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
TEEN NIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Senior Citizens (Mature Adults) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Persons with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Inclusive Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Celebrating the Multi-Cultural Mosaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
THE ARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Creative vs. Performing Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Creative Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Performing Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Entertainment Contract Negotiations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
CHAPTER FIFTEEN TRIPS AND TOURS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

Ski Trip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
CHAPTER SIXTEEN EVALUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Research Methods Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Cost Benefit Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
References Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
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CHAPTER ONE
RECREATION AND LEISURE REVIEW
Learning Objectives:
Upon completing this Chapter the reader should:
Understand the elements of a leisure experience.

Comprehend the perceived benefits of recreation experiences.
Believe in the value to Society of the provision of quality leisure services.
Begin to understand that recreation is a very personal experience.
Be able to verbalize a number of the logistical concerns related to the delivery of a
recreation experience.
Recreation Program Planning (Programming) is the capstone in the provision of leisure services. It is
the process which culminates in many of the rewarding experiences we call Recreation. While
programming is not necessary and even appropriate (at least by a third party) for a great many,
particularly naturally occurring, individual, outdoor experiences such as birdwatching or walks in the
park; it has become an essential tool for those recreation experiences requiring organization and pre-
planning.
The skills of one trained in market research, format selection, budgeting, logistics and operations, and
delivery clearly distinguish them as a professional. It is the intent of this book to address these
competencies and more with the desired outcome being the provision of high quality leisure services.
This book focuses on the steps and techniques to aid program planners in the delivery of the highest
quality of services available, given budget and other restraints. It matters little whether the supplying
agency is public or private, large or small, the basic techniques and processes are usable and adaptable.
The trained program professional should be able to modify the process to fit their situation.
1
Why Recreation Programming?
When asked, most programmers would indicate that a primary reason for recreation programming is to
improve, enhance and enrich lives; helping people to reach their full human potential. One works to
achieve this goal using the medium of planned recreational experiences by making available leisure
experiences that contain worthwhile elements. Worthwhile elements, according to Russell (1982) are
those that are meaningful. Here the important thing is not the experience itself but what happens to
people as a result of the meaning derived from experiences.
What happens to people as a result of recreation experiences? Many individuals indicate that they
benefit from enhanced feelings of self worth, better fitness, improved social skills, aesthetic appreciation
and the like. In other words a recreational experience can be more that just physical which tends to be
overly implied by the activity nature of most recreation experiences. Experiences may also be emotional,
social, intellectual and spiritual in nature. Recreation offers literally thousands of choices. These
choices allow one to satisfy a felt or unfelt need deprivation. Well chosen experiences can
simultaneously satisfy several needs.
What should happen? Meaningful recreation experiences improve Society by assisting individuals in
reaching their full human potential. Since we are the sum of our experiences, each additional exposure is
capable of enhancing our sense of self; expanding our understanding, broadening our opportunities for
personal enjoyment. Many of us only reach a plateau, well below our peak via our work. It is only
through enriching recreational experiences that we can reach the top of the mountain.
Moreover, if we assist persons in acquiring socially acceptable leisure skills, they are more capable of
supplying their own worthwhile experiences and shouldn't need to seek gratification from less
wholesome sources. Russell(1982) describes boredom as a constant striving for meaning and notes that
one value of providing meaningful recreation experiences is to satisfy this search. Fromm (in Ramey
1974) typifies boredom as the cause for various social ills such as drug addiction...to violence; a position
that many of us can agree with. Iso-Ahola (1982) offers the concept of optimal incongruity (an optimal
blend of stimulation and isolation) as the driving force that leads us to seek a variety of experiences. It
logically follows that a good repertoire of leisure skills and interests should help individuals make more
satisfying and optimal choices.
Recreation Review
Recreation experiences are qualitative.
Before one can plan meaningful recreation experiences for people, it is important to have a good
understanding of what constitutes a recreation experiences. This opinion can be summarized by two
basic tenets.(1) Recreation is individual in nature, and (2) Recreation is relatively unrestrained in choice.
Kaplan (1975) suggests that recreation experiences are also typically characterized as intrinsically
motivated, or driven by anticipated feelings of enjoyment and satisfaction; a collection of positives. “If
you feel like you are having a recreational experience, you probably are" (anon’).
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Perceived Benefits
The examination of perceived benefits reveals a strong focus on quality. Driver and Brown (1986) have
attempted to identify the benefits of primarily outdoor recreation experiences. These benefits were
classified into two groups; economic and non-economic. The Forest Service was initially concerned
about economic benefits as recreation was looking for arguments to match its worth against the timber
industry. Justification was found in travel cost studies and contingent valuation (better known as
willingness to pay) which have since developed quite a literature base. The focus has more recently
shifted to non economic benefits or those values or conditions inherent in the activities sought by
recreationists. Some of these personal benefits categories (primarily personal outdoor experiences)
include:
1. Personal Development 7. Independence and Freedom 14. Mental Health

improved self concept opportunity to freely to relax
greater confidence express oneself engage in new
creativity promote creativity and creative
spiritual growth outlet for untapped experiences
self reliance potential seek balance
2. Social Bonding 8. Reduce Sensory Overload therapy
new friendships reduce tension, noise,
support family unity confusion and complexity 15. Aesthetic Appreciation
develop stronger bonds 9. Risk Opportunities enjoy beauty
with friends adventurous challenges to create and
engage in cooperative excitement or focus on
ventures exhilaration that which is
3. Physical Development 10. Sense of Achievement beautiful...
enhanced fitness learning a new skill in art, music,
better overall health fosters pride people and
greater energy level builds esteem and nature
improved coordination self confidence 16. Adventure
and balance promote one's
increased stamina personal best
and a related improved 11. Exploration
self image learn about new
4. Stimulation concepts and ideas
use of curiosity 12. Value Clarification
new and novel situations problem solving
5. Fantasy and Escape teamwork
escape daily routine of sensitivity to others, etc.
life 13. Spiritual
retreat to personal space experiencing
change of roles the grandeur
6. Nostalgia and Reflection of nature
appreciate previous life awe
experiences reflection
enjoy family reunions beauty
recalling enjoyable humility
moments
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Table 1.1 Order of Importance of Benefits Ranked by Recreation and Park

Professionals (Harper and Balmer, 1989)
Rank Benefit
1. Basic Services to Poorer Residents
2. Protection of the Natural Environment
3. Civic Identity and Pride
4. Community Visual Appeal and Function
5. Develops Strong Communities
6. % of Population Using Regularly
7. Individual Growth and Development
8. Avoidance of Costly Damage Due to M ismanagement of the Ecological

System
9. Prevents Social Problems
10. Reduces Health Problems and Costs
11. Integrates Disabled, Disadvantaged, and Socially Alienated
12. Job Creation
13. % of Population Who Might Use
14. Assists the Tourism Industry
15. Attracts Industry
16. Prepares Individuals to Cooperate with Others
17. Increases Property Values and Tax Revenues
18. Provides Opportunities for the Unemployed
19. Desire to Replace Volunteer Effort
20. Saves Property Owner Expense
21. Stimulates the Retail Industry
Table 1.1 illustrates the viewpoints on benefits of a number of professionals, and are notably less
personal in nature than the benefits noted by Driver and Brown (1986). Note the focus on the
community (# 3, # 4, and # 5).
On the other hand, community benefits are conspicuously absent in Table 1.2, Benefits of Leisure, a
study by Godbey et al.(1993) of 1305 recent recreation participants. No mention was made of services
to the poor, or minorities. Environmental benefits also appear secondary to personal benefits.
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Table 1.2 Benefits of Leisure
Specific Individual benefits Rank/Count Percent
Exercise, fitness and conditioning 236 11.5%
Relaxation and peace 125 6.1%
Open space 88 4.3%
Place for kids to go 67 3.3%
Nature 63 3.1%
Family time together 57 2.8%
Fun and entertainment 56 2.7%
Enjoy being outdoors/natural resources 52 2.5%
Place to go 51 2.5%
Place for recreation 51 2.5%
Specific Household Benefits
Place to play 41 3.8%
Facilities, Play area for kids 33 3.1%
Keep kids busy/occupied 27 2.5%
Open space 26 2.4%
Enjoy being outdoors/Natural Resources 25 2.3%
Specific Community Benefits
Place to play 41 3.8%
Facilities, Play area for kids 33 3.1%
Keep kids busy/occupied 27 2.5%
Open space 26 2.4%
Enjoy being outdoors/Natural Resources 25 2.3%
FROM : Benefits of Recreation( Godbey, Graefe and James, 1993)
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NRPA Benefits
In the mid 1990's Program Benefits become a major promotional focus of the National Recreation and
Park Association, and resulted in part from the work of Driver and Brown (1986) previously noted.
The logo for the NRPA campaign (below) illustrates some additional benefits participants and
communities can expect to derive from recreation experiences:
For more information, contact the Advisor’s Marketing

Group website
http://www.advisorsmarketing.com
6
In
Figure 1.1 above Murphy (1975) illustrated leisure in relation to the concepts of work and time as a
continuum. The far left side relates leisure as discretionary time, constrained by work and the basic
requirements of existence. The far right side illustrates leisure as holistic, free of restraints and self
determined. From this illustration, though somewhat dated, one should realize that Leisure too has
varying degrees of quality and value, which are still applicable. As recreation and park professionals
organize quality experiences for their clients, we need to realize that not all experiences we offer can
be of the level V variety, even though such quality should always be a goal for at least some of the
participants.
Leisure
Participation Iso-Ahola (1999) illustrates nonwork relative to
fulfills leisure as a pyramid, with household activity (e.g.
psychological
obligatory non-work) at the bottom. Intrinsic
motivation and a sense of freedom increases one
Free Time moves up the pyramid.
Activity
Participation
(e.g. watching TV)
Obligatory Non-Work Activity Participation

(household activity)
7
Individual in Nature In keeping with the qualitative view, individuals partake in even the same
activity for different reasons.
For example: Assume you are seated on a high bluff, over- looking a scenic river valley in which flows
a clear stream, full of fish and teaming with wildlife. During the course of your observation you watch
a number of river recreationists pass by.
The first to pass (somehow appropriate you note mentally) is a dory. This dory carries a guide
and a client who is fly fishing; catching and releasing cutthroat trout in the 20-24" range. The
rhythm is what strikes you about the next boat; silent but powerful...the cadence propels the
racing craft forward. It lingers but a moment before it is past; followed by another, and
another. The next visitors to your view is a retired couple. Attired in khaki and sporting hats
with long sun-brims, the two could have come directly from the LL Bean catalog. Paddling an
18' Old Town canoe, the pace is leisurely. Their main focus is the bird and animal life along
the shoreline. Suddenly, the silence and solitude is pierced by "Whassssuppp?............Throw
me another bud light will ya?” Still a mile away the sound of aluminum scraping on rock and
the side of the boat is clearly evident. But it’s not the boats you see first, but a foam cooler,
followed by its contents; then a paddle, then a PFD. Finally, not one but 4 canoes, roped
together in one party platform, round the bend............
By now you’ve probably got the picture....yet we've barely scratched the surface. Place yourself on
that bluff. What other river users might you see? (a couple, scouts earning a water safety badge,
tubers, a family, scientists, and so on..). Yet, when asked about their primary recreation experience,
most would likely reply, “Boating or Canoeing.”
Still, there are millions of people who would never choose river canoeing for recreation. Its too risky,
or too dirty, or appears to require too much skill, or is too boisterous, or too social, or too un-
spontaneous, or too expensive. They either prefer something else, find some barrier to
participation.....or they've never simply considered it.
Are you, as a future leisure service provider, nagged by the feeling that some people don’t choose river
canoeing simply because they have never been exposed to it? Let’s hope so. It shouldn't bother you at
all that people have other preferences; but without a choice, preferences are simply substitutes. We
must believe that part of our purpose is to broaden people's horizons and expand their leisure interests
so that each person can make informed choices that will result in enriching life experiences.
Unrestrained Choice. Perceived freedom is possibly a more popular description of this concept;
linked closely to the qualitative view of recreation and leisure. There are many restraints to leisure
choices but if a person does not feel restrained, the notion of perceived freedom is in force. One
example of such a restraint would be the restrictions that accompany the decision to participate on an
adult softball team. Once the decision to play is made, practice and game schedules dominate; often
precluding more spontaneous recreation activity. Yet, one usually makes the choice to play softball
with some comprehension of the impending constraints. Retaining personal control or decision
making authority regarding one's life situation may be an even better explanation of this phenomenon.
A Quantitative view of recreation
A quantitative view focuses on time slots. It addresses when recreation can occur; the popular verdict
being only during discretionary (non-work) time.....many authors agree that recreation can occur only
during an appropriate state of mind (leisure). Recreation needs to be non work because of the
8
limitations that work places on freedom. Very real constraints restrict much recreation demand, and
work remains a very real barrier to all but the elite.
Leisure Logistics
The details of planning leisure experiences are discussed in-depth in later chapters. Here the intent is
merely to examine the general environment in which leisure pursuits are undertaken and to give you a
perception of the depth of organization necessary to delivery quality services. Remember observing
the river recreationists? While it might have appeared that the programming there was undertaken
almost exclusively by the individuals, there were numerous logistical factors considered. Take
specifically the fishing client and guide. In order for this delightful experience to occur, the following
had to happen.
9
10
Western Float Trip
An entrepreneur (private programmer) had to

take a risk...go out on a limb and decide that
there were enough people willing to pay
enough money to catch big fish and float a
mountain stream (the recreational
experience) to make it worth his/her while to
invest a life savings in a half dozen
aluminum dories to try and recover a year’s
earnings in a two month summer season
filled with potential physical and financial
hazards.
The expected benefits of the guide service and fishing quality had to be communicated to the client
by the guide. This communication involved marketing; possibly in the form of a brochure, a booth a
sport show, an ad in an outdoor magazine, a TV or radio spot, or free trips for outdoor editors and
hotel concierges, etc. (in other words, several thousand dollars had to be spent up front, well before
any revenue would return) This choice involved determining the target market. Is it affluent
professionals? W here do they live? How are they most effectively reached? The message at the
boat show had to be persuasive. Should it be testimony by other clients, photos, the price or the
package offered?
The sportsman had to contact the guide and arrange for a reservation. This involved some
registration/reservation process, possibly a deposit or the ability to accept a charge card. Do clients
get themselves to this operation or are they picked up at a local airport?
W hat type of contract should be signed?
This trip requires the coordination of boats and guides...more than likely this guide service has
4-6 of each. A reservation would require optimal scheduling of men and material. The offering
of the service would require a great deal of thought as to the most desired length of time (best
format), as well as time of day (precisely what time of day would be best to float the Smithson
Falls hole for those big cutthroats?... and when would we have to leave Jackson to get there?)
W hich guides should be matched to which fishermen? Depending on the above decisions,
W hat section of river...or what river would be used for this float? W here should the boat be put
in and taken out?
Did this client want a 4 or 8hr float or a 2 day overnighter with meals? Beverages? If
lunch is supplied, how much does the guide service charge for it? W here is the best place on
the river for a shore lunch? Is a BLM /USFS float permit needed or a fee for a private launch?
How much should the client be charged for the fishing experience? The same, or more (or less)
than other similar guide services? How should this experience be price positioned relative to
other competitive outdoor recreation markets such as rafting, or hot air ballooning, or jeep
rides?
Should a radio be carried for emergencies? W hat procedures should be undertaken in the event
of a capsize or a serious injury? W hat are the potential injuries and their probability of
occurring? (drowning, broken bones, serious sunburn, snake-bites, food poisoning, snagged by
a hook, etc.)
Should the sportsman be allowed to keep a trophy fish? If yes, how many? How will this impact
future seasons?
11
The process is similar when planning programs for a public recreation and park agency. Its just that
the risks that are personally smaller..its not your money!!!. The process essentially involves
determining:
What do people want (do they really know?)

Who wants it (who benefits and who is willing to pay for it?)
When and where and how is the best time, place and format
in which to offer the experience
Why should we provide it ...instead of some other entity?
Can there be too much planned Recreation?
Recreation activities planned by a third party are essentially good because they tend to make recreation
participation easier and therefore more likely to be participated in, which results in more people
reaping the benefits associated with the experiences. More participation means a more enriched and
healthier Society.
The attention to detail resulting from planning is perceived to make activities (1) safer,
(2) more equitable (not as dominated by the highly skilled or outgoing), (3) more reliable (available
when expected), and (4) more comfortable to otherwise non-participants.
Yet, arguments can be made that not all experiences should be planned; that individuals gain the most
from recreation experiences when they exercise the very independence and freedom that is intrinsic to
leisure. Several of the river recreationists we observed earlier would certainly agree that certain uses
should be restricted and the experience kept wilder and simpler. "Just give us a place", they insist,
"we'll provide the adventure."
As a personal test of your feelings in this regard ask yourself the following question. Who enjoys the
following experiences more?
The child in a city baseball league or the child in a sand lot game?
The home-made boat builder or the millionaire yacht owner?
The fisherman who ties her own flies, or the client on a charter boat
where everything is provided?
By the very nature of recreation, we should relish those experiences of our own design; those
spontaneous, lose-track-of-time events that are truly independent of schedules, yet we are not all
willing or capable of the effort.
Questions for Discussion:
1. What are the elements associated with a recreation experience?
2. The concept of perceived freedom seems important. Explain why.
3. If you think you are having a leisure experience, are you?
12
ASSIGNMENT: (15 pts)
Why can I suggest (and have a lot of support in my claim) that the fly tier (page 11) would have a more
enriching experience that the client on a charter boat? Answer this in part by referring to the benefits
listed on page 3. _____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Can the client on a charter boat have a quality experience?___________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Select a water based recreation activity you enjoy at a nearby pond, lake or stream?
(name of the specific activity here)_______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
(don’t just list fishing but fly fishing for perch or catching a certain type of clam...be specific)
Select two benefits from the list provided on page 3 that you feel you receive when you participate in
this activity. Explain each in detail here:
1. Benefit: ____________________ Explanation:____________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Benefit: ____________________ Explanation:____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
What element of this experience makes it difficult to program (plan it) for others to participate in?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
13
Assume you have been assigned the task of planning a class where participants learn how to cook
using Dutch oven (cast iron) cookware. Describe the following logistics involved in clients
participation in this experience.
Who will be the likely participants (Age, sex, interests, etc..)

____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Scheduling of the activity: (what time of year would be best ...what day of the week or time of
day....how long should the program last?)
____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Location (what would be ideal?)

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Equipment and supplies (what else besides the pans is needed)

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Costs and Pricing (Clients would pay this amount if .............)

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
14
Chapter 2 The Marketing Concept
CHAPTER TWO
THE MARKETING CONCEPT
Understand that the provision of top quality leisure services (programming) by public agencies
is wholly dependent on the marketing concept.
Recognize the number of resources available to assist in comprehending the needs of people;
and
Be able to demonstrate the use of several specific tools of market research.
M arketing has been defined as the function of identifying and then meeting unmet customer needs and
wants. In practice, marketing is research; followed by action in the form of mobilizing of an agency's
resources to develop products that are valued for their benefits.
The Aim of Marketing in Leisure Service Supply
The aim of marketing for public suppliers of leisure service is not unlike any other enterprise:
customer satisfaction. Yet, somehow it is much more than that. Unlike the commercial sector, we do
not use this purpose solely to reach another goal; that of profitability. Our purposes transcend the
boundaries of the agency or institution. As guardians of the public good, we are expected to be truly
interested in the client's welfare; believing that those persons who participate in wholesome, well-
designed leisure experiences benefit through enriched personal lives.
Our conviction relative to recreation and leisure (our philosophy) will be pervasive in our program
planning. Should this philosophy contain some mutual values??..I believe so. Should leisure be
accessible to all people? What limitations should be placed on it? How much should leisure be
planned and organized versus be independent of systems and personally intrinsic?
The following list of principles should guide leisure service programmers. It is modified from a list of
tenets developed by Edginton et al.. (1989)
15
The Marketing Concept Chapter 2
Principles for Building a Philosophy of Programming
1. Every customer has the right to pursue recreation and leisure in a manner that is
personally satisfying, if this participation does not result in significant negative impact
to others.
2. The program planner should have an understanding of the needs and expected benefits
an individual has for a recreation experience.
3. Leisure is highly equated with personal freedom (to choose when, where and how to
participate, and in what fashion.....if at all)
4. The anticipation of benefits drives the recreation experience.
5. The spectrum of recreation opportunities supplied by a public leisure services agency
should be diverse
6. Quality, not quantity is the key determinant of an enriching leisure experience.
7. The recreation opportunities supplied by a leisure service agency should be
environmentally friendly.
8. Public agencies should offer an array of experiences that vary in price, always
maintaining some experiences that are easily affordable.
9 Public agencies should facilitate (help them bring to fruition) client recreation needs
when possible; when direct supply is not desirable
Edginton, et al. (1989)
Unfortunately agency finances often limit the full attainment of these principles. Still, If we are to
continue in what we believe is a valuable service to mankind, we must prove that the benefits outweigh
the costs. This involves constant change and adaptation to the current needs of Society. It requires us
to stay current; challenges us to be innovative; and moreover forces us to listen.
We need to offer the best experiences not because of the resulting profits, but because people
deserve it.
This task is complicated by a public agency mission to serve most of the people, most of the time. We
do not have the luxury of targeting only the most profitable segment. Target or segment marketing is
still valid, but instead of using this information to determine who will buy most of our product...we
study segments because we want to offer each segment what it truly needs. Still, we cannot or should
not serve everyone. Historically, Society's more affluent segments have chosen to separate themselves
from the masses. Often public suppliers were unable to meet specific demands for isolation, minimal
crowding and peak experiences without being inequitable to the remainder of its clientele.
Certainly today, amidst an explosion of entrepreneurs, and the resulting highly competitive
marketplace, if public recreation programmers ignore or mis-serve our historic segment(s),
there are plenty of enterprises willing to snatch these customers from us and never look
back...and, if we are guilty...so be it!!!!!!
16
A Common Sense Approach Good Marketing is Relatively

to Marketing Simple
• Match your products to people's needs Yes.......and..... No. Yes, good

• Provide products of noteworthy and lasting Marketing is as simple as good
value common sense. (See Figure 2.1)
• Clearly com m unicate the benefits of your Some successful enterprises sum up
products their efforts simply as "Listening to
the Customer". However, it takes a
Figure 2.1 great deal of effort to listen well.
People are not able to discern very
explicitly their needs and wants. Some
say they just know when it feels right. This imperfect communication forces us to work hard to
understand.
According to Peter Drucker ( 1974 ) the aim of marketing is to know and understand the client so well
that the service we design for him/her fits so well that it sells itself.
Will Rogers once noted that if companies spent less money on advertising their products and more
money on improving them..they wouldn't need to advertise them.
Agencies embracing the

Functions of a Modern Marketing Department Marketing concept focus all of
the resources of the agency on
satisfying the customer.
1. Understand the needs and desires of current custom ers.
2. Understand the needs and desires of potential custom ers Marketing as a Tool
3. Develop products or services that satisfy consum er needs
and w ants
Marketing is a resource we use
4. Ensure effective comm unication betw een the custom er and
the organization
to develop better quality
5. Ensure that services are comfortably available at the right products and services....to
tim e, in the right location, at the right price, and in the improve. Though the study of
m ost appropriate form at. Marketing has evolved into a
By Kotler ( ) very specialized discipline, those
best at it are not necessarily the
most sophisticated; but are
Figure 2.2 dedicated to its aims.
17
Defining Recreation Programming in Marketing terms
Good Recreation Programming is based on the principles stated earlier; and it utilizes the process of
good marketing. Other authors have described the functions of Programming as:
Purposeful Intervention
Rational Planning
Designing precise actions to reach stated objectives
Problem Solving
A process of needs analysis, objective stating, activity design and implementation...
...and evaluation
Arranging the physical social and natural environments to facilitate leisure
Improve conditions or supply benefits
Definitions: Recreation Programming is the process of coordinating the necessary resources

to supply experiences conducive to leisure. It is the facilitation of leisure experiences. It is
helping people enjoy and find benefits and thus satisfaction in recreation experiences. It is
the art of creating leisure experiences.
Who are Recreation Programmers?
Recreation Programmers are essentially marketers specializing in leisure service products. They are
design or planning specialists. In public agencies most are typically permanent employees; serving in
the capacity of a mid-level manager, or supervisor. Most have a degree in Recreation Management,
Leisure Services or a related field. Some specialize in one discipline or program area (see Table 1.2)
while others, usually by necessity, plan activities across multiple disciplines.
In one of the ironies of the leisure service field, programmers (because of the supervisory nature of
their job) often become a step removed from the face-to-face interaction enjoyed by recreation leaders.
While leaders do program (plan, organize and implement) as part of their jobs, programmers do this
almost exclusively and have little opportunity to lead activities.
The organizational chart of the Manhattan, KS. Park and Recreation Department is illustrated on the
next page. This agency in a community of 45,000 has a seasonal staff of over 300 employees. The
chart illustrates three administrative levels. The executive level is filled by the Agency Director and
Assistant. The managerial executive level is filled by division superintendents, who program
occasionally depending on their tendency to micro manage. Programmers fill the third level or
supervisory positions. The job descriptions are not as clear cut for this agency as for many others.
Notice that Recreation Programmers (under Recreation Superintendent) may actually fill three
different types of program positions (Specialist..e.g. youth sports, Generalist, or Special Facility
Coordinator). Some of these responsibilities under general programming actually rotate among staff;
the philosophy being that periodic rotation of program areas prevents burn out.
18
Manhattan Park and Recreation Department

Agency Director
executive
Assistant Director
mid level
managerial
Parks Superintendent Recreation Superintendent Zoo Director
supervisory
Park Operations Adult Sports Educ. Supervisor

Supervisor Youth Sports Zoo Curator
Planning Seniors and Special Populations Marketing Dir
Performing and Creative Arts
General Recreation
Enrichment, Social, Travel, etc.
Douglass Center
Sports Complex
Programmers as Professionals
The work of leisure service programmers is varied; ranging from administrative responsibilities to
face-to-face interaction with clients. Regardless of the actual job function, supplying quality leisure
experiences is the common denominator.
Another common thread that ties all of these individuals together though is professionalism.
Professionals are those persons dedicated to serving regardless of financial enumeration. Professionals
abide by an unwritten code of ethics; involving trust, respect and self discipline. Professionals work to
enhance the well-being of their clients and colleagues.
Professionals are prepared. As indicated earlier, most have degrees in Recreation and Park
Management or Leisure Services. This preparation is based on the study of a common body of
knowledge. Today most students graduating with a Recreation/Leisure Services degree have been
exposed to a broad University curriculum containing elements from business, psychology, sociology,
natural resources, sciences and cultural diversity in addition to a core (multiple courses) of recreation
and park management theory and technical training. Today, the National Recreation and Park
Association (NRPA) and the American Association of Leisure and Recreation strongly encourages
both the recognition and the sanctioning of park and recreation professionals. The NRPA/AALR
encourage Professionals to gain recognition by earning the designation of Certified Park and
Recreation Professional (or Associate, Provisional or Retired). These title are based on qualifications
achievable only through a combination of education and experience and continuing education that has
been thoroughly reviewed. The NRPA also accredits leisure service curriculums. University
curriculums not meeting strict standards relative to diversity, depth, rigor, and faculty are not
approved. The desired result is an improved quality of professional. Program delivery is one
specialization that can be accredited, but regardless of the specialty, all certified professionals are
expected to possess well-developed programming skills.
19
Professional Behavior Characterized
Recreation Professionals (at all levels) should demonstrate a majority of the following characteristics.
(Adapted from Edginton, et al.)
Possess the ability to place the needs of the customer first

Be committed to the ideals of the importance of leisure
Endeavors to provide clients with the highest quality of service
Maintains the highest ethical standards
Is fair - equitable
Demonstrates self-control
Continues to develop, improve as well as share new knowledge
Other Characteristics of Recreation Professionals
loves fun likes people

is democratic is group-minded
is prepared is creative
is humble has faith in mankind
As further evidence of the importance of programming skills to the profession, approximately fifty
(50)questions of the 125 asked on the 1993 NRPA Certified Leisure Professional Examination were
related to Programming.
20
1. What is the role of recreation and park program specialists?
2. What functions of a marketing department are important to recreation programmers?
3. Why should park professionals have programming skills?
4. If you were limited to one key word to describe the role of recreation programmers it would be
______________________.
21
ASSIGNMENT: (15pts)
Complete the following crossword puzzle on marketing and its relationship to recreation program
planning.
Down(up in one case)

1. A programmer must have this in people
2. The last word in a phrase that defines marketing
3. Is defined as the function of identifying and then meeting unmet needs and wants
4. (Up) A manner in which activities are offered (should be appropriate along with the right price,
time, etc..)
5. Authored this statement “If companies spent less money on advertising their products and more
money on improving them, they wouldn’t need to advertise them”
6. Another name for a wide variety of opportunities that should be available
Across
7. The number of questions on the 1993 NPRA CLP exam dealing with programming
8. The purpose of market research and program evaluation ( to _______________).
9. This type of agency must serve most of the people most of the time
10. Completes this phrase, Leisure is the ____________ to do what you want, when........
11. The art of making recreation experiences available to people as programming
12. Between agency and client, this is necessary in order to supply needed services
1 2
3 5 6
10
11
12
22
Chapter 3 Understanding the Recreation Consumer
CHAPTER THREE
UNDERSTANDING
THE RECREATION CONSUMER
Understand the process of conducting a strategic plan.

Understand the factors, current and future, that impact the provision of leisure services.
Comprehend the public input techniques used to gather opinion and information.
Understand the sources of information and data available to programmers.
A gencies must plan well in order to market well.
Marketing efforts need to be focused and efficient, and made with considerable forethought. The
marketing environment is certainly anything but static, but rather than just reacting to changes in the
marketplace agencies must anticipate and plan for them. The cross disciplinary scholarship needed by
recreation programmers becomes evident here.
The corporate sector, due to its reliance on profit resulting from successful planning has long
employed the use of strategic or market planning. Recreation and Park agencies have used these tools
for little over a decade (Howard and Crompton, 1980).
When used by Park and Recreation agencies, there is little difference between Strategic,
Comprehensive or Market Planning. Each uses a process including mission conception, issue
identification or needs analysis, opportunity and threat analysis and strategy formulation. All call for
a careful analysis of the current and future situations, and all call for action, but at different levels of
specificity and in varying time frames. Program planners simply conduct this process on a smaller
scale and more frequently than a division or agency.
23
Understanding the Recreation Consumer Chapter 3
Table 3.1 illustrates one type of model: A Strategic Plan. This particular model is a hybrid of several
strategic and marketing plans. The planning process involves both an internal assessment, or "self
study" and a review of external, societal trends
that also have profound impacts on the supply of
leisure services. Such a plan will first tell us a Contents of a Strategic Plan
great deal about the market for leisure services.
After we have explored the market we turn the I. M arket Profile (current leisure situation)
A. Macro-Environmental Factors -
focus to analyzing the agency; focusing on what
presents relevant background data on
we are, where we are, where we want to go and
significant Societal issues:
how we get there. It forces agencies to demographics
articulate their goals and objectives; their future broad societal trends
directions and priorities. Once established these economics
directions become the road map to guide the B. Micro-Environmental Factors -
agency in the near future. reviews regional and local issues that
impact the leisure services market
involves research ; preferably
A funneling or distillation process using the scientific method and
seems a fitting analogy to the all sources; secondary, primary
and hybrid
condensing of large amounts of
II. Agency Profile (audit/history)
information into usable products. A. Analysis of External Opportunities and
Threats from the macro to the micro level
competitors
Notice that we begin with the broad issues and political climate
trends facing Society as a whole and begin to B. Focusing on a Mission
examine how these issues affect our product: W ho are the stakeholders?
quality leisure opportunities. Gradually we W ho are our customers?
narrow our focus....to parks and recreation W hat are we about?
C. Strengths and Weaknesses
issues; to regional park and recreation issues, to
inventory and analysis of
local issues, to individual differences to specific D. Review of participation trends
program and finally activity concerns. E. Public input on programs
F. Comparison to standards
The programming process must begin here. III. Action Plan
Once all agency personnel understand both Who will do what, when and how
consumers needs and the agency's priorities and to achieve goals set in strategic
goals; designing programs to fit the mission plan
becomes second-nature.
Table 3.1
24
Contents of a Strategic Plan
I. Market Profile
(current leisure situation).
Crompton (1993) suggests that strategic planning cannot begin until we take stock of the present
situation. Before we can look into the future we must ask the question, "Where are we now?" The
current leisure situation or marketing environment consists of all the forces that affect the supply of
quality leisure opportunities. These forces at the Societal level (the broadest pre-distillation level)
include but are not limited to:
A. Macro-Environmental Factors (or Major Societal trends)

international, national
Changing Leisure Patterns

longer workweek for many
early retirement
more mini-vacations
Changing Demographics (Table 3.3)
aging
relocation
more single parents
suburbs growing
Environment
resource shortages
climate affects demand
concern is currently acute
Peace Dividend
What is the impact of the
end of the Cold War?
Science and Technology
changes that have had dramatic impact on
recreation demand
skiing
carbon fibers
golf club design
aerodynamics
home entertainment/fitness
computer chips
Economics
Recreation in demand
white collar recession
looking for value
Table 3.2
25
Table 3.3 highlights only one Macro-Environmental factor, Changing Demographics. This factor in
itself has tremendous current impact, as well as the potential for significant future impacts on the
supply of recreation experiences. The very fabric of our society (the nuclear family) has experienced
significant change; as have communities and regions.
We are no longer living in a

Changing Demographics static Society. Our
communities and the people in
ONLY 15% OF AMERICAN HOUSEHOLDS FIT THE IDEALIZED AMERICAN them are changing. We must
FAMILY..... FATHER WORKING AND MOTHER AS HOMEMAKER.
grasp these basic shifts in
THE PERCENTAGE OF DOUBLE INCOME FAMILIES HAS VIRTUALLY values, beliefs and situations in
QUADRUPLED IN THE LAST 25 YEARS
order to be effective in meeting
A 90'S MINI-TREND SHOWS SOME REVERSE IN THIS
TREND IN THE MIDDLE AND UPPER MIDDLE CLASS
Societal and individual leisure
AS FAMILIES ARE APPARENTLY WILLING TO TAKE needs.
LESS MONEY FOR A PERCEIVED BETTER QUALITY
OF LIFE)
We need not agree with the
THE NUMBER OF CHILDREN RAISED BY A SINGLE PARENT HAS SKYROCKETED
(OVER 130% SINCE 1970) changes....but as public
servants, we must be willing to
OVER 85% OF THE WOMEN HEADING SINGLE
HOUSEHOLDS ARE WORKING. utilize our expertise to address
THE POPULATION IS AGING. BY 2000, 40% OF THE U. S. POPULATION WILL BE
those problems where we can
OVER 40. make a difference. Indeed, we
THE POPULATION CONTINUES TO MOVE TO THE SOUTH AND WEST ...AND TO
can serve as change agents
THE SUBURBS ourselves; enriching people's
ETHNICITY IS DRAMATICALLY SHIFTING IN SOME REGIONS. lives will make a difference
for all of us.
INCREASED EMPOWERMENT OF MINORITIES:
ETHNIC GROUPS, WOMEN AND THE DISABLED
VIOLENCE AND FEAR RULE MANY URBAN AREAS

How will these changes affect
your agency? Has the agency
made any changes in response
to these trends? See the
following URL for link and
Table 3.3 important information
regarding demographics.
http://www.demographics.com/publications/ad/index.htm
American Demographics
26
Figure 3.4 illustrates NEWS headlines highlighting several demographic and cultural shifts taking
place in Society. Each of these macro-environmental factors has significant implications for the
supply of leisure services yet none are directly related to leisure.
SOCIETAL SHIFTS THAT PROFOUNDLY IMPACT

THE SUPPLY OF LEISURE SERVICES
Children fatter, getting less exercise

ORLANDO, Fla. A recent athletic team do little or
American survey shows that nothing of cardiovascular benefit
American children are getting outside of school.
fatter. "Kids are a lot fatter today
than they were even in the 80s," One teen noted that girls just didn't
said Jim Smith's of the American want the inconvenience of changing,
Fitness Coalition, conductor of the showering and the like. Others had
survey. too many commitments at home,
such as child care for working
Teen girls, particularly those less parents; and couuld not participate
affluent are simply not getting in athletic activities.
enough exercise. Those not
fortunate enough to make an
1-Parent Families' Growth outpaces Society

One parent families occupy only a Nine out of ten single parents are
small percentage of American women. Most single parents are
households but they are growing so employed or are looking for work.
fast that social institutions may The median income of this group is
never catch up. only $ 11,000 per year.
Figure 3.4
27
B. Micro Environmental Factors
In our continued evaluation of the Current Situation we next focus on the Micro or more
regional and local environment. Here we scrutinize issues or trends more specific to the
agency and not nationwide. We review the current state and scope of the Market that we
actually serve. We analyze trends within program; regional and local variations and customer
characteristics
.
Regional variations are important. These variations may be the result of ethnic orientation, of
climate, geography. Joel Garreau (1982) in the Nine Nations of North America, challenges
marketers to stop viewing the U.S. as a homogenous glob of humanity. He argues that each
region has its own way of thinking, planning and living...its own food, dress, charm; often its
own way of speaking. His concept is illustrated in the map and accompanying description
shown in Figure 3.5. He has also written extensively about edge cities.....its all about our
changing demographics
More about J. Garreau http://www.onwis.com/archive/special/0921side.stm
Fig. 3.5
The Breadbasket The integrating factor is the elemental simplicity of farming as a way of life
Ectopia. People here have an ethic of libertarian self-reliance and mystical relationship to the
land
The Foundry. Declining and gritty industrial cities with an ethic of heavy work with heavy machines.
Hard work and some hard times without work.
The Empty Quarter. An area of mining, cattle ranching and power
The Islands Latin American culture with M iami as its capital
Mex-America. Hispanic values of Catholicism, pride in family and close community ties
New England. Original boundaries of the U.S....with traditional values
Dixie. Southern culture..with a pervasive dialect, dress and charm
Quebec. French Speaking; it has a culture all its own
28
Grouping Consumers
Labeling and segmenting humankind into tidy little boxes assists in target marketing. A number of
classification methods exist, and depending on the parent discipline, each individual can
simultaneously fit into several segments. In the following Figure 3.6, Crompton (1980) provides a list
of common variables that are often used to classify, label, profile or segment customers.
Figure 3.6
29
Jonathan Robbin, creator of the PRIZM cluster system, once boasted, "Tell me someone's zip code,
and I can predict what they eat, drink, drive- and even think."
In the Clustering of America (1988), Michael J. Weiss, using computer statistical modeling and
analysis describes the characteristics of 40 neighborhood types in the U.S. in the late 1980's. From the
next survey or census, we will begin to see slight shifts or changes, but the value of this approach is in
illustrating trends in American society. As Weiss indicates, "Whether you're in the shadow of a
skyscraper or a grain elevator, the Clustering of America demonstrates that where you live determines
how you live. See also his newer compilation, Latitudes and Attitudes. (Search Prizm and Claritas for
additional clustering information)
Six of the 40 neighborhood types, along with a brief description and an estimate of the magnitude of
each are listed in Table 3.4.
Cluster Description Size (% of U.S. Households)
Furs and Station Wagons New money in metropolitan 3.2%

(now minivans or SUVs) bedroom suburbs
God’s country Upscale frontier boomtowns 2.7%
Towns and Gowns America's College Towns 1.2%
New Melting Pot New immigrant neighborhoods, 0.9%

particularly in the nation's port cities
Shotguns and Pickups Crossroads villages serving the nation's 1.9%

lumber and breadbasket needs
Hispanic mix America's Hispanic barrios 1.9%
Table 3.4
Towns and Gowns, as found in the FREEZE FRAM E section of The Clustering of America is shown in
more detail below.
Lifestyle Cars Television
High Usage Low Usage High Usage Low Usage High Usage Low Usage
___________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________
civic clubs Unions Mercury Sables Mercedes 420's Late Night with Dynasty
Tennis rackets Toy sized dogs Subaru DL4's Hyuandai David Letterman
Water skiing vans Mazda GLCs Jaguar XJ 6s Good Morning Amer Peoples Ct
records and tapes burglar alarms
charcoal grills men's leisure suits Magazines/Newspapers Food
______________________________ ______________________________
Natural History Town and Country Mexican Canned ham
Modern Bride The NY Times Whole Wheat Bread Cold Cereal
30
Another classification was proposed by the Harris Poll ( ) which grouped respondents into the
following categories:
Healthy and Wealthy

Safe and Satisfied
Young and Restless
Sad and Sedentary
Fat and Frustrated
Confused and Indifferent
Additional grouping approaches are illustrated in the appendix at the end of this chapter. An
individual can be classified a myriad of ways; economically, by lifestyle, by cohorts, stage in family
life-cycle, and many others not illustrated.
As the funneling process continues, we begin to focus more directly on identifiable consumers instead
of faceless trends. A substantial amount of research must be undertaken to better understand the
agency's current and potential market. Its purpose again is to develop a profile of the current and
potential market.
Market Research
Marketing and Program specialists are understandably dependent on information about their potential
customers. We simply cannot satisfy customers without knowing them intimately. To find out more
about our customers we must utilize some of the many informational resources available and do so in
a cost effective manner. We must initiate Market Research.
Don't panic at the term research. Certainly large corporations employ dozens of marketing specialists
and spend millions annually trying to determine their strategies for the short term. One doesn't need a
Ph.D. for this, but it does take commitment and a good deal of time. It's really as straightforward as
answering the following questions.
Who are our customers?

Who should our customers be?
What are their leisure needs or wants?
What needs or wants can we satisfy?
What formats can we utilize to serve varying customer groups?
When and where should we satisfy these wants?
How are our current and potential customers impacted by the price of
our products?
It is quite likely that you will not compile all of this data yourself. It will often prove less expensive
(and less frustrating) to contract some aspects of the analysis out to University faculty or a commercial
vendor/consultant who has the necessary specific resources (hardware, software) readily available.
A wealth of information is available; particularly from your current customers. You just need to plan on
compiling it in an orderly manner so that it can be sorted and used repeatedly.
31
Market Research is the art of using and/or developing sources of reliable information about your
current and potential customers.
A number of approaches can be utilized to find out important information about your market.
There are dozens of satisfactory models. Many work best with a specific application; which I
have tried to illustrate for you when appropriate. In all likelihood, you will develop a hybrid
approach for your agency's use which uses a little of each of the following.
Keep the purpose in perspective. The information explosion of the 90's makes it possible to
know almost everything about everyone...but we have to spend so much time in data analysis
that we have little time left to be innovative in our programming. And programming is what
we are about. An over dependence on objective data often handcuffs managers and prevents
timely decision making. Some of the best marketing decisions are made without all of the
information. Here the manager utilizes bold risk taking approach; a do it, try it philosophy that
often establishes rather than reacts to a market...testing the envelope so to speak. Trial and
error is also a form of market research, if you keep accurate records. It is often cheaper as
well; provided the financial and negative public relations costs of a poor program are
controlled. Besides, it is a lot more fun to be on the cutting edge of innovation, rather than
always being so rational .
One limitation of Market Research is that it can tell you little about an exciting, never-before-
offered program because there is little applicable history or information. Though it can tell
you that your current and potential customers need more adventure, excitement, etc. and give
you enough information that you can translate these demonstrated needs into an effective
program.
GOOD MARKET RESEARCH = THE SCIENTIFIC

METHOD
Quality market research at any level incorporates the principles of

the scientific method, which include: careful observation,
formulation of hypotheses or predictions based on the information
available, and careful testing and re-testing of the findings to
determine specifically which variables, actions or factors, if any
actually influenced the outcome. Certainly a number of valuable
insights have been gained even from unreliable and invalid
research, but just like a roll of the dice in Las Vegas, if you can
accurately predict (via probabilities) the most likely outcome, you
32
What approach will you take? This decision depends on the

sources of information available to you and is limited by the extent
Research Plan
of your agency's resources (budget, staff expertise, computers,
etc.).
One major decision to be made relates to the type of data sources that will be used. There are
essentially three choices:
1. Secondary data, 2. Primary data, or 3. Hybrid
1. Secondary Data
Always start with secondary data, even if you end up using primary data in addition. Why
reinvent the wheel if data already exists in a usable (not perfect but good enough and cost
effective) format to be of benefit? Secondary data is typically less expensive, and it does not
require the more sophisticated database development or research skills needed for good
primary research. Table (3.4) illustrates the many types of secondary data available.
a. internal
Computerized database (REGISTRATION SOFTWARE)
Most agencies supplying leisure services have at their fingertips a wealth of

internal sources of data. Agencies using computerized registration are able to develop
databases from this input. These databases aid in program marketing by allowing for
information to be cut and analyzed by a number of variables..such as opinion by
neighborhood, or by number of household members, or by participation level.
Benefits of computerized registration include:
1. participant tracking (sorting by zip code, age, sex,

days of the week, times, fees, etc..)
2. in-house mailing lists (of proven, interested clients-
also sortable by multiple variables)
3. course records of all classes participants enroll in
4. cancellation rates, refunds, exchanges and dates
5. annual and other report preparation
33
E XAM PLES OF S ECONDARY DATA SOURCES
a. internal
registration information
attendance records
evaluations
(type of information: demographic
taste and preference, opinions)
b. external
government publications
forum, seminars, conferences
association newsletters
periodicals
books
commercial services
networking(each other)
(type of information: unlimited)
Table 3.4
Program evaluations completed by clients are an additional internal source of valuable information.
Compiling and analyzing these opinions should lead to improved programming in all aspects from
instructor selection through time of day, and pricing.
Internal data are extremely useful;

Adult Softball League User Profile: particularly because clients of leisure
Jackson Co. Mo Park and Recreation District service agencies typically are repeat users.
Average Age: 27.5
Once people have crossed the initial
60% married barriers to participation it is much easier
> 50% come alone and cost effective to develop these clients
Majority are high school graduates into heavy users than it is to gain new
Majority have children at home clients who are now non-users.
Majority are white
Majority are blue collar workers
Most drive less than 15 miles to participate
The profile of Jackson Co. Missouri Park
Read: sports page and Recreation District’s softball players
Beverage: domestic beer illustrated in Table 3.5 gives substantial
insights including: when these individuals
are available, who is being reached and how
Table 3.5 far they are willing to drive to participate.
34
b. External
External sources of secondary data include publications, commercial services, sem-

inars and conferences, forums, association data bases and newsletters and each other.
Associations
Abstracts of two articles published in the Journal of Park and

Recreation Administration were found searching the archives via the NRPA
research service on its website. Each illustrates the typical marketing related
information available.
Title: Selecting Target Markets-A Key to Effective Marketing

Author: John Crompton
Volume: 1 Number: 1 Year: 1983 Pages: 7-26
Abstract: The identification and selection of target markets is a key marketing
decision. It influences and directly determines all of the ensuing decisions
regarding types of services, their distribution, pricing and communication.
Selecting target markets is a two stage process. This paper briefly identifies
the criteria required for delineating effective segments and describes two
alternate approaches that may be adopted in defining potential target markets.
Title: Introduction to Special Issue on Park Marketing

Authors: Christine A. Vogt and Kathleen L. Andereck
Volume: 20 Number: 2 Year: 2002 Pages: 1-10
Abstract: This paper serves as an introduction to the special issue on park marketing in the
Journal of Park and Recreation Administration. It frames the study of marketing and shows ties
between marketing, market-ing research and the broad field of parks and recreation
administration. Tools marketers use to meet the needs of consumers are reviewed with attention
to differences between goods marketing and services and experiences marketing. The fit and
application of marketing to study park and recreation issues is considered through the work of
critics and supporters. Some of the challenges with marketing park areas stem from differences
in the mission of being a public versus non-profit provider. Other challenges include the
advancement of integrated and sophisticated marketing applications, the practice of writing and
using marketing plans in the park, recreation, and tourism fields, and the use of marketing
research. Six papers selected for this special issue are introduced and framed according to the
key elements of the marketing mix-product, price, place and promotion. Textbooks and journals
are identified for those interested in learning more about marketing and its application in park,
recreation, and tourism settings.
The following table illustrates the most traditional aspect of the research dissemination function of
professional associations. Each session was presented at an annual conference by recognized experts.
One could certainly gain the same information by reading their texts as each is also an author but the
concise format of a conference presentation allows for a concentration of recreation specific questions.
Other methods of dissemination include newsletters, databases, and websites.
35
Howard, Dennis R. 1986. Understanding the Recreation Consumer. Presentation to the Kansas
Recreation and Park Association Annual Conference, Lawrence.
Kotler, Philip. 1992. Marketing Questions and Answers. Session of LERN Annual Conference,
Chicago, Ill.
Younger, Leon. 1994. Moving Parks and Recreation into the 21st Century. NRPA Congress.
Minneapolis, MN.
Gray, Vince, T. Cunningham, Jim Frazier, Jerry Fife, and John Engh. 2000. Raising Arizona -
The Next Generation of Golf Enthusiasts. NRPA Congress, Phoenix, Arizona
Professional associations also conduct primary research. In 1993, the Kansas Recreation and Park
Association compiled a database, developed from a survey of members (park and recreation agency
professionals) on pricing, budgets, program design, ADA spec's, and a number of other specific areas.
Bi-annually KRPA member financial data (recreation commissions) is published on the web and
linked to the association’s webpage. A statewide inventory of park and recreation facilities was
completed in 2003 and will be published as an
interactive searchable database in 2004. NRPA is
Examples of Associations: compiling a similar database (on facilities) on its
webpage (by ActiveParks) for Recreation
TTRA,The Travel and Tourism Research Association
(PIN, Programmer's Information Network)
professionals nationwide.
(State affiliates: eg. Kansas Recreation and Park
Association compiles a data base) Association offer varying amounts of useful
the NRPA, the National Recreation and Park Association
(SCHOLE, Electronic database, network service) information. The KS League of municipalities
ISRA (International Racket Sports Association) publishes very useful annual reports on public
(compiles an industry survey)
LERN
recreation agency finances for example.
NESRA, National Employee Service Rec Assoc??????
The Resort and Commercial Recreation Association
TIA, the Travel Industry of America
American Recreation Coalition
American Ski Federation
Conference of National Park Concessioners
International Association of amusement Parks and Attractions
International Association of Convention and Visitor's
National Campground Owner's Association Bureaus
Sporting Goods M anufacturers Association
Library Resources
The value of library research to the parks recreation profession is immense. Because the study of
parks and recreation encompasses so many different disciplines (psychology, sociology, economics,
business, etc.) a great deal can be learned and gained by transferring cutting edge technology from
these fields into our own.
Many of the readings students are assigned in Programming classes are designed to accomplish this
very purpose of cross-disciplinary scholarship. They are designed to keep readers current and abreast
of the state of the art in approaches to marketing.
36
Examples of the resources available in most University libraries include:
Indexes, Abstracts
Leisure, Recreation and Tourism Abstracts (GV 191.6, R86)

Physical Education Index (GV 201)
Sociology of Leisure and Sport Abstracts (GV 1 S6)
Business Index
Statistical Abstract of the U.S.

updated annually; provides summary data on demographic, economic, social and other
aspects of the American economy and society.
City and County DataBook

updated every 3 years. Presents statistical information on counties, cities, and other
geographical units on population, education, employment, income, housing, bank deposits,
retail sales, etc..
Marketing Information Guide

provides a monthly, annotated bibliography on marketing information
Business Periodicals Index

updated monthly. Provides lists of business articles appearing in a wide variety of business
publications
Bibliography of Theses and Dissertations in Recreation and Parks compiled and

published by the NRPA, (over 3,500)
Computer Searches
ERIC (CD Rom system) AGRICOLA AFTERDARK SCHOLE
Commercial Services
Simmon's Market Research
Individuals and agencies can subscribe to a
Degree to which adults participated during the last 12 number of commercial marketing services.
months(annotated) These services profit from the gathering and
dissemination of current information in formats
Participation by Activity
Total # Male Female
useful to their clients. LERN and the Managed
______________millions______________________ Recreation Research Report compile and report
Swimming 30.6 51.8% 48.2% data relevant to parks and recreation. The cost
Bicycling 16.7 44.9% 55.1% of these services range from minimal to
Fishing(frsh wtr) 14.7 66.6% 33.4% thousands of dollars annually.
Jogging 11.5 na na
Tennis 10.2 56.3 43.7
Golf 8.2 72.7% 27.3%
37
The Janklovick Monitor LERN, Manhattan, KS

The U.S. Travel Data Center SCHOLE
the Travel Reference Center(Boulder) Simmons Market Research
the Managed Recreation Research Report
The National Sporting Goods Association is the world's largest sporting goods trade association,
representing 20,000 retailers and 3,000 product suppliers/sales agents, it is a valuable source of
information related to all types of sports. NSGA sponsors three major industry events annually:
! NSGA World Sports Expo, the world's largest sporting goods trade show
! The NSGA Western Market, the only full-line West Coast sporting goods trade show
! The NSGA Management Conference, the sporting goods industry's premier
educational conference
The NSGA’s URL is: Http://www.nsga.org NSGA From there, click on guests, by-pass
survey, industry research, sports, etc..
In addition, NSGA recently was named by American Demographics as one of America's top 100
research sources for its work in monitoring American sports participation.
Government Resources
Public suppliers of recreation services often face budget constraints that restrict market research to less
expensive options. Regardless, a wealth of information is often available at little or no cost from the
following sources: (most have home pages)
! Michigan Travel, Tourism, and Recreation Resource Center

! the Agriculture\State Extension Service
! (Land Grant Universities, County Offices)
! the USDA Forest Service Experiment Stations
! the National Park Service (Regional Offices and Harper's Ferry Center)
! travel and hospitality links
http://hrta.fnr.umass.edu/Services/Useful%20Links.htm#Travel & Tourism Industry
38
Refer to my HOMEPAG E Dr. Stevenson’s homepage for a good start to locating information on parks and
recreation. Click on the logos below for other examples of rec organizations.
Information on Little league can be found for example at:

http://www.littleleague.org/
The Institute for the Study of Youth Sport is located at

http://ed-web3.educ.msu.edu/ysi/
Information related to canoeing is available by

contacting the ACA:
http://www.aca-paddler.org
The USTA example publishes all types of participation data on

tennis. The association, and particularly private reports of these
trends can be quite expensive, however. WWW.usta.com
The National Rifle Association of America provides

substantial information and member services
www.nra.org
39
Activity Participation Trends
A good number of sources exist where one can determine the current and predicted popularity of a
sport, outdoor recreation pursuit or leisure opportunity. Figure 3._ illustrates examples of trends
published in the President's Commission on American's Outdoors (1987).
Figure 3.__ Percentage Change, Summer participants in 9 rapidly growing activities. 1960-
1982. (President’s Commission on Americans Outdoors, 1987)
Electronic Mail
Electronic mail also makes it easy for consumer groups and like interested persons to
communicate via specialized bulletin boards. Hundreds of recreation oriented electronic
bulletin board and newsgroup services exist. Here people can discuss virtually anything
about a recreation topic.
40
Here is a sample listing of sport related new sgroups:

rec.sport.archery (All aspects of archery for archers of any skill level.)
rec.sport.baseball.* newsgroups:
rec.sport.baseball (Discussion about baseball.)
rec.sport.baseball.college (Baseball on the collegiate level.)
rec.sport.baseball.data (Raw baseball data (Stats, birthdays, scheds).)
rec.sport.baseball.fantasy (Rotisserie (fantasy) baseball play.)
rec.sport.basketball.* newsgroups:
rec.sport.basketball
rec.sport.basketball.college (Hoops on the collegiate level.)
rec.sport.basketball.misc (Discussion about basketball.)
rec.sport.basketball.pro (Talk of professional basketball.)
rec.sport.basketball.women (Women's basketball at all levels.)
rec.sport.billiard (Billiard sports, including pool, snooker, carom games.)
rec.sport.boxing (Boxing in all its pugilistic facets and forms.)
rec.sport.cricket.* newsgroups:
rec.sport.cricket (Discussion about the sport of cricket.)
rec.sport.cricket.info (News, scores and info related to cricket. (Moderated))
rec.sport.curling (All aspects of the Sport Curling.)
rec.sport.disc (Discussion of flying disc based sports.)
rec.sport.fencing (All aspects of swordplay.)
rec.sport.footbag (Discussion about the sport of footbag.)
rec.sport.football.* newsgroups list ...
rec.sport.golf (Discussion about all aspects of golfing.)
rec.sport.hockey.* newsgroups:
rec.sport.hockey (Discussion about ice hockey.)
rec.sport.hockey.field (Discussion of the sport of field hockey.)
rec.sport.jetski (Using Personal Water Craft, aka "jet skiing".)
rec.sport.misc (Spectator sports.)
rec.sport.officiating (Sports officials and officiating athletic contests.)
rec.sport.olympics (All aspects of the Olympic Games.)
rec.sport.orienteering (All matters related to the sport of orienteering.)
rec.sport.paintball (Discussing all aspects of the survival game paintball.)
rec.sport.pro-wrestling.* newsgroups:
rec.sport.pro-wrestling (Discussion about professional wrestling.)
rec.sport.pro-wrestling.info (Informational postings about wrestling. (Moderated))
rec.sport.pro-wrestling.moderated (Sports Entertainment. (Moderated))
rec.sport.rodeo (Anything dealing with the sport of rodeo.)
rec.sport.rowing (Crew for competition or fitness.)
rec.sport.rugby.* newsgroups:
rec.sport.rugby.league (Everything related to playing/supporting Rugby League.)
rec.sport.rugby.union (Everything related to playing/supporting Rugby Union.)
rec.sport.skating.* newsgroups:
rec.sport.skating.ice.figure (Figure/artistic skating.)
rec.sport.skating.ice.recreational (Recreational ice skating.)
rec.sport.skating.inline (Inline skating, aka Rollerblading.)
rec.sport.skating.racing (Racing and speed skating.)
rec.sport.skating.roller (Conventional (quad) roller skating.)
rec.sport.snowmobiles (Snowmobiling and related issues.)
rec.sport.soccer (Discussion about soccer (Association Football).)
rec.sport.softball (All aspects of fastpitch and slowpitch softball.)
rec.sport.squash (Forum for all apects of squash.)
rec.sport.sumo (This group is dedicated to the Japanese sport Sumo.)
rec.sport.swimming (Training for and competing in swimming events.)
rec.sport.table-soccer (Table-soccer of all types: foosball and subbuteo.)
rec.sport.table-tennis (Things related to table tennis (aka Ping Pong).)
rec.sport.tennis (Things related to the sport of tennis.)
rec.sport.triathlon (Discussing all aspects of multi-event sports.)
rec.sport.volleyball (Discussion about volleyball.)
rec.sport.water-polo (Discussion of water polo.)
rec.sport.waterski (Waterskiing and other boat-towed activities.)
41
2. Primary Data
Agencies and individuals utilize the more expensive primary data to provide answers to questions
about consumers when appropriate secondary data is not readily available( eg. When we wish to find
specific answers to recreation demand questions in our community related to non participants). It is
costly but generally very relevant as the research is designed to elicit very specific responses.
Primary research involves the gathering of new and original information for the specific purposes
outlined.
There are a number of good primary research approaches. These include:
observation
survey research
experimental research
focus groups
Observation. When using this approach researchers view and/or listen to customer reactions.
They count and categorize participants. They comment from their perspective. This type of
research is effective in describing what people are doing. It cannot tell us why however.
Survey Research. Agencies use surveys to learn about people's knowledge, beliefs,
preferences and satisfactions. The data can be factual (e.g. How often did you?...), or
opinions (e.g.. In your opinion, which was best?...) or interpretive (Why?). Examples include
mail and telephone surveys, interviews and evaluations. Readers are cautioned that survey
design is difficult to do well. Numerous texts and articles are available to guide the potential
survey designer in the process. A good number of important recommendations are covered in
Mail and Telephone Surveys by Dillman (1978) .
The basic elements of survey research are reliability and validity. Results from
surveys must be reliable (or repeatable) to be effective. If one cannot gain a similar
response from the same instrument each time, there is either a problem with the
instrument or sample. Similarly, survey instruments must be valid. In other words,
respondents must understand exactly the type of response each question is asking for.
Individuals preparing to use a survey to elicit information should pretest the
instrument by having it first reviewed by colleagues and secondly by using a draft
instrument to gain several responses which can be analyzed for accuracy. In this
fashion, any bugs in the instrument can be removed
Sampling theory also comes into play in surveys. As agencies cannot typically afford to ask for
responses from an entire community, it is necessary to survey just a representative sample. Sampling
is based on probabilities and allows one to survey a fraction of a community's residents and still feel
that this sample accurately represents the whole population.
42
Dillman (1978) suggests several popular methods of selecting sampling units. One method
involves a sampling of a published directory like a telephone directory. Here names of
potential respondents are generated either randomly by employing a random number to select
both the page and the name(s) from a given page; or systematically, where the page may be
selected randomly but every nth name(eg 10th) is selected from this start to be included in the
sample. Care must be taken to select a directory that includes as many community residents as
possible. Even then action may need to be taken to elicit survey responses from non-telephone
owners in this example to keep from biasing the results. A stratified random sample is another
technique one can employ, (assuming the directory contains adequate information) to sort the
population by features such as age, income or geographic location. This approach helps to
ensure that specific population elements are contained in the sample in roughly the same
percentage as they exist in the population. In other words, if 35% of your community
residents are seniors, then roughly 35% of your sample should be seniors.
One may also use a cluster sample. Clusters are naturally occurring groups such as
schools or classes within a given school. One could survey all of the Lincoln 5th
graders, for example and then project these results along with several other 5th grade
classes to represent all of the community's 5th graders. To be effective this class must
be typical.
Sample size is affected by a number of elements but the homogeneity of the
community (or similarity of characteristics) is a typical element that reduces the
necessary sample size. The more alike the residents of the community are, the fewer
responses needed to gain a representative sample. Conversely, when a community is
quite diverse (ethnically, economically, age, etc.) a larger sample is needed to ensure
that the diversity is well represented in the tally. Generally, a sample size of 400 is
necessary to result in a 5% bound on the error of estimation.
Don't panic if this discussion is foreign to you. Most recreation and park curriculums now
include a research course at the baccalaureate level , where the specifics of survey research are
covered in detail. If this opportunity is not available to you, realize and accept your
shortcomings and employ the services of a consultant to conduct this research. Results
obtained from poorly designed instruments or non-representative samples are not worth the
paper they are printed on and do a great disservice to the agency by suggesting incompetence
or intentional falsification of results.
Needs Assessment Survey A Needs Assessment is a specific type of primary market research
(typically involving a survey) conducted at the local level for the specific purpose of identifying the
needs of one's target markets.
Since it is market research, one employs the same process of utilizing secondary and primary
informational sources. It often involves the use of a specific primary instrument such as a survey form
because agencies want specific responses to questions that secondary resources simply cannot provide.
One should begin rather generally and progress by asking increasingly more specific questions aimed
at understanding the customers' habits, desires, and leisure interests. Keep important questions toward
the front of the survey so that respondent fatique doesn’t reduce responses in these important areas.
43
In general the process guides the recreation professional in further delineating who their customers are
(and aren't), what strategies should be employed to serve current and potential customers and how
programs should be offered (when, where, and types) to serve the specific needs of community
members.
More specifically a needs assessments might result in the following type of information:
a. current level of participation and patterns of use

b. factors influencing participation
c. what programs should be dropped/added
d. demographic information that should aid in program planning
Needs assessments should be conducted periodically in the formal sense (every 5 years is
recommended in the NRPA agency accreditation criteria), but should be updated continually.
Notice as you review the needs assessment survey that this instrument is designed to be used in
conjunction with other sources of information. There are limitations to using surveys.
First of all, due to the need for compiling large amounts of information, surveys tend not to use open
ended questions which allow respondents to freely state their opinions and attitudes. As a result, the
question format limits responses to those available, which do not always match the respondents
beliefs, attitudes or opinions closely.
Moreover, these responses tend to be shallow. Review the question regarding barriers to participation.
Each variable presented could easily be subdivided into more descriptive and appropriate reasons: For
example, if a respondent checked transportation as a barrier, what do they really mean? Do they mean
that present activities are scheduled too far from home, or that the time of day conflicts with other
activities in the home, leaving them without a vehicle, or that they do not drive? If someone checked a
low rating of 5 for the tennis courts at city park, does this mean that they wished the courts were
lighted or utilized a different surfacing.
Surveys also historically are completed and returned by only a fraction of patrons. Return rates of
50% are remarkable. Mail in surveys such as the one illustrated often garner only a 20-30% response
rate; and this only after one or two follow-up calls or reminders. Surveys tend to also be completed
by very satisfied and very unsatisfied customers; thereby giving us a very biased data base; that leaves
out most of the patrons. Even though the result might approximate an average that is reasonable, it is
still very unrealistic since there really are very few, if any average recreationists.
However, used correctly, surveys can pinpoint glaring problems and dominant user trends. The
subtleties need to be addressed via further inquiry.
44
January 9, 199_,
Dear friends,
The Hutchinson Recreation Commission and USD 308 have contracted with Dr. Sid Stevenson, a
faculty member in the Department of Horticulture, Forestry and Recreation Resources, and current
President of the Kansas Recreation and Park Association to assist us in conducting a needs and
facilities assessment.
Part of this process involves gaining public input from program participants like you. This survey, as
well as public meetings, and other interviews with key community officials, focus and user groups, are
the primary sources of input on how you and members of your family feel about current and proposed
programs and facilities .
We would personally like to extend to you an opportunity to be a participant in this process. Your
opinions are very important. They help the Recreation Commission provide the right type of services
in the right place at the right time to be of optimal benefit for you.
Please take just a few minutes and complete the attached survey, and then return it in the
attached self addressed, stamped envelope.
While the results of the survey will be tabulated and published, you can be assured that your
individual responses will remain confidential. Please don’t hesitate to tell us exactly how you feel.
There is a COMMENTS section where you can add whatever is on your mind.....please do.
Sincerely,
_____________________
Chairman, HRC
_____________________
Chair, USD 308 School Board
45
Hutchinson Recreation Commission, USD 308

RECREATION NEEDS AND FACILITY ASSESSMENT
The survey should be completed by an adult member of the household. The opinions should reflect the majority
opinion of all members of the household. Note that HRC will be used throughout to mean the Hutchinson
Recreation Commission.
Q1. In which of the following school districts do you reside?

USD 308 USD 309 USD 310 USD 312 OTHER
Q2. Counting yourself, how many people live in your household? _( )_# OF PEOPLE _____
Q3. What is the age of the head of the household ____( ) YEARS OF AGE
Q4. Please classify your household as to its current level of use of HRC sponsored activities:
non users light (occasional) users moderate users heavy users
Select one HRC sponsored activity that you or another family member would like to participate in but don’t currently. Which
of the following factors prevent you or your family from participating? (Check all that apply)
Activity______________________________(name...please be specific such as 5th grade basketball)
Q5 THE PROGRAM IS TOO EXPENSIVE

Q6 THE PROGRAM DOES NOT MEET OUR NEEDS OR EXPECTATIONS
Q7 THE PROGRAM IS OFFERED AT TIMES THAT ARE INCONVENIENT FOR OUR PARTICIPATION
Q8 THE LOCATION OF THE PROGRAM IS NOT DESIRABLE OR TOO DISTANT

Q9 ANOTHER SUPPLIER OFFERS A BETTER PROGRAM IN OUR OPINION
Q10 OTHER COMMITMENTS LEAVE TOO LITTLE TIME AVAILABLE
Q11 TRANSPORTATION TO ACTIVITY
Q12. Recreation Commissions typically charge fees for programs to supplement tax support and to be fair in requiring users
to pay a greater share of costs. Across the state 55% of recreation agencies charge all direct operating costs plus 15% for
overhead expenses for adult activities. 29% charge enough to cover only direct operating costs and 17% subsidize these
programs. Which policy should the HRC adopt for adult pricing?
THE HRC SHOULD USE THE 15% OVERHEAD APPROACH

THE HRC SHOULD CHARGE ONLY DIRECT OPERATING COSTS
THE HRC SHOULD SUBSIDIZE ADULT PROGRAMS
46
To what extent do you agree with these statements?

Q13. The youth sport program’s current operation closely matches this purpose: “to supply a rewarding experience for youth
focusing on fundamental skill development in an appropriate competitive atmosphere.”
STRONGLY DISAGREE DISAGREE NEUTRAL AGREE STRONGLY AGREE
Q14. The public has sufficient opportunity for input on recreation facility issues.
Q15. The Hutchinson Recreation Commission does a fine job of providing quality recreation services to people living in the
Hutchinson area.
Q16. An intramural sports program should be offered or facilitated by the HRC for 7th and 8th graders who are not involved
in school sponsored athletic programs.
Q17. I would like to see the HRC offer this activity:___________________________ ______________
Q18. If the Hutchinson Recreation Commission wanted to offer a wider array of activities for senior adults (50 plus) which
of the following options would you prefer?
EXPAND BY ADDING AN ADDITION TO THE ELMDALE COMMUNITY CENTER.
EXPAND BY LEASING SPACES FOR SUCH OPERATIONS FROM THE PRIVATE SECTOR.
DO NOT EXPAND....INSTEAD LET THE PRIVATE SECTOR PROVIDE THESE SERVICES
INCLUDE ACTIVITIES FOR SENIORS IN A NEW MULTI-PURPOSE COMMUNITY RECREATION FACILITY
IN ADDITION TO THE PROGRAMS NOW OFFERED AT ELMDALE.
OTHER______________________________
Q19. If you are a senior adult (50plus) please describe here what keeps you from participating (or participating more
than you do now) in programs offered at the Pioneer Senior Center: ____________________________________
On which of the following do you rely for information about Hutchinson Recreation Commission programs? (Check any on
which you regularly rely)
20. SEASONAL BROCHURES (THE RECREATOR) 26. RADIO SPOTS
21. FLYERS GIVEN TO CHILDREN AT SCHOOL 27. THE RECREATION HOT-LINE
22. PROGRAM NEWSLETTERS 28. WORD OF MOUTH
23. I DO NOT PARTICIPATE IN HRC PROGRAMS 29. NEWSPAPER ARTICLES, ADS, COLUMNS,
24. OTHER Q25. _________________________

Q30. If the HRC were to offer a wider array of wellness opportunities which of the following would you prefer?
EXPAND BY ADDING AN ADDITION TO THE ELMDALE COMMUNITY CENTER.
EXPAND BY LEASING SPACES FOR SUCH OPERATIONS FROM THE PRIVATE SECTOR.
DO NOT EXPAND....INSTEAD LET THE PRIVATE SECTOR PROVIDE THESE SERVICES
INCLUDE WELLNESS ACTIVITIES IN A NEW MULTI-PURPOSE COMMUNITY RECREATION FACILITY
OTHER Q31._______________________________
47
Interest and participation in HRC sponsored adult arts and crafts appears to have declined somewhat in recent years. To
which of the following (if any) should this decline be attributed? (Check all that apply)
Q32. THE PRICE HAS INCREASED TO THE POINT IT IS NO LONGER A VALUE
Q33. PEOPLE SIMPLY HAVE LESS TIME TO PARTICIPATE
Q34. PRIVATE COMPETITION
Q35. IT’S JUST A TREND THAT HAS LITTLE TO DO WITH HRC’S PROGRAMMING
Q36. OTHER_______________ Q37. OTHER (II)__________________
Q38. Statewide, several communities have recently enhanced their quality of life by building new indoor recreation
facilities. These include Lawrence($ 13 million center in progress), Independence ($1 million center), Fort Scott ($1 million
court addition) Derby ($ 4 million multi purpose center) and ElDorado. Agencies have also used a variety of funding
approaches shown below. Which funding approach should be used if a $4.5 million multi-purpose facility was needed by the
residents of the Hutchinson area to better enjoy their recreation opportunities?
property tax increase (either by bond or other mil increase)
dedicated sales tax (would start when current tax ends in 1999)
dedicated portion of city/school capital improvement fund for 10-15 yrs
Other Q39.__Describe other _______________________________________
To what extent do you agree with these statements?
Q40. The USD 308 and the HRC need additional quality gymnasium space to adequately carry out their respective missions
of supplying skill development and lifetime opportunities for the enhancement of physical and mental health and wellness?
Q41. Any new multipurpose recreation facility built in the city of Hutchinson should be a joint effort of the city, HRC, school
district(s), YMCA, the Community College and possibly other private interests.
Q42. Of these sites recommended for a multipurpose recreation facility, which would you most likely support?
ATTACHED TO THE SPORTS ARENA
ATTACHED TO THE HUTCHINSON HIGH NORTH GYM
ADJACENT TO THE FAIRGROUNDS SWIMMING POOL
OTHER Q43. __________________________
Q44. Additional drop-in play opportunities are needed; particularly for youth, and at varying times.
From the following pairs, please select which you would be most willing to support with increased taxes.
Q45. I would support: complete renovation of the Convention Hall (est at $2 million more)
or building a multi-purpose recreation facility (joint venture, $4.5mil)
Q46. I would support: building a multi-purpose recreation facility (joint venture, $4.5mil)
or the renovation and expansion of the Fox Theater($1.5million more)
48
Q47. I would support Giving tax money ($500,000)to the YMCA for expansion)
or
Using this tax money instead to build a city owned multi-purpose
facility with an indoor aquatic center component in a joint venture
with the City, School, Recreation Commission, Community College
and YMCA
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Q48. The City of Hutchinson is uniquely divided into several school districts. The Hutchinson Recreation Commission has
as its tax base only the 308 School District; yet a large percentage of the HRC’s regular patrons are from out of district. To
more equitably serve its current and future patrons, the HRC is considering changing its jurisdiction. Which of the following
jurisdiction options would you support? (Select only one)
NO CHANGE , KEEP THE HRC TAX BASE BOUND ONLY TO USD # 308
CHANGE TO A CITY WIDE TAX BASED RECREATION COMMISSION
CHANGE TO A JOINT CITY/SCHOOL DISTRICT #308 RECREATION COMMISSION
CHANGE TO A SPECIAL RECREATION DISTRICT WHICH COULD BE AS LARGE AS COUNTY WIDE
49
Given the following components, please build a multi-purpose recreation facility that you could vote for.
Please realize that the prices given are very rough estimates and actual costs could vary substantially.
(if you would not vote yes under any circumstances......leave questions 49-54 blank)
Assume that lockers, offices, shell and other basic infrastructure cost $ 600,000.
Q49. Include one of the following Pool Options
25 yard, 6 lane pool $ 1,800,000
or 25 yard, 6 lane pool with diving well $ 2,150,000
or 25 yard, 6 lane pool and a family/fitness pool $ 2,200,000
or 25 yard 6 lane pool with diving well and fitness/lap pool $ 2,550,000
Q50. Include a wellness center $ 350,000
Q51. Include one of the following gymnasium options
one gym (approx 110'x 80') hardwood floor $ 500,000
or two gyms $ 1,000,000
or three gyms $ 1,500,000
Q52. include special equipment for making one gym usable for baseball
/softball/soccer several nights/week $ 65,000
Q53. include a climbing wall $ 35,000
Q54. other:____________________________ (include a price estimate) $_________
The TOTAL COST of your facility is ..................................................... $_________
If a new, multi-purpose facility is not built, which of the following do you feel would be good alternatives to consider to
address the gymnasium facility shortage. (check all that apply)
Q55. reschedule the school day so classes begin at 9:00 am thus allowing a zero hour
athletic practice(should necessitate fewer evening practices).
Q56. reschedule the school athletic calendar so that seasons alternate (boys basketball
for example might run from Nov -Jan, and girl's from Jan - March.)
Q57. include gymnasium sized spaces in a new community convention center, which
would have concrete floors but could use special floor overlays for competition.
Q58. Use the floor of Convention Hall for a gym
Q59. Ask the Buhler Recreation Commission to assist in the building of a joint facility
by dedicating part of their mil levy.
Q60. Other Q61. Describe other________________________________
To what extent do you agree with this statement:
Q62. If Convention Hall is restored the community’s multi-purpose recreation facility needs will be adequately served?
COMMENTS:
50
Town Meetings/Community Forums: The advantage of this approach is that it is construed as a

positive effort to elicit information. All residents are invited to share their views and opinions on
either any related park and recreation topic or an agenda of selected items. Basically, people like to
be asked. These open meetings can also help agencies develop support for needed projects and
programs.
Conducting a Town Hall Meeting
One effective way to encourage thinking about planning for the future is to conduct a town hall meeting (THM ),
also called a community or public forum. However, there are some situations that tend to arise that can reduce
the effectiveness of this approach.
THM 's or Public Forums present some special challenges for the developer of an agency's strategic plan. As a
result, preparations should be made well in advance to ensure a successful exchange of information. Dates
should be set 4-6 weeks ahead, and the issues to be discussed should be clearly delineated. If community is
large, neighborhood meetings should be held (maybe 6-8). Even in smaller communities, the number of agenda
items should be restricted at each meeting and a 2nd or even more meetings should be scheduled to discuss
additional issues.
Positive elements of THM's:
THM 's do provide additional opportunities for public input (its sort of the American way). Without this
opportunity, some would likely claim that their opinions weren't heard, even though other methods such as
surveys and interviews might be employed. Issues will be raised (some emotionally) that truly do concern
residents
Negative elements of THM's:
A few dominant personalities can inhibit many participants from taking part. Special interest groups tend to
use public forums as protest parties; calling as many of their group as possible to be represented. This approach
results in some biases by giving policymakers the impression that a vocal minority group represents the
majority. The "us" versus "we" dichotomy can become symptomatic, resulting in negative public image
Recommendations:
To enhance the positive and reduce the negative, consider utilizing the following proposals in organizing and
conducting a public meeting.
1. Utilize an agenda which spells out the specific (and only) topics to be discussed during the
meeting
2. Use strict time limits per person to reduce monopolization by a few
3. Ask for questions in advance and limit the initial discussion to the questions submitted.
4. Select a strong moderator who can maintain the agenda and topics at hand
5. Utilize a consultant (preferred) or at least a "steering committee" made up of community
residents to conduct the meeting to reduce the "us"-"them" confrontations. Agency staff
should be in attendance but only to act as resource specialists.
6. Very shortly after the meeting, conduct a follow-up session with the planning committee to
ensure that the issues raised are categorized and duly noted. Consolidate similar concerns
at this session.
51
A problem with community forums is that while many people might attend, it is usually just a few of
the very vocal ones that can take advantage of the opportunity to air gripes and complaints.
Determining if these individuals do indeed represent the community or are just "squeaky wheels" is
problematic. Limiting time at the microphone to 4-5 minutes per person or taking questions in writing
first and then asking for clarification can be useful approaches for gaining a broader range of input.
Focus Groups
Focus groups are designed to elicit in-depth responses to key issues; to focus in on topics of interest.
This process was adapted from the commercial sector which utilizes small groups of customers who
meet regularly to share opinions and attitudes relative to products, services and even the competition.
Focus groups should be utilized in conjunction with a survey, preferably after the survey so that the
basic issues have been determined. This group can then concentrate (focus) on those issues deemed
salient. Normally a focus group should be comprised of from 5-9 persons. These people should
represent a cross-section of your market or community. These persons are normally paid by the
commercial sector for their intense 1-2 day interaction with a skilled moderator. Often this practice is
modified by public agencies which try to reduce the cost. As a result, focus group members may
receive free passes or other perks, and may spend 3 hours at a session rather than a couple of days.
The skilled moderator is used (when affordable) because like the community forums, certain persons,
for various reasons of personality, education, stature or all of these, can tend to dominate the sessions
and prevent the opinions of the more timid members of the group from being expressed. "Might does
not make Right" in these instances and the skilled moderator can redirect and focus the discussions
back on track without creating animosity or embarrassment. Agency staff can become sounding
boards rather than facilitators of positive discussion if they conduct these sessions rather than an
outside third party.
Some programmers view focus groups as a test market, where they can bounce off ideas and concepts
for new programs and determine viability before actually offering the activity. In this instance the
programmer could be a guest, called upon by the moderator to present a given agenda for the session.
Other agencies use focus groups continually. In this case, there can be some danger of the focus group
becoming an advisory board, that has a vested interest in programs and loses some of its willingness
to speak freely and serve as a liaison.
Delphi Technique
Using a panel of experts to interpret issues has its advantages. The Delphi technique is based
on gathering opinions from persons respected for their knowledge and expertise on park and
recreation issues. It is a process, not unlike a survey, but more based on value judgement.
Though the community at large is not represented, the professional nature of the respondents
should ensure that all segments are being considered.
One advantage of the Delphi technique other than expert opinion is that is conducted
anonymously. In other words, respondents cannot be criticized or influenced by other
respondents or bullied by a strong personality. They may be swayed by valid arguments,
without knowing who is offering them, which is very appropriate.
The Delphi technique involves several steps. The following example is a hybrid approach of
recommendations suggested by Linstone and Turoff (1975), Siegel et al.(1988) and Dillman
(1978).
1. Identification of key issues
2. Develop a panel of experts and elicit responses to the key issues from them
3. Tally initial results and send back to panel for a second iteration or massaging
4. Possibly repeat the process a third time if there is substantial disagreement
52
Stevenson (1990) used the Delphi technique in forecasting visitor demand for the proposed Tallgrass
Prairie National Park in Kansas. Because historical use information on the site not available and no
comparable site existed within the National Park Service, such a forecast could not be developed via
regression or other statistical techniques. A panel of experts was developed and given as much
information as possible about the site and region, and was then asked to respond to a number of
questions related to visitor demand. These responses were then tallied and sent back to the panel for a
second iteration. The second iteration did alter the final results as many respondents changed their
forecasts slightly; particularly reducing the error range, resulting in a much closer degree of accuracy.
Experimental Research. The purpose of experimental research is to capture cause and effect
relationships. by eliminating competing explanations. The reason this type of research is not
used more often in parks and recreation is the lack of laboratories in social research and the
extreme skill necessary.
Other Survey Approaches
1. One-on-one interviews with patrons. On the positive side, this information is quite
valuable. On the down side, it is time consuming and takes a thick skin.
2. Key person interviews. Not unlike a Delphi method; however this process should be
conducted by an outside third party. Key persons might include school
superintendents, custodians, Agency directors, programmers, City managers, teachers,
teen leaders, Competitors, etc.
3. Hybrid Research
As the name implies, a hybrid approach involves a combination of secondary and primary
resources. It is, as expected, the most widely used type of market research approach.
A market researcher's first step, as discussed, involves a search of secondary sources; and
should include modifications to existing data gathering (eg. registration and/or evaluation
forms) to ensure that these methods are efficient in gathering pertinent data. Once the
secondary sources are thoroughly reviewed (as is cost-effective) often the researcher will then
wish to focus in on a specific area of interest.
Questions for discussion:
1. Can a programmer not conduct market research and instead use his/her intuition to
determine if a given recreation activity is needed?
2. How useful are the various classification systems to a recreation
program planner who desires to offer the best quality of service?
3. Which of the barriers to recreation participation are the most
easily addressed?
53
Chapter 3
Appendix A
Resources
Percentage of Program Participants Who Identified the

RESOURCES: This section illustrates
Following Factors at Most Important in Their Decision to some of the market information available
Participate in Public Recreation Programs. through secondary sources. These
include commercial services (Simmons),
Factor Percentage Associations (e.g. KRPA) and
Governmental (U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Time of Day 48.6 Service).
Location 43.5
The Instructor 38.9
Price 29.4 Dennis Howard presented the following
Setting and Atmosphere 27.4 study findings about recreationists during
the 1986 Kansas Park and Recreation
Association Conference in Lawrence,
Barriers to the Use of Public Park KS. His seminar on marketing is a fine
and Recreation Services example of how professional
associations disseminate useful
Obstacles to Participation Percentage
secondary research. (note* For his
1. My work schedule prevents
purposes the study was primary)
participation 47
2. I never really think about participating
in a recreation program 42.7
3. I'm too busy with my household
Howard summarized the findings shown
responsibilities and don't in these tables and others as:
have time to go 41.3
6. I'm already heavily involved in church,
social and or political activities 28.2 1. Repeat participation is a dominant
7. Inconvenience of registration 18.0 characteristic of recreationists.
12. It costs too much to participate
in agency programs 12.4
2. Time and Place considerations exert
*based on responses to surveys in Oregon and the greatest influence on participant
decisions
Length of Time Prior to Registration that Recreationists

make the Decision to Participate 3. Most recreationists exhibit little
search behavior.
Length of Time Percentage
< 1 week 41.7 4. The extent of price tolerance is much

1 - 2 weeks 19.2 greater than formerly believed.
3 weeks - 1 month 19.2
> 1 month 5
At the end of the last program 15
54
Figure 3. Vacation activity preference types (B. Bryant and A. J. Morrison, 1980. Journal of
Travel Research, Vol XVIII, No. 3)
55
Grouping by Cohorts
A cohort is a group of individuals who were born during the same time period in history. A typical
range is about 7-10 years, but it depends on significant events. These people share the same major life
experiences. People and their cohorts have experienced the same historical social, economic and
political changes.
As you sit in your college classes, you sit among cohorts who have, along with you experienced the
crumbling of the Berlin Wall, two Persian Gulf Wars, the Flood of '93, the return of the Dallas
Cowboys and KSU football, the Kolbe Bryant case, Scott Peterson’s trial, and the Tsunami disaster.
The following table illustrates several examples of cohorts throughout the last 50 years.
Table 3.__
Cohort Group Historical Business Music Movies & Famous
events Dance People
_________________________________________________________________________
people born 1940ish WWII 40hr week White Christmas Eisenhower
UN atomic bomb Jitterbug Frank Sinatra
Korean War Rock around the Elvis
Clock M aryln M onroe
people born 1950ish Vietnam affluence Beatles JFKennedy
Civil Rights Act inflation M oon River M artin L King
M an on M oon Birth control pill Rachel Carson
First Earth Day
people born 1957ish Watergate oil embargo Rolling Stones Richard Nixon
Test tube baby Disco Patty Hearst
18yr old vote recession ET Hank Aaron
people born 1965ish Challenger crash acid rain rap music George Bush
Desert Storm minimum wage the new Batman M adonna
AIDS VCR's M TV M ikhail

Gorbachev
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Adapted from Kaluger and Lakuger (1984)
Your cohorts _________ __________ ___________ ___________

_________ __________ ___________ ___________
_________ __________ ___________ ___________
56
The next table illustrates another socio-economic type classification. Each class bears enough
discretionary characteristics to warrant division. As you review this table bear in mind the type of
recreation opportunities each might participate in.
Table 3. __Characteristic of Six Major American Social Classes
Upper Uppers The social elite. Inherited wealth and a well-known family background. Are typically philanthropic.
M aintain several homes. Send their children to the finest schools. They are a market for jewelry, antiques,
homes and vacations.
Lower Uppers These persons have earned extremely high incomes from exceptional ability in a business endeavor. Roots
in the middle class. Seek to buy the symbols of status, such as expensive homes and cars, yachts, etc.
Pattern of conspicuous consumption.
Upper Middles Primarily concerned with career. They have attained status as professionals, independent business owners
and corporate managers. They believe in education and send their children to college. They are joiners and
typically civic minded. They are a quality market for good homes clothes, furniture and appliances. They
enjoy skiing, hiking and dining out.
Lower M iddles Lower middles consist of primarily white collar workers (office workers, small business owners), "gray
collars" (mailmen, firemen) and aristocratic "blue collars"(plumbers, factory foremen). They are concerned
with respectability. They adhere to cultural norms and standards. Their home is important and well
maintained, but not obtrusive. They buy American made cars.
Upper Lowers (largest class segment) This is the blue collar working class of skilled and semi-skilled factory workers.
Their main drive is security or protecting what they have, but many have ambition to move up. The
working class husband is the strong male stereotype,(a sports enthusiast, outdoorsman, drinks beer) The
working class wife spends a lot of time in the home, even if she has a career. She sees being the mother of
her children as her primary vocation.
Lower Lowers These are society's poorly educated and unskilled. Often out of work. Often on public assistance. Housing
is substandard and often located in a run down area. Buy on credit, and often pay too much for what they
buy. They are a large market for television sets and used cars.
Source: Adapted from Consumer Behavior, 3rd ed. by James F. Engel, et al. The Dryden Press
57
Stage in the Family Lifecycle. This classification system may be quite useful to the recreation
program planner. Understanding where an agency’s clients fit on this scale would make a distinct
difference on the success of various program offerings.
Table 3.__ An Overview of the Family Life-Cycle
Stages Characteristics
Bachelor Stage: young, single Few financial burdens. Fashion opinion leaders. Recreation oriented.
not living at home Buy: cars, entertainment, equipment for the mating game
Newly married couples Highest purchase rate of durables. Like new products
Dissatisfied with financial position. Purchase vacations.
Full Nest: Youngest < 6 A number of wives working. Buy sleds, skates, dolls
Home purchasing at a peak. Spend considerable time around home
Full Nest II: Youngest >6 Buy bicycles and music lessons. Shuttle children to activities.
Have little time for personal leisure but enjoy family time.
Full Nest III: One still at home Pretty decent financial position typical. Interested in travel and
self education. Civic minded. Auto travel. Buy boats and dental services.
Empty Nest I. Satisfied with financial position. Interested in quality home improvements
Enjoy personal leisure again; golf more, etc.
Empty Nest II: Retired: lower income. Interested in health maintenance including
a variety of leisure pursuits
Solitary Survivor Needs attention. Searches for companionship
adapted from Patrick M urphy and William Staples "A M odernized Family Life" Journal of Consumer Research, June 1979.
58
Chapter 4 Community and Agency Profiles
CHAPTER FOUR
COMMUNITY AND AGENCY PROFILES
STRATEGIC PLANNING
Be knowledgeable of the resources available to help understand

a community.
Comprehend how to profile an agency or organization.
Understand the various elements that compete with an
organization,
and the levels of competition.
Be able to develop an agency mission statement.
Be able to assess an agency's strengths and weaknesses.
II. Community Profile:
Part I of a Strategic Plan, The Market Profile (or current leisure situation) was presented in Chapter 3.
This focus was primarily on determining the big picture; or major societal, macro-environmental
trends that impact the provision of leisure services. We also began to look at the micro-environmental
factors, which we will continue to review in this chapter. So far the approach, including the specific
market research techniques just reviewed are primarily tools to help us profile an agency's market or
current and potential customers.
In this chapter we switch our attention away from the consumer to the community and the agency. We
need to determine where each is now, its past history, and where it is headed in the future. The
primary purpose here, as with the market profile, is to establish a benchmark or starting point from
which to begin the actual planning function of strategic planning.
59
Community and Agency Profiles Chapter 4
Demographics
Understanding one's community is essential for the successful recreation programmer. In this section,
we hope to acquaint you with some additional elements that make up a community. These should
prove useful in meeting the leisure needs of residents.
Probably the best source for statistical information about a community is the U.S. Census. This census
is conducted every 10 years and is periodically updated in the interims. Most people are surprised at
what the Government and everyone else using this data knows about us. Census information is now
easily accessible on CDRom at many libraries, as well as directly available on the Internet at the the
following locations (as well as others).
Using Census datasets (U U.S. Census
http://www.psc.lsa.umich.edu/SSDAN/dsquery.html http://rredc.nrel.gov/biomass/census/
For a number of links to demographic sites, see the demographics section of the Programming class
on my homepage. See also www.census.gov
Most of the information available at the above links is demographic in nature; focusing on the size and
composition of a community; supplying data on resident's age, income, sex, ethnicity and education. It
is important to obtain data from several decades so that growth or decline trends can be accurately
assessed. It is a good idea to compare one community's data with its state averages to note any
substantial differences via comparison.
Focus On population densities, distribution in the community, breakdown by age groups, race, sex,
marital status, religion....stability.....shifts
Another source of demographic statistics, often even more detailed is available in the Statistical
Abstract of the U.S., which is updated annually. This publication, in this author's opinion, tends to
provide more trend data on a greater diversity of subjects.
Statistical Abstract of the http://www.census.gov/statab/www/
The City and County Data book is updated every three years and is yet another government publication
full of demographic data. Includes data on retail sales and info on units like cities, counties and school
districts.
These and related publications are generally available at U.S. Depository Libraries. Most University
libraries are depositories of government information as are libraries in many of our medium size cities
and up. The Kansas Dept of Commerce publishes the Community Profile, which details a 3-5 year
history of the great majority of communities in this state. This publication is particularly useful in
understanding a new community.
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Highlights from a review of population characteristics might include:
The community grew at a rate of approximately 2% per year during the
1970's and 1980's and had increased to 3% during the 1990's.
This rate is approximately double the remainder of the state
The growth is occurring in the south and west corners of the community,
which are not restricted by adjacent city boundaries, highway or river
The median household income in the community rose 22% from 1980 to
1985, and still ranks among the top 5 counties in the state.
Approximately 50% of the women with children under the age of six
are employed outside the home
35% of the community's population is over 60 yrs of age
Historical Background A brief overview of the community's history is a very useful approach to
understanding its residents. Knowing its past helps one reflect on a reasonable future. What has
happened to your community during the last 10 years. To obtain this information, use the library and
don't forget to personally get to know the librarian, who can be a wonderful resource person. Review
written histories, local newspapers, and even oral histories if possible.
Land Use Patterns/Topography Where are things located? Planners must gain a good sense of what
direction the community is headed, obviously economically, but also physically. Note its
transportation links (highways, rivers, rail travel, air lines, etc.).
< Is the community well linked to other cities, or is it fairly isolated.
< Does the city host any unusual physical characteristics?
< Is there a rich section....a poor section?
< Are there natural dividers between neighborhoods?
< W hat is the overall condition of the city?
*Is it thriving?
*Is it well cared for?
*Are the streets well maintained, the parks?
< Does the location of neighborhoods, businesses, schools and recreational areas suggest anything to
you about the community?
Economics Who are the main employers in town; both public and private? Does the community
offer a diverse range of retail services? How complete are the medical services? How full are the
retail areas? Is there evidence of growth or decline...as a whole....or just certain segments?
• W hat is the salary range?
• Number of unemployed?
• W hat is the cost of living?
• W hat is the tax rate?
• How does property valuation compare to other communities?
• W hat the expenditure per capita on city government, county government, education?
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Politics
< W hat is the form of government (Strong Mayor/weak council, or City Commission and City
Administrator-manager?
< Are local elections hotly contested?
< Is government service oriented or does the community want low taxes and few government services?
W hat are the services available?
< W ho are the movers and shakers? Who has clout?
< Does the community have a strategic development plan?
< Is the park and recreation component an important part of this plan?
Health, Education and Safety
< W hat is the crime rate? Who is committing the crimes...juveniles, etc??
< How are the schools rated? Are they well maintained?
< Do people move here for the quality of education and diversity of extra-curricular activities?
< Is adequate health care available?
< For what types of medical assistance do people need to go elsewhere?
Community Organizations What roles do these groups play in meeting the service (and leisure)
needs of the community? Who are the members? A typical listing of community groups that are
particularly related to leisure services is included in Table 4.__.
Table 4.__ Leisure Resources available in a Community
Government Private, not-for-profit Private, for-profit
Park & Recreation Dept Service Clubs: Kiwanis, Jaycees, Sertoma, Stables
League of Women Voters
Fraternal Organizations: Elks, Eagles, PEO
County Park Dept Scouts Weight watchers
University depts Local Theater groups Dance studios
Chamber of Commerce Salvation Army Craft Retailers
Library Garden Clubs Gymnastic Centers
Police - Fire Churches Newspapers
University Intramural Dept Camps Fitness Clubs
YMCA Bike shops
Museums Welcome Wagon Art galleries
School Programs University for man Bookstores
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Conduct a few personal interviews.
Ask people what is special about their community.

Ask about problems facing the community; and strengths and weaknesses.
Ask what they think the community will be like in 20 years.
Ask if they would like to spend the next 20 years here.
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Agency Profile
Up to this point we have focused primarily on our customers and the communities in which they live
or work. We know their characteristics, their lifestyles, their preferences. At this point we need to
look at the agency and how well it is serving the needs of its customer.
The agency profile forces the staff to review its situation in reference to its competitors and other
standards, such as those published by the NRPA; and invite comparisons with other programs in other
communities. Moreover, the profile calls for an introspective look at where we are and where we
want to go in the provision of leisure services. What are our strengths and weaknesses?
A. ANALYSIS OF EXTERNAL THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES
Assessing the Competition Addressing competition is a very real challenge facing leisure service
suppliers. Understanding the various types of competitors and the size and types of markets each
service will allow our agency to offer the best possible mix of services to its patrons; either directly,
or by advising them to seek the services of another supplier.
First of all, what type of supplier is your agency (public; private, not-for-profit; or private, for-profit)?
Each has its own characteristics, but we will focus primarily on the public suppliers because
municipally supplied leisure services are dominated by the group. In many communities multiple
public suppliers exist though. In a University community for example the public suppliers might
include a municipal park and recreation department, University life-time sports classes, a not-for-
profit Free University, the University's Dept of Continuing Education, a county park program and
fairgrounds, and Federal agencies operating recreation areas on nearby reservoirs.
Focus on Public Suppliers Realize that an operation's approach to assessing the competition is
dependent on its mission. While it is not generally the intent of public agency leisure service
suppliers to be in direct competition with other direct suppliers, many for-profits enterprises hit their
competition head-on with claims of better value, better quality, etc. A public agency might be
assessing the competition to ensure that no gaps in community services exist, or to check that the
public sector it is not filling a niche that might be better served by another entity. It may be looking
for niches that need to be served, regardless of profitability. The private-for-profit sector on the other
hand, may look at the competition to analyze other competitor's weaknesses.
For example, an analysis of the market segments and the competitors serving these might indicate that a
niche for meeting space; particularly for weddings and family reunions, exists. Providing this service
might be quite profitable, and ensures multiple use of an agency facility. However, on the other hand,
we must ensure that this service fits the agency’s mission and goals. By the way, several agencies do
supply this service; including allowing the parties to consume alcohol.
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It is important to understand that competition exists at various levels. The agency or program director
who focuses solely on similar efforts by another supplier (e.g. flag football being offered by the
YMCA) may well win the battle but lose the war. In this example the competitor at the brand level
(the Y) may be recruiting away several players that might otherwise participate in our program. While
we concentrate on the Y, though, television and video games take several hundred young people out of
the participation loop.
The greatest challenge facing all public leisure service suppliers in the years ahead is more likely to
be finding ways to address these more general competitors, rather than specific agencies or
enterprises. Table 4.2 illustrates the various levels of competition for a product or service. The
example given is for exercise.
Table 4.2 Types of Competition for a Leisure EXERCISE Experience?
Desire Generic Form Brand

What desire do I want to What type of exercise? What kind of aerobics? Where can I play
satisfy? basketball?
Exercise Aerobics Aerobic Dance School Grounds
Excitement Anaerobic 3 on 3 Basketball School Gym
Achievement Short Duration Swimming Recreation Center
Relaxation Long Duration Racquetball Park
Fantasy Total Body Hydroaerobics Armory
Creativity By Myself or Running At Track or Pool
Socializing With Others Fitness Center
To better understand the competition for leisure service, Kotler ( ) suggests that suppliers try to put
themselves in the position of the consumer. Try to understand what a consumer thinks about in
arriving at a decision to participate or purchase.
Ask yourself the question, "W hat do I want to do now?". Among the things that come to mind might include
recreating, socializing, achieving, eating or working on a project. W e call these desire competitors. In Table
4.2, the consumer selected exercise, a typical leisure experience, to answer this question.
The question at this next level is "What type of exercise do I want to do?" This decision will be made
based partly on experience, and partly on recent messages that the consumer might have received
regarding exercise. A short list of possible exercise options is listed in the Generic competitors
column (aerobic, anaerobic, short-long duration). The consumer selected aerobic exercise to answer
this question.
Many activities supply aerobic exercise. Again, depending on experience and recently received
messages, the consumer will make a choice. Each activity is subconsciously evaluated for its
potential benefits and needs satisfied. If the consumer needs solitude she may choose running; if the
consumer needs socialization, she may choose an aerobic fitness class or team sport; and so on.
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The consumer would likely choose basketball if:

he/she is reasonably skilled
he/she has the necessary equipment
he/she is experienced in the related search logistics
he/she is willing to search for at least 5 other people of similar skills
Having selected 3-on-3 basketball, the consumer must also decide where to play. Each area or
facility is also evaluated for what it has to offer such as size, quality of floor or backboards,
cost, access, available times, etc. In some cases, it is certainly likely that the location will
determine the activity.
Note that it is only at the last level that we normally think of competition, yet the consumer
had to jump through three other hoops prior to this decision.
Public vs. Private Sector Competition
One cannot discuss the marketplace without a discussion of the claims made by the
private sector that the public sector unfairly competes. The public sector can charge
lower prices for similar products because it does not have to recover all of the costs
associated with supplying a service to stay in business. While a private agency must
pay property taxes and recover all expenses plus a profit, most public agencies
recover only a portion of capital improvement costs such as those associated with
buildings and land acquisition and development with fees. The remaining costs are
subsidized with tax support.
This is not inappropriate...it is the purpose of government; to provide essential and
requested services by pooling the community's financial resources via taxes. What
public agencies must avoid are situations where a private agency exists and is
adequately supplying the market.
Today, however, a number of brand level competitors are just entering the market and
attempting to sway public opinion to reduce public agency programs and hence their
competition. Hold fast in these cases. Some of these private operators will cry "foul"
when their profitability does not reach their expectations. We are not responsible to
ensure them a profit. Their inability to adequately assess the market is not our
concern. What should concern you is that if a private operator sees a market niche
very similar to one your agency is serving as attractive, it may suggest that your
agency is not adequately serving the market segment. The recent emergence of a
commercial enterprise "Jumping Jacks", which offers essentially an indoor
playground experience should concern public agencies. When a parent is willing to
pay $7 per child for a playground experience, we have somehow misread our market,
and have not provided the quality of service our clientele expect.
In some instances our programs become too popular. Demand outstrips our resources.
In other instances, the scope of the program changes. An example of the latter is the
emergence of the many highly competitive, traveling youth sport teams. Here we
should welcome the private sector's willingness to serve this market as it no longer
closely fits our mission.
Colorado recently (1992) passed legislation barring public recreation agencies from
competing with the private sector in several program areas and facilities; such as
batting cages, water parks and miniature golf.
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If your services are essential, matched to your mission, and fill a niche that only your agency
can serve adequately, you have little to fear by competing with the private sector.
The Johnson County Park and Recreation District, due to its county-wide programming which
includes a number of cities with public park and recreation departments, is a bit more
sensitive to competition than most other public agencies. The following is a brief synopsis of
a 1987 JCPRD Marketing Plan, illustrating some of its competitors in specific programs:
Interpretive Services
< The Prairie Center in Olathe competes to a limited extent with the Ernie Miller Nature
Center. It has similar program offerings and appeal.
< Area school districts have also introduced interpretive programs in cultural history,
environmental education, etc.
< The Arrabia Steamboat exhibit is the best commercial interpretive program in the metro
area. The exhibit is not environmentally based.
50+ Program
< A number of agencies and organizations are offering services for seniors.
< Travel agencies also offer trips. Senior groups offer trips. The newest
competitors are financial institutions, which have started offering trips at
below cost to attract and keep senior customers.
PreSchool, Day Care and Camps
< Competition in this area is substantial. Private day care(both for and not for profit) centers
number in the dozens, and do offer very similar programs.
< Both the YMCA'a and the commercial centers also offer after school programs.
< A variety of agencies offer summer day-camp programs including religious and athletically
oriented groups.
Youth Sports
< There is competition in many of the youth sport programs offered by the JCPRD.
< A private association, 3x2 baseball is thriving in Lenexa.
< Indoor soccer is privately supplied in Overland Park, Lenexa and Olathe.
< Other agencies offering youth programs include: Johnson Co. Community College, the
Jewish Community Center, a number of local athletic associations, and several specialized
commercial ventures such as Bill Maas' (of the KC chiefs) football leagues and camps and
the Kansas City Comets (pro) soccer camps.
Positioning By assessing the competition, we can find niches or segments in the market that
need to be addressed, and that we can do best, given the resources at hand. Similarly, being
aware of the competitive products we have the opportunity to strengthen our strengths and
eliminate or reduce some of our weaknesses by allowing competitors to take over certain
programs. Public recreation and park agencies in general occupy certain places in the
consumer's mind relative to the type of service each provides. These may be positive or
negative such as:
inexpensive lower quality
for only low to middle income clientele friendly
usually considerate and caring
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A perceptual map can be developed by any agency to position itself and its competitors. Even
within an agency, various units or even programs can be perceived differently. The youth sports
program, for example, might be perceived to be the least expensive, best value in town; while the
performing arts program might be perceived to be of low quality and value. Figure 4.__ attempts
illustrates perceptual mapping with the Youth Sports offered by the Johnson County Park and
Recreation District.
Youth Sports
Expensive
Bill Maas Football SCC Indoor Soccer

3 x 2 Baseball
YMCA's
Low Level Competition Johnson Co. Park & Rec Highly Competitive
Optimist's Fastpitch
Jewish Community Center
Inexpensive
Here the most expensive and competitive programs are the SCC Soccer and 3X2 Baseball (both
private programs). Johnson Co's programs are shown here to be perceived to be moderately
expensive by comparison, and offer a midrange level of competition.
The reader should be cautioned that mapping multiple variables such as shown with the California
theme parks can be confusing, and may require a cluster analysis statistical program in order to be
reasonably accurate. Maps can also be developed for single variables such as price or market share,
and these can be done more perceptually without the assistance of computer analysis. Ask the
questions and map only the results relative to the answers you need. While it might be easier to
determine price from secondary sources(such as advertised in a brochure) , the consumer's
perception of value would be more meaningful information. Gathering value data would require a
primary study (survey), however.
Nor does one have to be satisfied with their client's current perception. The Indianapolis
Recreation and Park District recently underwent a massive image switch to address negative
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perceptions of lower price and lower quality. The agency wanted to be perceived as offering
varying levels of value and quality...and particularly focusing on a good value, regardless of the
price or quality level specified.
Mission
Based on the review of the current situation, the community profile and a self assessment, the
agency must develop a mission statement. A mission statement reflects the company or agency's
perception of What Business are we in? The mission statement serves as an invisible hand to guide
the agency in reaching its goals. It is tied directly to positioning. It is subject to change and
modification as the agency's niche becomes clear. For example, a local park and recreation agency
lists as its mission statement the following:
The mission of the __________Dept is to establish, preserve, and manage public parks,
greenways, and recreation facilities to create recreational, cultural, educational and leisure
opportunities to benefit and enhance the quality of life in this community.
In a recent city commission meeting, the primary issue on the agenda was “competition with the
private sector in the supply of recreation services”. One commissioner suggested a change in this
mission to reflect the concept that the agency be a facilitator and not the only supplier of leisure
services. This mission statement has been modified to fit these position.
The mission of the _________________________Dept is to establish, preserve, and

manage public parks, greenways, and recreation facilities and to facilitate as well as
provide cultural, educational and leisure opportunities aimed at enhancing the
quality of life in this community.
As the agency struggles with its identity, the following recommendations adapted from David Gray, in
“Managing our Way to a Preferred Future,” Parks and Recreation, 1984, seem very appropriate.
The Old Ways The New Ways
act as a direct service provider act as a catalyst or community organizer

offer programs in departmental facilities supply programs anywhere
encourage participation by publicity develop a marketing approach
provide traditional programs go far beyond traditional activities
evaluate results in terms of attendance evaluate in terms of human consequences
provide equal services to all citizens provide services based on social, emotional
and economic need
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A good means of developing a mission statement is to brainstorm. Have each staff member submit
several very different versions, and then bring the group together to narrow down the list. With
several dozen alternatives to choose from, it is quite likely that an acceptable version can be
developed, often from combining several choices.
The Kansas Recreation and Park Association recently (1992) launched a strategic planning process.
As part of this strategic process, the membership developed a mission statement that is believed to
capture the essence of what this agency is about. Just the mission statement alone took several weeks
and dozens of attempts to develop. However, such an approach means that the final product is more
likely to be accepted by the membership, and the direction for the future is clearer.
The mission of the Kansas Recreation and Park Association is to unite and
empower Park and Recreation Professional and citizen advocates in their efforts to
ensure the public access to quality facilities and services in an environmentally
manner.
Some of the member's comments that led to this mission statement included:
We stand for the promotion and improvement of the quality of life
We believe that recreational activities are essential components to a balanced life
We are stewards of the natural resources, which we must manage for both preservation and use
We are public servants
We are a catalyst towards better park and recreation services statewide
Stakeholders
Part of the Mission Statement process is determining the stakeholders or those individuals, businesses
and groups that rely on an agency’s services. These stakeholders are often categorized as high to low
impact. Examples of stakeholders of a community park and recreation program include:
Stakeholder’s Impact: Community Park and Recreation Agencies

High Low
customers rec \tourism related retail stores other retail

general public (non users) construction sector(jobs)
police departments federal agencies
schools
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Internal Assessment (Strengths and Weaknesses)
Looking within is a valuable experience to determine the agency's abilities to provide services. A
glance into the mirror is not always pretty but it may the important first step to needed change.
People participate in programs primarily because of word-of-mouth.... make very sure the words
coming from your participants are positive.
An agency needs to review all of its components in this regard, including but not limited to:
Facilities, Budget, Areas, Program and Staff.
Facilities:
Are facilities adequate to meet the needs of program participants?

Compare participation rates per facility within your department
and also to other agencies.
Use the needs assessment survey to gain primary input on facilities
for example: the following results might have been tabulated from a survey the
one included in Chapter 3.
Table 4. __Prioritized ranking of capital improvements
1. Indoor Aquatic and Ice Facility

2. Extension of Linear Park loop
3. Baseball complex
4. Soccer field lighting
5. Golf Course
6. Kansas River Canoe Trail
Rating of various parks and facilities
Longs park 10%poor, 30%average, 20% exceptional

Community Bldg 20%poor, 40%average, 0% exceptional
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Comparison to Standards
The quantity of facilities per capita can be compared with standards developed by the National
Recreation and Park Association. These numbers serve as general guidelines with which an agency
can determine glaring deficiencies in their provision of services.
1 tennis court per 2,000 population NRPA

1 youth baseball field per 6,000
1 50 meter pool per 20,000
1 volleyball court per 3,000 population http://www.activeparks.org/
More recently the development of state standards is possible. A database just developed in Kansas
(2005) will be available for a wide array of comparisons; such as facilities per capita as in the NRPA
example but within specific geographic regions.
For example a community of 5,000 could compare its facilities to other communities in the state of
similar size and not just to national reports of typically more urban communities.
The data base can also be mined to report age and condition. For example: the number of swimming
pools is tentatively listed as 1 per 13,000 population. This data is biased downward by smaller
communities who exceed the standard. However, the size of the pools and age of same varies
considerably.
80% of pools in communities of 10,000 or less are 25yd pools

80% of the pools in communities of 10,000 or less are over 25 years old
A publication, entitled Community Benchmarks, is also available for purchase and involves similar
data, as does the Active Parks Inventory link on the NRPA website.
Budgets
Agencies should compare their budget health to other city departments. One might ask how their
department fared in comparison to fire, police over the last 10 years. Have salaries kept up with these
departments? Compare also to schools.
The 1993 KRPA database included budget comparisons while the 2005 database does not. The 2005
data contains outdoor recreation facilities but that coupled with GIS layers on population and other
economics yields very useful comparisons.
Stevenson (KSU) also periodically posts Recreation Commission financial data on his webpage. The
data is compiled from reports submitted to the KS Dept of Administration by agencies. This allows
an agency to compare their revenues and expenditures by size, per capita, etc.. in a number of
categories.
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An important part of the budget review is related to efficiency. Are programs too expensive to be
continued? What is the trend in terms of fee and charges support?
An example of a financial comparison

of several sport complexes is included
in Figure 4.__. Here the variable
compared is the percent of revenue
recovery. Note as well that only one
complex (Stull) showed an declining
trend decline in revenue recovery
percent (%). This complex was the
oldest and the metro population is
moving farther away in the suburbs. It
ranked the lowest in % recovery
though still breaking even.
The Robinson complex showed

significant growth in 1996 due
primarily to a decision to host youth
baseball and fast-pitch softball
tournaments in addition to adult.
Programs
Participation records should be reviewed to understand any noteworthy trends.

An analysis of the current situation will allow for a marketing goal and appropriate plan of action to
be established. Some of the information available regarding programs is illustrated in the following
charts.
An internal assessment of programs may involve these questions?
W hich are popular?

W hich are growing, declining?
W hich are cost effective?
W hich do we do a particularly good job of offering?
W hich can we make more optimally available by working with the private sector?
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Chart 4._ illustrates participation trends in several youth team sports. This type of review illustrates
growth or decline and gives insight as to changes that should be made to better serve their clientele.
In this agency youth soccer appears to have peaked. The fastest growing sport is gymnastics though
the numbers are still small. This increase is likely due to the recent Olympics. Traveling baseball and
fastpitch softball are growing at a moderate pace and this demand appears to have negatively impacted
the city league baseball program.
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This chart illustrates popularity of programs via the percent (%) of participants. This data probably is
not very enlightening to a programmer who is already familiar with this information, yet an outside
consultant might view the participation rates and ask why you are even offering some of the least
popular activities
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The following model was proposed by the Bacon consulting group. It allows the user a format in
which to ask, “Which programs are truly worth retaining, or even adding resources too?” or “ Which
programs should be dropped?” Obviously a good deal of information is needed before a program can
be cubby-holed but the concept and title helps force some decisions.
Question marks are units (programs) that operate in a high-growth area, but have a relatively low market share. M any new
programs start off as question marks. As a result these new programs require a lot of cash to get them out of the chute so to
speak. In this illustration shown, this agency has three question marks. The interpretive program likely generates the least %
of revenue and should be closely reviewed.
Stars are those programs that have become successful. Every agency doing well should have several stars as these are
indicative of programs that are fending off the competition and meeting customer needs. Stars may not generate much cash yet
but have the potential too in the future. An example of a star program might be a youth sport program. Though it does not
generate cash for the agency, it is entrenched and matches the agency's mission almost ideally. Youth soccer for this agency is
a solid performer....though the trends from the previous page may indicate that it is starting to decline.
Cash Cow s are those units that maintains a dominant portion of the market share but may have lost some of its growth rate.
These units are so named because they tend to generate cash for other units. a very popular adult sport may be a good example
of a cash cow, as it pays for itself and then some.
Dogs are the units that have weak market share and are in a low growth area. These typically generate low enrollments and
hence low returns. Dog units take up more time and resources than they are worth. Get rid of most of them. Let the private
sector handle some and completely refurbish or repackage other that you can't part with.
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Questions for Discussion
1. What should a community recreation agency’s mission be?
2. How can public and private recreation suppliers better complement each other?
3. What are some characteristics of programs that should be discontinued?
4. There is considerable competition for the recreation participant. If an individual expresses a

desire for a low cost, stimulating, outdoor adventure....what options are open to them? Who
are the potential suppliers? At what level is the competition with a public agency supplier the
greatest?
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Chapter 5 Preparing a Plan of Action
CHAPTER FIVE
PREPARING A PLAN OF ACTION
Comprehend the process of formulating an Action Plan.

Feel comfortable mobilizing the various resources to accomplish a plan.
Be able to distinguish between program and performance objectives.
Essentially, an action plan takes all of the information gathered in the strategic process to date;
determines the allocation or resources to achieve the plan and answers the questions, "who will do
what, when and how?"
If the desired goal to be reached for the given year is a 5% increase in program participants, the
programmer and other agency managers must determine which strategy to employ to achieve this
growth.
Several growth strategies exist. These include:
Intensive growth, which results from increasing the agency's market share with current
products (such as taking a current program (e.g.. family picnic planning to a new market) or
by developing special corporate softball leagues for shift employees (say starting at 1:00 am),
or any number of other ways. (Same activity to a new market) This type of growth is best
accomplished by either increasing the promotion of the benefits derived to non-participants or
increasing the perception of benefits received by current participants and thereby increasing
their participation levels. Howard illustrates the desired direction of movement in his
escalator model shown adapted in Figure 5.1.
Integrative growth involves acquisitions such as acquiring suppliers or a company with

distribution outlets....and has little application for public leisure services.
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Preparing a Plan of Action Chapter 5
Diversification. Growth via diversification includes the development of new products or
services for new and current customers and tapping new, unrelated markets. The recent
growth of roller hockey is an example of diversification. This activity in any form didn’t exist
10 years ago.
Now, it is one of the fastest growing sports. A number of agencies tapped the child care
market within this decade; diversifying into an entirely new service that has resulted income
and participation by parents with young children.
Assume here that we have selected to grow using two methods; intensively by increasing our market
share via better promotion of our current services, and by diversifying - offering some new versions or
approaches to expand the opportunities.
Unfortunately, a great number of people are not

aware of park and recreation opportunities. These
people must be made aware of what is available
before we can ever expect them to participate.
Those that know of programs but still opt to not
participate do so for reasons very valid to
them...and which serve as barriers to participation.
Our intent is to get people to try our products....take
that first step onto the escalator. From there we are
confident they will stay on for the ride, increasing
their participation and personal benefits as a result.
Like almost any consumer product or service the
80/20 principle applies to parks and recreation.
Approximately 20% of the users (heavy) account
for 80% of the product demand.
Knowing what benefits to "sell" should be elicited Figure 5.1

from the needs analysis. What benefits do current
customers feel they are gaining from program participation? Knowing which benefits to improve
upon must also be determined by closely examining current customer responses to survey instruments
and other attitude\opinion eliciting instruments, including appropriate secondary sources. Kotler
(1992) suggests that positioning is focusing on a central benefit. When one thinks of a Volvo
automobile, they think of safety. Our programs need personality. What type of personality might we
focus on? Possible central benefits on which to focus:
the best quality the widest assortment

the trendiest the cheapest
easy registration short (fit my lifestyle)courses
If we do this well enough....... we will make leisure a way of life....it should almost replace their religion
Kotler
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The Jackson Co.(MO) Park/Rec District interviewed golfers at its new course at Longview Lake. As a
result of this input, Longview Golf Course staff determined that the following actions were necessary
to improved both immediate and long term service delivery.
Immediate Improvements: Place more rakes by the traps

Ensure that the water jugs are always full
Keep on top of mowing and trimming
Add more directional and informational signs
Long Term Improvements: Smooth out rough areas on the course

Smooth out the demand of annual sales. (reduce peak
increase shoulder seasons, etc.)
Extend the length of the driving range tees
Initiate more promotion
Benefits addressed: Well maintained and challenging courses are perceived to be

of better quality
The course will be accessible to all populations
Improves Perception of Value (in Cost/day of play)
for shoulder seasons
for golfers playing elsewhere
for non-golfers
Look at one of the suggested long-term actions: increased promotion (promotion is covered in
Chapter 7). Basically, more golfers playing elsewhere and more current non-golfers need to know
about the Longview Lake course. Addressing the latter situation, more non-golfers need to be
converted into golfers. One of the greatest barriers to play as indicated by the National Golf
Foundation is lack of knowledge and skill). A proven way to convert non-golfers into golfers and the
preferred method, according to current golfers who will be interacting with beginners on the course, is
Lessons. Yet, lessons have been consistently available at Golf courses throughout time. Why are not
more non-golfers utilizing these services which are already available to them? Though these are good
questions for a needs analysis survey....many have already been asked by the NGF.(an external,
secondary source of info) According to the NGF, the reasons for not utilizing PGA pro instructed golf
lessons include:
• embarrassed by poor skills

• lack of perceived cultural/socio-economic fit
• lack of equipment
• cost
• time
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Addressing each item should help achieve your desired level of growth. If a major barrier at your
course is lack of equipment, invest in more instructional equipment, which negates the need for clients
to have their own. If the problem is socio-economic fit, try taking the golf classes to neighborhoods
where people feel comfortable with others of their own class. This will probably mean hiring special
teaching staff other than just the PGA pro, however. When lessons are taught (time) can also be
changed. Typical lessons in this area are offered on weekday evenings for an hour to two hours per
evening. This time slot, although perceived to be convenient for the majority of persons, actually
conflicts with a number of potential golfers schedules. In the summer, children's activities utilize the
same schedule. Shift workers cannot attend. It is difficult to find weekend lessons in this area
because the pro is very busy managing the course and pro shop during the peak play times. Yet, these
same times are "peak periods" for an obvious reason: time availability. More lessons should be
available during the same periods. If the pro cannot teach the lessons, he/she should subcontract
additional instructors. (Readers should note here that lessons are a lucrative part of many pro-agency
contracts and that while from the agency's perspective, additional green fees may be the desired
direction of growth, the pro may see little incentive to increase play if he/she does not receive some
percentage of the increased play)
If the problem is cost, one could argue that lessons should be free or very low cost anyway; since
courses and agencies will recoup this loss in green fees and related revenues later after the potential
player has taken up the game. Agencies wishing to utilize this approach must we willing to subsidize
the lessons by paying the pro.
Some will argue that free lessons will encourage low-valued users, who do not appreciate the benefits
but play because they do not have to make a benefit/cost decision. I would suggest this argument be
utilized in the pricing of green fees and not in lessons, however.
If increasing demand is the stated objective for the upcoming year, this can be accomplished via price
discounting. As many public agencies subsidize programs to some degree anyway, it is seldom the
preferred alternative. More typically the underlying reason for increasing participation is to increase
revenues (which participation will do..albeit at some increase in cost as well) so our focus at present is
away from changes in price. If the objective for the upcoming year was instead enhanced quality,
price may be the primary vehicle as it could be manipulated to reduce demand at peak periods when
crowded experiences are reducing quality.
Eventually, the staff of the Longview Golf course will utilize some combination of these actions to
address the benefits they want to "sell" and their actions will hopefully result in increased play and
increased enjoyment by players. These actions in many cases become specific activities, such as this
possible scenario:
• Three more weekend golf clinics

• New drop-in weekend lessons from 11 am-3 pm, Sat
• A February Golf class held in the Smithville Armory
• Coupons for two free golf lessons
• Bring a non-user friend (Save 10% on your season pass)
• After school lessons at Jr High
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A strategy statement summarizes this plan:
LO N G VIEW LA K E 200_ INCREASE PARTICIPATION BY 5%

M A R KET G OA L
increase revenue by 5%
TARGET MARKET current golfers and non golfers of all ages within a 25 mile radius
POSITIONING course rated in top 10% of those in area with rounds played in same
category
PRICE somewhat below competitors but in range

reduce senior discounts implement additional peak load surcharges
SERVICE extremely hospitable and gracious
PROMOTION increase advertising by 20%

hold special events initiate coupons for free lessons & other special
lesson promotions bring a friend free
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Objectives:
Agencies have multiple goals and objectives when it comes to the desired program outcomes. These
can be very broad in purpose; designed to meet the mission statement (goal) of providing quality
opportunities for everyone in the community, or they can be more operational, such as the market goal
of 5% just illustrated in the Jackson Co golf course example.
In addition the programmer and often the participant have specific outcomes they expect to occur as a
result of participation. These desired outcomes or performance objectives, are measurable changes in
the participant's behavior, understanding or emotional growth.
The importance of designing objectives cannot be understated. Only when a program planner knows
the desired outcomes can the correct format to reach these objectives be selected. A youth basketball
clinic can either focus on skill development (psychomotor), rule knowledge (cognitive) or social
interaction (affective). Each would obviously require a different approach to the practice schedule.
Understanding ahead of time, provides a much greater likelihood of optimal experiences for the
participants. Also, matching actual outcomes with desired outcomes can provide important evidence
to decision makers on the value of recreation experiences as treatments, or interventions in reaching
important social and health goals.
Performance Objectives. These are typically classified into three major domains: Cognitive,
Affective and Psychomotor.
Cognitive: Relates to mental processes, which include: awareness, understanding,

comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. In the education realm, tests
are regularly administered to determine if cognitive learning objectives are being met. It is
not always practical to test comprehension in leisure settings; therefore some demonstrations
of comprehension or verbalization of one's understanding, or instructor observation and
critique of comprehension are often substituted.
Affective. The affective domain focuses on the psychological gains one should reach as a
result of program participation or leisure experience. Growth may be realized in the area of
feelings, attitudes and values. A great deal of the benefits derived as a result of recreation
experiences are affective in nature; resulting in feelings of improved self-worth and well
being, an enhanced state of inner satisfaction, or an emotional or aesthetic response.
Psychomotor. The domain of physical and motor skills development. Many of our outdoor
and athletic programs are designed to result in growth in endurance, strength, or fine motor
skills like throwing, catching and hitting a ball skillfully. However, when one gains in the
understanding of how to do a particular skill rather than the actual skillful performance of it,
the domain is primarily cognitive (understanding).
It is quite possible and acceptable that a given activity contains multiple learning objectives. A sailing
class would likely address cognitive growth by teaching participants to understand the role of the wind
in propulsion and how a vessel should be rigged. Simultaneously the sailor is likely to gain in
emotional satisfaction (affective domain)from the inherent rewards in accomplishing a difficult skill in
84
an aesthetically pleasing outdoor environment, or in the social values gained from a team effort.
Lastly, the physical skills of quick weight shifting, rigging and down-rigging, and maneuvering
illustrate the realm of the psychomotor domain.
The U.S. Dept of Education provides the following examples of how to write performance objectives
in its Objective Marketplace Game(Unit 5, module 1).
Writing an objective is not unlike writing a sentence as to parts of speech.
1. Who is to do something the subject

2. What is to be done the verb
3. To what is it to be done the object
4. How is it to be done the modifier
EXAMPLE: For a beginning sailing class Upon completing a 3hr segment on rigging and basic
navigation, 80% of the class participants will be able to independently rig and sail a basic course in a
reasonable time without instructor assistance.
A is for audience which is to perform the objective

the participants in the sailing class (12 hrs, 4 segments of 3 hrs each)
B is for the behavior of the performer
demonstrating a skill or other observable action (here is is the rigging the
vessel and sailing a basic course
C is for the conditions
given the completion of the 3hr segment dealing with this content
D is for degree
80% will successfully (independently)complete the 2 mile course in 1hr
There is a down side to performance objective writing however. Overuse robs experiences of
spontaneity and freedom, which must be inherent in good leisure activity. Too strict of goals and
guidelines accomplish little in the subjectively dominated realm of experiences, and remind many
potential participants of school like situation which they'd rather forget.
85
Program Development
Once the needs of an agency's current and potential customers has been ascertained and the mission,
role and scope of the agency has led to a course of action, actual programs need to be prepared to
reach the desired objectives. There are so many possibilities, however, that classifying these into
more workable units is desirable.
Classifying Activities
To logically organize activities for easy client recognition many agencies group related activities
according to the following:
PROGRAM AREAS: Performing Arts Visual /Creative Arts Outdoor, Enviro Rec
Personal Enrichment Health & Wellness Travel & Tourism
Youth Seniors Special Pops
A review of Continuing Education brochures provided this listing:
Vocational Fun & Games Body & Soul

Home Improvement Singles Languages
Lawn&Garden Culture\History
HIERARCHY
The following example illustrates how many agencies distill broad program areas into more specific
categories termed activity areas, and even further into the most specific units ACTIVITIES (the
smallest unit one can plan for). This specific example illustrates the hierarchy (levels of
classification) for the Program Area of Athletics.
I. Program Area Athletics, Performing Arts, Environmental,
A. Activity Areas Baseball, Soccer, Basketball, Racquetball

Softball, etc. (note! all are athletics)
1. Activity Summer Slowpitch League for Adults

Wednesdays, Jones Field; $ 275/team
86
There are exceptions, notably in Dance, Music and Drama where these are activity areas under the
broad program category of performing arts. These classifications are further illustrated in Figure
5.__. This list is by no means all inclusive; but examples of activity patterns or formats are also
shown. In other words, any activity area can spawn a number of activities in many different formats
or patterns.
Notice how the activity area of music spawns a great variety of experiences shown as activities in
various formats. Though it is not shown here, the activity area of music has additional logical
groupings, including vocal, instrumental and performance vs. social, that can assist the programmer in
meeting program objectives by maintaining diversity.
Other methods of classifying or grouping experiences include, but are not limited to:
INDIVIDUAL VS . TEAM ACTIVITIES
ACTIVE VS . INACTIVE
LENGTH OF DURATION (SHORT VS . LONG )
SETTING (E .G . INDOORS OR OUT ),
COST (EXPENSIVE VS . FREE )
SELF DIRECTED VS . LED BY LEADER
AGE GROUPS (E .G . PRE -SCHOOL , ELEM , HS , ADULT , SENIOR )
87
FORMATS
Program Activity Areas Competitive Instruction Special Event Club Interest Drop-in Open Seminar Outreach
Areas Classes Facility Workshop
Sport/Athletics/Wellness
Youth Soccer city tourney Goalie Camp State games <7 club after-school Striker clinic Intramurals
Golf scramble Beginner class Pro-Am Seniors patch ice Short Game Putting Contest in
tourney rental Seminar Senior ctr
Aquatics swim team Red Cross Instr. Carnival Divers Group open-pool Lifeguard clinic lessons in backyard
pool
Aerobics 10 k hydro-aerobics Fitness Fair Mall walkers public swim circuit training Fitness testing at
class clinic offices
Performing Arts
Dance marathon ballet Touring Co. Tap Club open-practice 2-step workshop "Hammer"
instruction dancing JCorps
Music battle of the chorale Music Fest Barber- " " Soloist seminar Lip synching at the
bands shoppers Mall
Drama charades acting class6-7th The King & I Actor's Guild set design Mime workshop Puppet Theater -
graders production studio
Creative Arts/Pers’Enrichment
Literary quiz bowl interlibrary loan Spoon River Book of the open reading Poetry seminar Mobile library
Anthology Week Club room
Painting juried show watercolor class Bev Doolittle Wildlife 1-4 p.m. open Washes clinic Gallery on wheels
Show Artists art room
Sculpture " " Sculpting in clay Trip to Art Wood open shop bronze seminar in-home
Museum carver's club instruction
88
Program Activity Areas Competitive Instruction Special Event Club Interest Drop-in Open Seminar Outreach
Areas Classes Facility Workshop
Primitive crafts best of show natural dyes Craft Fair Lincoln Quilt visit to Primitive Dye Home hobbyist
clinic Club Museum
Activity Areas Competitive Instruction Special Event Club Interest Drop In Seminar Outreach
Ceramics " " Using local clays exhibit raku club open studio raku firing Ceramic-mobile
Cooking bake off home canning ethnic food XXX chili 6-9 Tues Cake decorating Scout campfire
class festival club drop-in cooking
Lawn and show home gardening show men's club community bulb clinic hort' therapy team
garden class garden
Outdoor Recreation
Canoeing white water flat water French (big Voyagers marina fiberglass clinic Big Brother's trip
contest instruction canoe) display
Fishing bass casting class derby Catch & ramp use rod-building Hook a special kid
tournament Release club workshop on fishing
Hiking mtn man travel lite class Volksmarch 50 mile club City trails only footprints Scout badge
competition clinic sessions
Environmental quiz bowl learn how to Earth Day Birdwatchers viewing blind Birdhouse Mobile nature
Ed' recycle anniversary club nature center workshop exhibit
Social Recreation
Young Adult lip sync popular dance teen dance electronic teen center DARE to be sponsor dance at
Social contest class investors different Jr. High
Seniors Social 40's trivia grandparenting fall festival 50 + travel senior center over-seas travel seniors for shut-ins
Special special leisure choices softball Royals fans table game adapting Independent living
Populations Olympics tourney area equipment center dance
workshop
(note **with ADA all disabled persons are eligible to participate in any program)
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Formats
The program format can be thought of as the manner in which various activities are presented. Each
approach has its benefits and limitations, and as discussed, the selection of a given format will better
allow certain objectives to be achieved.
Characteristics of each format:
Competitive Format: Often selected when the purpose of the activity is a test of skills
or the selection of a champion. Would not be used to teach new
athletic skills but test skill level of athletes. Various
tournament types have different advantages of use. (Leagues
and tournaments)
Instructional Format: A dance class is a typical example. The desired outcomes are
the acquisition of knowledge and skills over a somewhat
extended period. Classes tend to last several weeks while clinics
and seminars may last only a day or two...but are otherwise
very similar.
Special Event Size is probably the most distinguishing feature of a special

event. These events are large, and not offered frequently.
They include festivals, major tournaments and celebrations.
Club Clubs are organized by a group of individuals with a like

interest. These can include sailing, stamp collecting,
photography or any other recreation pursuit. Agencies provide
meeting space and little else for this self governed organizations.
Drop in Also called open-facility. Agencies provide a specialist who

supervises the area and people work on their own projects (e.g.
craft room) or independently organize their own experience (3
on 3 or whoever shows up) noon time basketball within the
confines of the facility.
Clinic/Seminar Also an instructional format but over a short period of time ( e.

g. 1-2 days). Gaining popularity with people because of their
busy schedules.
Outreach Agency staff take the activity to the people (in their homes,
neighborhoods, etc..)
Travel Trips and tours are sometimes considered separate formats.

Other agencies include them in special events. Either way, they
are unique in that they involve special logistical elements like
making lodging
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Logistics
Every activity area and particularly activity presented in the remainder of this book must be
considered in light of a number of logistical elements. The content of a given experience is designed
to meet desired outcomes and a number of related decisions must also be made that similarly influence
the nature of the experience. These logistical elements include:
Performance Objectives
Leadership
Facilities(setting)
Equipment and Supplies
Scheduling
Pricing(budgeting)
Promotion
Operation/Implementation
Risk Management
Evaluation
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Table 5.__ Logistical Elements, illustrates the logistical questions that should be addressed by the program planner. It is not meant to be all inclusive
but shows the basic factors regarding each activity selection that warrants consideration. Adapted from R.F. Mull et al.(1983)
LOGISTICAL ELEMENTS
SCHEDULING SETTING EQUIPMENT/ COSTS LEADERSHIP PUBLICITY FORMAT RISK

OTHER
SUPPLIES PROMOTION MANAGEMENT
PERSONNEL
What should be the What types of facilities What is needed? What costs will be What skills are Target Market? Which approach What injuries are likely
duration? hrs/day exist? incurred? needed? best fits to occur?
objectives?
hrs per session?
How frequently should it be What facility or What is available? What % be will How many leaders What media is Are these likely to be
offered? recovered by fees are needed? available? serious?
environment is
daily/weekly if any?
most desirable?
once per week?
What time of day should What facility What needs to be How shall revenue Will these leaders What promotional How frequently will
the activity be offered to preparation is needed? purchased? materials need to be these likely occur?
be collected? be paid or
reach the target market? prepared (flyers, etc.)?
volunteers?
Is there a peak period? Location in Who should Must funds be Should any Where and when What action should be
community? purchase disposable deposited into a certifications be should promo materials taken
items? agency or required? be distributed?
specialized account? to reduce or eliminate
client?
injury?
Number of people the Who collects $? Should pay be Are internal Accident procedure?
facility will optimally incentive based? promotional factors in
accommodate? good order?
Is weather or climate a Does an assumption of

factor? risk statement need to be
developed and signed?
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Each logistical element should be addressed in order to reach the activity’s desired outcomes. Each element
can impact the enjoyment and benefits derived. Logistical elements are covered in each chapter and are the
focus of the Activity Outline assignment (see appendices).
LOGISTICAL ELEMENTS
Scheduling The decision of when, how often and how long to offer an activity depends on the
programmer’s objectives. However, the schedule affects and is affected by all other logistical
elements. (Consider the impact of the day of the week on the availability of leaders or costs
for a facility’s rental)
Setting Where should an activity be held? In what type of facility? In what location in
the community? Does the setting add or detract from the experience?
Equipment What is needed? Who owns it and how will it be handled? What needs to be
Supplies purchased?
Costs A budget should be developed that shows all anticipated revenue and expenses and
the rate of subsidy if any. Options should be considered to keep costs down.
Leadership What qualifications? How many? Rate of pay?
Promotion What media and message will optimally reach the target market?
Format Which approach best fits the desired outcomes?
Risk How do we keep participants safe? (rules, gear, inspections, supervision, etc.)
Management
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Program Development Sequence
Often a program planner finds him or herself in a new situation or a new agency. The following sequence is
an oft recommend approach to developing a quality, diverse program.
1. Continue the popular program opportunities offered by your predecessor.

(Called the Traditional approach. Benefit: doesn't rock the boat while you are attempting to understand
the community. Limitation: Communities and people are dynamic, not static, old programs may need
updating)
2. Expand the program in areas of well-known interest
(The Current Practice Approach, or the Educated Guess Approach. Benefit: relatively risk free as
program expansion should occur in areas proven to be successful via secondary research (other
communities, etc.) Limitation: each community and its residents is different and warrant closer
inspection. Can become a reaction approach if the squeaky wheels (special interests) begin to overly
influence experience selection.
3. Offer new programs that meet the needs and interests of your clientele.
(Often referred to as the Expressed Desires or Marketing Approach) Benefit: programs fit needs and
interests because of research efforts to ascertain what people want. Limitation: takes time, some special
research skills and resources. Another limitation is that often people's expressed needs are limited by
their experiences.
4. Expand the interests of your clientele through innovative programs
(This approach could have several names. It could be called Authoritarian if the program planner uses
an abundance of personal expertise in selecting activities. It could be called the Creative Plan, if the
professional combines her/her personal expertise with the M arketing Approach. ) Benefits: addresses
the limitation of expressed desires by taking innovative risks and chances and offering programs that
expand people's interests. Limitations: There will be a number of failures and flops associated with this
approach.
Two additional program planning models have been suggested by Murphy ( ). These include the cafeteria
approach and the prescriptive approach.
Cafeteria approach. Every agency does this to some degree. It involves offering a wide selection of
choices; hoping to provide at least something for everyone. Benefit: allows programs to be tested in
the marketplace...those accepted are kept; those that don't go are discarded. Limitations: Resources
and time are wasted on the programs that are eventually discarded. It is often criticized as being
inefficient.
Prescriptive approach. This approach is used primarily in the therapeutic setting. and involves
elements of the authoritarian approach. The professional relies heavily on his/her expertise to
prescribe specific activities that result in desired outcomes.
94
Each approach offers benefits and drawbacks. A good programmer will develop a system that he/she
will find easy to modify given the situation. They will come to know their community well and
understand what the people want. They will also however become risk takers if they are to truly
enrich people's lives. Besides, it the excitement of charting new territory and offering new leisure
experiences that makes a programming position worthwhile and enjoyable.
1. Explain how a given activity, by manipulating the format or other logistical elements, can
significantly change. (then change an activity, designed in the competitive format, that originally was
designed to reach primarily psychomotor objectives to one where the focus is now primarily on the
affective domain.
2. Explain how the course of action selected by the Jackson CO. Park and Recreation District
might result in achieving the desired program/market goal of an additional 5% increase in golf
participation on the Longview course.
3. Classify the activity: winter baseball workout for youth as many ways as possible
95
ASSIGNMENT: 15pts
Decide on the activity you will use for the later assignment; an ACTIVITY PLAN.
1. Describe this activity (handwritten) in detail here:

Just explain what it is you want to organize, but do so in enough detail that I can tell if it is
appropriate, too difficult, or other .........
2. Indicate the hierarchy of this activity using the example shown on page 85.
Program Area _______________________________

Activity Area ____________________________
Activity ____________________________
(title of your activity here)
3. Write three (3) performance objectives for your selected activity, following the approach
outlined in this chapter. (Use at least 2 of the learning domains.)
(Learning domains: (cognitive, affective, psychomotor)
1.
2.
3.
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Chapter 6 Pricing
CHAPTER SIX
PRICING
Upon completing this Chapter the reader should understand:
the philosophical arguments related to pricing leisure services

current pricing practices
how to compute an appropriate fee for a variety of programs
There is no such thing as a free lunch. Nothing is without cost; not open space, nor scenic vista; not
athletic playfield; certainly not organized recreation programs. There are numerous costs associated
with the provision of these services, including but not limited to leadership, supplies, rental,
promotion and utilities. Whether or not a fee is charged to cover these costs depends on a great
number of factors including who receives the benefits, how these benefits are received, and how
feasible it is, administratively, to recover any or all costs in fees.
Public recreation services are most typically paid for either by taxes or fees. Taxes are shared by the
entire community, and must be paid whether a household's members use recreation and park services
or not (real estate or property tax). Fees are either paid by the participants or users, or by team (often
corporate) sponsors. Occasionally grants and donations can supplant these revenue sources, but these
are not used a great deal, and when used typically benefit the underprivileged or "at risk".
Though not all agree with charging user fees (Wellman et al ) generally there is a good deal of
consensus regarding charging for most planned and organized recreation activities. Because this is a
programming text, we will focus on these examples here and suggest that readers review Financing,
Managing and Marketing Recreation and Park Resources by D. Howard and J. Crompton, as well as
publications by B. Driver ( ), G. Peterson ( ), R. Walsh ( ) among others to gain a better
understanding of the pricing philosophies surrounding more resource based amenities.
97
Pricing Chapter 6
A compilation of fee articles is linked to my homepage: Fee Articles
http://www-personal.ksu.edu/~ssteve/chrglist.html
Certain dispersed resource based amenities, such as hiking,, which have previously been non-market
goods are a current research focus as scientists, particularly those from the U.S. Forest Service, who
are trying to determine appropriate measures of allocating worth or value to experiences where users
do not have to pay market price. Read the summaries of the overall project and various samples,
which are linked at the following NPS site:
http://www.nps.gov/feedemo/
In this chapter we first explore some of the

general business literature on pricing; how
The more recent focus of recreation pricing price communicates information about the
research is not whether or not fees are business to the consumer, how different types
of enterprises calculate prices, etc.. We
appropriate but who should pay and what
progressively narrow the scope to the
method of payment should be used and how much philosophy of recreation pricing and specific
should they pay. pricing techniques used for various recreation
services.
Role in Marketing
Price is the monetary value of a good/service in the marketplace.
When one pays the price, they exchange effort and or wealth for perceived value in the form
of benefits.
Price plays an important role by communicating a number of messages to customers. If this message
is consistent with other marketing messages delivered by your enterprise to the consumer (product,
promotion and place) the greater the likelihood of the consumer making this exchange (a purchase).
Price communicates image.....more so than we would like to admit. The perception still exists that if
a product or service is more expensive it should be better built, or be a higher quality of experience.
Pricing communicates an agency's position in the market. It is determined by the target market(s) or
positioning strategy the agency has selected. It is based on the customer profile; their socio-economic
levels, their age. An agency serving primarily the underprivileged will therefore charge lower prices
for its services while an agency serving an upscale affluent community should be able to offer quality
services at a much higher price.
There are instances where higher priced products are coveted by the poor. An interesting
study over a decade ago found that the poor purchased Curtis Mathis televisions; one of the
more expensive brands on the market. It was felt that the poor could not afford the nicer
homes and cars, and therefore bought the one status symbol they could afford, a nice
television. Today we see similar purchase decisions being made in athletic clothing,
particularly $150 shoes.
98
Chapter 6 Pricing
Recreation is believed by many to be a class equalizer. For example; "Though I can't afford a yacht, I
can afford water sports" (the fact that my vessel is a canoe does little to reduce my enjoyment...and
may actually enhance it).
Price communicates worth and value. Customers will participate in programs if they perceive the cost
per benefits to be appropriate. If the cost is too high, customers will switch and purchase a
competitor's product. If the cost is too low, the quality of the experience may suffer, because the
agency cannot afford to hire the better instructors or provide the best facilities. Also, if the cost is too
low, the customer may also switch, even if the instructors and facilities are very adequate and the
experience of high quality, just due to the perception of lower quality created by too low of price.
Price Range
Seldom are consumers able to pinpoint exactly the worth of a given product. They too must compare
value to what competitors are charging and of comparable substitutes. As a result, they are typically
tolerant of some variability. Prices, however must be in a range of what customers expect to pay
(Review the perceptual map of Johnson Co. Park and Recreation Dept's youth athletic fees with those
offered by its competitors in Figure 3.__ to see which enterprises citizens would expect your agency's
fees to compare with). Additional information or justification must be provided to sell prices outside
of the threshold.
Price must also reflect the agency's chosen market positioning or strategy. It must reflect the agency's
mission. Seldom, if ever, would a public park and recreation agency be the highest priced alternative
for recreation experiences.
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Pricing Chapter 6
Who Should Pay?
There is general agreement within the profession that user fees should not be levied in all instances.
Services which benefit everyone(or at least the great majority) can be paid for with a fair tax instead
of user fees. Public agencies supply a number of services that benefit the vast majority of the public.
That is how it should be....that is the purpose and nature of government...to pool resources to afford
and supply opportunities and experiences that individuals cannot do or afford alone.
Those services, on the other hand, that benefit a small group of users almost exclusively should not be
offered by the public sector; but should be funded solely by fees via the private sector.
There is a lot of middle ground, which includes varying degrees of merit services (and varying rates
of fee recovery).
Readers are referred to Chapters 20-21 in Howard and Crompton's text, Financing, Managing and
Marketing Park and Recreation Service to gain from a thorough discussion of the topic. As shown,
the services offered can be categorized as either Public, Merit or Private type. The price as well as
the collection method should vary depending on the type of service being offered. The justifications
supporting the illustration follow.
Public Services Public services should be equally available to all people, and should benefit
everyone similarly. In these cases pricing is either not feasible (to charge a fee, the USFS would
have to fence in the Ntl Forests, or install toll booths to collect it) or not desirable (mutual benefits to
many people). Good examples include municipal parks, which do not offer overly specialized
recreation opportunities; but include open space and play areas, ballfields, playgrounds, tennis courts
and general picnic areas. Charging a fee for using these areas is generally not feasible (how would
you collect it?) and not desirable (widely beneficial). Public services contribute to the quality of life
of all residents and should be available at no extra fee.
Until 1994, The Corps of Engineers viewed day use areas on its reservoirs as a public service and
charged no fee. However, the more specialized day use areas that have lighting, boat ramps and
possibly other special amenities or services are no longer free. Only the more primitive areas are
considered public (no fee) areas. Many national, state, regional and provincial parks have been
charging access fees for some time. Even though, at first glance, these may appear to be public
services, in reality, the poor cannot afford the trip to these often remote areas. Consequently, it is not
fair that the poor subsidize (via higher taxes) the recreation opportunities of the more affluent.
Merit Services Merit Services benefit users more than non-users. Participants in programs gain
directly in improved fitness, social interaction, adventure and the like. Participants learn new skills,
and utilize facilities. Even though users benefit more, non users also receive some spin-off benefits.
There are varying degrees of merit services.
A typical merit service that has public service characteristics is youth sports. Here the subsidy level
varies widely but 30-70% subsidy rates are common. In other words, city leaders and agency
professionals have decided that the public at large and the youth participants both benefit from this
experience. The public might benefit from reduced crime, enhanced and more enriched and
productive young people, etc.
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Access to many federal natural areas is viewed as a merit service, even though they are not priced as
such. Here users benefit from the experience more than nonusers but not exclusively. Non users
benefit from the bequest and existence values previously discussed. The reason for the current below
market price of zero ($ 0) is more operational or administrative than philosophical. The users cannot
be easily identified and therefore charged. Recent efforts at the state and national level to initiate a
tax on camping equipment and use the money to fund the supply of public outdoor recreation
experiences such as trail development illustrates one means of attempting to equitably charge
campers who don't currently pay via developed campground fees.
Similarly, golf and softball are also merit goods, but these programs are much closer to private goods.
Adult users benefit much more than non users but the community (user and non-users) benefits via
economic impact and enriched qualities of life. Softball players are often charged 100 percent of
direct operating costs plus some additional fee for overhead(15% is currently popular). Still, not all
costs such as land acquisition and development costs, are recovered.
Pricing for senior citizens has typically been of a merit nature. Discounts have been widely offered.
The more recent trend is to recover a greater share of the costs of providing services to seniors in fees.
This is due to several factors: 1) the recognition that seniors impose similar costs on the supplier; 2)
that seniors are as affluent than the rest of the population and should not be subsidized; and 3) a
greater barrier to senior participation is not the cost of the entrance fee but the cost of specialized
equipment and travel. In municipal settings, where less affluent seniors on fixed incomes can afford
to participate in public like programs, senior discounts are being continued (and appropriately so).
Private Services Few public agencies offer private services. Occasionally an enterprise operation
will recover all costs plus profit...but this is an exception for public agencies. Private agencies should
offer private services; or those that benefit users almost exclusively. Even private enterprises result
in some public benefit though and may be rewarded with tax incentives (a form of subsidy).
The closest that public agencies come to private like services are golf courses, marinas and sports
complexes. Yet, even here, the service is usually not private because all costs (including the
amortization of the area and facilities) is not recovered by fees. Often a public bond issue pays for
this cost. (Note: golf may be considered a private service if the bonds issued are revenue bonds paid
for from revenue generated from the operation; and all other related costs are paid for via course
generated revenues).
Setting a Price
Pricing decisions are often covered in Administrative texts. This is appropriate since many price
decisions are made at the executive level. However, programmers must have a solid grasp of pricing
objectives and techniques in order to plan programs.
Programmers must work within the agency's philosophy of cost recovery. If agency policy states that
youth sports recover only 50% of the direct operating costs, then it is very easy for the programmer to
set the appropriate price. In some cases, programmer's have no flexibility in setting a price. In these
cases, the price may be established by the Board to be $10 per child. Here the challenge is to keep
costs at a reasonable level so that the desired quality can be maintained. Professional programmers
must contribute to good pricing policies by educating executives and commissioners as to the resulting
impact on service type and quality.
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Programs can be planned forward or backward according to a target price. For example: If a
programmer has determined that a ski trip is an appropriate activity for his\her clientele, he\she can
then decide to price all of the components (travel, lift tickets, food, etc.) and come up with a price ...or
he\she can determine that $285 is the maximum cost that clients will bear and then work backwards by
choosing the components that will ensure that the cost will be at this level. Price determines where
you go, how you get there, how long you stay...essentially many of the critical elements of the
experience.
Kotler ( ) recommends a six step process for setting a price. His work in marketing was geared
towards corporate business but the transition to leisure services is seamless.
1. select the pricing objectives

2. determine demand
3. estimate costs
4. analyze competitor's prices
5. select a pricing method
6. select the final price
1. Selecting the Pricing Objectives
A number of agency objectives might be reached through pricing. Howard and

Crompton (1990) list the following factors, described as desired outcomes and objectives of
pricing.
Efficient Use of Financial Resources:
Increased Revenue from Users: Increasing revenue from users is an oft stated purpose of
increasing or initiating user prices. Without fees or with the current level of fees agencies are
able to offer a fixed level of services. These services may not be adequate, either in quality or
quantity to satisfy client wants. Provided that the fee established for a service returns some
percentage of overhead and fixed costs the revenue produced has some net value. If the fee
set does not fully recover direct costs, thus requiring some level of subsidy, it cannot reach
this objective. Note that as stated, the objective here is to recover more revenue from users
and not necessarily more revenue in general. Unfortunately, this is often the case. As
agencies attempt to increase budgets by increasing fees, their policy making bodies, whether
this be the Legislature or a Commission, often slash the agency's tax support budget; resulting
in no net gains and little incentive to increase fees again.
Decrease costs of Operation. Decreasing costs by increasing fees is not an often utilized
objective of public agency pricing. However, utilizing the basic principle of supply and
demand, as the price of a service rises, the demand (in most cases) will fall. Fewer
participants can be equated to fewer supervisors needed, less maintenance, and overall less
direct costs.
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Stated Level of Subsidy Maintained. Many municipal park and recreation agencies write their
fee policy for programs as a stated percentage of subsidy (or the converse: % of revenue
recovery). For example: Anywhere USA's fee policy for youth sports might read, "the agency
is directed to recover 50% of direct operating costs through fees." Depending on the type of
service being offered (public, merit or private) agency staff should match the type with an
appropriate level of subsidy; and do this within the existing political situation which is not
always compatible or possible.
Fairness or Equitableness
Minimize Poorer Citizens' Subsidy of Programs. Most Park and Recreation professionals
agree that a popular objective of pricing is to place the cost burden of providing services on
those clients where it most appropriately belongs. Many municipal Park and Recreation
agencies currently use property tax in some fashion to fund programs. Property taxes, like
most taxes, are based on the many paying, or the pooling of resources . When taxes such as
this are used to wholly fund new or expanded programs, everyone's taxes must increase;
regardless of whether or not all participate in the program. Many citizens do not desire or
otherwise are not able to participate in all agency programs. For example: Some retired
elderly on fixed in-comes cannot afford to travel to a regional park to enjoy the new marina
facility; nor do they desire too; yet if this new marina is funded via property tax increases,
these non-users will have to help pay via increased taxes. For programs where it is relative-ly
easy to identify who benefits from programs, and these beneficiaries are limited, it is desirable
to charge fees rather than the public at large. Fees reduce this inequity by charging users
more than non-users, thereby reducing the need for a subsidy.
Users pay according to benefits derived. Users typically benefit more from agency lands,
facilities and programs than non-users. Users benefit via direct experiences and satisfactions
derived such as increased fitness, relaxation, exhilaration, socialization and so on. Yet, non-
users often benefit to some degree as well. Spin-off benefits include a more fulfilled,
enriched, happy and better educated populace, which suggests a better place for all
community residents to live. Another non direct benefit includes economic impact resulting
from non local recreation expenditures in the community. Many people have stated a
willingness to pay for agency services for the two other non-direct benefits termed existence
and bequest value (Walsh ) Existence value is a monetary worth given to knowing that a
property (such as a National Park or Wilderness Area) exists and is being protected, even
though an individual may never personally use it. Bequest value is worth given to properties
and programs that one's progeny may utilize at some point in the future. In other pay now to
preserve and bequest some areas to our descendants.
When users benefit almost exclusively from programs, these users should pay most of the
costs of supplying these services. When the beneficiaries are less clear or more widespread,
the costs should be born more by the public at large. Pricing designed to reach the objective
of equity should correlate highly with the benefits derived. The discussion following in this
chapter about public, merit and private-type goods is a discussion of beneficiaries.
Nonresidents Should pay more. Another equity argument is the concern by many that their
tax or fee support of local Park and Recreation programs should not subsidize the reduced
cost on non-resident participation. Non residents who are not charged an additional fee
benefit via subsidy because they do not have to bear the tax burden that residents must share.
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Maximum Opportunity for Participation.
A high or increased level of participation is desired. Many park and recreation agencies
subscribe to this desired outcome of pricing, and as a result maintain artificially low prices.
Low prices encourage participation. Many youth program participants, and some senior
programs participants are charged a fraction of the cost of supplying these services because it
is desirable to the community that many of these residents reap the resulting benefits. Many
passive opportunities such as local walk-in municipal park use are kept free to encourage
maximum participation. The Congress utilizes this concept when establishing the low or free
price to users of our federally managed park and recreation areas. When recreation
opportunities are felt crucial to the enrichment of the public in general, low or no price should
be charged that would discourage use.
Rationing
Preference Indicator. Price can be used to indicate popularity. Programs that clients are
willing to pay for are indicative of perceived value. Park and Recreation professionals
recognize this characteristic of pricing but seldom subscribe to it solely. Using price to
monitor of preference is more often used in conjunction with other desired outcomes than
alone. This is due in part to a concern that if willingness to pay becomes a primary criteria,
only those programs that generate substantial revenue will be maintained and many good
quality programs that may be less cost-effective, will cease to be offered.
Reduces overcrowding. Crowding reduces the quality of recreation, particularly, natural,

outdoor experiences. Too many boaters, campers, wilderness hikers and fishermen reduce the
experience in several fashions. The feeling of isolation and solitude is reduced. The quality
of the fishing can be directly reduced as fewer fish become available. Over-use results in
increased degradation to resources; more compaction, erosion, and the like. Over-use results
in extra costs such as overflow campgrounds, additional rangers, and greater maintenance.
Increasing the price charged for entrance can reduce crowding, simply based on the premise
of supply and demand. Increasing the entrance price appears to have an added benefit though.
Those persons who determine that the value is no longer worth the cost are considered low-
valued users. While many low valued users are recreationists who quit participating simply
because they find cheaper or better valued experience substitutes, other low-valued users
incur unnecessary costs on the system because the price is artificially low. These costs
include vandalism, misuse and other behaviors that reduce the quality of the experience for
high-valued users. Manning ( ) provides an example of this in a Vermont park, where
senior recreationists initially complained about a new entrance fee; but subsequently changed
their minds as they found that the fee reduced drive-throughs and noise previously attributed
to young, low-valued users. Seniors felt considerably safer after the fee was charged.
Differential pricing or changing the price according to place and time, and users is an
important tool to use if rationing is the desired outcome. Peak load pricing is an example of
charging a different fees according to different times. Agencies can charge higher prices for
peak use times (e.g. weekends, holidays) in hopes of reducing or rationing use... or
redistributing demand to less used weekdays. Even if use is not greatly redistributed, the
result can be beneficial in terms of increased revenue. Differential pricing according to place
suggests that agencies charge more for over-popular sites and shift demand to less utilized
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areas. Higher fees for prime site campgrounds or better stadium seats, or the better softball
fields are all examples of differential (by place) pricing.
Positive User Attitudes
Reduces Abuses of Facilities. It is apparent that low valued users cause many agency
headaches. Increased fees can also assist in reducing facility abuses by improving the
perceived value of the experience. If the fees allow for facility enhancements and improved
maintenance due to the additional revenue, these improvements alone can account for some of
the reduced abuses as users appreciate the improved value.
Increase personal commitment. When users pay to play, there is a common belief that their
ownership increases. They become stakeholder and as a result share to a greater degree in
believing in the agency's mission and purpose.
Improved Image. As indicated early in this chapter, price communicates a great deal about an
agency. It should be reflective of its missions, its niche, its strategy. In the absence of other
information, price communicates a great deal about quality. Services priced too low
unfortunately often suggest inferior products. Services charging a reasonable price can
enhance an agency's image if the perceived value remains high.
Commercial Sector Encouragement
Broaden opportunities for Residents If a desired outcome of pricing in increased

opportunities for residents, the commercial and even other not-for-profit suppliers of
recreation services should be encouraged. Prices should be increased if the commercial sector
is to be encouraged as artificially low prices by the public sector prevents their entering the
marketplace because they cannot compete. Public agencies can offer programs at a lower cost
if they desire to, because of the tax support. A commercial softball complex has to generate
enough revenue to pay for all costs (plus profit) while a public agency often has the land and
development only partially funded by users.
Centralization of Mission/Purpose. Public suppliers of recreation opportunities are

increasingly play the role of experience facilitators rather than direct suppliers. Higher prices
for services encourage other suppliers and reduce the agency's need for such a great diversity.
This allows the agency to focus on several target markets/services which it can excel in.
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Figure 6.___ m atches appropriate pricing m ethods with the type of service and objectives. Prices
can essentially be either cost based or not.
One example of prices not based on costs is going rate pricing (GRP). GRP involves charging what
others in the market are charging. It is not cost based because each enterprise has different costs.
This approach often results in an acceptable range, a minimum of controversy; but unfortunately often
mediocre programs. Fees based on willingness to pay charge what the market will bear with no
concern for costs.
Pricing methods based on costs are usually preferable for the public sector, and was mandated in a
Des Moines' Iowa case. (D. Lorenzo, Parks and Recreation, December 1990)
Subsidized pricing is appropriate for merit services. Here the user is charged more of the
costs but not all. Youth sports are an appropriate place to use this pricing method.
Nationally, the subsidy level generally ranges from 30% to 70%.
Partial Overhead pricing is also appropriate for merit services, but is used more typically to
price adult experiences because the feeling is that the users benefit more exclusively, and
should pay a greater share of the costs. Here the agency charges 100% of the direct/variable
costs plus some percentage (e.g. 15%) of these costs for overhead.
All costs plus profit (also called average cost pricing) is used by the private sector and those
rare instances of enterprise funding in public agencies. Here all of the costs are summarized
and an average determined to recover all costs plus profit are charged.
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2. Determining Demand
The demand-supply relationship and the nature of the recreation experience dictate several pricing
decisions. Raising the price does not always increase revenue. As is depicted in Figure 6.___, when
the market is price sensitive or elastic, demand is reduced, rather radically for each increase in price.
A municipal park is readily available by all community residents.
Here an entrance fee constitutes a major portion of the cost involved in a visitation. It is generally
viewed as more of a public good with merit characteristics. As a result, a price increase here
significantly impacts visitation, resulting in a decline. A price increase(doubling) from $2 to $4
actually resulted in a loss of $140,000 in revenue. When the fee was $2, over 270,000 visitors
attended. When the fee was increased to $4, visitation dropped dramatically to 100,000 resulting in
fee income of only $400,000.
Demand at a resource based park, such

as a national park has different
characteristics. Here the entrance fee
constitutes a small portion of the overall
cost of the experience. Transportation,
lodging and meals take up much of the
visitor's budget. As a result the impact
on the visitation is slight when the fee
increased by $2. Also there is likely
few if any, readily available substitutes
for this experience. This type of supply-
demand relationship is called inelastic
(notice that there is not much give). In
this case the same fee increase of $2
would have resulted in a significant
increase in revenue. At a $2 fee the
park raised $6 million but at a $4 fee
visitation only declined by 500,000 resulting in a revenue increase of $ 4 million.
Summary: if the purpose of the fee increase is to raise revenue, the demand usually must be
inelastic relative to price.
3. Estimating Costs
An enterprise's costs typically take two forms; fixed and variable. Fixed costs are not directly
associated with output. In other words the fixed costs will remain the same whether one program
attracting 15 people is offered or ten programs attracting 150 people. Examples of fixed costs include
the director's salary, most utility costs, rent for office space, etc..
Variable costs increase or decrease depending on the number of clients served. The number of
lifeguards will need to increase as pool visitation increases for example. Or the number of t-shirts
supplied for the volleyball camp depends entirely on the number of registrations.
These two costs forms are evident in the supply of park and recreation services just like they are for a
manufacturing company. But they are seldom used in their appropriate format to calculate costs.
Another, hybrid approach has developed that is easier but not as precise or necessarily appropriate as
the fixed/variable approach. This approach involves direct operating and overhead costs.
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Direct operating costs are primarily variable costs and include such things directly associated with the
provision of a given activity. A recent survey of public, leisure service agency shows the following %
of agencies that recover the costs listed through fees.
Leadership(salaries of instructors) 86%
Supplies 64%
Direct maintenance 45%
Facility rental 45%
Direct utilities 45%
Special insurance 23%
Overhead includes some indirect costs such as a portion of a general recreation supervisor’s salary or
part of the brochure. Usually some percent (15% above all direct costs) is set to help defray these
expenses and appropriately pass the costs on to users.
In order to price intelligently, a programmer needs to know how the program components costs vary.
Is there an optimal class size or level of participation, above which additional expenses are incurred?
While a class of 20 students in beginning sailing might be easily handled by one instructor.....any
additional class participants might necessitate an assistant instructor and the rental of more boats;
significantly increasing the costs for everyone.
Economies of scale are also at work. Because facilities and areas (fixed costs) account for a great deal
of an agency's costs, the cost per person declines very rapidly as additional participants are served.
Therefore, when fixed costs are high, one should contemplate maximizing use (assuming that variable
costs are not high as well) in order to be cost efficient. High break even costs necessitate a late break
even point in business.
Costs and prices should be monitored between programs. A base or benchmark should be established
which allows comparisons between programs. Cost per person per hour is an example of such a
benchmark.
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Programmers need to be very careful that they are comparing apples to apples in this review. Take the
following situation as an example:
The gymnastics program is currently under fire for competing with the private sector and its
high cost per person is being used as fuel for the debate. Last year the program fee was $
25 per child and the agency had to subsidize an additional $ 20 per child (in tax support) to
maintain the program.
By comparison, youth baseball costs the participant $10 (fee). Here however, the
true level of additional subsidy by the department is unknown.
Upon first review, the baseball program looks like a bargain and gymnastics appears
o be out of line. In actuality there is little difference in the costs of both programs.
This agency does not own a gymnastics facility and must rent one to supply the
program. It does own the ballfields (via taxes and bond issues) Therefore the
gymnastics program is being charged at a partial overhead or even variable cost rate
because capital(building rent) costs are included. These costs are not included in the
youth sport fee because it has not been calculated, or has been determined to be
inappropriate to recover as a merit service.
Suggestion: calculate a capital cost (rent might be an appropriate term) for all
programs so that you can compare true expenses. Do this by calculating the cost per
field and then a cost per game. The agency may still find the gymnastics program too
expensive but at least they're comparing apples to apples now.
4. Analyzing Competitors prices
Enterprises should know what their competitors are charging for similar programs. Once their
price/product is understood, it can be of benchmark or threshold value. Understand that this approach
is constantly changing. Competitors are also changing (either increasing or lowering) their prices
depending on your actions. Don't be static.
5. Selecting a pricing method
In addition to the types of cost recovery already discussed (in #1 Matching philosophy and price) the
following discussion suggest some specific recommendations that further help the agency match its
fee objectives.
Differential Pricing. Involves charging different prices to different users. These different
conditions can be age, skill, location, time, etc... Agencies should consider charging different
fees for better sites such as campgrounds. The philosophy is not different than paying more
for seats on the 50 yd line. Differential pricing combines a cost-based and not cost based
(willingness to pay) approach.
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Peak Load Pricing is a differential approach based on time that charges more for
peak periods of use. Typically these peak periods for outdoor recreation are
weekends where 2.5 times the weekday demand may occur (Walsh ). In other
recreation participation, the peak period may be evenings from 5:30-9:00 (Tennis
clubs usually charge a higher fee for this period).
Peak load pricing combines a cost based and willingness to pay approach.
PLP is cost based because higher use causes higher costs ( more supervision,
etc.).
Geographical differential pricing would suggest that an agency consider charging a

different price for various sections in a community. If a particular community section
hosted a disproportionate number of lower income residents, perhaps a reduced fee
for this area could be justified.
6. Final Pricing
Park and Recreation agencies typically need not be concerned with psychological pricing such as
charging $ 15.99 for a $16 service, but it is used and can be effective as the business sector has
shown. There are psychological barriers. The needs analysis survey can be used to see which price
barriers might exist. $20 is a barrier that many people find exists. Programs priced over $20 must
have substantial quality or duration to warrant expected benefits.
Loss leaders are used by the commercial sector to encourage visitation and hopefully result in
purchases of other experiences. Parks and recreation agencies should use this approach to get people
on the escalator (over the initial experience barrier). (Coupons for free or discounted use is another
way to encourage use)
Raising or lowering prices will depend on a number of factors. While the commercial sector lowers
prices to increase market share or gain a competitive edge the Public purposes would more likely be
increased participation. Raising prices can also accomplish a number of objectives. In addition to
revenue (if demand is inelastic) raising prices can reduce costs and discourage overuse by low valued
users.
Scholarships
Most leisure service agencies offer some form of scholarship so that the fee is not a barrier to
participation to those who cannot afford to pay. One popular approach has been to use a 3rd party
evaluator, the Federal school lunch program. If the child qualifies for the free school lunch program,
their program fee is eliminated or reduced 75%. If the child qualifies for the reduced lunch program
their fee is reduced a lesser (e.g. 50%) rate. This approach is pro-active and automatic. The school
system will not give the names of those qualified to your agency. Instead the agency must give
coupons for distribution via the school. Some agencies use financial donations from service agencies
to offset these scholarship discounts. The Scholarship program for the city of Denton, TX can be
found on their website: http://dentonparks.com/scholarship.html
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Chapter 6 Pricing
Specific pricing examples: (these and other examples are also covered in the related chapter)
Classes (such as arts and crafts)

Compute the anticipated expenses (including rent even if you own the facility) Establish a
minimum fee and number of participants necessary so that the program meets is revenue
target. Do not offer the program if the minimum is not reached. Participants above the
minimum add revenue if they don’t add significant variable costs.
Tournaments and Leagues

Calculate a price per game for all factors. Determine the potential number of games. Charge a
fee sufficient to cover these costs plus any desired overhead.
Trips
Since trips are risky, many agencies recover additional revenue per trip to cover
unexpected losses. Calculating expenses for a busload of 45 and then dividing this
figure by 30 or 33 inflates the revenue enough to reach this revenue target.
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Pricing Worksheet (used by Johnson Co. Park and Recreation District)
Program Area__________________________ Class______________________________

Location_______________________________ Date_______________________________
I. Class Associated Costs subtotal (Add A, B and C) $_________________
A. Instructor B. Facility
x #_____hrs/session x #_____hrs per sessions
x $_____/hour x $_____/hour
x #_____of instructors
Total ____________________ Total_____________________
C. Commodities Description Total

Printing_________________________________ _______________________
Postage_________________________________ _______________________
Wearing Apparel_________________________ _______________________
Recreation Supplies_______________________
_________________________________ _______________________
Travel__________________________________ _______________________
Other___________________________________ _______________________
________________________________________ _______________________
II. Departmental Yearly Assigned Costs subtotal (D-J)/#of sessions per year $_______
D. Salaries (regular) ____________________ _______________________

E. Contractual services ___________________ _______________________
F. Professional services ___________________ _______________________
G. Telephone ___________________________ _______________________
H. Transportation/conferences______________ _______________________
I. Dues and memberships_________________ _______________________
J. Other_______________________________ _______________________
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Chapter 6 Pricing
III. Divisional Yearly Assigned Costs subtotal (K1 - L)/# of sessions/year $___________
K. Interdepartment Transfers
1. Administration ______________________
2. Brochure ______________________
3. Data ______________________
4. Registration ______________________
5. Assistant Superintendent of Rec ______________________
6. Other ______________________
L. Interfund Transfers ______________________
TOTALS Add subtotals I, II and III $_____________________
Divide TOTAL by FEE (______________)to determine minimum enrollment (_________)
Which pricing method is typically most appropriate for a golf course?
Which pricing method is typically most appropriate for youth sports?
Cite an example of an appropriate use of peak load pricing.
When is price discounting for senior citizens or disabled persons appropriate?
Why are scholarship programs important ? What are possible approaches to discounting fees to those
least able to pay?
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Pricing Chapter 6
ASSIGNMENT:
Restate your activity briefly here: For example: My activity is a fly fishing class for adults. It will
last six weeks, with each session lasting 1.5 hrs. It will include the following elements: casting
instruction, fly tying, and a culminating fishing trip. All materials will be provided though
participants can bring their own equipment.
Activity:
1. Determine the appropriate philosophical price for your activity
A. What type of service is it and why?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
B. What % of costs should be recovered in fees ?

_______% ______________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. How does this cost compare with competitors?
Give a realistic explanation here:_____________________________

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3. Will seniors, or the disabled, or the economically disadvantaged get a discount?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
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Chapter 7 Promotion
CHAPTER SEVEN
PROMOTION
INCLUDING REGISTRATION, COURSE

DESCRIPTIONS AND BROCHURE DESIGN
AND DISTRIBUTION
Understand the role of promotion in program marketing.

Be able to design several successful promotional materials.
Comprehend the cost/benefit of various promotional media.
Continuing the marketing approach to program planning, program planners will find that promotion is
an essential element in ensuring that all current and potential customers are provided with both
enough information to make intelligent leisure choices and to be fully aware of all available
opportunities. Promotion is one of the four P's of the Marketing Mix popularized by McCarthy
(1981) . The other factors in this classification are product, price and place. Adding a fifth element,
people, is a modification recommended by ______________ ( ).
Marketing Mix
Product
implicit Price
Place
People
explicit Promotion
Each element contributes significantly in communicating some message to the customer. The order
of placement of these elements is notable. First of all, an agency must develop quality products or
services. Without this, no amount of promotion will save a poor program. Program units must be
appropriately priced. Prices set too high or too low communicate poor value or possibly low quality
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Promotion Chapter 7
to the client. Next, the location and other logistical elements must match client expectations. A
tennis tournament co-sponsored by a major corporation should be held in the best of facilities.
Agency staff play a major role in communicating to the customer. These people include the
professional staff, receptionists, instructors, coaches, maintenance workers and even volunteers.
Professional and courteous behavior will reinforce positive client expectations while unfriendly staff
can negate all other marketing efforts.
Promotion
While promotion for park and recreation agencies can be used in the same fashion that it is for any
other enterprise; that of communicating enough benefits so that individuals are persuaded to
purchase agency goods and services...it should also be used to merely inform individuals of where
and when programs will be available, programs that are so well designed that customer need not be
persuaded by explicit (external) means to purchase.
Regardless of the format, the underlying purpose of promotion is effective communication. It is

hoped that the potential buyer (participant) will receive and appreciate the same message that the
seller (agency) had intended to send. Importantly though, prior to this last communication, additional
messages must be given and received by both buyer and seller. If the marketing approach has been
used, the seller (agency) bases its message on messages received from current and potential
customers in the form of expressed needs and desires...that the buyer was willing to offer because they
were asked.
Implicit Promotion Often the most important promotional elements are implicit ones;
contained in the quiet but no less powerful messages communicated to customers by
products and services. Leadership, facilities, format, timing, attitude and price are examples
of implicit elements. All of the tools, gimmicks and slick media presentations cannot
overcome the poor image and customer dissatisfaction caused by unclean facilities and
programs low in benefit and value. Good promotion cannot make up for poor products.
Many of the logistical concerns in this text are implicit elements.
Explicit Promotion Explicit or external promotion involves the process of communication the
desired message via a channel. Typical channels of communication, otherwise called
promotional elements include: ADVERTISING , PUBLICITY AND PUBLIC RELATIONS , PERSONAL
SELLING , AND SALES PROMOTION . Program Planners should be comfortable using each of
these communication channels when each is likely to be most effective. Each has is own
benefits and detriments.
Advertising
Advertising consists of nonpersonal forms of communication using various media that is paid for by
an identified sponsor.
Its purposes are to inform, persuade and to remind customers and potential customers. These paid
messages appear in all media; including television, radio, newspapers, magazines, and direct mail.
They appear on signs, on pieces of equipment, on plastic cups. The advantages of the various media
are illustrated in Table 7.1.
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Don't confuse the mere use of the media with advertising .....public park and recreation agencies use many media
effectively, often only for publicity
Table 7.1 Media Advantages
MEDIUM AUDIENCE DEGR EE USED M A JO R M A JO R

BY PA R K A N D
A D V A N TA G E D ISA D V A N TA G E
R E C R EA T IO N
AG ENC IES
NEWSPAPERS
Daily metro area seldom for local short life

advertising: identification
poor readability
timeliness
often for publicity
Weekly single same local limited readership

community
OK for inserts identification
TELEPHONE local area or seldom, but reaches correct limited to active

region overlooked market shoppers
DIRECTORY
DIRECT MAIL as selected by extensive: personal relatively expensive

STREET DISTR’ agency brochures
good prospects
LOCAL region/visitors moderate logical place to high lead time no

look for guarantee of position
MAGAZINE
activities and
attractions
RADIO can be selected seldom for 3rd party fleeting exposure

by time/station advertising...but
credibility
high for publicity
repeatable
OUTDOOR regional seldom numerous raises environmental

exposures concerns
TV regional seldom for Ads dramatic impact $$
PSA's gaining in clutter

popularity
Adapted from Advertising Small Business in Small Business Reporter, Vol 15, No 2, 1982.
As shown, the most typical form of advertising used by Park and Recreation agencies is direct mail or
street distribution of their brochures or other flyers. Because of their public and not-for-profit status
though, Park and Recreation departments often try to communicate using all of the media listed but
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Promotion Chapter 7
without the direct cost. In this case they utilize publicity, often in the form of feature stories and
articles, and PSA's.
Specifics related to brochure design, production schedules and distribution outlets are covered in
Table 7.__ later in this chapter.
Publicity (and Public Relations)
Publicity consists of nonpersonal forms of communication that is not directly paid for. Its
purpose is to generate favorable responses for the sender or sponsor of the message.
Kotler defines publicity as securing editorial space as opposed to paid space. The most recognized
form of publicity is NEWS.
Publicity can create favorable results at a fraction of the cost of advertising. It is not free however.
Someone has to write and circulate stories, set up media events, deal with each agency's publics. Still,
the smaller the agency's promotion budget, the stronger the case for utilizing significant portions of
publicity to communicate the agency's messages.
Publicity tends to have more credibility than advertising; given to it by a third party - the news editor.
Publicity is closely linked to programming. It is event centered. Creating events creates news which
is publicity. Creating news is also preferred over unplanned messages which can also be news.
Creating news implies staging events, informing the media and ensuring that your message is
communicated.
Unplanned news, meanwhile, can be of concern,

due primarily to the lack an agency's control over it.
A popular reminder of this weakness is the saying,
"Advertising you pay for, Publicity you pray for".
News and editorials are not always favorable.
But even negative situations can give an agency the

opportunity to put an issue before the public and
explain its position and objectives.
Figure 7.1 illustrates uncontrolled publicity. In this

cartoon a decision made by the M________ Park
and Recreation Department to expand its Crafts
program in the Community Building is at issue.
This expansion would have resulted in the Teen
Center (not a direct MPRD program..but a private
group renting this space, having to relocate). This
Figure 7.1 particular picture seems to be one worth a thousand
words. A year later, the issue hadn't gone away. In
that period the teen center hired a director and rented a larger space of its own, and was pursuing
affiliation as a Boy's Club. The agency used the space to expand it burgeoning crafts program.
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Chapter 7 Promotion
Good Publicity involves getting to know those persons who write and communicate the news. These
people include radio and TV personalities; particularly show hosts and reporters; editors, copy and
feature article writers for newspapers and magazines. Get to know and respect their production
schedules. Find out deadlines and equally important the format that they would like information
presented in.
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News Release
A news release is a formal release of agency information. As such, it must be written carefully and
concisely. Be direct. Answer the basic questions," Who, What , When, Where, How and Why?"
Ryan et al. (1988) illustrates an acceptable format for compiling this information. It is called the
inverted pyramid.
In a News Release, the first paragraph (LEAD)

should answer the most important questions.
The lead is often only one sentence in length.
The second paragraph is called the BRIDGE . It
focuses on more details. It adds interest and
serves as a transition to even greater detail.
The BODY contains additional details...of
declining importance. This is because if the
release must be shortened, the information in
the Body section should be able to be cut
without significant damage to the story.
Write using short sentences, short paragraphs

and short words.
Figure 7.2
Use an official form whenever

possible, to present a news release.
This form will make it easily
recognizable. Each form should
contain basic agency information;
such as who is the contact for this
piece, what department, phone
numbers, dates of release, photo
notes, etc.... Figure 7.3 illustrates an
example of an agency NEWS
RELEASE form.
Type the news release on the agency

form.
Double space
Use a wide margin
type "more" at the bottom of
the page if there is a second
page
type -30- or -###- at the
bottom of the page to signify
Figure 7.3 "the end"
Use a title
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Chapter 7 Promotion
Newsletters
Newsletters are a fine example of a publicity piece. Typically designed and developed in-house,
particularly by agencies with staff adept at desktop publishing, these promotional pieces are
informative and effective. Newsletters form an important communication link between an agency and
its clients.
Newsletters are sent to program participants as opposed to the public at large. They are typically
mailed only monthly or bi-monthly; even seasonally. The amount of information contained in a
newsletter varies greatly but the general
amount recommended is no more than 6
typed pages. It should have its own
identifiable format; different from the
brochure or other agency fliers.
Written in a news style, the piece can not

only highlight program offerings in more
detail than a course description in a
brochure. It can focus on staff, the
facility and many other aspects of the
agency. It can focus on clients.
Newsletters fill a special niche. They
tend to make clients feel like family and
more a part of the agency.
Subunits of an agency can employ this

promotional effort even if the parent agency does not. For example, many zoos, outdoor education
centers, and sports associations have a loyal customer base that is easily identifiable. These
homogenous groups are willing readers of program specific information.
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Promotion Chapter 7
Timing of Promotional Messages
Optimal timing of a promotional message depends on the target market and the purchase (decision)
stage these potential customers are in. Table 7.2 illustrates when each type of promotion appears to
be most effective as customers move from Awareness to Interest to Evaluation to Trial & Adoption
stages. Publicity appears to be most effective early on, when potential customers may not be aware of
agency's services or even the value of leisure in their lives. Here one might use an emotional appeal,
focusing on the importance of leisure to family unity or some other, very general approach. Publicity
is particularly effective when it precedes advertising; which follows with greater detail and more
pinpoint target marketing.
Feature articles may need to be submitted to magazines as early as 3 months ahead of publication
Brochures should be distributed 4-6 weeks prior to registration (LERN, 1990) as most decisions to
participate in short duration, local activities are often made only 2-3 weeks in advance.
News releases can be very effective only several days before an event; as a reminder .
Matching Media with the position of the customer in the Decision Stage
Customer Advertising Personal Sales Publicity

Decision Selling Promotion
Stage
AWARENESS Very important too expensive at Exhibits and Highly

this stage Shows or important
coupons may
be effective
INTEREST still highly personal nature still of value less crucial

important becomes crucial
to inform
customer
EVALUATION drops due to Most important Good as a drops off

lack of element; visual aid ...
especially when Good
credibility
coupled with displays are
implicit valuable
elements
TRIAL AND OK for Service good for low

ADOPTION reassurance function is stimulating
important repeat
purchases
Implicit
elements critical
Table 7.2 Source ___________________________
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Sales Promotion
Agencies will often utilize special promotional efforts. These include play fairs, mall exhibits,
demonstrations, booths , and some special events. Don't underestimate the effectiveness of these
promotional efforts. They tend to be effective because of the personal interaction, the information
shared and the low-pressure sales setting.
Other sales promotion pieces can include cups, t-shirts, and other similar articles of frequent use. A
t-shirt, with the agency logo and slogan(message) proudly displayed upon it, can gain significant
exposure for the agency. A public recreation agency in a mid sized community of 45,000 likely
sponsors 3500 children or more in youth sports each year. If a t-shirt is provided, it will be worn over
and over again throughout the year; creating enumerable exposures. Ironically, we should probably
pay our clients to wear these shirts. In many cases though, we sell the shirt, or have it co-sponsored
by a corporate partner. In the case of the Sunflower State Games, athletes are given one shirt
(included in the entry fee) but have the opportunity to buy more elaborate and higher quality shirts as
well at $10 or $15 each. Many do and the message proudly displayed upon it is spread far and wide.
Coupons Coupons are an example of a sales promotion items. Theoretically, coupons should be a
very effective method of gaining new program participants. If we are confident that clients will enjoy
our programs, we can eliminate one of the greatest barriers to participation...that of getting them
enrolled in that first class with a coupon good for a free class or bring-a-friend. The reason coupons
are not used more often appears related to an ineffective delivery system.
One coupon of noteworthy value is distributed to deserving, low income families. It is good either for
discounts or full fee waivers on agency programs. It is a proactive approach to scholarship programs for
the disadvantaged. Rather than waiting for people to ask for a scholarship, the agency contacts
qualified persons ahead of time. The park and recreation agency uses both the SRS (Social and
Rehabilitation Services) and School Lunch Program criteria for qualification.
Co-sponsorship is also a form of sales promotion. Corporations lend their names and money to many
recreation activities. Public agencies, while not often able to dedicate funds in this way, can benefit
from co-sponsoring events and facilitating their operation. Donating facilities for aquatic meets, a
bike race, or a charitable softball tournament; volunteering staff to assist with a Volksmarch; or
providing boats for monitoring a triathlon are all fine examples. (See Chapter 12 Special Events for
additional info related to Corporate sponsorship)
Co-sponsorship is very evident in the coupon promotion just discussed. Seldom does one pay
full admission price to a Theme Park or a Ski Area today as most of these entities have formed
a mutually beneficial relationship with some (typically offering advertising) enterprise. One
can often find discount admission tickets or coupons in major grocery chains, or visitor
guides, or even fast food restaurants.
Personal Selling
Personal selling is not directly used by many public park and recreation agencies, although it should
be considered. This promotional method involves a sales force trained to interact with customers.
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Commercial recreation enterprises do use the personal selling approach to various degrees. Adult
fitness clubs employ sales staffs that utilize a significant amount of calling to encourage club use.
For the same reason as coupons are used though, one personal selling method, called "cold calling"
could be expected to yield some favorable results. Cold calling involves telephoning a random
sample of community members or even pre-selected sample of potential clients. Word of Caution: With
the wide deployment of Tele-marketing, more and more people feel harassed by calls. You might avoid the negative
reaction if the message presented is non-threatening, friendly and involves little or no pressure. Give-
aways or free trials are the natural selection of sales promotion to use in conjunction with this method.
To a degree personal selling is also conducted intrinsically. Your agency's office staff and other front
line people can be a valuable promotional resource; if they are trained to not only have the right
answers to questions, but promote additional participation in other programs.
Promotional Cost-Benefit Analysis
The costs of using various media vary dramatically. And cost should always be a consideration.
However the best way to evaluate costs is to track how effective various media strategies have been in
bringing in clients. Comparisons by the Continuing Education Dept, University of Alabama,
Birmingham in Table 7.__illustrate the relative effectiveness of the various promotional approaches in
costs per client.
Effectiveness Comparisons in cost per client, UAB
Promotional Tool Cost Actual Average cost

enrollment
per enrollment
Brochure/ $ 15,655 1,645 $10
Catalog
Telemarketing $ 1,238 199 $6
Word of Mouth $0 1,025 $0
Flyer (mail) $ 130 63 $2
Publicity(all media) $0 68 $0
Newspaper $ 2,177 10 $ 218

insert(brochure)
Business Fair $ 200 15 $13
Other
yellow page ad $ 255 5 $ 51
misc $ 60 122 $ .50
TOTAL $19,715 3,924 $ 5
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REGISTRATION
Ensuring that customers can conveniently enroll in leisure activities of their choice is an essential part
of program planning. This enrolling process, or registration involves the interaction of the agency
(staff) and the individual in a timely fashion. Clients express their selections verbally, or in writing.
When this selection is accompanied by the appropriate fee payment, the client is rewarded with a
reserved space in their program of choice.
Attention to detail by the program planner in charge of registration can avoid many of the problems
associated with it. We've all been associated with some of these problems; such as long lines,
incorrect information, mistakes, unfriendly staffers, etc.. These all serve as barriers to participation.
Registration, just like the quality of the class instructor, is an implicit promotional element.....as
clients make further purchasing decisions based on their experiences during it.
What Should Registration Be?
Easy.
To be easy, someone (usually a program planner) has to eliminate all of the confusion.
Reading, re-reading and compiling forms just like a customer would; spending some time in
the customer's shoes is usually good advice. A special page in the brochure can assist with
this process by outlining the specific steps the customer should take. To ensure that on-site
questions can be answered quickly and accurately someone on duty at registration must have
the right answers.
Quick
Because people do not have much time they value what they have greatly. We, more than
most should recognize this. To assist in speeding up registration, forms should be concise.
Cater to customers by allowing various methods of registration; such as phone in w/credit
cards, fax, etc. Taking registration to the people; as in shopping malls, schools and grocery
stores is also a time saver for them. Utilizing stored computerized information (addresses,
user ID#, etc) can also speed up the process by reducing some of the more redundant
paperwork.) Some agencies are also using other sophisticated methods such as touch tone
phone registration, or on-line computer network services.
Friendly.
The staff members assigned to registration must be more than courteous. Well thought out
registration sessions can be events in themselves. Registration events like the Camosun
College example (Fig. 7.__) are fun for participants and popular for agencies because they
help to condense the effort and effectively use staff. A major registration event might attract
60% of the total registration; filling the more popular activities and allowing for quicker
decisions on dropping less popular program offerings.
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Promotion Chapter 7
Registration Page
Location in brochure/catalog
Dobmeyer( ) suggests that the registration page be the inside back cover of the catalog...this
allows the mailing label to be opposite the FORM portion, resulting in no significant loss of
information when the form is cut out. An insert is also very appropriate. Inserts call
particular attention to the action needed. (Most people are familiar with inserts as the order
forms in mail order catalogs). If the inside back cover is being used for advertising (and this
is also a very appropriate use for this space, select the last inside page for the registration
form...but be careful as to the content that will be cut off on the reverse side of the FORM.
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Content
A model registration page (adapted from Dobmeyer by J. Gibson, 20th Annual LERN Conference,
Chicago, 1992) is illustrated in figure 7.4. Note that the registration page contains both an
informative section and the actual registration form(s).
Registration should be computerized in one form or another. At minimum the hand written or typed
forms should be transferred to a data base by retyping in the correct format. A better variation
involves specialized registration software packages that are especially designed to aid this process.
There are dozens of choices. Online registration is quickly gaining popularity as well. .
CLASS is a popular registration software program; a typical screen is shown below.
CLASS - Facility rental tracking, program registration and accounting programs use a single database with
which to cross reference input and generate all types of useful queries and reports. Now you can enter activities,
process enrollments, handle refunds, print rosters and financial reports, perform enrollment inquiries and much
more.
Review a number of these programs carefully before purchasing. Try a program that another agency
is using. Ask for a demo disk from the manufacturer. Each program has its benefits and detriments.
Some require large amounts of memory and a fast Pentium III machine with a mouse and SVGA
screen, but offer ease of use, speed and power. Others can be run with minimal memory but are
limited in function. Some are windows compatible and extremely user friendly, prompting the
terminal operator at every step. Others require the operator to remember difficult commands.
The value of computer registration includes speed, accuracy and data base/mailing list use after the
initial processing. Customer data can be cut by enumerable variables; including age, program class,
neighborhood, zip-code, family members and many other useful ways. Each of these help to narrow
the market and focus agency efforts. Computerized registration automatically (one keystroke) can
generate in-house mailing lists; which greatly aids later promotional efforts.
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Promotion Chapter 7
Computers play additional roles in promotion; notably that of: 1) brochure design which can be
accomplished in-house with a variety of desk-top publishing programs and 2) Financial and
Customer Data base management.. Integrated OFFICE programs by Microsoft and other developers
make switching from one application to another virtually seamless.
Variable font styles and sizes, column capability, graphic image design, importing and manipulation,
text blocking and importing capabilities all make desk-top publishing rather simple to do in-house.
Cost analysis, coding and tracking are all valuable pieces of information. Tables 7.11 and 7.12
illustrate how marketing efforts can be tracked (from source of registration) and compiled.
Comparing this data allows and agency to determine where its promotional dollar is most effective.
This information can be generated simply by coding registration forms ahead of time.
CLASS registration software lists these functions:
Labels\Rosters: provides a class roster or mailing list and labels for one or
more activities (including name tags)
Contact List prepares an alphabetical listing of registrants
Activity Options list extras such as whether the registrant opted for the spouse
option, handbook, meals, etc..
Client history tracks attendance, individual and family records,
Fee Summary prepares a report that summarizes each participant's

transactions, form of payment, etc. Can be used in budget
preparation. Can also be used with other data (e.g. source of
enrollment: walk-in, mailer, insert, street distribution) for
cost comparisons (see also Table 9.11)
Facility schedule schedules, prices and maintains facility calendars
Accounting transfers accounts payable and receivable to ledgers
Reports generates reports summarizing any aspect of database
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Chapter 7 Promotion
Refund Policy
The agency's refund policy should be clearly spelled out in the brochure, preferably on the registration
page. This policy should reflect the agency's mission. It should be user friendly as far as is
reasonable.
In other words, the agency should absorb reasonable costs. Refund policies will vary by agency but
persons who cannot participate in programs in which they have reserved space should not be
financially penalized unless the agency suffers a fairly severe financial hardship. While it is true that
people should be responsible, and that there are costs associated with reserving a space...there are also
very real costs associated with playing hardball and very strictly enforcing a no-refund policy as
well... such as an unsatisfied customer who will not likely return.
A good example of a user friendly refund policy is exhibited by the Cornejo (California) Park and
Recreation District:
If you are not completely satisfied, tell us and we will arrange for you to:
1. Repeat the class at no charge.

2. Receive full credit that can be applied to any other district program.
3. Receive a full refund.
Applications for refunds may be made in person, by calling, or by writing us at the facility
where the program was conducted. Requests should be made within 5 working days after the
last class meeting. In some cases, we may need to ask for your receipt, canceled check, or
identification. Refund checks will be mailed within three (3) weeks.
Another user friendly policy (source anonymous) reads:
Program participants may request a refund at any time for any reason. Refund payments
w ill be prorated on the basis of prior attendance, but will not include lab fees.
One financial/accounting note: do not give refunds until the participant’s check has cleared; or you may lose twice.!!
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Promotion Chapter 7
Customer Service (Complaint Handling)
Related to the philosophy expressed in refund policies is the belief that the customer comes first.
This hospitality orientation or caring approach has been shown to work.
A study was presented to the National Park Service Concessioner Conference in Denver in 1984 by J.
Goodman TARP (Technical Assistance Research Program, Inc. Washington, D.C.). This study
illustrated the value of properly handling complaints. Key points
a. Individual customers will not typically tell you when they are dissatisfied (of families
facing a loss of $142, 31% never complained to anyone)
b. for every complaint heard, there are 6-10 serious problems and 20-50 less serious
problems (depending on the size of the $ loss)
c. customers who have bad experiences tell others (those will small losses tell 9 other
people...those will large losses tell as many as 16)
d. persons who complain and either have their complaint heard or even resolved are
more loyal customers than others who do not complain
Therefore, it is not only important to resolve complaints, but to make sure that clients are comfortable
communicating their concerns; as these persons become stronger clients.
Effective Exposure - Three Hit Theory
According to Krugman(1975), in order to successfully influence any prospect with any promotional
element, you must reach that prospect with at least three (3) effective exposures to your message.
Linked to the process or stages that a client passes through, the individual's first effective exposure
will likely create awareness. The second effective exposure will hopefully create interest, leading to
research of information. The third effective exposure is a reinforcer.
Marketers suggest that it takes as

many as 12 exposures to result in 3
effective ones. Kamin (1978)
illustrates this concept in figure 7.__
While the concept appears logical, it
was designed and measured using
national media. Park and Recreation
agency program specialists,
however, can benefit from the
general idea. Agencies do not
typically use a great number of
exposures or even channels.
Variations in channel types and rates
of usage could result in substantial
product/service recognition and may
well be worth the extra effort.
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Chapter 7 Promotion
Logos
An important promotional element in every park and recreation agency's repertoire should be its logo.
A logo is the symbol the firm/agency uses to identify itself in the market. Logos are characteristically
distinctive graphic images; even though one may be entirely text, it should be distinctive and
recognizable. Logos should be used with virtually every promotional element; kept always before the
public eye. It can be placed on staff and participant clothing, billboards, stationery, business cards,
fliers, posters, in news releases and ads, and on vehicles, etc..
Note that many logos are trademark protected. Research possible infringements thoroughly
beforehand.
Logos should possess some of the following characteristics:
Simple: easy to identify and recognize, not cluttered

Attractive, pleasing to look at
As effective in Black and White as in color
As effective in all sizes of reproduction
Related to the Agency's mission/message
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Promotion Chapter 7
Exhibited here are several logo designs. Not all are good examples. Being a small agency with a
limited budget is not an excuse for a lousy logo design. Admit your limitations and contract with an
illustrator or artist for its design. Trade services with a client in your program, or an instructor...but
don't let this first impression for your agency be a negative one.
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Chapter 7 Promotion
Brochure Design
Because of the dominant use of brochures by most agencies as their promotional piece of choice,
understanding how to best organize and develop this material is understandably important.
Fortunately a fair amount of information exists on the topic. One enterprise in particular has
specialized in all aspects of marketing leisure and lifelong learning programs. LERN(Learning
Resources Network) primarily serves University Continuing Education programs, but has successfully
adapted this work for Recreation and Park agencies.
Learning Resources Network

1550 Hayes Drive
Manhattan, KS 66502
(800) 678-5376
E-Mail: info@lern.org
LERN's related publications include:
How to find and Keep Good Instructors

Marketing Techniques for Office Staff
Brochure Graphics
Designing Brochures for Results
Pricing Courses
Marketing Manual for Class Programs
High Response Surveys
Registration Techniques to Increase Enrollments
The Best Brochure Ideas of the Year
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Promotion Chapter 7
The following recommendations are adapted from Dommermuth ( ) in Promotion: Analysis,

Creativity and Strategy. His recommendations are for magazine ads but the similarity to a brochure
cover is striking. Page placement should consider the following:
Balance The format should be symmetrical

Unity Stand back and look. Does it fit together?
Contrast Take advantage of the non-ordinary
Movement Eye movement moves from upper left to right across the page to the lower left
then right in a Z pattern
Components that should be included:
Headline: Statement that gets attention early, makes the reader want to continue.
Promises a benefit early. Read 500% more than other text.
Subhead: often called a kicker (use as a bridge between headline and copy)
Illustration: This is noticed first
Should arouse interest
Creates impression
Convinces reader of truth
Seeing is believing
Body Copy: Calls for action or response
Needs to be believable but friendly
Shorter copy for established products (and agencies)
Signature: The cover should carry your agency signature (much like an full page ad in a
magazine
Agency name and logo
Slogan
Compare this magazine ad with

the recommendations noted.
Notice the location of ch
component. The one notable
difference between this ad and a
brochure cover is that the ad
contains much more print. The
body copy would be greatly
reduced or nonexistent in a
brochure cover.
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Chapter 7 Promotion
Recommendations for Brochure Design (adapted from a LERN publication)
1. Generally the most popular formats for program brochures is the magazine size. Newspaper formats are
also popular and very cost efficient in high volume production. (Newsprint loses some readability and
graphics quality though, which is a tradeoff) One popular format is a blend of these two; using a
magazine size with a slick, high quality gloss cover with newsprint insides.
2. A graphic, either photo or drawing should dominate the cover. Color is important...use as much as you
can afford here. Use varying print sizes on the cover, but don't have much verbiage on the front...let the
graphic convey most of the message. Collages occasionally work but often become too congested.
LERN suggests five basic types of art (1) Institution oriented. Pictures of the office building should be
avoided. (2) Neutral. Clip art is limited in its ability to elicit emotion. (3) Pictures of classes can be
effective if the image captures the joy and emotion. (4) Community. Shots of prominent places or issues
can be effective as they show caring and belonging. (5) Fine Art. Be sure it is linkable to your purpose.
3. The inside of the front cover is an ideal location for paid advertisements. Otherwise use this location for
general information about the agency; including its history, mission, staff, and a "pitch" on why the
reader should participate in your programs.
4. A table of contents enhances the ease of use and should be incorporated for publications 6 pages or
longer. Divide the content into Program Areas; followed by Activity areas or some other logical
categories that are easily located by the reader.
5. Desktop publishing (DTP) has made it possible to easily incorporate agency images of actual
participants. Use these with an accompanying testimonial to add credibility. Use one early, and
disperse 1-2 others throughout the publication.
6. DTP has also made it possible to do much of the layout work of brochure design in-house, providing you
have qualified staff. Along with DTP comes a wide array of font styles. Avoid too much shifting...a few
different styles are OK though. Consider the serif (with tails) font as these are deemed more readable.
7. List the cost of the activity at the end of the description rather than the beginning as it tends to act as a
barrier or reason not to participate. Sell the sizzle first. Use whole number pricing $20 and leave the
psychological games to the commercial sector.
8. Two or three columns per page in a magazine format is popular.
9. Registrations Forms
a. Using two registrations forms increases enrollment. Though the University for Man
(M anhattan, KS) suggests that only 5% of enrollments were on a second form, these results
were for adult education. Recreation departments tend to serve an audience with a much
greater age range.
b. Smaller(eg. 2 ½ by 3") is adequate
c. Don't screen forms as screening drastically reduces reproduction quality
d. Ask only for pertinent information
10. Plan your layout to avoid wasted half pages
11. List registration information on a separate page, located at the end of the brochure.
12. Vary type size. Program Areas might be 16 pt;
Activity Areas might be 14 pt;
Activity Title might be 12 pt,
the general activity description 10 pt.
13. A popular approach (inexpensive) is to use one dominant color in addition to black printing. Screening
this color will give the impression of several shades. (note: if it doesn't look good in black and
white....it won't look in color.
14. Photos and other graphics add variety and interest. Don't overdo them however. Photos of active
participants, particularly children are effective.
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Writing Activity Descriptions
The writing of activity descriptions should be given more effort by program planners. Too often the
description is cutesy (too casual) or trite or dull, or just plain uninformative. This description is the
"sales pitch" and the last opportunity to appeal to the customer and should be taken very seriously.
Still, with hundreds of descriptions per brochure, one must also write clearly and concisely.
Elements of an activity description:
Title The title should be catchy and designed to capture the reader's attention. It should
also be simple. Good examples:
simple: "Attracting Winter Birds"

catchy: "Early birds get the Word(Microsoft)
interactive/question "Working like a dog?"
familiar "Movers and Shakers"
humor "Nerds Unite"
positive "Winners workshop"
Activity Description
Openers the first few words of an activity description set the tone for the
remainder. Here you will either catch or lose the reader. LERN suggests a
number of opener techniques: Rotate among these choices, using primarily
the definitions, end results and impressive facts, with only an occasional
question, quotation or distraction. Remember, Focus on the client or
benefit!!!!!
a definition Batik is the age old art of fabric coloring using wax and dye
a question W hy do birds go south for the W inter?
end result You can have a career and quality family time too
impressive Fishing is good for your heart
fact
quotation “W hen life gives you lemons, make lemonade”
distraction W ait! I'm not ready yet.
Avoid: focusing on the course or instructor

this class will focus on......
Ann will explain the......
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Chapter 7 Promotion
Activity Description
Body Here you continue what was started in the opener...further enticing the reader and
explaining what the activity will entail. Additional information regarding session
length and content and a discussion of special skills or equipment.
Includes content like:
Topics to be covered include...

Participants will.....
You'll be shown...
Experience.....
Learn how to....
Logistics Answers the basic questions of where and when and to some degree
how. It is generally recommended that logistical information be standardized
and that this format be used throughout the brochure.
Code Location Dates Day(s) Time Fee
AK22.5 Hemphill Ctr 3/24-4/10 M W 6:30-8:30pm $ 30
Leader/Instructor Biography
Two alternatives generally predominate the inclusion of instructor or leader's biographies.

Option #1 involves including a separate paragraph following the course description. Option
#2 involves creating an appendices where all instructors bios are included.
Try to describe the instructors as real, but credible and qualified people (not too lofty, but
approachable and knowledgeable).
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Promotion Chapter 7
1. When is the most effective period, and where is the most effective place to distribute brochures?
2. How effective do you believe couponing would be as a sales promotion item? Why?
3. Describe the crucial elements that should be incorporated into every registration form.
4. What are the similarities and differences between publicity and advertising?
5. Should public agencies use more advertising than they do currently? Why?
ASSIGNMENT
1. Prepare a one page news release for your activity.
Select an agency that you will develop this activity and brochure for later.
You will be required to add a logo to this at a later time. (You can either begin to
develop it now...or at least leave space for it)
2. Write two versions of an activity description for your selected activity using different
elements:(see Activity Outline on author’s Webpage for additional detail)
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Chapter 8 Aquatics
CHAPTER EIGHT
AQUATICS
FOCUS ON OPEN FACILITY//DROP-IN FORMAT
Comprehend several approaches to scheduling a public aquatics facility.

Be comfortable establishing a price for aquatic activities.
Understand the important elements of aquatic programming.
Aquatics has been defined as water based performances or sports. Water Sports as a group are easily
the nations most popular participation sports. Swimming typically ranks among the top 3 outdoor
recreation activities. This category of recreation activities is large enough in diversity and
participation to warrant a separate analysis of its programming characteristics. Water sports include
swimming and diving (in developed and undeveloped areas...from farm ponds to pools to ocean
beaches), scuba and snorkeling, boating, paddle-boating, fishing, sailing, canoeing, as well as a variety
of hard water sports including hockey, skating, ice fishing etc.
This chapter highlights those water sports typically programmed in a municipal pool. There are
certainly many instances where similar programming can be used for a controlled waterfront situation
like one might find at a camp or resort. The boating and fishing activities are covered in the section
on outdoor recreation programming.
Pool Programming
Most moderately sized communities have a community pool. Other communities provide access for
residents to waterfronts and beaches. Still other communities without a facility plan aquatic
experiences at lodging establishments and even privately owned pools.
Indoor pools have become an increasingly popular means of extending the typically limited (3 month)
aquatic season to year round. Indoor pools are expensive, with current estimates suggesting that a
moderate facility will exceed $4 million. Because of this large investment, these facilities are often
coupled with a middle or high school, where the recreation agency often manages either all or a
substantial portion of the programming; often including the instructional sessions for students.
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One community in east central Kansas (Burlington, population 4,500) was blessed with a substantial
tax base and built an indoor aquatic facility as part of its multi-purpose recreation center. A good
number of the pool users travel 30+ miles one way to use this facility. Many of the users are seniors,
who particularly benefit from aquatic exercise programs designed especially for them. Though most
communities have outdoor pools, many of these are old, built in the 1930's by the WPA or shortly
after WWII. The Land and Water Conservation Fund also helped many communities build pools in
the late 60's and early 70's. This fund, though severely diminished in capacity, still serves as the
major funding source for the development of these important community facilities.
Probably more so here than in any other program area, the quality of the facility has extreme impact
on the quality of the programming one can provide. Programmers must take an active role in facility
design. Do not fall into the trap of using current participation trends to justify the building of a new
aquatic facility. Old pools discourage use. New pools are hubs of activity. Most offer amenities such
as zero entrance, water slides, fountains, waves, disabled access, and amenities designed for revenue
such as quality concession centers. A pool (aquatic center) just built in the in the Kansas city area in
1992 attracted 5 times the participation of the old pool it replaced (see Table 8.__).
Still, many will have to "make do" with older facilities for some time. Here, quality and diverse
programming is even more essential. While new facilities can make up for some poor programming,
old facilities cannot. Well designed and conducted programs become the primary means of user
satisfaction.
Facility Features:
Each community must assess its individual aquatic needs and each pool must be designed to address
various factors. These factors can include: predominate type of use (e.g. competition, lessons, public
swim) the age of users, the environmental conditions, and the like. All pools should nonetheless
contain certain characteristics. The Council for National Cooperation in Aquatics has recommended
the following features.
1. the pool should be a beautiful facility which will blend into the decor of the
surrounding area. It should be recognizable as a distinct asset to the community.
2. The pool should be a place where parents may bring their children with complete
confidence that they will be safely and adequately supervised.
3. The pool should be a place where parents may come and watch the activities of their
children without having to "get into" a suit.
4. The pool should be a place where people will not just want to come for a dip....but to
stay for the day.
5. The pool should be a place where there are other things to do besides swim.
6. The pool should in no way become a noise nuisance.
7. The pool should be a place where participants may improve their skills and
knowledge in aquatics, enjoy the wholesome benefits or just swim.
8. The pool should be expertly designed and engineered with a body of water that is
"purer" than drinking water.
9. The traffic flow around the pool area should be planned to minimize congestion.
10. The location of the pool in any existing park should not reduce or minimize the
quality or quantity of other recreation facilities.
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The Family Aquatic Center:
Americans love to swim, particularly outdoors. U.S. Census data ranks swimming as the number one
outdoor activity. In 1991, over 70 million participants were recorded. The National Recreation
Survey found that approximately 55% of all Americans will swim outdoors. As many as 80% of teens
and young adults (18-24) will do so and almost 63% of adults aged 25-44.
One must wonder then why so many outdoor pools are losing money. Aquatic specialists suggest that
a primary reason is that the old pool design is antiquated; unable to offer the safety, or excitement
necessary to be a noteworthy community attraction. An innovative and popular new approach is the
Family Aquatic Center.
This multi use facility is diverse in its aquatic experiences

and operates essentially as a spin off of themed commercial
waterparks. This concept emphasizes entertainment for
children of all ages. Adults and families have returned to the
water as a result.
PHN, Ltd.,Aquatic Center Developers
The following objectives are typically addressed by such an aquatic center:
Appeal to families by offering shallow water play areas, waterslides, fountains, and other
similarly entertaining water play options.
Enhance adult participation and passive use by offering more deck area and
especially turf and shade areas.
Enhance other casual non-water experiences as well
Improve concession services
Optimize hydro-fitness opportunities
Ensure that the facility does not just meet ADA but is inviting to the disabled
Improve parking, non-water patron safety, and other such physical amenities
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Kettering, Ohio
Attendance and Revenue comparisons after two old-standard pools were

replaced by one Family Aquatic Center.
1989 Attendance at 2 pools 81,755 Revenue <-$ 68,210>

1991 Attendance at the Aquatic Ctr 165,785 Revenue $ 133,335
Florissant, Missouri
The old pool was demolished and replaced with a family aquatic center in 1995. Staff
expect revenues to triple over the old tub. In fact in just 10 days of operation the aquatic
center produced 80% of the revenue that the old pool had in its last full season.
Park and Recreation magazine annually offers an edition related to aquatics. The November
1998 issue has several articles on WATERPARKS.
Construction costs of a pool of this type currently range from $2.8- 4.2 million.
http://www.watertechnologyinc.com/company_profile.htm
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Aquatic Programming
There are three major factors that influence the programming of a swimming pool. These are 1) the
Safety of the Participants, 2) the Purity of the Water (and other facility qualities), and 3) the
diversity and quality of the Program.
Safety of the Participants
Safety is of paramount importance. Extreme care must be taken to protect the participants and
staff, not only in the water but in the remainder of the facility. We must be concerned not
only with the obvious (prevention of drowning) but with falls, slips, cuts, that can occur on
the deck and in other areas of the facility and even false senses of security our young
instructional participants may gain from classes. Safety is the underlying objective of
instructional programs. Providing adequate instruction for all ages and skill levels is an
essential part of the preventing injury. These learned skills become even more crucial to the
non-supervised participant who swims, boats, or sails on open waterways.
Safety concerns necessitate well developed risk management plans. These plans must address
the prevention of accidents as well as procedures to follow in the event of an injury. Risk
management involves among other things a plan of supervision. Staffing considerations
include not only the number of guards to have on duty at any one time, but their location and
schedules. Figure 8.__ suggests several guard placements for one pool design. The fountain
(concrete waterfall in the kiddie pool section of this pool) necessitates an additional guard
because of the blockage of vision .
Figure 8.__ also illustrates guard rotation. Rotating lifeguards is important to keep these
supervisors fresh and maximally aware of their conditions and situations. The rotation
illustrated shows three fixed stations and three rotating guards. These positions are rotated
every 10-15 minutes. A break is scheduled for each guard every hour or so.
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Figure 8.__Guard Rotation (Municipal Outdoor Pool, built in 1990)

(25 meters x 50, plus diving well)
Note: peak use may necessitate additional roving guards
Specialized facilities require more specific plans. Pools with water slides or wave pools need to take
special precautions. Supervision at slide entrances to assure safe starts and preparations of users
(restrict head first sliding and groups)as well as at the outlet (splash pool) to ensure quick exists is
crucial. Some slide operators require slide users to meet a certain minimum height to better ensure
some degree of swimming ability and strength. As ADA requirements are met, additional guards/
volunteers may need to assist with access problems, particularly on slides, as these too will need to be
accessible in many cases.
Wave pool guards have different responsibilities than normal flat water pools. Many users are not
accustomed to the effects of waves. Occasionally new regulations, such as helmets or mats are needed
for added protection. Often guards are required to stand during wave pool cycles to be more alert.
A number of important safety decisions must be made relative to guarding. The number of guards per
participants will vary. Peak use may necessitate an additional roving guard. Non peak use (off
season) such as the last two weeks in September may bring in so few patrons as to need only 3 guards
at a time.
Guard qualifications and training are also important considerations. Hire only certified guards.
However, whether or not your agency chooses to use guards certified according to Red Cross or some
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other Certified Program means little if regular (once/week) in-service retraining and emergency
procedure practice is not conducted.
You can help yourself in this regard by initiating a junior lifeguard program. This program is
designed to train future guards. Youth in the 12-14 age group are targeted to volunteer for up to 15
hours per week. During this time they assist with swim lessons, work in the pool office, clean up and
generally assist the guards. They are trained in lifesaving techniques but are never given solo
responsibilities, nor are they to initiate a rescue. This program acts as a recruiting tool as many of
these junior guards are later hired as instructors and lifeguards (age 18).
Purity of the Water:
Cleanliness is essential. Testing of water quality several times a day is crucial to maintaining pristine
conditions. Correct pH as well as bacterial counts are two means of determining water quality. The
majority of pool staff should know how to test water and the necessary corrective action to take.
Specific personnel however should be identified as responsible for this maintenance routine.
Quality of the Program
Again, the variety of water sports is diverse. The following table lists several of the more popular
activity areas that will help the staff provide a good range of activities. Each pool schedule should
contain a majority of these elements:
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Aquatic Activity Areas and Formats
Instruction: Each pool should have a wide variety of opportunities from non-swimmer to
advanced, and for all ages( as there are many adult non-swimmers). Schedule older swimmers earlier
than the younger swimmers. Do not schedule swim lessons only in the morning. Consider an
occasional weeknight and weekday to accommodate different clients. Involve the school system in
your aquatic instructional program. Instruction can generate substantial revenue ...but everyone
should be able to afford it.
Drowning prevention should be a community affair. Between 6,000 and 8,000 drowning
occur annually, and most of these occur in lakes and rivers, well away from the well
supervised pool environment. Over 50% of these drowning involve young people, under the
age of 20. Moler (NRPA Feb 1993) cites numerous resources available to aquatics directors.
These include the Drowning Prevention Foundation, the Spinal Cord Injury Foundation, the
U. S. Lifesaving Association, the National Spa and Pool Institute, the Am' Red Cross, the
YMCA, YWCA, Scouting groups, and several State(e.g. Oklahoma, Georgia) Safe Kids
Coalitions, and the Corps of Engineers.
Organizations that can be of help with Water and Safety Education
American Red Cross Ntl. Headquarters National Spa and Pool Institute
Health and Safety Services 2111 Eisenhower Ave.
431 18th St. NW
Alexandria, VA 22314 W ashington, DC 20006
(703) 838-0083 (202) 639-3549
Centers for Disease Control Ntl. Swimming Pool Safety

Center for Env. Health and Injury Ctrl National W ater W atch Program
Atlanta, GA 30333 c/o U.S. Consumer Product
(404) 488-1652 Safety Commission
W ashington, D.C. 20207
Gus & Goldie U.S. Coast Guard

City of El Paso Park & Rec Dept Commet (G-NAB-5)
4001 Duranzo St. Boating Safety Lit'
El Paso, Texas W ashington, DC 20593
(915) 541-4594 (800) 368-3647
Swim America
The learn to swim program of theAmerican Swimming Coaches Association
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Drowning prevention programs must be proactive. Take the program to the media, to schools, to
boaters, to neighborhood associations to talk about backyard pools.
Water Sport Instruction Be sure to include other water sports instruction. A number of
activities needs water and can easily be adapted to utilize the pool environment. These
include kayaking, fly fishing, etc. Also specialized sports like scuba and snorkeling should be
included.
Competition: Swim team use both for practice and events (meets) should be incorporated into public
pools. Agency teams as well as private associations should be accommodated in that order. Swim
team athletes can typically tolerate colder temperatures and can be scheduled earlier in the morning
than lessons. Swim meets can be scheduled on summer Saturday mornings to avoid time conflicts
with the afternoon public swim session.
Competition is an important but not usually the primary purpose of public pools. If competitive use is
dominating your pool to the detriment of other programs, restrictions may have to be implemented.
Before this group is denied, extended(early morning or late evening) scheduling should be
implemented.
Swim competition typically follows the meet format discussed in Chapter 9, Sports, and involves heats
and preliminaries, semi's and final's based on the number of lanes available. Diving competition is
included in many swim meets, too. Personnel needed to run a swim meet include judges, timers,
clerk of the course, starter, runners and recorders. It is the clerk of the course's job to register athletes
and assign heats and place these athletes in their appropriate physical order prior to their race.
Triathlons. Other competitive based aquatics include special events like triathlons and
biathlons that have a water based component. In these races, the primary concern is again
safety. These races require many volunteers, including several spotter boats with 2-3
volunteers per boat, and rescue boats (preferably with jet motors instead of props) should
closely monitor the entire course (including at least one boat that follows the last competitor).
Boats of every type can be involved in regattas (races). These activities are included in the
outdoor program area.
Lifesaving and Water Safety: Schedule training and re-training sessions that will be beneficial not
only to your staff but other community residents. Can include special events like guard contests
between pools. Dworkin (P&R, Apr 1986) recommends guard competitions as both a great
motivator and a timely in-service training program. Specialized safety training is no longer just the
realm of the Red Cross. Other programs by the YMCA and Swim America and Ellis and Associates
are now popular across the country.
Recreational Swimming: Also called Public Swim or Free swim. Typically programmed in the
drop-in use format, this activity area is the most popular, generating the highest amount of pool use
for most agencies. Many pools begins rec swimming at 12:00 noon or thereabouts, after lessons and
other activities have been completed in the morning. Consider breaking Public Swim into target
markets (families, youth v. adults, etc..) instead of lumping all of these groups into one.
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Be sure that rec swimming is not scheduled the same time every day. For example: schedule an
occasional evening of adult only rec swim. Some agencies take periodic breaks in the afternoon of
public swim to allow for lap swimming. Other agencies break public swim into segments (e.g. 12:00
to 3:00 section #1.....3:00 to 6:00pm section #2) This approach allows for three things: 1) increased
revenue as each admission is only good for one section, and 2) reduced fatigue by swimmers, who
might stay all afternoon otherwise, and 3) a reduction of low valued users who use the pool as a
babysitting service.
Special Events: Special event programming in pools is a popular way to highlight and celebrate
water sports. These events can include water carnivals, guard contests, playground field days, and the
like. Several should be planned during the course of a summer.
One example is a post-season fishing tournament. This post-season special event is often tied in with
the National Hunting and Fishing Day recognition in September. (see P&R Feb 1991). In Beaumont
1,300 lbs of catfish were made available to clients.
The agency charged $3 per hour, with a limit of 3 fish per person. Poles and bait were furnished. The
event netted (no pun intended) $1,800. As would be expected fish need different water quality than
people. The pool should rest and the chlorine dissipate for at least a week ahead of the event. Pool
temperature should be below 60 degrees for trout but 65 to 75 is acceptable for catfish. Utilize a
sportsman's club for volunteers to help with pool side supervision and assistance. Tag several fish and
offer prizes.
Movie Night Another popular activity used at Oceans of Fun in Kansas City is movie night.
Popular movies are offered for viewing. Participants watch the movies while relaxing in inner tubes
or on the deck. This program can be defined especially for teens by proper movie selection and
related touches.
Aquatic Fitness: The options of using water for fitness improvement are many. Specialized
programs include hydro aerobics, water walking, deep water exercise, and lap swimming; as well as
special programs adapted for special needs such as pre-natal, youth and arthritic programs.
Schedule fitness programs throughout a typical week to reach a variety of clientele. Spannuth (P&R ,
Feb 1989) offers numerous suggestions for aquatic fitness programming in his article Water: The New
Fitness Center.
Lap swimming is important enough in most communities that many pools maintain a lap swimming
area (2-3)lanes even during the public swim period. Other pools use a designated portion of each hour
10-15 minutes just for lap swimming, during which time all other swimmers are asked to leave the
pool.
Water Sports and Games: Included in this activity area are sports like water polo, synchronized
swimming, and adapted sports like basketball and volleyball. These activities are useful in reaching a
young adult (18-30)population in particular. As a result, these should be scheduled on an occasional
evening or weekend.
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Staffing
Staffing of an aquatics program typically involves most of the following positions.
Aquatics Director: Mid level manager in charge of all aquatic programming. Directs all
pools and supervises all pool managers. Many smaller agencies do not fill this position or fill
it only seasonally or in conjunction with other general programming duties.
Aquatic Facility Director (Pool manager): this person directs the program and supervises the
staff at a given facility. Is responsible for supervision of instruction, maintenance, program
and safety, purity and program elements.
Director of Instruction: Communities with multiple pools may use this title. The person in
this job is essentially in charge of the instructional program.
Each pool will typically have a head instructor who is responsible for the instructional
program at that pool.
Instructors are those WSI qualified (typically) persons who teach the classes. Often these
individuals double as lifeguards.
Head Lifeguard: Each pool will typically have one guard who is responsible for the safety
program. This person (or the pool manager) schedules the guards and their in-service training
programs.
Aids/ Attendants, etc.. are responsible for general assistance. They are either paid minimum
wage or they often volunteer. Their titles vary but include junior lifeguard, or aquatics aide.
William Cowan of the El Paso Texas Aquatics Section has outlined the possible contributions
of this position. Their duties include: pool maintenance, basket checking, ticket punching,
vacuuming, instructional assistance, and the like.
Cashier: One person who is responsible for the gate and all other cash receipts. This person
may delegate actual cash register duties, but reports and recordkeeping are their primary
duties.
Concession Operators: This area may be contracted out to a private firm. If kept in-house
these persons are responsible for food, beverage and aquatic item sales.
Pricing
Establishing a price for community pools is definitely not a science. There are many approaches, and
each offers some benefit. First of all, aquatic activities should not all be priced according to the same
philosophy. Recreational swimming and instructional "learn to swim classes" and drowning
prevention should be low cost programs designed to benefit most of the public at large. As a result
these programs should be subsidized. They are merit services (close to public services). On the other
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end of the spectrum, specialized classes like scuba or sailing should be priced to recover all direct
costs and some percentage of overhead (e.g. 15%) and are a good example of partial overhead pricing.
These are still merit services, but the users benefit to a much greater degree than nonusers. Some
marina operations actually are private in nature and should recover all costs plus profit...if the
beneficiaries are believed to be only users.
Going Rate pricing Users of this method compare what other agencies were charging and set a
similar price. This approach is not cost based and may recover higher or lower revenues than needed
depending on your pools costs of operation. Still, if other pools are charging $3 per day and you
decide to charge $5, your pool better have either additional amenities, or benefits or it better be too far
away from the others to avoid substitution or participants will switch.
Pricing Lessons Instructional lessons for youth may have a target revenue recovery of considerably
less 100% because of their obvious benefit to the entire community. A corporate sponsor can help
defray or eliminate agency costs.
Nontraditional Flyfishing, scuba, sailing, or kayaking lessons though are merit (close to private in
nature....users benefit much more than non-users) and should recover 100%of direct operating
expenses plus 15% or more for overhead.
Season Passes Season passes are popular forms of charging for pool use. The concept behind
season passes is that families do not have to shell out repeatedly. They can pay once for the entire
summer. It is cheaper for repeat users if they are heavy users. Season passes for any activity(pools,
golf or camping) are generally discouraged by economists as they encourage overuse and use by low-
valued users. If you use season passes, there is in effect no charge for your services after several uses.
With swimming though, it will be hard to remove this option regardless of its related problems. To be
efficient, price the pass a level where use must be quite high to benefit.
Be sure you can afford them. As much as 70% of pool use is attributed to pass users. New pools
costing $1 million or more to build are using these less and less...they can't afford to.
If you use season passes, you should consider several options:
(1) individual passes, and

(2) family passes. Family passes should be a minimum of 2 individual passes and
start to reduce after the 3rd family member. For example, if you charge $20
per year for an individual season pass, a family pass would be at least $40 for
two persons and would decline per additional family member. Three persons
might pay $50, Four persons might pay $57, etc.
(3) season passes that are good only on weekdays, and only from a certain time
(as one 3 hr session/day)
(4) Extended swim discount package or 10 swim card. The advantage of #4 is
that you still control the amount of use. Here you might charge $8 for a card
for 10 weekday swims, that would normally cost $10.
Season passes are also hard to track. One family member can easily share his family' passes with a
friend visiting for the summer. Be prepared to initiate steps to prevent fraud such as this. Photo ID's
do but these are expensive. Medallions are used as well with a designated # for cross checking.
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Nonresident pricing is equitable but difficult to do and probably not worth the negative public
relations. The community will benefit from other expenditures by the visiting family as well.
Pricing for family aquatic centers Pricing is typically what the market will bear. The commercial-
like service has resulted in fees three to four times higher than for the old style pool tubs, but, as
illustrated, the public has been more than willing to pay the higher fees for the better experiences.
Tiered pricing is used occasionally, where there is one general admission price and separate prices for
amenities such as a waterslide.
What attractions are driving the popularity of the family aquatic center?
Public swim is a drop-in format. How does it differ from other typical drop-in activities?
Public Pool Programming need not be boring. What are some of the more exciting activities one
could plan for an outdoor pool?
Should swim lessons be free?
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ASSIGNMENT
1. Locate the Bellingham, Washington aquatic center webpage:
http://www.cob.org/cobweb/parks/aqua/index.htm
2. Download and copy the fee and program schedules, and bring to class
IN CLASS
3. Estimate the personnel needed for this facility and schedule the number of each needed:
# guards 9.00/hr
# instructors 10/hr
# cashiers and concession staff 6/hr
# managers 10/hr
4. Given the attendance figures provided, and using your personnel and other operational
costs that are assigned, Estimate the revenue and expenses for one week
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Chapter 9 SPORTS Focus on the Competitive Format
CHAPTER NINE
SPORTS
FOCUS ON THE COMPETITIVE FORMAT
understand how to organize all of the resources necessary to produce viable sports
activities in at least five (5) different formats.
comprehend the necessary components of a sound philosophy of competition and

awards.
know the best uses of a variety of tournament and league scheduling techniques.
S ports and active games are an integral part of American Society...in many cases indistinguishable
from it.
Sports constitute as much as 70% of the overall participation in publicly sponsored park and
recreation programs. Sports participants are multiple and repeat users. Sports are what public
suppliers of recreation opportunities should be about; providing opportunities for social, emotional
and physical growth...for personal enrichment, for personal excellence. Properly conducted sports
programs provide us with the opportunity to learn, enhance and lastly test our skills against ourselves
and our peers. As a result of participation, patrons can benefit through improved health, self-
confidence, happiness and personal satisfaction. Sports participants can feel a sense of belonging (as
a member of a team), of mastery (of a skill) of acceptance by peers. Few persons can feel totally
fulfilled without periodic involvement in some form of athletic or physical skills.
Yet, is the tail wagging the dog? Is the winning at all costs conviction ruining our programs by
depriving participants of the meaningful social interaction, cooperation and personal growth possible
through competition? Are sports now barriers to human growth and development, serving as a point
at which our involvement reduces rather than enhances our enrichment. Is on-the-field performance
the only standard by which growth and achievement are measured?
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SPORTS Focus on the Competitive Format Chapter 9
An important starting point for quality sports programming is to decide what the benefits and results
from good programming should be; followed by close scrutiny to evaluate if our programs are
contributing to, or preventing the desired outcomes.
Sports programmers must form a sound, defendable philosophy of competition based on research,
their own experiences and a belief that recreation services must be a place where participants improve
their values rather than reduce them.
THE COMPETITIVE QUESTION
Competitive Sports are an integral part of recreation programming. From

contact sports to ping-pong, from chess to wheelchair basketball, the notion
that individual growth and development are enhanced by competition in
recreation is rooted deeply in American culture. From dog shows to beauty
contest, in crafts and the arts, the competitive model is often the only form of
recreation programming for participant and spectator alike.
The place of competition in leisure activities must be related to the competitive

nature of our economic system and the essential reality that much of life is a
competition of sorts.
It is hard to see competitive sports disappearing, but some serious questions

are being raised by researchers and practitioners about real effects of
competition on people.
For the few who win, there are many losers. For the few who win
occasionally, there are many who lose consistently. For the number who are
good enough to compete, there are many more who drop out or never try.
Does losing in sport have carryover into other aspects of life: We assume
there is something psychologically uplifting about winning; is there a reverse
effect for the loser?
Park and recreation professionals must examine their goals, provide a

balance of competitive and cooperative play, and broaden the spectrum of
opportunities without diluting the experience for anyone.
EDITORIAL IN PARK AND RECREATION MAGAZINE
This chapter is designed to prepare the future sports programmer in all aspects of this diverse program
area; including, but not limited to activity selection, scheduling, staffing, competitive philosophy,
tournament\league scheduling, pricing, and operations.
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Classifying Sports and Active Games Activities
Much like Xerox has been become a household word for photocopying, sports and athletics have
become basically indistinguishable. Here we have suggested that athletics belongs to the broad
category of sports and active games.
Webster defines sport as any recreational activity requiring bodily exertion. Athletics is listed
by Webster as sports, games, exercises, etc.
Yet, most people who have been associated with sport believe there are even greater, more distinctive
differences between sports and athletics. What are the similarities and what sets sports and athletics
apart?
Sports and athletics are both characterized by the performance of physical skills in concert with some
set of rules governing play. Both involve the use of specialized pieces of equipment such as bats,
balls, protective gear, rackets, nets, boats, and the like.
The various formats were illustrated in Chapter 5. Three of the more popular formats are listed
below. Notice that one of these is athletics.
a. sand-lot or free play

b. organized sports competition (athletics)
c. instruction, including clinics
Each of these formats is characterized by various benefits and detriments. Programmers should be
aware of these characteristics and select activities that provide benefits in line with their objectives.
Sandlot ball and other free play
One of the ironies of programmer's efforts in supplying quality programs is that often one of the more
intrinsically motivated, independently initiated, "pure" forms of activity, the sand-lot experience is
neglected. "Sandlot ball", or the art of kids organizing themselves, choosing where and when to play
is participant motivated. Players determine the conditions of the contest; deciding on their own rules,
teams and even who will play. Sandlot ball offers the opportunity for the derivation of special
benefits to those lucky enough to possess the social and physical skills (or the equipment) necessary to
participate. These include problem solving skills as well as physical and sport specific skills, building
of self-confidence, and respect for rules, even imagination and creativity.
To those less fortunate, however, sand lot ball offers negative experiences spawned in ridicule and
bias. To those persons repeatedly selected last or not at all, these times are best forgotten.
To the rescue come recreation programmers; determined to make play fair for all. Unfortunately,
many well-meaning designers of sports competition have taken away all of the romance. We've
adulterized child's play so to speak. Learning to deal with life's difficulties is part of growing up.
Over protection by parents and well meaning recreation programmers does not solve all of life's
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problems ...it merely postpones most to adulthood. Yet, on the positive side of adult intervention,
many of the rules and policies implemented by sports programmers are effective in making play fair,
and are designed to ensure that every child has a similar opportunity to reap the benefits of sports and
be enriched and fulfilled by their efforts.
Active games are a special type of sport that is most similar to free play. These activities typically
require low levels of skill, equipment and organization. Dodgeball, blind-man's-bluff, games of tag,
informal races, four-square and wheelbarrow and 3-legged races are examples of active games. True
free play, however, would be better characterized by games designed on the spot; the rules of
engagement determined by the players at that point in time. Modifications to existing sports are also
appropriate. An example might include: four youth wanting to play baseball. Four isn't an adequate
number to use the existing rules so modifications are made. There may be only one base; fewer outs,
balls hit to certain parts of the field of play could be rewarding with various credits such as doubles,
homers, etc...while others would be penalized as outs even if the batted ball was not caught...
In the 1970's a resurgence of interest in games of low organization surfaced. A book titled "New
Games" (Andrew Fluegelman) spawned dozens of activities with innovative names like PRUI,
AMOEBA, HUNKER HAWSER, and the like. The motto of this approach was "Play Hard...Play
Fair...Nobody Hurt". The philosophy was simple. Cooperative play is just as valuable as competitive
play in realizing many benefits possible via physical activity; though competition is also a crucial
component of active games....as long as it is kept in perspective. Annihilation, a game designed by
Stewart Brand with essentially no holds barred is played until the opposing team is totally (bodily)
removed from the field of play. There are few contests less competitive, but the losers have just as
much fun as the winners.
Organized Sports: Athletics
While one would not raise an eyebrow by calling sandlot baseball a sport, calling sandlot baseball
athletics would likely initiate an intense discussion. Similarly sailing is considered a popular water
based sport, as are duck hunting and fishing. Yet these activities would be hard to classify as
athletics, even though skilled athletes may participate in them.
Athletics seems to most closely match those activities that involve high levels of competition,
requiring training, skill, endurance, practice, and specific rules of engagement. Athletics is also
characterized by tradition (history), record keeping, and positions (e.g. 1st base, goalie). Training and
practice sessions also are characteristic of athletics...as do the presence of coaches, and officials.
These are subtle differences, however.
Discussions of what level of competitive athletics agencies should supply is always controversial.
Most recreation professionals tend to agree though that the niche should focus more on the
development of the lower end of the competitive spectrum; concentrating on fundamentals, keeping
post-season and travel at a minimum; acting as a facilitator at the higher levels by providing fields or
other serv ices and not acting as a direct provider.
Sport associations, which will be discussed in greater detail later, include literally dozens per sport.
Little League is one example. This association has established rules and regulations. Public agencies
must register each player and team and agree to abide by all the rules of this franchise in order to use
the Little League name. Most agencies offer their own version of youth baseball instead.
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The proliferation of competitive athletics has caused
problems. Sports are organized by adults, and are
over influenced by adult values. Recognizing these
problems, a number of programs have developed that
try to refocus on the benefits of competition and
athletics.
One of the better programs is the ASEP or American Sports Education Program
http://www.asep.com/. This program is recognized by its motto "Athletes
First....Winning Second". ASEP recognizes the crucial role that coaches play in
reaching the stated objectives of youth sports. The ASEP program is designed to
prepare coaches by helping them develop a sound competitive philosophy, by
assisting them in teaching fundamentals and strategies, and by understanding the
growth and development process of young athletes, as well as how to reduce
injuries.
Another popular and useful program is the NYSCA http://nays.org/#NAYS ,

National Youth Sport Coaches Association.
Instruction
Classifying sports and active games activities as instructional does not mean that they cannot also fit
the first two categories. A pitcher's clinic in girl's fastpitch softball is certainly athletic in nature. The
focus of the activity at this point in time, however is on the instructional format.
This approach is useful when distinguishing activities from contests. Dozens of examples exist,
ranging from fly fishing classes, through sports camps. All are conducted with the purpose of sharing
knowledge. The cognitive domain is often the primary objective.
Further classification can be made by almost any variable desired. For example:
Variable Range
Facilities needed minimal.................special
indoor..................outdoor
Equipment needed none....................special
Duration natural end.............set time
Age any.....................specific
interaction individual..............team
vehicle muscle powered ...wind..motorized
season summer...fall...winter...spring
intensity non-competitive.........competitive
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Tools for the Competitive Format
Competition in sandlot play is as simple as "race you to the corner" or "call Joey, Bob, Sharon and the
guys...I'll call Sally and Tom and we'll meet you at the field." Who plays who, when is often a matter
of choice rather than equity. As contests become more organized, though, the need for a system of
competition that is fair for all persons involved becomes increasingly more important.
Leagues
A league is an association of teams (or individuals in an individual sport) with the common interest of
competing against one another in their chosen sport.
Leagues are organized to make the scheduling of play easier, and to combine persons or teams of like
skill or interest. Programmers can use the league structure to make competition more fair. For
example a league can be used to allow the more competitive teams to play each other, or the less
competitive, or all men, or women, or just the Church sponsored teams, or the teams sponsored by
Corporations. Leagues can also be used to make scheduling more concise. Adult softball leagues are
often described only by the night on which they play. The Monday night men's competitive league
says it all.
Although any number or combination of tournament styles can be used to schedule league play the
most popular approach used is the round-robin style.
Leagues are characterized also by:
teams seasons schedules (e.g. round-robin)
Types of leagues include: competitive, church, open, industrial/corporate, coed,

recreational, etc.
Leadership would typically include:
A supervisor, coordinator or diamond manager

officials/judges
score-keepers/timers
maintenance crews
coaches (for youth sports)
managers/team representatives (adult sports)
specialty (e.g. chain gang for football)
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Tournament Objectives:
Tournaments can be used for the following purposes:
• during the pre-season to motivate players and prospective players

• during the post-season to determine a champion or culminate the year
• as fund raisers or special events (charity tournaments, 4th of July, etc..
• as qualifiers for districts, regionals and other competitions
Round Robin Competition
Round-Robin(RR) play is designed to

ensure that each team or player plays
every other team or player in the league
once. A double round-robin ensures that Tournament formats
each opponent is played twice.
The Round Robins format is also used in weekend tournament play if the objective is to increase the
number of games played. A tournament format currently popular utilizes a combination of a single
round-robin followed by either a single elimination or a double elimination tournament or a second
round robin divided into divisions.
A variety of software programs are currently available that make scheduling via round-robin format
very easy. Simply complete the variables such as team names, dates and times of play, etc.. and
within seconds your schedule will be set.
Nonetheless, it is important to understand a manual approach to RR scheduling. Illustrated in Figure

9.2 is the process. In step #1, the number of teams/opponents is selected (eight) and diagramed. Note
that opponent number one (1) is positioned in the upper left of column one. In step number #2 the
teams (with the exception of number one, which remains stationary throughout) rotate one position
(counterclockwise is shown here but either direction is OK).
Step #1 1-8
2-7 (Download All Pro demo here) for scheduling
3-6 tournaments
4-5
Step #2
6:30pm 1-8 1-7 1-6 1-5 1-4 1-3 1-2

7:30pm 2-7 8-6 7-5 6-4 5-3 4-2 3-8
8:30pm 3-6 2-5 8-4 7-3 6-2 5-8 4-7
9:30pm 4-5 3-4 2-3 8-2 7-8 6-7 5-6
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Step #3
Adjust team #1,because all of their games would be at 6:30 otherwise, and this team would
always be home team if the 1st team listed is the home team.
6:30pm 3-6 7-1 7-5 5-1 1-4 4-2 5-6

7:30pm 2-7 8-6 1-6 6-4 5-3 1-3 3-8
8:30pm 8-1 2-5 8-4 7-3 6-2 5-8 4-7
9:30pm 4-5 3-4 2-3 8-2 7-8 6-7 2-1
Notice that in an eight team league each team each team will play seven games. For an 8 team league,
the number of games equals the number of teams (8) multiplied by the games per team (7), divided by
2 (# opponents per contest), or (8x7)/2 , or 56/2 = 28 games.
Byes
The above process must be modified for an odd number of teams, but only slightly. When an odd
number of teams make up a league a bye must be used. In a round robin format, a bye simply means
that the teams do not play, or have a rest break. In other tournament formats a bye means the team
advances. In those situations a bye is treated as a win.
No time is assigned to the bye as no game or match is played. In this league of 7 teams, three games
will be played per night.
Round Robin Tournament/League format (illustrating use of byes) 7 TEAMS
bye-7 bye-6 bye-5 bye-4 bye-3 bye-2 bye-1
6:30 1-6 7-5 6-4 5-3 4-2 3-1 2-7
7:30 2-5 1-4 7-3 6-2 5-1 4-7 3-6
8:30 3-4 2-3 1-2 7-1 6-7 5-6 4-5
The round-robin approach is also a popular weekend tournament format. If the number of teams
entered is small the round robin style ensures an adequate number of contests. If the number of teams
is larger (e.g. 16) the RR format can still be used. Figure 9.__ illustrates how 16 teams are divided
into 4 pools of 4 teams each for the bulk of play in a weekend tournament.
The round robin format can also be used in conjunction with other tournament formats. See Single
Elimination tournaments for discussion and examples
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Pool Play
An adaptation of the round robin format is pool play. (Note however that the term pool play can also
mean round robin to many people) The difference is that in a round robin, every team in the pool
plays every other team. In non-RR pool play, teams or players only play scheduled opponents within
the pool and then typically advance to another round or level of competition based on a scoring
formula which often includes varying points for wins, ties and losses. This approach is not as
effective or equitable as the round robin because everyone does not play the same opponents, and it is
possible for teams playing weaker teams to advance to the next round of play somewhat inequitably
when compared to teams playing tougher opponents.
Still, this approach was developed to circumvent the major shortcoming of RR play...time. Playing
only three teams in a pool of six takes considerably less time (and money) than playing 5 teams.
Soccer and USA Volleyball are sports where pool play is often utilized.
Pool Play vs. Round Robin (using each)
The following scenario has been developed to illustrate the differences and similarities between pool
play and round robin tournament formats. Pool play is a time and money saving version of the
round robin that does not ensure that teams play everyone in their bracket. Instead of record, a point
system is used to determine who should advance out of the pools.
Assume 36 teams agree to participate in a one day, weekend, competitive volleyball tournament. The
facility has 6 courts. The intent of the tournament is to play a number of other teams, crown a
champion, but also to keep the costs down and not overly fatigue the players. Assume a reasonable
number of matches to play in a day is 6 with periodic breaks.
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Round Robin A round robin tournament could be constructed to meet at least part of these goals by
dividing the teams into 6 pools of 6 teams each. Each team would play every other
team in the pool, resulting in 5 matches per team or 90 matches. These matches
would most likely be the best 2 out of 3 games (traditional) so that an odd numbered
record would advance teams out of the pools. Planning on 45 minutes/3game match
(a time tested average)it would take 15 time slots of 6 games at a time or 11.25 hrs to
complete pool play component. The final game would end at 6:15
TIME CT/TEAM CT/TEAM TIME CT/TEAM CT/TEAM TIME CT/TEAMS CT/TEAM
7:00am 1 A1-A6 4 B1-B6 10:45am 1 E1-E5 4 F1-F5 2:30pm 1 C 1-C 3 4 D 1-D 3
2 A2-A5 5 B2-B5 2 E6-E4 5 F6-F4 2 C 4-C 2 5 D 4-D 2
3 A3-A4 6 B3-B4 3 E2-E3 6 F2-F3 3 C 5-C 6 6 D 5-D 6
7:45am 1 C 1-C 6 4 D 1-D 6 11:30am 1 A 1-A 4 4 B1-B4 3:15pm 1 E1-E3 4 F1-F3
2 C 2-C 5 5 D 2-D 5 2 A 5-A 3 5 B5-B3 2 E4-E2 5 F4-F2
3 C 3-C 4 6 D 3-D 4 3 A 6-A 2 6 B6-B2 3 E5-E6 6 F5-F6
8:30am 1 E1-E6 4 F1-F6 12:15pm 1 C 1-C 4 4 D 1-D 4 4:00pm 1 A 1-A 2 4 B1-B2
2 E2-E5 5 F2-F5 2 C 5-C 3 5 D 5-D 3 2 A 3-A 6 5 B3-B6
3 E3-E4 6 F3-F4 3 C 6-C 2 6 D 6-D 2 3 A 4-A 5 6 B4-B5
9:15am 1 A1-A5 4 B1-B5 1:00pm 1 E1-E4 4 F1-F4 4:45pm 1 C 1-C 2 4 D 1-D 2
2 A6-A4 5 B6-B4 2 E5-E3 5 F5-F3 2 C 3-C 6 5 D 3-D 6
3 A2-A3 6 B2-B3 3 E6-E2 6 F6-F2 3 C 4-C 5 6 D 4-D 5
10am 1 C 1-C 5 4 D 1-D 5 1:45pm 1 A 1-A 3 4 B1-B3 5:30pm 1 E1-E2 4 F1-F2
2 C 6-C 4 5 D 6-D 4 2 A 4-A 2 5 B4-B2 2 E3-E6 5 F3-F6
3 C 2-C 3 6 D 2-D 3 3 A 5-A 6 6 B5-B6 3 E4-E5 6 F4-F5
To select a champion a single elimination tournament for of 8 teams could be added that would take
the top team in each pool and two at large
28 of the teams would be on the floor playing 3.75 hours

The two teams in the championship would play an additional 2.25 hours
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Pool Play The same 36 teams could be divided into the same 6 pools for a pool-play tournament.
However, instead of playing every other team in the pool each team is assigned only
3 other opponents. 36 teams playing 3 matches each results in 54 matches. Also,
because the teams advancing out of the pools are determined by a point system rather
than record (because the teams no longer have common opponents in their pool and
inequitable competition can result) play can be limited to 2 games/match instead of
the more traditional 3 that is used to prevent tie records. Instead of 11.25 hours
needed for the round robin format, this pool play format will take only 4.5 hours (8:30
to 1:00pm). (*Note that the shaded cells are the same teams as the RR)
TIM E CT/TEAM CT/TEAM T IM E CT /T EA M CT /T EA M T IM E CT /T EA M CT /TEA M S
8:30am 1 A1-A6 4 B1-B6 10:00am 1 A 1-A 4 4 B1-B4 11:30am 1 A 1-A 2 4 B 1-B 2
2 A2-A5 5 B2-B5 2 A 5-A 3 5 B5-B3 2 A 3-A 6 5 B 3-B 6
3 A3-A4 6 B3-B4 3 A 6-A 2 6 B6-B2 3 A 4-A 5 6 B 4-B 5
9:00am 1 C 1-C 6 4 D 1-D 6 10:30am 1 C 1-C 4 4 D 1-D 4 12noon 1 C 1-C 2 4 D 1-D 2
2 C 2-C 5 5 D 2-D 5 2 C 5-C 3 5 D 5-D 3 2 C 3-C 6 5 D 3-D 6
3 C 3-C 4 6 D 3-D 4 3 C 6-C 2 6 D 6-D 2 3 C 4-C 5 6 D 4-D 5
9:30am 1 E1-E6 4 F1-F6 11:00am 1 E1-E4 4 F1-F4 12:30p 1 E1-E2 4 F1-F2
2 E2-E5 5 F2-F5 2 E5-E3 5 F5-F3 2 E3-E6 5 F3-F6
3 E3-E4 6 F3-F4 3 E6-E2 6 F6-F2 3 E4-E5 6 F4-F5
Even when a single elimination championship tournament is added again at the end (with 8 teams), the
third match if necessary (best 2 out of 3) is usually scored using ralleye scoring, or a point is scored
on each service, whether by the office or defense.
Point system
For volleyball, teams usually receive 1 point for each game won. In pool A, for example the
best team might have won all six of their games in the 3 matches played. It does not matter
who these games were played against. If there is a tie in the number of games won, point
differential is used as a tiebreaker.
In soccer, teams accumulate points as follows:
Wins = 6pts Extra points will be awarded up to 3 per match for both
Ties = 3pts winning and losing teams. An extra point is awarded for each
Loss = 0pts goal scored. For example, if the Cosmos defeat the Strikers 5
to 1. The Cosmos would receive 9 points while the Strikers
would receive 1 point. In the case of a tie within the pool, the
following tiebreakers would be used:
A. Head to head B. Fewest goals allowed C. Most games scoring a goal
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Bracket Tournaments
All bracket tournaments utilize a power of 2 format. In other words, the bracket size must be either
2,4,8,16,32, 64 etc..which are powers of 2 to the 1st, 2nd,3rd respectively. The reason for this
approach is illustrated in figure 9.__. Here a bracket is drawn that is not based on a power of 2.
There are six teams slated to compete in this single elimination tournament. This bracketing causes
unfairness as the winner of one game advances to the finals, while the opponents must play another
contest before they can reach the finals. Figure 9.__ shows the correct methods of bracketing for a
single elimination tournament.
Figure 9.__Incorrectly drawn bracket:
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________ ____________
____________
_________________________
____________
Figure 9.__illustrates a correctly drawn bracket for an 8 team single elimination (top 2 teams seeded)
tournament. This bracket is based on the 22 rule. One can calculate the number of games to be played
by the formula (2n-1) = g where n equal the number of teams, not the bracket slots.
_____1______
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
_____2______
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Single Elimination
The SE tournament format is used to determine a champion with the fewest possible games. High
school athletics is a prime situation where SE tournaments are utilized. No consideration is given to
losers in this format, as losers are eliminated after a single loss.
As a result, recreation and park departments seldom use single elimination tournaments unless they
are used in conjunction with other tournaments. One variation involves placing the teams in pool play
or round robin format first; from which the top 1 or 2 teams advance to a single elimination
tournament. Here first place finishers would be matched against 2nd place finishers from other pools.
The benefits of this approach include more games, and a chance for a team with a loss in the round
robin or pool play to still win the tournament; thus keeping them interested.
Teams or individuals are normally placed in bracket slots by random drawing. Using a computer
program to design brackets, this process can be accomplished simply . If you bracket manually,
simply draw the entrants names from a hat (with witnesses). Each team (entrant) thus has an equal
chance to play anyone else in the tournament.
Consolation Tournament
A consolation tournament is simply a single elimination tournament that has been modified to ensure
that each team plays at least 2 games. An additional (consolation) bracket has been added to allow
entrants losing their first game to play at least one additional games. Even if these entrants continue
to win, though, the best they can finish is the winner of the consolation bracket...they cannot win the
tournament.
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Figure 9.__ Consolation Tournament
16 teams (non seeded...adapted for guarantee of three games)
___1___ Winner's Bracket
Loser's Bracket ___2___ ___1___
___2___
___2___ ___3___ ___1___
____4__ ___3___
___4___
__2____ ___5___ __1____
___6___ ___5___
___6___
___6___ ___7___ ___5___
___8___ ___7___
___8___
(1st)____2_____ ___9___ ____1______(1st)
__10___ ___9___
__10___
__10___ __11___ ___9___
__12___ ___11__
__12___
__10___ __13___ ___9___
__14___ __13___
__14___
__14___ __15___ ___13__
__16___ __15___
__16___
-------- --------
- - - - - - - - -(3rd) ----------
-------- --------
Adding a contest for third place is another modification that can be made. This will result in a
guarantee of at least 3 games per team in an eight-team tournament. The above bracket illustrates
(see hashed line) this modification.
Double Elimination Tournaments
Double elimination tournaments are popular formats to entrants because they allow each team to play
at least two games. DE tournaments are popular with tournament sponsors because they are
perceived to be more cost effective than RR's. Table 9.__ illustrates however that when a round
robin/single elimination format and double elimination tournament are compared, the cost in # of
games played is minimal when compared to the benefits of twice as many additional games/team that
can be guaranteed.
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Table 9.__ Comparison of Two Tournament Options for 16 teams
# of games played Cost/game tournament Est WTP/Tournament $
Double Elimination (31) 2n-1 $15/game($465) $90 ($1440)

Round Robin/Single Elimb 36 $17/game($612) $110 ($1760)
differences expenses($147) revenue ($320)
result $173 more in net gain for round robin/single elimination tournament
a: WTP: willingness to pay (is higher for the RR because of a higher guarantee of games)
b: Round Robin/Single Elimination: 16 teams were divided into 4 pools of 4 teams each. Each team plays 3
games per pool. Depending on each team's finish in pool play, each team would then play a counterpart from
one of the other pools with the same finish (e.g. 2nd place in pool A might play 2nd place in pool B, C, or D) in
a single elimination playoff. The 1st place finisher in pool would play a 1st place finisher from another pool.
Winners of this match would play the other first round winners for the championship of their respective levels.
c: the higher cost per game in the RR assumes additional trophy costs
_________________________________________________________________________________________
The double elimination format goes one step beyond the consolation tournament by ensuring that
entrants with one loss can still win the tournament and are not automatically relegated to a lesser
competitive situation for the remainder of the tournament. In the consolation tournament only first
round losers played in the consolation bracket; in the Double Elimination tournament, it does not
matter when during the competition that the loss occurs, and the entrant continues playing until they
suffer an additional loss.
In the following illustration, the winners of the first round competition (#'s 1, 7, 5, 3, 4, 8, 6, 2)
advance to the right in the winner's bracket. The first round losers (#'s 16, 10, 12, 14, 13, 11, 9, 15)
move directly to their left into the loser's bracket.
The winner's of the 2nd round(1, 3, 4, and 2) move again to the right in the winner's bracket.
Losers of this round move to the loser's bracket.....but only to designated areas. Because we desire
to keep teams from playing an opponent they just played any sooner than absolutely necessary, we
adapt the bracket. Note what would happen to teams #5, and #12 without this adaptation. If team
#5 (the loser in round no. two against team #3) were to move directly left into the loser's bracket,
they would be scheduled to play team #12, which they just played in the first round.
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Therefore, cross the brackets (diagonal lines), moving team #5 instead down to play team #9. Do
this with all 2nd round losers.
Note also that teams #10, #12, #11, and #9 have won their second game in the loser's bracket and
need an opponent for their next game. To provide this, we must draw in a special modification to
the bracket, where we place the losers of the 2nd round in the winner's bracket. We make a similar
modification later in the loser's bracket to give teams #6 and #5 an opponent. In every case this
opponent will be a fresh loser coming over from just losing a game in the winner's bracket.
Once in the loser's bracket, teams must continue to win or be eliminated. Note that the last eligible
team shown (team #2) just moved into the loser's bracket and won, but still has only lost 1 game and
remains eligible to move back over for the championship game against the eligible team in the
winner's bracket (shown here as team #1).
If the winner of the loser's bracket happens to win this contest against the winner of the winner's
bracket, a 2nd game between the same two opponents must be scheduled because the winner's
bracket team now has lost only 1 game as well. Whoever wins the next game is the winner of the
tournament.
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Seeding
Seeding is a term used to describe the process of separating strengths. In those situations,
particularly post-season play, where the quality of the entrants is known in advance and the
tournament is used partially as a reward by offering additional play. For example, it is not typically
the desired situation for the best two teams entered in a tournament to meet each other during the
first round. Therefore separating these strengths; postponing their contest until later by scheduling
each to play weaker teams is a common practice. These weaker teams may not appreciate the
situation but typically the process is well known and accepted.
In the previous double elimination bracket, Teams # 1,2,3,and 4 were seeded and thus separated.
#1, as the best team was given the opportunity (due to earning it via a great record, we assume) to
play the team in the tournament with the worst record (#16). Team #2 played #15. Team #3 played
# 14 and Team #4 played # 13.
An alternative approach to a seeded 8 team post-season tournament might be to divide the 8 teams,
based on their season records, into two divisions of 4; resulting in an upper and lower division. In
this way the team quality is more similar. Competition from this point on could be a round robin as
well as a single elimination depending on agency/program objectives, and the desired number of
contests to be held.
It is important to remember that tournament formats are merely tools that can be adapted a myriad
of ways to meet participant, time or economic objectives. It is an enjoyable and challenging part of
an athletic programmer's job to manipulate these options and design optimal competitive
opportunities in different situations.
Scheduling
Scheduling of Double Elimination tournaments offers numerous alternatives. Options range from
scheduling all of the competition in one long day through a relaxed two day schedule. Each option
has its benefits.
The one long day schedule is often in fact very long. During hot summer nights, the schedule isn't
disliked by players (particularly player's spouses) who prefer to have Sunday to spend in other
pursuits. Before using this approach, the facilities must be able to remain open without disturbing
neighbors, which certainly is not possible at all fields. One day tournaments cut down on field
preparation costs as an occasional relining is all that is necessary for a typical day.
The length of the day can be shortened by utilizing 4 fields of play early in the contest. During the
first two (2) rounds of the tournament, using 4 fields allows the maximum amount of competition,
and minimizes the waiting. The need for two additional fields necessary prevents this option from
being utilized in many cases, but another tournament could still utilize the fields beginning at
10:00am for example. Completing the tournament at 9:00 p.m. vs. 1:00am the next day makes this
option worth considering.
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The two day format offers some distinct benefits. First of all, this format is more relaxed, giving
teams rest time between many games. If the tournament is scheduled in the heat of mid-summer,
one could schedule a 2-3 hr break in the hot part of the day and thereby make play more
comfortable. If revenue is a priority, one could avoid night games and reduce costs by eliminating
the utility cost of lighting the fields. Two day tournaments also encourage overnight stays in town if
the tournament is attractive to non-locals. Expenditures by players for additional food, lodging and
related items helps the agency in its justification of economic impact. Probably the most important,
reason for using the two day format, though is that it allows for scheduling flexibility in the advent
of inclement weather. Rain delayed games are much more tolerable in this format....but are also
more likely.
Again, scheduling also depends on program objectives and whether the purpose of a given
tournament is fund raising, or a post season qualifier, etc..If the tournament is a fund raiser, the
programmer should be well aware of competing tournaments scheduled for the same time.
Successful schedulers suggest that a certain time be selected that meets program objectives and then
the tournament(s) be held the same time each year. In this fashion, players expect and look forward
to the competition and the scheduling hassle is over after a year or two of rough times.
Post-Season Qualifiers
Sanctioned, qualifying tournaments are good draws. These tournaments qualify winners for post-
season play either at the regional or state level, and are attractive for this reason. Secondly, some
public agency's will not let outside groups use courts and fields unless the event is sanctioned as a
degree of protection from lawsuits (insurance is provided and rules and regulations
enforced....including certified officials). Sanctioning is expensive. In addition to each team
possibly being required to belong to the sanctioning body, an additional tournament fee is often
levied. USSSA charges $10/team/ tournament.
Meets
Meets are a special type of competitive format. Meets are the only type of competition for several
sports, such as track and field and swimming. In the meet format, contestants compete in one or
more events during the competition. In each event the individual scores points either for him/herself
or for their team by either beating the clock or scoring better in a field event with a greater jump,
throw, etc..
Meets can be duals (two teams) or opens (any number of teams) or invitationals (by invitation only).
Other characteristics of meets include:
heats: when the number of competitors is so large as not all can compete against each other
simultaneously, contestants are placed into groups or heats. Preliminary races are
conducted, and either the 1-2 of the top finishers in each heat, or those persons with the
fastest overall times regardless of heat, advance to either the semi-finals or finals.
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Example: Most tracks and swimming pools have a limited number of lanes (e.g. 8 If 56
competitors are entered in one event, these contestants are divided into 7 heats of 8
competitors each. Preliminary contests are time consuming and fatiguing to athletes so not
all events utilize them. Longer races in track and field (a mile or longer) often prefer to
have dozens of competitors races against the clock rather than have preliminaries.
A good example of a well designed track and field competition is the Hershey's national track and
field program, which the NRPA and many communities participate in. The Hershey's candy co. has
underwritten a substantial amount of the costs associated with this athletic event for youth 7-14
held annually at the local, district, regional and national levels. Similarly, Phillips or AAU if often
the preferred choice for competitive swimming.
Running successful meets requires much more in-depth discussion than can be covered here.
Noteworthy though, is the number of personnel (typically dozens) necessary for such an endeavor.
These are comparable whether the event is track and field or swimming and may include:
meet director clerk of the course recorder (of times, places, etc.) timers
judges starters field events coordinators
lane counters hurdle setters info runners, etc..
One consideration that is useful in both sports is the separation of events in which multi-event
athletes might compete. Sprint races in track and field such as the 100m, 200m 400m should be
separated by other events so that athletes will have some recovery period before running again.
Event directors should be cautioned that poorly run meets typically run behind schedule. Try hard
therefore to keep on schedule. Particularly avoid running events before schedule though to avoid
miffing athletes who are counting on the scheduled time unless you are completely confident that all
entrants understand that the event schedule is subject to change at any time.
Challenge or Self Scheduling Tournaments
This type of tournament is popular because it involves little supervision. It is also a non-elimination
style. Players schedule the competitions by challenging another player in one of the eligible tiers.
Program planners must establish the rules of play and schedule the facility. This type of tournament
is popular for individual and dual sports, notably racquetball and tennis. Because of the flexible
scheduling, it does not work as well for team sports.
Ladder tournament. For this particular type of challenge tournament, players names are
often selected randomly (as in from the hat) and placed on a rung on the ladder. The
tournament is scheduled to run for a particular duration, such as 3 weeks, and the times of
play (e.g. 7-10pm MW) that are made available are also posted by the program staff.
During this period, players may challenge only players who are placed one or two rungs
above them on the ladder.
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Winners replace losers and play continues. Inability by a challenged player to respond(pick
a reasonable figure such as 1 or 2 attempts) is considered a loss. Play is also limited to one
or two challenges per week to eliminate players who wish to move up only toward the
end of competition.
Figure 6.___ Challenge Tournament (pyramid) Ladder
__Val___
__Mike____ __Sue___
__Nick__
___Jill___ __Terry___ __Sam___
__Bob___
__Mark__
__Ruth____ ___Sam____ __Bart____ __Toni__
__Deb___
_Toni_____ __Hal_____ _Beth_____ _Tammie____
Variations to the ladder tournament include the double ladder, pyramid and spider web formats.
Essentially the tournament is the same. These variations allow for more participants and
particularly for more opportunities to challenge players of similar caliber. A large pyramid style
tournament might offer 25 challenge opportunities as opposed to 2 with a single ladder bracket.
USA Volleyball offers a variation called the Power League. This format combines elements of
pool play and the ladder tournament. No team directly advances out of the pool yet 2 teams are
eliminated each week. The primary purpose is playing teams of similar skill.
Sanctioning
Virtually all sports and athletics have one or more sanctioning bodies associated with it. A
sanctioning body is most typically a not-for-profit association designed to promote and develop the
sport. Sanctioning bodies establish the rules, and essentially all of the elements governing play.
These rules and guidelines include levels of play (e.g. A,B...E), post-season play, conduct,
concession sales, and the like.
Public sponsors of recreation opportunities always have the choice to make whether or not to belong
to a given association and thereby play according to very strict guidelines.
As there are often competing sanctioning bodies vying for the same teams, the choice is sometimes
put to a vote of adult competitors. In Kansas, the USSSA (United States Slowpitch Softball
Association) and the ASA(Amateur Softball Association) seek the same teams. Interestingly,
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certain communities are traditionally slanted one way. For example, Lawrence, Topeka, and several
of cities in the Western Part of the State have always been strong ASA communities; probably
because of strong fastpitch interest. Meanwhile Manhattan, Emporia, Hutchinson, etc. have been
strong USSSA communities. This is due probably as much to current commissioners as anything as
actual rules of play do not differ dramatically.
An alternative to sanctioning worth considering is being used in Colorado. The state recreation
association serves as the sanctioning body for a number of youth and adult sports. Public agencies
were tired of sending all their money for sanctioning outside. When the question was asked, "What
are we getting for our money", the answer apparently was "not enough"
Many public agencies do not benefit from the sanctioning body's claim of added insurance coverage.
Since these agencies have their own liability insurance, and the weekend sanctioning fee is not
waived for current coverage, the added cost seems like wasteful and unnecessary duplication.
Benefits of being sanctioned (according to one sanctioning body)
J OIN THE USSVBA (U NITED S TATES S AND V OLLEYBALL A SSOCIATION
fee: $200 annually
Benefits: A USSVBA handbook that tells you how to organize sand volleyball
A copy of the USSVBA rules and regulations
three levels of competition
"no hassle" competition
A monthly new sletter
Ability to host a regional or national competition
host sites retain 90%
Novelty sales
Guaranteed slots in tournaments
The California Beach Volleyball Association suggests similar benefits
http://www.AmericanAlpineClub.org/
(benefits of belonging to the American Alpine Club include nationwide rescue insurance
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Equalizing Competition
A variety of methods exist for making contests more enjoyable for competitors. It is a well-known
phenomenon of sport that lesser skilled athletes do not particularly enjoy getting routinely trounced
by more skilled opponents. Similarly, good athletes are not challenged by and do not enjoy run-
away contests.
Separate Divisions by Skill Level It is in the best interests of public suppliers of recreation
opportunities therefore to provide a variety of skill levels in the competitive format. The USSSA,
described above lists 5 levels of competition and in addition to classifying the ability (# of home
runs/game is one criteria) appropriate at each level, this organization also has developed regulations
that govern play between skill levels. For example, when a B team plays a D team it must spot the
D team 12 runs during a 7 inning softball game.
Most agencies strive to accomplish the comparable competition objective but are frustrated by
several factors:
Sandbagging involves intentionally playing below one's skill level so as to benefit by being
placed in a less competitive bracket or division. A local golf course tried to prevent
sandbagging by automatically bumping players up to the next level if their score come in
above a selected level. Similarly, a number of park and recreation agencies force teams
winning a league to be bumped up to the next level the following year.
Handicapping Handicapping is an effort to equalize competition by either penalizing the more

skilled entrant or somehow enhancing the play of the lesser skilled athlete. When the # of
competitors is limited this approach provides a reasonably fair environment in which both athletes
can enjoy the contest.
A number of sports use handicapping.. Bowling, Golf and Horse racing are noteworthy examples.
Race horses are given additional weight to make up for light jockeys. In Bowling average scores
over 200 gain no benefit while persons scoring less than 200 use 80% of the difference to improve
their scores.
In golf, handicapping is based on one's average score per round on a certain difficulty of course.
For example: Given two golfers (Tom) and (Joe). Tom shoots par (72) repeatedly on the Dunes
course, which is rated at a 72. Joe on the other hand, consistently averages 12 over par. These
scores were consistently turned in at the pro shop and their handicapped computed and updated
regularly.
Tom and Joe wish to play each other. Tom should win this contest by 12 strokes unless some
adjustment is made. Herein lies the value of the handicapping system. If the handicaps are correct
the adjustments to the scores should results in a virtually equal contest...this is a big if however.
Scorecards contain all of the necessary information to calculate a winner based on handicap.
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Figure 9.___illustrates 9-holes of a typical golf scorecard.
Rating 13 18 5 1 8 2 11 17 3 score
Hole # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Par 4 5 4 3 5 3 4 4 3
Handicap -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
Tom 4 5* 4 3* 4 4 4 3* 3 34
Joe(adj) 4 6 4 4 3* 3* 4 4 3 35
Joe 4 6 5 5 4 4 5 4 4 41
Rating: #1 = most difficult on course
Par: average score per hole as noted on scorecard
Handicap: Handicap (Joe's) spread over the 12 most difficult holes
Tom: Tom's actual score
Joe: Joe’s non adjusted score
Joe (adj) Joe’s score adjusted for his Handicap
*: Holes won
If these two golfers were playing stroke play (total score or number of strokes after 9 holes) only,
Tom would have won by one stroke 34/35. It they would have scored the contest via the match play
(hole by hole) Tom would won one more hole than Joe. Summary: First decide what criteria is crucial (home
runs, final score, etc) followed by an equitable approach to equalizing play.
Sport Rule Considerations
"The Game exists for the players...not the players for the game"
This popular sport phrase is worth remembering because it embodies exactly the correct recreational
philosophy. Recreational sports exist to be modified and adjusted to fit the situation. Mold it,
change it, and adapt it to fit your needs.
Whenever a rule or regulation is not clear, the spirit or intent of the rule to result in fair
and enjoyable play shall be construed.
There are many rule considerations, the following table is designed to illustrate several
modifications that are routinely made to various sports.
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Table 9.___Typical Sports Rules or Modifications
Youth Adult
Softball
No spikes No spikes
Required to play (or start) a 1 hour time limit
a minimum number of innings 1 umpire or no umpire
rotate positions 10 run rule after 5
limited pitching innings no beer in dugout
base innings on batting around forfeit time is game time
rather than outs 1 roster change
no strike outs or walks (t-ball) 8 players minimum
no more than 15 per roster automatic sliding
no stealing (lead offs, etc..)
automatic sliding
Basketball
shorten goal no dunking

youth size ball 20 minute halves
move free throw line closer clock stops last 4 minutes
5 min quarters 4 persons min
no more than 10/roster furnish own jerseys(2colors)
zone guard play flagrant technical (out of league)
no shooting of fouls unless coed (alternate scoring, shooting)
in the act
Volleyball
lower net no minimum # of players

one bounce/side coed (no more than one extra of
possibly four hits either sex per side
lenient officiating(e.g. carries) consider doubleheaders
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Youth Baseball Rules (Blue Valley Recreation Commission, BVRC)
Drafting: Following skill assessments, each player will be ranked within his/her grade. Managers
in each division will then select teams. Each managers will be assured of drafting their own son or
daughter, as well as that for an assistant coach, and the sponsor.
Rookie Ball: 1st graders

hit from a tee
bases: 60 ft.
outfield must play at least 20' back of the infield
coaches will act as umpires
no strike outs or walks
the ball is considered dead if does not travel 15' (result: replay)
time limit: 1 hr or 6 innings, whichever comes first
all players should play the same number of innings
2nd-3rd Graders: Pitching machine is used to eliminate walks and reduce batter fear of being hit with
a pitched ball
Most of the same rules as rookie ball apply
The majority of players will remain on the same team during this
4th-8th Grades: National League: New players are drafted by team managers each
year, from the skill assessment pool
4th grade:bases = 60ft pitching = 45ft. max # of pitches 80

5th grade:bases = 65ft pitching = 47ft. max # of pitches 80
6th grade:bases = 72ft pitching = 49ft max # of pitches 90
• a team may score a maximum of 8 runs per inning
• runner must slide to avoid contact, if the fielder has the ball
• no fake tags
• infield fly rule is in effect
• free substitution: (all players must sit out one inning....no
player shall sit out two consecutive innings)
• 4th grade-no lead offs; stealing is permitted after the ball reaches plate
• 5th grade- no lead offs, but stealing is permitted when the ball is released
• no runs allowed on wild pitches or passed balls
• No balks will be called
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• 2 hr time limit or 6 innings
• all offensive players on the field will wear batting helmets
• there will be a continuous batting order
• In addition to the max' number of pitches per outing, pitchers must throw no
more than this number of pitches in any three day period
• no restrictions on leadoff and stealing
• arguing with an umpire is grounds for ejection
• 1st ejection = suspension for one additional game
• 2nd ejection = suspension for 2 additional games and mandatory appearance before
Committee
• 3rd ejection = banned for the remainder of the season
Another Agency's Slow Pitch COED Softball rules include:
Five males and five females constitute a team or 4/5 or 5/4

16 years of age is the minimum
Smoking and drinking are prohibited in the dugout
Positions:
Must be a minimum of two men and two women in both the infield and outfield, but no
restrictions as which exact positions can be played
Batting order:
the batting order shall alternate sexes

if a male batter is walked, the upcoming female batter has the choice to either walk or hit
Other:
protests can be made by managers if accompanied by a $20 fee

Officials will be USSSA sanctioned
11" softballs will be used for women, 12" restricted flight for men
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Awards
Every park and recreation programmer should develop his/her own philosophy regarding awards.
This section is designed to provide insights as to the common pitfalls resulting in inappropriate
awards as well as decisions that result in the positive use of awards.
First of all, awards are a traditional means used by many entities in Society to recognize its
members for good behavior (e.g. heaven in religion), scholastic achievements (valedictorian,
scholarships, etc..) for productivity (salesman of the month), and highest skill level (the Heisman
trophy). People typically respond positively to these awards and appreciate the recognition related
to receiving them. While it is true that each of the awards mentioned can result in changed
behaviors directed at achieving the award, each must be evaluated by the type of behavior changes it
encourages.
Much like all of our choices to date in programming Park and recreation programmers should focus
on the objectives of awards. What are the benefits? What are we trying to accomplish by giving
awards? Will the participant be better off as a result? Some of the more obvious pros and cons of
awards of giving awards to winners and runner-ups are outlined below. Note that there are valid
arguments on both sides of this issue.
Pros Cons
Stimulate interest Are expensive to offer
Serve as a incentive to participation A few win most of them
Recognize achievement There should be no expectation
Are traditional of recognition for a voluntary activity

religion
business Difficult to consider all criteria
education Intrinsic motivation should come
Aids recollection of pleasant from within the activity
experiences Distorts values
Fosters pride Emphasizes winners vs. losers
Creates anxiety
If you decide to give awards, the following factors should also be considered:
The award should be inherent in the activity - not separated or unrelated to it. (Giving ice cream
cones for home runs is such an example) T-shirts or photos of teammates, or signed ball or game
apparatus makes goods awards because of their close relationship to the experience, and the
probable use of the award in later participation.
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The award should lead the winner on to further activity. Awards should enhance an already
pleasant experience. The reward should produce no consequences in the individual which are
unacceptable socially. Awards should not serve as the primary incentive for participation....as this
must continue to come from the inherent values within each activity.
When rewards are used to help the participant face the realities of life, achieve something,
organize and integrate values, then they are moral instruments. When they warp values,
distort ego, and dissipate energy, they must be thought of as immoral. Oberteuffer ( )
In 19__ _, Butler suggested three additional criteria that are still valid.
Awards should be inexpensive
They should not be handed out indiscriminately
The opportunities to win awards should be diverse
Award Types
Trophies: Trophies appear to benefit sponsors more than players as these can be exhibited in only one place.
Trophies are expensive! ranging in price from $40 to $250. Agencies can add prestige to a championship and
trophy and simultaneously reduce trophy costs by utilizing the traveling trophy concept. The initial cost of a
better trophy is outweighed by the recyclable nature. If you decide to give trophies, be sure the size of the
trophy is comparable to the contest. A $120, six foot trophy for a weekend softball tournament seems a bit out
of place and inappropriate.
Plaques: The variety of plaques available is tremendous. The prices range from $15 to $80. One plaque
currently popular offers a photo of the team/tournament prominently displayed along with tournament
information or highlights.
Photos: A number of photo related options are available through photography studios. These range from
individual sport cards bearing the player's statistics to team photos, to tournament action shots mounted on a
plaque. The price range is also quite variable from approximately .50 each for the sports card (in bulk) to $60
for the plaque.
Medals: have long been the award of choice in track and field contests. Medals are gaining acceptance in
other programs because of their individual nature and increased relationship to the activity. Medals cost
approximately $2 each, depending on the quality and amount of engraving.
Clothing: Monogrammed clothing of all types is often given as a tournament award. Clothing ranges from the
ever popular t-shirts ($10-20), to athletic shorts, to jackets and warmups for a tourney MVP ($100). Hat are
also popular ($10-$23).
Certificates: A paper certificate suitable for framing that has been signed by the tournament or league
supervisor, the sports director and the agency director is also an appropriate piece of memorabilia. Often this
certificate notes participation rather than winning . As a result, it is even more appropriate than most awards.
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Ribbons: Ribbons are also very popular awards and token of participation. Ribbons have long been used in
track and field and by educational institutions for field days and the like. They are inexpensive and make
giving many easy. Cost increases as the ribbon becomes more elaborate and specialized printing is involved.
($.20-2 each).
Sports Equipment: Increasing more popular as awards are signed, dated and otherwise appropriately marked
pieces of athletic equipment. Good examples include multi-colored volleyballs, and engraved softball bats.
These awards are good choices because they are used rather than put away on a shelf, and remind the players of
past achievements and enjoyment each time the equipment is used.
Cash: Cash awards are also utilized on occasion. Cash is typically an inappropriate award because it is not
directly related to participation. Cash awards also negatively affect one's amateur status if paid directly to the
competitor. The manner in which cash awards are used locally is that the winner of a tournament has their
entry fee paid to another (e.g. state or regional) contest.
When giving any award be sure to check with the State High School Activities Association to be sure the
acceptance of such an award does not violate an athlete’s amateur status.
What is the purpose of the youth pitching regulations listed?

2. Which league/tournament format is the most equitable (meaning opponents
would most likely play a number of games against similarly skilled opponents)?
3. Are awards worth the trouble for adult sports?
4. Describe several important considerations when determining youth sport rules.
5. Can a meet be used anywhere besides a track or swimming competition? Explain.
6. How valuable is the sand lot sport recreation experience?
7. Design a sudden death process whereby a tied contest in the following sports can quickly be
brought to a finish. For: Volleyball Fastpitch softball
ASSIGNMENTS:
1. Develop a one page flier that includes: team names, manager contact info, league schedule
and 3 appropriate rules for 11 teams playing youth baseball (6th grade level) in games of 1.5
hours duration. The teams will play on Wednesday evenings starting at 6pm. Assume the
needed number of fields are available. 15pts
Include the price per team given the following:
Umpires (2) at $14 each per game

Lights $20 /hr starting at 9:00pm
Field preparation (including chalk and dragging) $ 15/field/per night
Scorekeepers ($7/game)
Diamond Manager ($ 2/game)
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2. Complete a double elimination tournament for 15 paintball teams (bracket started below)
playing on a private complex. Start with team #1 at the top of the bracket (with a bye). Place
all other teams in numerical order. Show team #5 winning the tournament after losing their
2nd game. Assume only one play field and game duration of 30 minutes. Use as many days
as necessary, but explain your choices. Determine the appropriate fee if the enterprise
desires to make a profit of $40 per game played, assuming all chargeable expenses equal $30
per game played? 15 pts
Team #1
Bye
Team #2
Team #3
Team #4
Team #5
Team #6
Team #7
Team #8
Team #9
Team #10
Team #11
Team #12
Team #13
Team #14
Team #15
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Chapter 10 OUTDOOR PROGRAMS Special Focus on Camps and Clubs
CHAPTER TEN
OUTDOOR PROGRAMS
SPECIAL FOCUS ON CAMPS AND CLUBS
Understand the logistics of camp program planning.

Comprehend the special considerations for outdoor skills oriented activities.
Feel comfortable developing a multi-dimensional camp activities program.
Understand the facilitator role of recreation and park agencies in assisting
clubs and special interest groups in program planning.
Outdoor Recreation. Is it a subset of Outdoor/Environmental Education or vice-versa? Phyliss

Ford, in her book, Principles and Practices of Outdoor Environmental Education(1981), believes
that Outdoor Education is the broader category, encompassing both learning about the
interrelationships of natural resources and outdoor recreation skills in an outdoor setting. She
summarizes the purpose of outdoor education as the development of lifelong knowledge, skills and
attitudes for using, understanding and appreciating natural resources and for developing a sense of
stewardship for the land. Key words in many author's definitions of OE are in, about and for the
outdoors.
Outdoor Pursuits and Outdoor Recreation often are used interchangeably. These activities generally
relate to the use, understanding or appreciation of the natural environment.
Cycling, for example might be classified under several different program areas depending on the
logistics of the given experience. A bicycle race would normally be classified as a sport
(competitive format). If this event were modified (mountain bikes) and developed as a means of
getting from point A to point B over unimproved trails in a National Forest though, the experience
might be better classified as outdoor. The difference is that the latter activity must utilize the
natural environment, while the former does not.
Cross country skiing offers a similar comparison. The more developed the trail, amenities and the
more structured the competition, the more sportlike the experience becomes. Clearly, a 15 mile
weekend jaunt (ski) with family and friends over groomed trails, but otherwise undeveloped or
supervised is an outdoor recreation experience. Golf is a sport played on an outdoor facility.
Fishing is an outdoor sport.
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OUTDOOR PROGRAMS Special Focus on Camps and Clubs Chapter 10
Knudson used the following approach for classifying outdoor activities (O.R.,1984)
Traveling Activities Aesthetic/Educational

Walking and Hiking sightseeing
Off highway vehicles nature study
cycling crafts
orienteering camps,
cross country skiing High Adventure
snowmobiling rapelling
Sailing hang gliding
canoeing white water rafting
power-boating adventure challenge ed
snow-skiing Survival Replay
Social Activities fishing
camping, hunting
picnicking camping
R. Russell, Planning Programs in Recreation(1982) offers the following categories:
Camping/Outdoor Living Outdoor Sports

firebuilding cycling
map and compass hunting
picnicking fishing
backpacking waterskiing
outdoor cooking hiking
Conservation snowmobiling
bird census scuba diving
planting for wildlife sailing
High Risk Nature Oriented
spelunking stargazing
rock climbing nature walks
whitewater rafting nature crafts
hang gliding outdoor photography
One additional classification approach that has merit involves using the format matrix from Chapter
Four and applying it to Outdoor Recreation. Virtually every format can be utilized (sports, arts,
social, ... as in competition, special events, classes, etc..)
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Values and Benefits of Outdoor Recreation Experiences
More research has been conducted and greater contributions to the literature have been made by
authors exploring human interactions in and with the natural environment than for all other
recreational experiences. This is due in part to the Federal Government's role in supplying these
experiences. Scientists in several U. S. Forest Service Experiment Stations have set the tempo of
this research. Still, additional efforts are needed to quantify desired changes in human behavior
resulting from natural experiences. Refer back to the list of benefits described by B. Driver and G.
Peterson on page 3, Chapter 1.
Planning Considerations
Outdoor Recreation programs require some special planning efforts. While acquisition and
development and operation and maintenance of facilities is still important so that people can plan
their own recreation experiences is a quality setting...there is a growing trend to recognize that a
well planned diversity of programs is crucial to a balanced spectrum of opportunities. People are
attracted to areas and facilities by the diversity of experiences available. The following example by
Cottrell illustrates the importance of program planning as an attraction.
Campground programs should be more than Campfire Programs
Managers of many State Park campgrounds, as well as managers of similar amenity resources for
other agencies are occasionally faced with low campground attendance, low revenues, high peak
load and low weekday use, depreciative behavior, and low family (particularly with teens) usage.
Programs of activities seem to offer promise in addressing a number of these concerns.
Cottrell noted that beach games were the most popular programs and that nature lectures were not
well attended. This challenges the contemporary opinion that nature orientation is the primary
reason that people go camping.
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Back in the 1970's, when I worked at were cut by 50% Use dropped and minimized interpretive programming
TVA's Land Between the Lakes and has continued to drop as did visits to and greatly increased fun programming.
camping was more popular than it area businesses and other attractions.
Revenues from camping in 1985 had
seems to be today, the three large Now fun programming is almost
been lower than those in 1984, but with
campgrounds at LBL - Piney, Rushing non-existent.
the change in programming emphasis,
Creek and Hillman Ferry, began
To me, the introduction of fun camping revenue increased 39%, from
offering fun recreational
programming at LBL and then its 1986 to 1989. Overall property
programming. BY 1977, campers
removal roved several things, revenues increased 66% during the
could select from 90 to 100 programs
Including: same period. Rowdies and people
per week in each campground. About
whose weekend fights had provided the
10 of them were nature programs - Fun programming results in many
bulk of the fun programming were
while the rest were fun programs for benefits such as increased revenues,
replaced with families, many of which
campers of all ages. greater family participation in
were accompanied by teens. Employees
camping and full campgrounds all
Since all three of the campgrounds at the park were happier and more
week long; and
were located on TVA's large, enthusiastic.
Kentucky Lake, many of the programs -Eliminating fun is a sure way of
were conducted in or near the water. eliminating campers.
They included water volleyball and The positive consequences of fun
In the mid-1980's, the staff of
football, tug of war, pursuit of a programming like that offered at LBL
Lieber State Recreation Area in West
greased watermelon, raft races and and Lieber State are often dismissed as
Central Indiana decided that, while
sand sculpturing. the result of a park's having a different
collecting fees, trying to curb rowdy
breed of camper than most parks have.
Our lighted multi-purpose play court behavior and vandalism, mowing
In a sense, the results are anecdotal in
was used for a variety of sports grass and picking up garbage were all
nature and need more scientific proof.
activities plus skills training, dances necessary park chores, they might not
In the case of Lieber State, it so
and games, and the campfire theater be the most important things for
happened that my oldest son, Stuart was
hosted sing-a-longs,movies, skits, them to do. They had been
beginning his doctoral program in the
religious services and puppet shows. conducting interpretive programming
Leisure Studies Department of Penn
Campers used the lighted softball field in and around the sizeable
State University after several years of
from 8:00 am to 2:00 am the next day. campground, but camper interest was
working in the private sector. Since he
Unconcerned about winning or losing, slight. Problems at the park included
hadn't been required to gather data and
as many as 25 campers a team were low revenue, camper dissatisfaction,
present a master's thesis at his last
having all sorts of family fun. At vandalism and rowdy behavior, low
school, Pen State asked him to do so. A
night we often conducted 3 or 4 occupancy during the week and on
study of the effects of fun programming
programs as a time. non-holiday weekends, campsites in
at Lieber
poor conditions, small sites, no
What were the benefits?
hookups on over the half of the sites State Recreation Area was a good topic
Campground use increased
and an extremely complex system of for Stuart. The University and the
dramatically especially during the
campground roads manager at Lieber State helped design
week, revenues increased as well, and
the study, and pretested it in the Spring
the percentage of teenagers camping The manager and staff met and
of 1990. The results were compiled and
with their families increased decided on a list of objectives which
published as "Recreational
significantly. Camping accounted for included: provide better services for
Programming in a
69% of all LBL use. Spill over to campers including fun; increase
local businesses of all types was a big weekday and non-holiday weekend Family Campground: Implications for
bonus. use; create and promote a family Management," In June 1991.
camping atmosphere; decrease
The relationship between fun
depreciative behavior and
programming and camping was not
understood, and, by 1980, the complaints; and improve employee
recreation staff and fun programming morale. In mid-1986, they
186
The findings of that study include:
1) Recreational programming at LS increased camping particularly during the week as well as

revenue, agency public image, user satisfaction and employee morale, and it decreased
boredom, depreciative behavior, the need for additional law enforcement and complaints.
2) By the end of the summer season in 1990. 69% of the families with teenagers were
accompanied by their teen children when they camped . This is tremendous from a social,
family-healing perspective, and great news for industry people who are concerned with the
"growing" of future campers.
3) Forty-four percent of camping use involved extended families or friends camping together.
4) Average size of camping party was five which is higher than today's norm. I interpret this to
mean that fund programming beckons larger groups.
5) Despite poor camping conditions, 96% of the visitors said they had an excellent camping
experience and would return.
6) The percentage of married couples was 82%.
7) Beach games were the most popular programs, nature lectures were not well attended.
The latter finding attacks the philosophy maintained by many park managers that real campers are
satisfied with hugging trees, sniffing flowers and musing about cloud patterns. The campground at
Lieber State is still in poor shape and with budget shortfalls, will likely remain so for years to come.
Even during the floods of '92, demand at this park was up 2% even though the beach was
underwater on two major holidays
Various contributors to Campground Management, a publication geared primarily toward private
operators of campgrounds, offers a number of activity suggestions. Others were the result of a
brainstorming session in a Recreation Programming class that appear to have merit, or were actual
activities students remembered participating in or observing.
Old Fashioned Organized Games Pot Luck Dinners or Cook Offs

Regattas Sport Tournaments(regular and wacky)
Fishing Derbies of All types sand volleyball, Frisbee golf, etc.
Piano Tackle Box Search (Lake Texoma) Plano (a tackle-box manufacturer) sponsors an event each
summer where six tackle boxes are randomly dispersed around
the waters of Lake Texoma. Inside these tackle boxes are prizes
of all types, ranging from cash to guided fishing trips, to meals
South Dakota State Parks
at area restaurants, to boats and motors.
http://www.state.sd.us/
Entertainment(Music, Dance, Drama). Seasonal staff in

Custer State Park, South Dakota, put on a weekly(Sat night) program that is primarily a
Comedy hour. This program features skits, musical entertainment (including sing-alongs)
and games. Other events and activities can be viewed by clicking the calendar on the South
Dakota State Parks Website.
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Promotion
Because of the transient nature of campground visitors, promoting these events poses special
problems. Direct mail works to a degree as does street distribution to certain retailers (those selling
campers, sporting goods, license vendors, bait, etc.) but the audience is much more dispersed,
making adds in local papers less effective. Selecting a schedule for special events and following
this yearly helps visitors plan visitation schedules to match certain events.
Special area promotional magazines highlighting events in the region are very popular.
Your enterprise need not publish such a magazine but certainly consider it if no one else
does. These magazines typically use the newspaper size and paper quality. The information
tends to be written in a news or feature article format, but schedules of activities are also
very appropriate. The publisher will sell ads to cover the publication costs and then
distribute in the region and other selected sites.
Trade Shows and Exhibits. One form of sales promotion that has proven a popular way to
publicize outdoor recreation events and areas is the trade show. Better known as the Boat,
Sport and Travel Show, these events bring an interested clientele together with willing
seller in a unique atmosphere. These exhibits allow suppliers to interact one-on-one with
potential clients over a 2-5 day time slot. A show within a show subset of this approach has
been the educational seminar, which is growing in popularity. This demonstration of
fishing, or turkey calling, or boat or camper maintenance tends to add credibility to
sponsors.
Internet
Interested persons can browse individual parks and statewide calendars in search of a particular
type of experience. Users can be virtual tourists. Take such a tour by connecting with the Arizona
State Parks website. http://www.pr.state.az.us/ To find a directory of State Wildlife and Park
Agencies, contact my website. Here you can take a virtual tour of every state’s outdoor assets.
http://www-personal.ksu.edu/~ssteve/index.html
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Other Logistical Concerns:
Areas and Facilities
First of all the facilities (natural environment) are much less controllable and adaptations for each
specific location are required. Some assistance is available in evaluating sites. Rivers, for example
are rated by class from I to VI (American Whitewater Association with I being the least difficult
and appropriate for beginners). Mountain climbing routes are similarly rated. Highways, trails and
rivers should be traversed in advanced and risk areas catalogued.
American Whitewater Association
http://www.americanwhitewater.
Clawson and Knetch (1966) classified outdoor recreation areas as:
User oriented - most city, county and some regional sites; intense use, highly developed normally.
Intermediate areas - balance of natural resource maintenance and developed areas; capable of supporting a
wide variety of natural experiences. Includes most state parks, forests, and many fish and wildlife areas.
Resource oriented areas - protection and enjoyment of the natural resource is the primary criteria and purpose
of use. Includes most of the national forests and recreation areas
Leadership
Outdoor recreation programs often require specifically trained leaders. These include guides,
instructors, who may be certified by professional associations, or even state agencies. These include
sailing instructors, canoeing instructors, skiing instructors, big game hunting and fishing guides etc.
Typically these individuals undergo preparation in pedagogy(including both skill instruction and
logistics), first aid and safety related considerations(due to special risks), and environmental
impacts.
Many believe that outdoor leaders should all be certified. Outward Bound and the National Outdoor
Leadership school http://www.nols.edu are excellent sources of holistic outdoor leaders. These
individuals have graduated from a rigorous curriculum that first focuses on
environmental ethic; followed by some specialized skills such as climbing,
sailing and other adventure sports. WMI is now affiliated with NOLS.
http://wmi.nols.edu/
The Wilderness Education Association, c/o the Dept of
Recreation Resources, Colorado State University is also
another important Resource in this area.
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Risk
Outdoor recreation typically involves a greater degree of risk than other recreational pursuits. The
remote sites and limited access to emergency care compound injuries and highlight the need for
injury prevention. Program planners should particularly be cognizant of possible injuries and
develop risk management plans designed to prepare (progression) individuals to keep from getting
injured, outfit them with the correct equipment and alert them to all possible dangers. One risk
reducing strategy is to utilize the concept of common adventurers. Here the agency merely
facilitates via use of meeting rooms or areas the activity and provides not direct leadership. This
concept, as well as other risk management concerns are illustrated in the following example adapted
from P. Ford(1981). It illustrates specific considerations for a cycling tour.
Orientation meeting In order to communicate this information to the participants, one or two
meetings should be scheduled in advance to cover the route, equipment and trip details; including
safe behavior.
The following example was provided by P. Ford (1981). It illustrates the risk mgm’t considerations
for a common adventurer (no designated leader) cycling tour.
Safety Policies:
Ride in single file Stay together at all times

W arn others of upcoming hazards Slower riders should stay near middle of pack
Be prepared for weather fluctuations Use periodic stops to allow trailers to catch up
Group Equipment: Stove, first aid kit, 3 person tents, tool kit, Matches
List of Personal Gear: included food, special clothing, emergency phone numbers and nearby
medical facilities map, itinerary
Likely hazards: motor vehicles approaching from front and rear

bad road conditions such as glass, holes, ice, soft shoulders
physiological hazards like eye irritation, hypothermia, exhaustion.
(Today...I would add a cellular phone and possibly a GPS system (electronic map)
(Note: apparently a trail vehicle/van was not used because of the small number of riders and
common adventurer status, but should be considered and definitely used for larger groups) Lastly,
an accident procedure outline would be useful so that everyone in the group would know the steps)
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The risk management plan for the Sunflower State Games (a multi-sport Olympic Style event using
over 400 hundred volunteers to host over 6,000 athletes) is 60 pages long. One incentive for this
detail was a 25% savings over what insurance costs without it. The plan included the following
sections:
emergency plans plans of supervision
reviews of rules medical plan
communications plan evaluation of physical risks and preventative measures by
each supervisor
facility and route inspection, maps of each, showing medical and supv’ locations
The Club or Special Interest Group Format
One popular format in which many people prefer to participate in outdoor recreation activities is the
club. While a number of outdoor recreationists prefer the solitude certain experiences can offer,
others prefer to share these experiences with friends or others of similar skill and or interest.
From the organization's viewpoint, clubs pose some special benefits and detriments. One benefit of
clubs is the shared excitement that is often self-promoted. There is usually no lack of enthusiasm.
Self leadership reduces the costs for the agency as club officers are volunteers who want to share
their time and energy. Clubs allow agencies to perform a facilitator role instead of direct provider,
which frees up resources for other experiences. The clubs also benefit by being able to use facilities
that otherwise they could not afford. These include not only meeting areas but lakes, parks and
athletic fields. They can serve an additional role of policing the areas and can may set standards of
expected behaviors or a code of conduct, such as the
following developed by the BlueRibbon Coalition:
1. I will respect the rights of all recreationists to enjoy the beauty

of the outdoors. I will respect public and private
property.
2. I will park considerately, taking no more space than needed, without blocking other vehicles, and without impeding
access to trails.
3. I will keep to the right when meeting another recreationist. I will yield the right-of-way to traffic moving uphill.
4. I will slow down and use caution when approaching or overtaking another recreationist.
5. I will respect designated areas, trail-use signs, and established trails.
6. When stopping I will not block the trail.
7. I will not disturb wildlife. I will avoid areas posted for the protection of wildlife .
8. I will pack out everything I pack in, and will not litter.
9. I realize that my destination objective and travel speed should be determined by my equipment, ability, the terrain,
weather, and the traffic on the trail. In case of an emergency, I will volunteer assistance.
10. I will not interfere with or harass others. I recognize that people judge all trail users by my actions.
11. Motorized users should pull off the trail and stop their engines when encountering horseback riders. It is also a good
idea to take off your helmet and greet the riders.
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The self-directed nature of clubs also has a down side. Loss of control can be a detrimental factor.
Club philosophies and agency philosophies are not always compatible. Restrictive policies of club
membership or cliquish attitudes of members should not be tolerated. Nuances or slight differences
can cause club numbers to grow exponentially, beyond the ability of a public agency to supply areas
and facilities for use or meeting space(Its not unlike religious groups, who tend to form their own
sect for very slight differences of opinion). Program planners should give careful consideration to
each request for a club's affiliation with their agency. The actions of the club reflect on the agency
and this can be good or bad.
Generally a case by case approach to determining club affiliation is preferred over a blanket policy
as there are always exceptions to a blanket policy. One approach to determining if a club is
appropriate is philosophy. Use a rating scale to determine match. (1-high, 5-low). Use a similar
scale for other logistical elements: Staff time, dues(price), availability to the general public, by-
laws. Then allow those clubs to affiliate with your agency if they have met a target score, which
should include a certain minimum in each category.
Establish the ground rules in writing. Require a constitution and by-laws that specifies the source of
authority, the selection of officers, the philosophy of the club, membership details and meeting
arrangements.
The following illustrates one example of an outdoor recreation club. The Lake Jacomo Sailing Club
operates in affiliation with the Jackson Co. Missouri Park and Recreation Department near Kansas
City. The club's 1992 dues were $30 for non racers and $95 for a racing membership (first year).
Have Sailing Fever?
Whether you are a long time sailor or a newcomer to the sport,

you know what a great experience sailing is. Like-minded
Jacomo Sailing Club members can be found any Sunday
afternoon at Lake Jacomo in a wide variety of sailboats,
enjoying the most popular water sport in the world.
Club members are as varied as their boats: families, singles,
juniors and sailors of all ages and levels of expertise. Sailing
can get everyone involved; teaching teamwork, coordination,
sportsmanship and a respect for the environment. Best of all,
sailing takes place in the fresh air and sunshine.
Facilities at Lake Jacomo

The lake is very convenient and has
restrictions against water skiing and speed boating - a definite
plus for sailing .
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Introduction to JSC
JSC is one of the largest sailing clubs in the Midwest; consisting of ten active fleets. The club has
officers and a governing board, and each fleet has its own captain and officers. JSC is a member of
two larger regional sailing organizations; (CSSA) the Central States Sailing Association, and the
(ILYA) the Inland Lakes Yachting Association. JSC also belongs to the USYRU ( U.S. Yacht Racing
Union) a nationwide organization which promotes sailing and sponsors the U.S. Olympic team.
Social Events The club sponsors a variety of social functions during the season, including an orientation party
in the Spring, Champagne brunches at the lake, as well as dinners and get-togethers on race weekends. Since
the facilities are maintained by Jackson Co, dues are low.
Why Join? Four words: experience, facilities, equipment and fun.
Pricing
The appropriate philosophy of pricing outdoor activities runs the spectrum from public to private-
like services. Depending on the degree of benefit, and willingness to pay, and other factors, the
price may be $0 or costs plus 15% or more for overhead as we used in athletic pricing. (100%
overhead for private suppliers is not uncommon)
The campground and promotional type programs just described, designed to increase visitation,
should be free. This can often be accomplished by the use of Corporate sponsors. Other programs
such as cycling tours; which benefit users almost exclusively, should recover 115% or more of
costs.
Residence Camps
Organized, programmed residence camps can provide educational and social

experiences in group living in the out-of-doors. Outdoor camps utilize the
resources of the natural environment to enhance benefits like mental, physical
and spiritual growth. Camps can range in length from several days to several
weeks. One ACA accredited residence camp is:
http://www.campcayuga.com/
Other types of camps include day camps, excursion camps, special camps and environmental
education or school camps.
Day camps are discussed along with playgrounds in Chapter 11. These are often a more urban
setting and allow the children to return home each night, hence the name. Day camp programs often
last from 8 am-5 pm and serve to some degree as child care services; and may be regulated as such
in some states. In Kansas, for example, agencies can only sponsor programs for 3 hr stints if the
program is not licensed as a day care center. This time restriction limits the attractiveness of such
programs to working parents.
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Excursion camps are transportation or trip oriented. Good examples of this type of camp include
cycling or canoeing tours, lasting for several days, and where the campers stay overnight and
prepare their own meals. The Outward Bound often uses a trip or excursion camp approach to reach
its wilderness education objectives.
Special camps concentrate on a specific focus or user group and include sports, music, camps for
the ill and disabled, or at-risk camps especially designed for inner city youth. (See ACA database)
Environmental Education or School based camps are also specialized and may be of a residence,
day or trip nature. The main difference lies in the focus on curriculum and expected learning
outcomes. One advantage of the school experience is that by making outdoor education part of the
curriculum, many children, who otherwise would not be able to participate because of cost, or
summer schedule conflicts, or lack of family camping expertise, now can.
Unique characteristics of Residence Camps
Outdoor setting (although specialty camps like those focusing on sports, computers, science and
health do exist that utilize similar programming approaches
Community living Group living experiences are purposefully planned to reach social objectives, but
also financial objectives. Dormitory(cabins/tents)accommodations, housing a dozen or more
campers and occasionally a counselor are the rule in most camp situations.
Freedom. Camps typically offer the participant some choices in the use of their time; from the
activities they select to what each person does during quiet times.
Objectives and Expectations of Camp experiences
Generally, an outdoor residence camp should strive to reach many of the following
1. To provide safe but exciting life enriching opportunities

2. To provide an opportunity for learning responsibility; by requiring campers to join
in daily living chores and related responsibilities
3. To understand man's interrelationship with the natural environment
4. To provide the opportunity for spiritual (or inner self)development
5. To gain an appreciation for cultural diversity
6. To develop skills and knowledge in a variety of subjects (sports, sciences, social
development, arts, etc...)
7. To allow the camper to gain interpersonal skills via independent living.
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Expectations of parents vs. the campers
Everyone seems to expect something different from the camp experience. Parents want one thing,
children (campers) another, and staff even another. The following comparisons illustrate such
differences.
What Campers expect What Parents expect

want to learn new skills personal development of child
want to try new activities social development of child
want to use newly learned skills a quality and diverse program
a more focused (narrowed) living in a rural environment
program as they age having fun
Camps may also develop very specific behavioral objectives. Here each program element is
carefully selected to attain the desired result. Refer back to the discussion of objective writing. All
three learning domains will likely be addressed; cognitive, psychomotor and affective.
Camp Programs
Program planning for a camp should first consider the general philosophy of the camp, which is
typically dictated by the sponsoring agency or owners. Is there an underlying theme? Camps vary
tremendously but often exist for an underlying purpose; to which many of the activities should be
closely related. These goals or purposes can include but are not limited to spirituality, sports,
nutrition and health, nature/outdoor, science, music.
Many camps offer what some call an indigenous program. Here the camp's assets are utilized to the
fullest to determine the program. Lakes, streams and waterfronts lend themselves to aquatics and
boating programs. Local histories add a special flavor and charm. Your camp may have a certain
color of dirt, a certain type of tree or landscape, or architecture that lends itself to activity themes.
Regardless of the prevailing philosophy though, the camp program should be planned to include
each of the following levels:
Entire Camp: (colors, evening program, field day, etc...)

Living Units: (competitions with other units, some activities)
Interest Groups: (bulk of activities that campers select by choice...arts and crafts
(boat safety, some sports, soil and forestry unit, etc..)
Individuals: (free time, retire)
Formats and Program areas should be diverse. (See all formats in Chapter 4)
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Accreditation
The ACA (American Camping

Association,
http://www.acacamps.org/)
accredits camps, and has been since 1948. Accreditation means that a camp has been visited by a
team of experts, who critique the site and facility, program, administration and staff. The ACA also
offers leadership courses for counselors and program specialists. OLS (outdoor living skills) is one
such training that prepares the enrollee in gear and equipment, shelters, map and compass, health
and safety, nature and conservation, tripping , ropecraft and knot-tieing, etc.
State Laws
Laws in each state may vary regarding the operation of a residence camp. Due to the food
preparation, health and safety laws are foremost. In a number of states, special legislation related to
child care must be followed. These laws are not unlike the ACA accreditation process and involve
inspection of all components of the camp by representatives of the state. Unfortunately many of
these laws appear to exist primarily to protect the interests of private day-care operations as much as
for the enrichment of youth.
Camp Sponsors
There are a great many camp sponsors, which for varies reasons, feel that the special experience is
compatible to their agency's philosophy and objectives. These agencies include but are not limited
to:
Cities(municipal park and recreation agencies)

Youth, not-for-profit outdoor organizations (Scouts, Campfire, YMCA, Red Cross, etc.)
Private(Anderson Camps, Cheley Camps, Colo)
Churches(all denominations)
Sports Organizations
Hospitals and Health Based organizations; particularly those
working with the disabled
Staffing
Camps operate with a wide variety of staff members; some of these

people conduct specific functions and are relatively specialized
such as the waterfront director or the equestrian specialist. Others
are generalists, capable of leading a variety of activities or
supervising living units. The YMCA of the Rockies hires one
seasonal counselor to program activities just for other counselors.
196
Figure 10.1 illustrates a likely organizational chart of a residence camp.
Figure 10.1 Residence Camp Staff Chart
Director
Health Nutrition Program Maintenance Admin.

Coordinator Coord’ Coord’ Coord’
doctor dietitian program caretaker business

specialists manager
nurse kitchen dining living unit maintenance office

coordinators assistants assistants
clerical
unit directors
Camp staff needs vary greatly but seasonal staff often include program specialists like waterfront
directors, interpreters and nature scientists, sports specialists, equestrians, artisans and crafters. In
larger camps each of these may have an assistant. General counselors serve as living unit
coordinators among other functions. The bulk of camp staff are sophomores and juniors in
college(at least 18 and often 21 years of age). These individuals are deemed to be mature enough,
independent enough and skilled enough to serve capably. Many camps recruit directly from college
campuses in mid-Winter. Pay is often below minimum wage for seasonal employees as counselors
are often provided room and board in addition to a contracted salary for the season. Many seasonal
counselor contracts extend until mid-August with penalty clauses for leaving early. Advancement is
often an up-the-ladder affair as counselors who have proven themselves often get rewarded by being
asked back in positions of increasing pay and responsibility.
Shoulder Season Operation
The most typical Camp season is Summer. Because of the tremendous investment in capital,
though, many camps have chosen to try and operate year-round. Some do this successfully by
marketing themselves as vacation destinations in the off season. Others co-op with school systems
to offer environmental education programs. Still other camps choose to market their resources for
conferences, executive retreats and family reunions. Some camps do all of these.
Pricing
Establishing a price for a camp depends largely on the philosophy of the sponsoring organization.
For a week long residence camp prices can range from less than $100 to several thousand dollars.
Public agency sponsors, by writing grants to appropriate Federal and private programs and
foundations, are often able to obtain grants to help reduce the cost of the camp experience. Some
camps offer work so that campers can reduce their cost by assisting with camp duties.
197
The more substantial expenses of running a residence camp include:
1. the capital outlay of owning, developing and maintaining the site

2. personnel (in and off-season)
3. food
4. liability insurance
5. supplies
6. utilities
7. promotion
Because of the high cost of insurance and the relatively high incidence of at least minor
injuries, camps should develop fairly intensive risk-management programs. This program
should focus on prevention but should be able to insure that an injured camper receives
prompt and appropriate care if injured. Because of their isolated nature, many camps have
physicians or nurses on staff.
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Camp Schedule
All camps differ but this illustration shows a schedule of one day at a residence camp. It is
relatively flexible. Note the repetition of several activity elements which allows the camp to serve
several hundred campers, each who may want to experience a particular activity. Note also the
attempt to plan something for all elements; entire camp, interest group, living group and individual
campers.
Camp Schedule
Time Activity Group
7:00 rise entire camp
7:30 color guard entire camp (living unit presents colors)
7:45 breakfast everyone (another living unit serves)
8:30 ed Activities I interest groups
boating
arts and crafts
Forestry
M ap and Compass
10:00 sports Activities II interest groups
softball
Frisbee golf
rifle safety
archery
11:30 Lunch prep living unit serves
12:00 Lunch everyone
1:00 Rest hour everyone
2:00 Activities I repeat interest groups
boating
arts and crafts
Forestry
map and compass
3:30 Activities II repeat interest groups
softball
Frisbee golf
rifle safety
199
archery
5:00 Colors everyone (living unit=color guard)
5:15 Dinner prep living unit serves
free time for others
6:00 Dinner everyone
7:15 free time everyone
8:00 Evening program everyone(living unit has program duty)
9:00 Retire everyone
9:30 Staff meeting
lights out campers
1. What is the primary advantage for agencies in using the club format?
2. ....................For clubs?
2. Why must programmers maintain good risk management plans for outdoor recreation?
3. Select an outdoor recreation activity and discuss the objectives associated with it. Change
the objectives...How must the activity change as a result?
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Chapter 11 Recreation Centers and Playgrounds
CHAPTER ELEVEN
RECREATION CENTERS AND
PLAYGROUNDS
Comprehend the role that multi-purpose centers play in the provision of

leisure services.
Be comfortable citing the purpose of supervised playgrounds.
Understand the scheduling elements related to the operation of a center.
Recreation Programs are conducted in a wide variety of facilities. The recreation center or
specialized community facility designed to house specific programs, and owned or leased by the
Recreation and Park Agency is by far the preferred choice of facilities. Ownership or control of
total facility scheduling has obvious benefits in determining which programs will be offered and
when.
Not every community has a recreation center. Many must rely on school facilities or other public
buildings, or lease space from commercial or other private associations in order to supply programs.
Recreation Commissions in rural areas typically follow this latter pattern.
Programming in school facilities, while appearing to be economically cost effective due the
additional use for existing facilities, is not entirely desirable. While many facilities are ideally
suited, such as the athletic complex, fine arts centers, or classrooms; getting permission to use these
at optimum times is the problem. Schools, particularly elementary schools are also located in
neighborhoods, which is a plus.
Curricular (school) programs always have priority. As a result, evening programs are always being
bumped to make way for another educational program that was not scheduled in ahead of time.
Daytime programming is non-existent as school is in session and seldom willing to share peak use
space. Equipment like tables and chairs are also often well undersized and uncomfortable for
adults.
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Recreation Centers and Playgrounds Chapter 11
Other community facilities that can be utilized for programming include: county fair properties, Ntl.
guard armories, churches, banks, libraries, bowling alleys, lodging establishments and commercial
properties.
While recreation is adaptable and we often pride ourselves as programmers in making do, we must
be careful that we are not over compromising to the point that experience quality is reduced. While
we can play tennis on concrete floors in a poorly lit Ntl. Guard gym, its hard to determine what
impact the selection has on the public. Our image may be saying CHEAP! CHEAP!, rather than
COST EFFECTIVE - SAVES TAXPAYERS DOLLARS!!.
Types of Centers
A variety of community owned

facilities that might at one time or
another be termed a center can be Ft. Collins, Colorado Rec Facilities
listed. These include but are not http://www.ci.fort-collins.co.us/recreation/
limited to:
Athletic Centers
Tennis centers
Fitness centers
Aquatic centers
Ice rinks
Soccer complexes
Fine Arts Centers
Crafts Center
Community Theater
Outdoor Center
Nature Centers
Camps
Social Centers
Senior Centers
Teen Centers
Still, the center of choice, for many reasons, is the multi-purpose community center.
In this type of center a plethora of events/programs can be staged. Most of the program or activity
areas listed above can be programmed into such a center. Its essentially the everything under one
roof concept. Refer back to the family aquatic center for a recent trend using both the indoor and
outdoor environments as part of the center.
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Multi-purpose centers use this description for essentially two reasons; 1) the programs can house a
multitude of different activities from classes, to special events, to athletic contests, to social centers
and do so simultaneously; 2) Secondly, a multiple use center is adaptable. By this we mean that the
gymnasium for example can be easily modified to accommodate volleyball, softball, basketball or
badminton, with minor changes. It also means that the gym might host basketball one period, a
senior social the next and a teen dance that night.
Not all recreation activities can be handled in this fashion. Specialized room like those needed for
crafts cannot have equipment moved or shifted easily nor do these rooms lend themselves to other
uses. Similarly, weight rooms and their corresponding equipment cannot be constantly changed.
The multiple use concept is fine in most cases, and economically efficient as well. Just be sure that
you are not ending up with a lot of mediocre programs as a result of trying to do too many things
with one facility. People today expect high quality...if you can give them quality and save them
money - go for it!
An example of the rooms that a multi-purpose recreation center might have includes:
meeting rooms and classrooms

storage space
office space (either for entire staff or
just the facility management if a
neighborhood facility)
kitchens
pro shop (optional)
game room
auditoriums
pools
running tracks
weight/fitness rooms
racquetball courts
locker and rest rooms
craft rooms
day(child) care center
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Scheduling
Facilities such as these must be master scheduled. Master scheduling prevents duplicative
scheduling and other problems by ensuring that a program will fit the agency's overall schedule
before confirming it.
Master scheduling should work from yearly events in a progression downward to monthly, weekly
and finally daily activities. Schedule in significant community events first. There are Holidays,
Special Events and Dates that should be noted on every calendar. These might include the St.
Patrick's Day fun run or the 4th of July fireworks display. Begin Here. (This does not mean that no
programs are offered on these days but that everyone is aware of the situation) Add significant
agency events that are repeated every year at the same time (e.g. Spring Program Registration...
every second Saturday in March, or Fall Craft Classes begin on the second Tues in October).
Here you are looking for periods of 6-8 weeks duration that allow for natural breaks. This could
include starting Fall Soccer or Flag football shortly after school starts in the Fall, but just after
Labor Day. Sept 10 to Oct 30 might work fine for this program as it will be over before its
extremely cold. Most park and recreation agencies still use the four seasons (modified) as good
program breaks. This does not mean that all programs start at the same time and last for 13 weeks,
though. Fall starts in September (after school has resumed) and lasts through December.
Winter Scheduling typically starts in January and runs through late Feb or early March. Normally
there is a lot over time overlap among programs in any one season, which is illustrated in figure
11.2.
LERN (Learning Resource Network) suggest 6-10 program cycles for continuing education
programs. This necessitates extra brochures and promotion and registration cycles as well.
Peak Time Evenings from 5:30 to 9:30 pm would normally be considered the peak period
for use. If you are charging rentals, you should consider peak rates associated with these
periods of high demand. Third parties wishing to use a facility should definitely be charged
a higher rate than the same group using the facility during the slower day-time hours.
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Figure 11.2 Typical Season Schedule (Fall)
Sept Oct Nov Dec
F. Football _____________________________
twice/week for 6 weeks
W ater Color Painting _______________ _________________
once/week for 6 weeks 2 sessions this fall
Teen Social * * * * * * *
once per two weeks
Model Railroaders * * * *
club meets once per month
W oodcraft class ___________________
twice per weeks for 8 weeks
Ballroom Dance ____________________
once per week for 8 weeks
Youth Soccer ____________________
twice per week for 6 weeks
Cr. Drama _______________ _________________
once per week for 6 weeks (2 sessions this fall)
Scuba ______________________
once per week for 10 weeks
Registration * *
early for Fall for Spring
Programs vary in length and optimal starting or ending dates, but all fit somewhat reasonably into a
Fall schedule.
Monthly programs are next. These could include clubs (see Model Railroaders in Fig 11.2) special
events, regular promotional efforts or membership drives. Weekly schedules should be planned in
next; as now you are looking for available times and patterns that will fit around the more major
time restraints (see bi-weekly teen program).
205
Daily building schedule Scheduling in blocks or units helps programmers to meet patterns of use
by various groups. Logical blocks of time include:
early morning session (6:00 -7:30)

the before work crowd and some seniors who characteristically like to
start their day early.
morning session (8:30 or 9:00 to noon) a longer block of time which can be
subdivided into two smaller blocks
home-makers are available after dropping the kids off at school (parent-tot)
senior citizens, some shift workers
noon period(11:00 or 11:30 to 1:00 or 1:30)purposefully not a noon hour.
good for drop-in use by the business community
early afternoon (1:00 or 1:30 to 3:30)
can be the same audience as the morning hour
can be good for a different shift of shift worker
some kindergartners are out at noon
late afternoon(3:30 - 6:00)
peak use by school age
most adults would prefer not to be here if youth area is also open in evening,
close for an hour
early evening(5:30 to 9:00)
Peak period, prime time for 8-5 workers
late evening (9:00 p.m..to
midnight or even 2:00 am)
More exception than
rule; large cities
This table was generated by a

computer scheduling program as the
vast majority now are. Centers
should be scheduled 7 days per
weeks. On weekends the business
office may not be open but the
remainder of the facility should be.
One note: be sure to not only schedule
the needed time for the program itself but
for preparation as well as clean up by
the custodial staff.
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Staffing
Center staffing should include at minimum: A Director or Manager (w B.S. degree), Assistant,
Program Specialist(s) and Para-professionals (to teach classes and supervise facility). The assistant
manager and occasionally the lead program specialist would supervise the facility in the manager's
absence; insuring that the facility is open 80+ hours per week. Program development is shared by
managers.
Pricing
Fees for center use can very greatly, depending on a program's sponsor and the situation. Consider
that the facility (if a public agency) is typically paid for with tax money and that only operational
costs should be recovered, and then only for merit and private like services.
Charge Yourself Rent Distributing facility operational costs equitably is simple in theory but a bit
complicated in practice. One concept involves charging yourself rent, which allows the comparison
of in-house programs with those using off site facilities. If there is no fee for operational costs for
the crafts program but your program must pay rent for use of a gymnastics center, a comparison of
the two by others would result in apparently higher costs for the gymnastic program. The following
approaches have been used to try and be fair.
a utility/maintenance charge per square foot

a utility/maintenance charge per person using the various units
These approaches typically involve separating the facility into units or profit centers (commercial
term). The operational costs of the crafts rooms would be separated from the pool and that from the
gyms, etc. so that users of these facilities could be equitably charged. Calculate this charge once and
then publish it. For example don't publish $.12 per square foot per hour for the craft room...publish
$24 per/hour instead; based on 200 square ft.
At evaluation time, programs that are not cost-effective will (and should) be scrutinized
carefully for either elimination or modification.
Athletic activities like tennis and racquetball are difficult to justify when large areas are used by just
two players. This is not a problem when supply exceeds demand but when others are waiting in line
to use a facility, these programs might need to be moved to only non-peak times. Ironically, games
like walleyball (a spin-off sport developed for this very purpose) often serves (no pun intended) a
larger clientele than does racquetball. One Doubletree hotel in the region recently expanded its
fitness center into one of its racquetball courts for a similar reason.
Age is often a factor in pricing centers. Youth are typically charged little if at all in the belief that
everyone in the community benefits (see Ch 6) from their rec' participation. Seniors often receive a
discount as well, though this is much more difficult to justify.
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Rental Policies
Most recreation and park agencies make facilities available to community residents and groups for
rent provided that the direct needs of their program and those groups directly affiliated with the
Department have first been met. Typically the charges for such a facility range close to recovering
100% of direct operating costs, including but not necessarily limited to utilities,
maintenance(including set up and take down), and supervision.
There are a number of issues that impact these policies. Several have been selected for discussion
here. There is enough variation in policy though that the reader must realize that there is not
necessarily one best approach. Weight the alternatives carefully as each presents its own benefits
and detriments.
alcohol. A few centers allow the consumption of alcohol, but I believe these are in the
minority. Some, like the new center in Shawnee, KS. allow the consumption of alcohol for
certain, special events like wedding receptions or fund raising galas, etc.
room rental. Renting rooms in centers to third parties with purposes of questionable
affiliation to recreation is usually discouraged. It appears logical to rent or even provide
free space to a cycling advocacy group, or a family reunion, but renting space to the Rotary
or Optimists or other group for regular meetings raises some concerns about unfair
competition from hotels and other enterprises that normally rent meeting space.
religious services. Some allow rooms to be rented for religious services, but most allow
religious groups to rent space for recreation purposes but not for services.
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MANHATTAN PARKS & RECREATION DEPARTMENT

Reservation Form & Contract Agreement
Community House Rental
TO SECURE THE FACILITY, THIS FORM MUST BE COMPLETED AND CONFIRMED BY THE PARKS AND RECREATION
OFFICE.
ORGANIZATION/GROUP______________________CONTACT(S)________________________
MAILING ADDRESS______________________________PHONE H____________W____________
NATURE OF THE FUNCTION_________________________________________________________
DATE(S): FROM___________TO___________ (Include set up and clean up times)
ROOMS NEEDED ___GYM($12/hr) ___MEETING ROOM (A)($8/hr)

___MEETING ROOM (B)($8/hr) ___BASEMENT($10/hr)
___KITCHEN(no chg when used with one other rental)
Other equipment, such as tables and chairs in addition to those available, must be supplied by the renter
I, the undersigned, officially acting as a representative of the organization, agree to be personally responsible for all
financial responsibilities, including damages in the event of default by the organization, and to fully ensure all guests will
abide by the procedures outlined in separate forms.
Signature of applicant(renter)________________________________________
*Note* A $500 bond is required for those events deemed to cause foreseeable damage
(concerts, ___)
Facility Rental Procedures:
Reservation:
Must use the official form.
All events must be scheduled at least one week prior to the desired use
Confirmations: Reservations must then be confirmed 48 hrs in advance of usage time
Fees:
Are established annually by the city commission
Must be paid in advance (at time of application)
Clean up Procedures (see separate page)

Use of Equipment (see list on separate page)
Facility Supervisor
The MPRD will provide one facility supervisor with the rental of the facility. This supervisor will be
responsible for building security, equipment check out, and supervision.
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PLAYGROUNDS
For use in programming, playgrounds do not refer to the physical play equipment but a supervised
program (similar to a day camp) designed for young people in particular and conducted often near
elementary schools or park settings. Playgrounds often last 6-8 weeks during the summer. They are
characterized by low organized (although supervised) play.
The playground concept is the oldest in organized parks and recreation. It was this idea in the late
1890's that was initiated in Boston to get young people off of the streets and involved in enriching
and safe play. The playground is primarily a neighborhood concept. This is why the elementary
school sites are often selected; so that young people can drop by the site at their convenience.
Leadership
Several patterns of leadership have been suggested. These include:
1. Two stationary leaders

* 2. Two stationary leaders with traveling specialists
3. All traveling specialists
4. Participants travel to one major site
* preferred alternative
This pattern of leadership involves two staff members who remain on site. These two are
generalists but often have special skills in either sports or arts and crafts. Traveling specialists
periodically (a day or two each) visit each playground. These specialists may have special skills in
Music, Drama, Art and the like. A specialist may rotate between 6-8 playgrounds each season.
One leader should be male. One leader should be female. One should be designated as the director;
one the assistant.
A playground program director (also seasonal) should be in charge of the entire playground
program. This person should be hired a month earlier than the on-site leaders so they have
sufficient time to establish the schedule, order supplies and the like.
A staff meeting should be scheduled weekly; but not on Friday or Monday. This meeting allows
staff members from each site to coordinate equipment use, share ideas and work together on special
events.
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A BACKGROUND CHECK MAY BE REQUIRED OF ALL PEOPLE WORKING WITH

YOUTH.
Schedule A typical program lasts about 8 weeks during the summer. Programs typically
start about 9:00 am and continue until 4:00 or 5:00 p.m. In Kansas, program duration and schedules
are limited by a new law related to day care center operation. This law limits the number of
continuous hours of contact to 3 or the duration of two weeks for continuous contact programs (like
camps). In other words, there has to be a break in each day after 3 hrs of contact, such as closing
the site over the noon hour and re-convening at 1:00 p.m. If one schedules straight through (9:00 to
5:00), the program must stop after two weeks; and then can restart.
Each week should contain a microcosm of a full community program. It should contain a wide
diversity of program areas and formats. Part of the program should reflect what the children prefer,
part should reflect enriching programs that are new to them. A daily schedule might include and or
all of these elements
Sports Arts Social Outdoor Trips and Special Event
Each day should have active and passive elements. Some will be very active, like team sports.
Others will be used to quiet the tribe, such as table games or craft projects.
Themes Themes are widely used for each week. One week might use the theme the wild
west. Another space. Another rock and roll, etc. All activities during the week
should be related to this theme. Modify the rules or require special clothing, or
even develop new games to link experiences to the theme.
Facility Each site should be selected because it offers:
multipurpose use (grass, hard surfaces, indoor/outdoors, air conditioning, equip) .

rest rooms telephone storage
Pricing Most playgrounds are free. This follows the public good concept. Some programs
charge; but these typically offer more services and may be licensed day care
operations. Wichita chooses the latter plan. Even so many agencies utilize either
work study or scholarship programs, often both to make these programs available
to everyone. Agencies may also find financial assistance through State ( Dept of
Social and Rehabilitation Services) and Federal programs.
211
Special Events Chapter 12
Question s for Discussion:
1. Are playground programs merely babysitting services? What should they be?
2. What is the most fair or equitable way to recover some operational costs of a multi-purpose
center?
3. 24 hour operation of centers is appropriate in what situations?
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Chapter 12 Special Events
CHAPTER TWELVE
SPECIAL EVENTS
Comprehend the array of planning elements needed to organize a large,

special event.
Be able to determine the number of committees necessary and their
responsibilities.
Understand the value of special events to community program planning.
Understand some of the concerns and inaccurate claims made by some
regarding the economic value of special events.
Special Events are most typically considered formats by recreation and park professionals(and is in
this text), although cases have been made to classify these as program areas. Regardless of the
choice, it is unanimous that special events are a popular and frequent selection as a way to offer
recreation activities.
Special events come in all sizes and can be planned for any program area. They can vary from a
simple field day contest among day campers to a statewide event. A number of special events are
athletic in nature such as major tournaments and sports festivals. State Games; an Olympic style
sport festival offered in over 40 states is one such example. A number of community festivals are
social in nature. The Aspen music festival is Arts based. Earth Day events are a popular Outdoor
Recreation example.
One view of special event programming is that it is just larger in scale than other non-special events.
Another view holds that special events involve a number of separate activities in several formats.
We will find that both views have some merit as we explore this format.
213
What makes an event special?
The key word here is event. Events are happenings, milestones or phenomenons. Sometimes
special events are those activities that fit no other categories. They are somewhat different than the
ordinary.
Events are special because of the
effort and size involved

coordination of large number of extra staff and volunteers
multiple and often simultaneous activities
numerous facilities
other agency or community involvement
takes weeks to months of planning
many participants(typically hundreds to thousands)
multiple sponsors
only occasionally offered (annually, bi-annually)
theme
Purpose
Special events can be planned for a variety of reasons. Events such as pre-season or special
tournaments, can be used for promotional purposes to draw attention to or highlight the remainder
of a league or season.
Special events such as a community picnic can culminate or celebrate the end of a successful
summer of youth programs. Similarly a fall primitive arts and crafts festival can culminate weeks or
months of work on projects by students enrolled in agency classes. A bike festival and race can
culminate a safety program.
Special events can be primarily revenue producers (e.g. athletic). Related to this concept is the
notion of planning special events for economic impact. Many CVB's) convention and visitor's
bureaus tend to suggest special event planning for this purpose; which is often over-rated. In order
for special events to result in substantial economic impact to the host community a number of
visitors must be attracted from outside the community's normal range of commerce...otherwise the
event only results in exchanges of wealth to a different type of merchant and no net gain.
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Established Corporate Events
Programmers can start from scratch to design and plan special events or they may choose to select
an existing program that has corporate backing, recognition and advertising. Examples of these
corporate events include Ford's Punt Pass and Kick, Hershey's Track and Field, Sear's Special
Olympics, Winston Rodeo, etc..
The main question that must be asked is, "Who is the primary beneficiary - my clients or the
sponsor?" If you can comfortably answer primarily my clients, then consider this approach.
Consider the type of sponsor also. State games, which are affiliated with the U.S. Olympic
Committee cannot accept sponsorships by alcohol or tobacco companies...public recreation agencies
might consider similar limitations when choosing events with corporate sponsors.
A general overview of the Hershey track and field program is described in the next couple of pages.
In Kansas, there are multiple objectives stemming from this event. These include but are not
limited to:
athlete participation in a quality event

revenue to the KRPA for sponsorship
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Cautions regarding special events
Loss of control
As an event becomes larger, as in community wide, there are many interested parties that begin to
flex their muscles. These groups include but are not limited to the Convention and Visitors Bureau,
the Chamber of Commerce, the School Board, various vendors, and the like Events not controlled
can grow out of hand; beyond resources in a short period of time.
While it is necessary to utilize many different groups to successfully sponsor a large festival, be sure
that your role is a significant one; particularly if your agency is responsible for the expenses. An
example of the possible problems related to losing control is illustrated in the following description,
entitled "the Rise and Fall of the Flint Hills Festival".
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Mis-perceptions of Economic Impacts (result: Copy-catting)
Just because the community down the road has repeatedly sponsored a successful "festival" doesn't
mean that your community will have similar results. Repeatedly, this approach re-occurs as jealous
CVB staffers in particular perceive dollars flowing to their community from special events. In
reality, many special events do not result in positive economic impact. In order to result in
economic impact, new dollars must be spent in a community or region than would not have
otherwise. A general rule of thumb suggests that visitors must travel at least 40 miles one way for
this to occur. Few community type festivals draw from this distance.
This situation is compounded by the entry into the market of more communities. As the market
becomes saturated and the consumer has to choose between five (5) Octoberfests in a forty mile
region, the likelihood of every festival being successful is substantially reduced.
Themes to avoid if success is measured in revenue
Crafts market is extremely over-saturated, unless one can consolidate several local events
Holidays Let the local bars organize Octoberfests and St..Patrick’s day celebrations unless
your community has a significant German or Irish population.
Find your own niche
Instead of trying to copy another's event, develop an event that is unique. This is not easy. While
there are many attractions many will simply not draw enough people to warrant all of the effort
involved.
Every community has something to celebrate..an historic event, a founder, a product, a

geographic location, a notable piece of flora, etc... Build on your own strength
Be realistic in estimates of impact. Successful events do not have to draw from out of town unless
the budget necessitates it. Reduce your costs and keep the event at a more manageable size. Help
your community celebrate for its own sake.
A few events have properties that suggest they might be replicable in another community. A few of
these are listed below. KC's corporate challenge could likely be repeated in just about any
community of 20,000 or more. The Sunflower State Games is limited in its ability to expand on site
and needs to utilize regional competitions. Four or five regional competitions will mean replicable
events for selected communities. The Topeka Bike Races is an event co-sponsored by Bank IV and
the Topeka Department of Parks and Recreation. Since cycling is again becoming quite popular, it
appears possible that similar events in various sections of the state would offer promise of good
attendance.
217
Successful and Replicable (spin offs): Successful but difficult to replicate:
KC corporate challenge Smoky Hill River Festival

Sunflower State Games Swedish Festivals in Lindsborg
Topeka Bike Races Cheyenne Frontier Days
Get Plenty of Help
The more assistance, the more stakeholders....More stakeholders means greater acceptance
Special events often take hundreds of volunteers. Note that both the Flint Hills Festival and the
Sunflower State Games organizational chart call for a coordinator of volunteers just to manage this
crucial resource.
Volunteers are not paid a wage but typically are treated well in terms of refreshments. Snacks,
beverages and meals should be catered. Fast food places are easy targets when searching for
suppliers but don't limit yourself to this. Consider your food vendors too. Maybe include a clause
in their contract.
218
The rise and fall of the Flint Hills Festival
The Rise
The idea for a large, city-wide festival began when the Continuing Education Division of Kansas
State University evaluated the 1986 Folklife Festival. The Folklife Festival was advertised as an
"educational experience," and the Festival had lost money most of its eight years of operation. The
evaluation pointed out several faults: Folklife was usually held in May and had to repeatedly
contend with high wind and generally bad weather; the locations at Ahearn or CiCo Park were
awkward and did not lend themselves to large crowds; the education element became repetitious and
boring (the displays were the same year after year - educational, but did not equate with fun).
The Continuing Education department contacted the City of Manhattan's Park and Recreation
Department to see if it was feasible for them to become the host of a new and bigger festival under
a renewed effort. The city commission, acting on behalf of the Park and Recreation Department,
voted to accept the challenge.
An advisory board was formed. It included representation from the following art oriented entities
in the community: USD #383, Kansas State University, the Manhattan Arts Council, and the city's
Park and Recreation Department. It is noteworthy to mention that only the Park and Recreation
Department had a financial responsibility.
Purpose
The intent of the new Flinthills Festival was a more diverse, community wide event that would
support itself. Manhattan Parks and Rec would finance some important city park improvements
needed for the festival and agreed to provide the bulk of the needed manpower. If any profits were
realized, these would be used to benefit the Arts. Most involved felt that there was risk involved in
felt that the quality event being organized was an investment that was worth the risk.
Process
A festival coordinator was hired; who promptly formed a steering committee. Each person on the
steering committee chaired a working committee(fundraising/sponsorship, marketing/promotion,
finance, folklife, children's activities, festival food concessions, technical and grounds,
entertainment, arts and crafts and volunteers).
219
Festival Activities
The Festival was a three day affair. During the day on Friday the focus was on area school
children. Here the folklife component was a mainstay. Throughout the festival the folklife festival
was supplemented by a children's activity area , a wide variety of food vendors, a juried and non-
juried crafts show and both mainstage and roving entertainment.
Tickets were available to be purchased in dozens of locations, including several surrounding

communities. Tickets were $3 in advance and allowed entrance to all 3 days of the festival.
Children 12 and under were free.
Folklife Folklife include demonstrations of threshing, leather craft, shingle splitting, flint-
knapping, quilt making, broom-making, pottery, weaving, tatting, trapping and rope making.
Children's Activities included a craft (make it-take it) tent, petting zoo, face painting, sand
castles, basketball hoop shoot, miniature golf, and an obstacle course.
Entertainment See Table 12. __ for the daytime schedule on Saturday of the Festival.
The Festival was assisted in providing these entertainers by grants from the Kansas Arts
Commission and by help from KHCD 89.5FM Radio.
220
SATURDAY ENTERTAINMENT
CHILDREN'S FOLKLIFE STAGE FOOD AREA STAGE

STAGE
10:00 C.W. Parker amusement Alfred M. Packer.String

band Band
10:30 Gary Roberts "" "

Magic
11:00 Paul Meaner Funny Side of Folk KSU Woodwind Quartet

Puppets
11:30 Bryan Wend "" ""

Juggler
12:00 Susan Bee Bazaar Crossing New Kansas Grass

Storyteller
12:30 Funny Side of Wichita Chamber Chorale

Fold
1:00 Paul Meaner C.W. Parker amusement "

Puppets band
1:30 Barnswallow " "

Farquar
2:00 KSU Funny Side of Folk "

Woodwind Q
2:30 SS Storyteller " "
3:00 Funny Side of SS Storyteller Alfred Packer Mem S

Fold Band
Entertainment (continued). Each evening, big name entertainment was offered. Friday
night presented Riders in the Sky and the New Grass Revival. Saturday offered Hot Rod
"Chevy" Kevy, the Association and the Coasters.
Festival Foods As one might expect, eating is a big deal at festivals and there was no
lack of variety here. Vendors included Mexican, Cajun, pizza, BBQ, Chinese, Buffalo
Burgers, Lemonade, Fudge, Funnel Cakes, Hot dogs, Cotton Candy, German Sausage,
Baklava, Sno Cones, Cider, and an assortment of deserts.
Arts and Crafts 250 artisans exhibited in large tents. A juried contest was also held in
several categories.
221
The Fall
After working on the festival for three years; resulting in two festivals in 1989 and 1990 the event
was re-evaluated. It was found to be successful in some areas but not in others. The Friday,
educational day was well attended but the overall event was not. There was no charge on Friday
and these children apparently did not return again on Sat and Sun as was hoped, because ticket sales
were lower than anticipated.
In 1989 the event lost approximately $20,000. In addition, the Park and Recreation Dept’ estimated
its own losses in staff time at over $50,000. Also the Park and Recreation Department made a
$30,000 investment in the park (utility upgrades) that would not otherwise have been needed. The
city pulled out of the event as its primary financial supporter in 1990, citing that it simply could not
continue to absorb any more financial losses from this event.
After the decision was made to dissolve the Flinthills Festival, as it was known the MPRD decided
to revive the Folk Arts Festival once more; but in a somewhat expanded mode to include a craft fair.
The festival will keep the daytime entertainment, many of the food vendors and some of the
nighttime entertainment that it normally offered anyway as part of its Arts in the Park program. The
budget has been cut from $90,000 to $11,000 and the festival is still expected to draw 8-10,000
people.
My own observations of the event which hopefully justify the space taken in this text are that this
event seems to be a classic example of bigger is better or that festivals are big on economic impact.
In this case, the festival grew too big too quickly and outstripped its resources. This festival had
less of a problem but possibly one not fully understood relative to niche-ing. What I mean here is
that the festival was not unique enough to warrant visitation by non locals. In approach the Flint
Hills Festival was too similar to Wichita's River Festival or Salina's Smoky Hill Festival. While the
folklife portion was unique and very philosophically correct, it was simply not a big enough draw to
get people to drive 60 or 70 miles. It is also an example of city commission not relying enough on
staff input regarding agency operations.
Special Athletic Events (e.g. State Games)
Sunflower State Games

http://www.sunflowergames.org/
Many states (40 or more) offer a State Games; which is an
Olympic style sports festival. Some state attract over 15,000
athletes to this major event. The philosophy behind the event is,
on one hand to provide some of the excitement and flair of the
Olympics to many fine athletes who would not qualify for
Olympic competition, and secondly to prepare some of the same
athletes for a chance at Olympic competition.
222
Several useful examples are provided in the next three Tables, each from the Kansas Sunflower
State Games. In Figure 12.__, the organizational chart is shown. This chart illustrates the various
tasks that must be accomplished and who is responsible. The State Games Board of Directors is the
policy making body. It meets about 4 times annually and makes decisions relative to overall games
management. It is a figurehead type board. Many of its members are heads of big corporations and
are important people; or at least relatively powerful people. The Sunflower State Games was only
five years old at this point, and its attendance of 4,800 athletes is relatively small, as was its budget.
Some states manage over $1 million budgets for these events.
Compare the full time staff from the budget (Figure 12.__) to the tasks. Notice that much of the
primary and behind the scenes work must also be done by volunteers in this case. Kansas had a
unique situation in 1992 and 1993 as it was one of only a couple of states where the state's
Recreation and Park professional association managed the Games. It was the volunteer work of
many of these professionals that contributed to the success of the event.
Categories: Administration performed by paid staff almost exclusively

Operations 1/3 by paid staff, 2/3 by volunteers
Marketing PR primarily by paid staff
Hospitality 2/3 by volunteers
Safety/Security 2/3 by contract with medical and police
Budget Athletes entry fees pay for about half of the cost of the Games. The other primary
revenue source is corporate sponsorship. Concessions account for a small portion of revenue. The
event was expected to make a profit of about $16,000 in 1993. It did not due to less than expected
corporate donations but did make a profit in 1994.
Planning Time-line As with most major events, planning takes place months or even years ahead;
depending on the magnitude. This event has been held for 3 years making this part a bit easier.
GMD Sports Committee Mtg Feb 5

Sports Commissioner's Meeting Feb 5
Distribute Budget Prep Forms
Reserve Sport Venues Feb 6
Collect Budget worksheets Feb 21
Finalize Sports for Inclusion Feb 28
GMD Meeting Mar 3
Select commissioners for new sports Mar 3
Establish final competition formats (skill, age, sex, etc..) Mar 13
Submit estimate to SSG for number of medals needed Mar 31
Begin locating equipment and supplies April
Sports supply acquisition....and details May-July
223
Sunflower State Games proposed budget (1994)
Revenue: $ 182,255
Athlete Entry Fees $74,005
Cash(corporate)Sponsorships $76,500
in-kind $13,750
Concession and sales $18,000
Expenses: $ 166,000
Administration $70,000
Salaries
Supplies
Postage
Travel
Contractual services
Promotion, Marketing $21,000
Games Operations $75,000
insurance, t-shirts
rentals, officials
sanctioning fees
medals, communications, medical
224
Board of Directors
Director of State Games
Division Managers
Administration Operations Marketing PR Hospitality Safety/Security
Financial Mgmt Games Corporate Opening Risk

Management Sponsors Ceremony Management
Insurance
Communicat Media Receptions Medical Services
Legal
ions Operations
Competitor Security
Purchasing
Venues Advertising Services
Services
Bids, Proposals confirmation
Trade Spectator
Parking
Athlete Equipment Booths/Exhibit services
Registration needs s Traffic
Entertainment
Personnel Concessions Logos,
Sponsor
Printing Graphics
Souvenirs services
Accreditation Speaking
Refuse/Sanit Torch run
engagements
ation
Gov't relations
Transportatio
n Posters
Signage PSA's
Warehousing Newspaper
Network
Medals
distribution Television
Network
T-shirt
distribution Press releases
Volunteers
Sports
Organization
225
Canadian Festivals
Special Events are a popular means of attracting tourists in Canada. On any given summer day a
festival or event of some kind is likely in progress somewhere in the country. Maybe you've heard
of the Calgary Stampede or Quebec's le Carnival , or Edmonton's Klondike Days. Because of the
popularity of these programs a manual has been prepared by Tourism Canada that outlines the key
ingredients to planning and operating a successful event. Some of more crucial elements are
described below.
There is no pat formula. Each situation, each community, each event is different. There is no one-
way to program.
Timing Direct competition with an existing event can result in reduced attendance at both and
possibly ill will. However, just like two fast food restaurants look for side-by-side operations, an
event that pig-tails another can actually become a compliment at visitors now can go to both;
resulting in an extended stay. Generally avoid dates of other events in an 80 mile radius otherwise
you will likely be sharing an audience.
Niches may exist, however, even in large events like the Klondike Days. Such a large event might
supply enough warm bodies to visit an event with a linked theme (such as a mining exhibit or
frontier display).
Is there room at the Inn? Events relying on large out-of-town attendance will ultimately fail if
there aren't enough pillows on which to lay their heads. Some host communities have shown great
initiative in this regard; establishing a private home host agreement and special overflow
campgrounds. Others rely on mass transit from other localities; which can work if the event is
popular enough and the ride unique, comfortable and/or scenic enough.
Is it a community event or an elite group's event? Be sure you have the blessings of the residents.
Certainly, few would argue that it takes special people with foresight and gumption to tackle these
large events, but if just a few community leaders think the event is a good idea, it will likely fail
from lack of support.
Media coverage essential There is really no substitution for information and promotion. Use
whatever strategies you can to get the word out.
Purposes of Special Events

1. opportunities for community members to discover, develop and display their skills
and talents by encouraging self expression.
2. Provide a showcase for new ideas in art, music, athletics, drama, etc..
3. Increase community spirit and pride
4. They focus on the cultural mosaic
5. They stimulate travel
The publication further suggests the following criteria for success:

* the event be conceived with imagination
* that it have a strong focal point of interest (theme) appropriate to the community
* that it not be a carbon copy of other nearby events
* that it capture local interest and enthusiasm from the very beginning
226
Evaluation
At the conclusion of every special event, some means of determining whether or not it was
successful needs to be undertaken. The criteria may be primarily financial, or artistic, or a count of
attendees. Regardless, there is no better time to sum up and begin any changes than the immediate
follow-up; conducted while the preceding event is fresh in everyone's mind.
Things to do at follow up:
C File mailing lists (update if possible)

< Critique all events and components of events
< Use a survey form that fits your event (use this information or don't ask for it)
< File all copies of correspondence.
< Keep copies of all promotional pieces and a file of photos
< Maintain a database of attendance figures
< Compile a thank-you letter and send to sponsors. In it highlight the event
< just concluded and their role in its success
Safety and Security
Safety and Security are problems with large events. Not only event participants but spectators are at
risk. Each risk should be anticipated as much as possible and a plan prepared to deal with it. The
risk management plan for the Sunflower State Games is some 30 pages long (fairly standard). In it
is explained the likely risks associated with each event and associated action and staff plans.
Preparing such a plan reduces insurance costs by as much as 25% but more importantly can actually
prevent injuries by anticipating them.
227

__________________________________________________________________________
1. What is the Park and Recreation Department’s role in Special Event Planning, Sponsorship,
and Management?
2. What are the primary purposes of special events? Are these compatible with a
typical agency's mission.
3. What are some of the cautions regarding special events management?
ASSIGNMENT (Confirm with instructor before completing)
1. Find one special event for either a state park, county park or municipal
recreation and park agency. (Do not use the country stampede)
A. What is its purpose?

Increase attendance revenue etc...
B. What special logistics are involved?
Estimated number of participants? Other features
C. How far from town can visitors be expected to travel? Is it unique?
General estimate based on lack of substitutes
D. Could it be modified to work in Kansas? If so, HOW??
rd
E. Should it be contracted to a 3 party?
228
Chapter 13 Special Groups
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
SPECIAL GROUPS
FOCUS ON THE OUTREACH FORMAT
Understand the variety special groups that exist

Feel comfortable in planning programs for several special groups
Comprehend the complexities of programming for teens
W hile other special groups exist than just those covered in this chapter, these are groups that most
programmers will most likely be responsible for in some capacity. Programmers familiar with the
techniques embodied in this section should be able to transfer these tools to other similar situations.
Teens
Exposure to quality, lifetime enriching leisure experiences is particularly important at this age level
as these young people begin to independently develop their own personal values and begin to
establish lifestyles. Public agencies of all types, but most notably educational and leisure services
agencies, are expected to play a positive role by providing young people optimal environments for
social, emotional , physical and values development. In the absence of an optimal environment;
without opportunities, direction and reinforcement from adults, youth will learn values, but from the
media, and their peers, and most likely not those their parents would prefer.
Programming for youth in the general age range of 10 to 19, however, poses numerous challenges to
leisure services providers. Teens (adolescents and young adults) are often characterized on the one
hand as unguided, explorers, risk takers, hormonal time bombs; easily affected by peer pressure. On
the other hand, teens are capable of almost incomprehensible achievements in the athletic, arts and
educational arenas. Trying to decide which experiences are necessary and appropriate for young
people with traits seemingly appropriate to Jeckle and Hyde, is often considered both "the best" and
the "worst of times".
229
Special Groups Chapter 13
Many adolescents are fortunate enough to have close knit families and the resulting parental support
and guidance. Many are deeply involved in academics, the arts, or sports, or all of these. Many have
schedules that would dizzy most adults; leaving little time left for personal discretionary use. Some
live in rural areas where skills related to the natural environment are more readily acquired (hunting,
fishing, riding, camping, etc.). These are particularly valuable to the adolescent when sufficient
skill is mastered to participate independently.
At Risk Programs
However, too many adolescents lead less than optimal lives. Many live in decaying inner city
neighborhoods; routinely exposed to crime, drug use and degradation of the human spirit. Many
are economically and culturally deprived. Most have poor home environments, regardless of their
community. These youth are considered AT-RISK.
Youth are AT-RISK when, because of their environment or life situation, they fail to develop
appropriate values and direction. This failure results in the tendency to develop anti-societal
behaviors. These behaviors can be manifested in criminal activity, gang membership, and drug and
alcohol abuse. There are youth at-risk in every community, regardless of size.
Fortunately for recreation suppliers, there is information available concerning programs that have
worked. The National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) has developed one program,
Options for at-risk youth. This program involves a comprehensive training package including
videos, training aids, and numerous suggestions for using recreation to reach youth with positive
development programs and delinquency prevention programs. Other programs are available at the
state and local agencies; many with funding available for implementation.
Generally the successful programs for adolescents have the following characteristics:
Allow youth a fair degree of independence from adult intervention

(unobtrusive , youth-proof adults or role models are important though)
Are experiences either physically, emotionally or intellectually challenging? (requiring
substantial effort, risk or problem solving...substantive)
Are provided in a safe environment
(parents can be assured that the situation is well under control)
Are designed from participant input and reflect expressed desires to some
degree (youth have some say and control in programs)
Are adaptable (easily modified )
They are organized by subgroups
230
Subgroups
Beware of the danger of lumping all teens together. One or two years variation in age at puberty is a
tremendous difference. In athletics, avoid competing players\teams against each other with more
than two year variations in age; as beyond this, the size and strength differences are too great.
Socially, the differences are similar. For confirmation of this observation, ask a 6th and an 8th
grade girl about her opinions of boys, school, life, etc. Grade pairing also has its supporters. The
middle school concept is based on this philosophy. At this age, youngsters are vulnerable to
influence by older peers. Reducing the age range should reduce some of the negative interactions.
The bulk of agency brochures reviewed show the following groupings for non-athletic activities:
4th and 5th grades

6th and 7th grades
8th graders, Freshman
Sophomores & up
Subgroups can also have recognizable characteristics or titles; given to youth by themselves. Some
of the monikers being thrown around in the local middle and high schools currently include:
Preppies, preppie wanna be's, urban cowboys, dopers, rednecks, nerds, jocks. While psychologists
would discourage such grouping its occurrence points to the fact that groups with wide variations in
interest do exist and that all teen cannot be treated the same.
Forgotten age (10-15 yr olds)
Dr. Linda VanBuskirk (P&R, Apr 1993) suggests that one segment of this group (10-15yr olds) are
the forgotten age. She characterizes them as too old for the typical playground and too young for
the later teen's independent involvement; but still in desperate need of challenging physical and
social experiences that well designed equipment and spaces can provide. Without programs
available, these youth are destined to roam the malls and arcades or be found designing their own
risky adventures.
Needs Analysis
Surveys and other data gathering methods discussed in Chapter 3 are also applicable for
adolescents, but must be adapted to gather information from this population. Teens are not typically
accurately represented in household surveys. In order to determine their true interests and needs, go
to them. Ask them directly; in the schools, in focus groups, or individually. Beware of gaining
input from only those most willing to offer as in the student council syndrome, as these more mature
and highly involved teens may not be fully representative of the student populace.
231
Research on Adolescents
While its easy to say, "We must do something about the state of our youth in this country" it is
another matter to know what is effective to do. Here research findings are essential to direct
effective efforts at purposeful intervention. In Park and Recreation's Research Update column,
Linda Caldwell (1993) summarizes some of the more salient research on adolescents, in hope of
assisting leisure service providers in understanding better how their programs for should be
designed.
Benson(1990), in a survey of over 46,000 sixth-12th graders, found that the majority have
experienced at least two of the following less-than-positive life influences (home alone, hedonistic
values, over exposure to TV, drinking parties, physical or sexual abuse, and social isolation). Not
surprising (Csikszentmihalyia and Larson, 1984; Kleiber et al., 1992) found the most common
adolescent activity to be socializing. It's disturbing though, that Garton (1987) found that none of
the popular leisure pursuits of adolescents were either physically or mentally demanding.
This hedonistic approach to leisure suggests easy boredom, and limited search for intrinsic motivation .
Barriers to youth participation
Hultsman examined barriers and found transportation, cost, time activity was offered, peer
pressure and lack of skill to be barriers. Not liking the leader and not liking the rules were
noted reasons for teens to cease participation.
There is some support, interestingly for the notion that the more adolescents work, the more
they participated in recreation. This suggests that organized activity (even if this activity is
work) establishes some discipline, which enhances further activity. Some ( )
suggest that one reason for gang involvement is structure. Rules tend to give order to chaos
and bring some comfort to those involved.
Optimal Arousal
There is some evidence to suggest that negative leisure behavior is motivated by a need for
optimal arousal (Giboney and Carter, 1988; Iso-Ahola and Crowley, 1991; Kleiber and
Rickards, 1985). Need for stimulation appears to particularly drive negative behaviors. If
one's leisure was considered boring, the teen was more likely to abuse substances or engage
in some other deviant behavior; even over eating. (Hamilton, 1983; Orcutt, 1984; Smith and
Caldwell, 1989; Wasson, 1981; and Mehradian and Riccioni, 1986)
Implications
These research findings suggest a paradox. On the one hand, it appears that leisure
opportunities of a relaxed, easy going nature are desirable. On the other, there also seems to
be a need for adventure and excitement; leading to optimal arousal. This need for
232
excitement and adventure is particularly true for those at-risk as they tend to find
alternatives (some anti-social) means of achieving this stimulation.
Targeting at-risk youth seems to hold promise. Special programs need to be developed that
focus on these individuals. Successful programs seem to contain the following elements:
Strong, but caring leaders These leaders must be street-wise and not intimidated. They
must be capable of leading by example and gaining not demanding respect
Diversity and variety are important. Part of the problem appears related to athletics. This
area so dominates the spectrum that programmers fail to offer alternatives that fill the same
type of needs (excitement, teamwork and challenges) that make sport so popular)
Many, many at-risk youth have not excelled in sport, and are lost in limbo, unable to find alternative
leisure choices that would give them the same benefits as sports might have. One alternative seems
to be the scheduling of exciting and adventurous experiences; particularly intense, problem solving
situations such as those found in wilderness and seagoing opportunities ...ironically the same
approach used by the founders of Boy Scouts and Outward Bound ( ).
Squeaky Wheels
There is some concern that" the squeaky wheels get all the grease" when it comes to programming
for teens. It is crucial that program planners do not put all of their energy into developing programs
for just a socially difficult minority or the athletically gifted minority. There are many young
painfully average people that need attention.
While some teens may be more at-risk than others, it is a fair assumption to believe that all teens are at risk.
http://www.ci.fort-collins.co.us/C_RECREATION/RECREATION/TEENS/i
ndex.htm
Social Recreation for Teens
In the research section, evidence supports the popular opinion that socializing is a favorite teen
activity. A personal observation is that public recreation agencies have not been the best suppliers
of these experiences. Private-not-for-profit groups appear to be better suited for teen social
programs. This may be due to the greater focus that these entities can apply. Boys and Girls Clubs,
Y's and Teen Centers are gaining strong support recently as crime prevention programs and other
instruments of social intervention. A teen social program developed by the YMCA in Longmont,
Colorado, is described in this next section. It is not a particularly new or innovative approach, but it
does contain some elements that have helped to insure its success. It involved the teens in
planning, it involved some respected authority figures (teachers and police, parents) and it involved
the support of the community.
To add excitement, notice that a variety of opportunities were available. Teens essentially had the use of most
of the facility with limited supervision in certain areas like the weight room.
233
! The program was subsidized by the Y in hopes that some of these young people would become
future members
! Participants had to sign in and out. This allowed close monitoring of who was there. Parents
could find out when a child left. It also added to security as students had to use their own ID's to
get in and couldn't hand it to someone else when they left.
! The program was established by school. Each middle school had a different night. This cut
down on rivalries and disagreements.
! Participants were asked to take personal responsibility by signing a conduct pledge.
! These events were held on Saturday nights(an otherwise down night for the Y) with only one
school using the facility per month. This approach cut down on boredom...the activity was held
just often enough to maintain interest.
Responsibilities of Teen Night Coordinator
Establish good rapport with Schools

Reserve entire Y facility on set dates
Publicize via YMCA column, and at schools (via presentations, registration, flyers)
Recruit volunteers
Purchase necessary refreshment supplies
Contact local police dept for additional security
Conduct event
Conduct follow-up and evaluation
Estimated Budget (per teen night event)
Revenue: $ 500
Admissions (100 x $1) = $ 100
Concession sales $ 60
Corporate funding $ 300
YMCA Ntl. HQ grant $ 40
Expenses
Staff $ 500
Supplies(videos, food) $ 200
Promotion $ 100
Subsidy from YMCA $ 200
234
LONGMONT MCA Y
TEEN NIGHT
950 Lashley Street 776-0370
TEEN NIGHT FOR STUDENTS FROM
WESTVIEW MIDDLE SCHOOL
Admission $2 (everyone must show school ID)
SATURDAY NIGHT, March 6, 7-10pm

____________________________
FUN - FRIENDS - FOOD
_______________
Basketball Electronic Exercise Equp
Volleyball Running Track
Racketball Music
Free Weights Movies
Universal Weights Game Room
Walleyball Snacks
Aerobics
2 free drawings: Your chance to win a YMCA membership, and more
Participants must sign in and out. No one will be readmitted after leaving.
Everyone must complete a YMCA program registration and sign a conduct
pledge. Supervision will be provided by Y trained volunteer staff.
235
Senior Citizens (Mature Adults)
Program planning for seniors is essentially a micro version of program planning for an entire
community. Programs for seniors should involve all formats and program areas. This section
however, does cover some specific tools and techniques that have proven to be appropriate for
senior programming.
How old is a senior?
Many public recreation programs allow participation in senior programs as early as 55. Johnson Co.
Park and Recreation District (KS) offers a 50 plus travel program and strongly suggests an even
younger eligibility. The driving force behind these programs for young seniors is an earlier
retirement age and health. Many adults simply no longer want to postpone retirement and take the
chance that their health is too poor to enjoy it. Those who can afford to, retire early and need
programs that fits their lifestyles. As a general rule, don't begin eligibility at 65...its simply too late.
Who are seniors?
Seniors are a diverse lot. Ranging from young, healthy energetic independent individuals to frail,
very old and institutionalized; seniors should not be lumped into one category. Many are couples,
other’s surviving spouses. Most are retired. Some must live sparingly on fixed incomes. Others are
fortunate to be at the peak of their financial health; with independent means to do just about
whatever they want. Some have picked up their roots and moved to a new retirement location while
others are content to stay at home, comfortable with a lifetime's accumulation of family and friends.
Other monikers for seniors include

the aged, golden agers, silver
citizens, grey majority, leisure
lifestyled, seasoned citizens, retirees,
etc. (Hint: avoid being cute)
Seniors are the fastest

growing segment of Society
already; doubling the growth rate of
any other segment. Over the next 25
years, 80 million baby boomers will
become seniors, escalating this
growth dramatically, and changing
the population profile.
236
Winners and Losers
As this mass of humanity ages, demand for recreation activity will shift. Active sports like snow
skiing and step aerobics will decline, as will team sports like slowpitch softball. Sedentary
activities like golf and cycling will increase, as will demands for walking trails.
Some of the losers unfortunately are the seniors themselves. Faced with 20 or more years of "forced
leisure" many find this period of their life almost unbearable if they are not adequately prepared
with a well rounded repertoire of lifetime leisure skills. To address these deficiencies many
companies have initiated pre-retirement counseling sessions.
Pre-retirement counseling
To prepare seniors with their "lives of leisure" many corporations as well as government entities
offer leisure, wellness and financial counseling sessions. These sessions are designed to alert
retirees to the resources and experiences available and to help smooth the transition from the
comfort of the workplace to independence and lack of structure. If these programs are available in
your community, be a part of them. If they are not available, start one.
Elderhostels http://www.elderhostel.org/ are a wonderful

example of enrichment. These programs are designed to
enhance senior’s lives by combining education, social and
environmental experiences. Many are hosted by Universities,
typically during the Summer when the typical students have vacated the dorms. Programs may vary
from a couple of days to a couple of weeks. Seniors stay in the dorms and attend non-graded classes
on a wide variety of topics. An elder hostel in Arkansas is held in one of the state parks. Seniors
stay in the state owned lodge and enjoy golf and environmental sessions; followed by play on the
golf links within the park, special dinners and entertainment.
Other Considerations for Senior Programming
Adventure Programming As more seniors enjoy good health, there is an increasing

number of programs available related to the environment. These range from camping
caravans, sailing lessons and trips to wilderness adventures.
Travel Because of the time many of them have at their discretion, as well as adequate
disposable income, seniors are prime candidates for travel. Seniors like organized trips for
the safety and security as well as the companionship. These trips can be a nearby as a
professional baseball game and dinner theater or as complicated as a 3 week tour of the
western National Parks.
Traveling seniors require some special considerations. These include preparation by
the trip leaders for special medications, special diets, wide variety of interests,
accessibility, and the duration of stays.
237
Centers Communities as small as 500 residents often support a senior center. The center
serves as a social hub, a gathering place, a coffee shop. These centers should be capable of
hosting a wide variety of programs and formats. Seniors prefer their own center, but a
senior wing of a multipurpose community center is also a common approach. There is some
duplication in having two centers but many recreation professionals believe the differences
in interests (and tolerance) warrants this approach. Also, a significant amount of Federal
financial assistance is available via. The Older Americans Act, HUD and other programs to
build senior centers.
Senior Centers are typically multipurpose in nature with the following features:
! kitchen and dining area (capable of seating several hundred) could be used for meals on wheels
and/or pot-luck dinners, banquets, etc.
! lounge area (with comfortable seating and often a library)
! activity area (pool tables, shuffleboard, and table games like checkers, dominoes, cards)
! dance area and related area for musical accompaniment (can be converted dining area)
! area or room for crafts and other creative projects
! meeting room (for discussion of senior issues, seminars, classes)
! TV room (keep it separate though so it isn't obtrusive)
Staffing of such a senior center should include other seniors at least to a degree. However, young
professionals also add a great deal of energy and new program ideas.
Scheduling for seniors is somewhat different for the rest of the adult population. Seniors typically
prefer to start their day early. As a result, morning programs are popular. These can be tied to
nutritional program (some Federal assistance available).
For example: an early morning 7:30 hydro-aerobics class followed by a light breakfast
would be a very enjoyable way for many seniors to start their day.
Seniors do not like to be out late at night. Ending most programs by 8:30 or 9:00pm will be
preferred by the majority.
Cliques, (small, tight knit groups) seem to be a problem area in senior programming. Skilled leaders
should continually seek to re-distribute individuals so that cliques do not become a barrier for new
participation by people. Make special efforts to ensure that your programs are open to all seniors in
a community (of all ethnic origins and all economic levels) and that your program doesn't end up
serving only a narrow slice of this pie.
Meals on Wheels is a Federally sponsored nutrition program. Seniors can be guaranteed one hot
meal per day. This meal serves as a highlight, around which several hours of quality program can
be organized. However, these programs attract significant numbers of low income and frail seniors.
It is hard for these persons to interact with the communities for affluent seniors...there will be
clashes. Consider having meals on wheels at the center location 2 or 3 days per week instead of every day.
238
Barriers
Several barriers exist that prevent seniors from participating to a greater degree in beneficial
activities. The most typical barriers are transportation, health and finances.
Many seniors no longer drive or do not wish to drive at night, or in heavy traffic. As a
result, the better senior programs have initiated transportation services which pick seniors
up at their homes or other neighborhood sites, and bring them to the center or take them to
the programs.
A number of seniors suffer from failing health, yet still live at home. These seniors need
companionship, fitness and nutrition as much if not more than well seniors. Special efforts,
also including transportation, are needed to reach these persons. Occasionally these efforts
include nursing assistance during programs or additional staff to aid in ambulation, etc.
Though many seniors have very adequate discretionary incomes, many don't and live on
fixed incomes (often only Social Security). A number of basic programs should be free or
low cost to serve these individuals. Many social activities, more local trips, special events
and the like should be subsidized by other taxpayers. However, costly trips and programs
should be fully funded through fees as those seniors desiring this level of programming
should be willing to pay for it.
Needs
The particular needs of seniors are companionship, fitness, and mental challenges. The need for
personal fulfillment doesn't decrease as one ages, and often becomes more acute and individuals
realize they have a finite time left to accomplish some ventures never before attempted.
Fitness and good health aid every day functioning and longevity. Seniors are becoming more aware
of this, and are demanding specialized fitness programs. Popular programs include walking, bike
riding, hydro-aerobics and other specialized aerobics.
Companionship, or just being with other people is important to seniors. Many have lost a spouse
and are relatively alone. Recreation centers and programs can easily address this need.
No one is ever to old to learn. In fact, mental challenges keep older minds sharp. Authors in recent
medical journals(Journal of Medicine, 1993) note that the "Use it or lose it" concept does indeed
have some validity. The elderhostel concept is a fine way to address this need and has proven
popular as well.
239
Persons with Disabilities
National Therapeutic Recreation Society (Code of Ethics (Revised, 1990))

http://www.nrpa.org/department.cfm?departmentID=37&publicationID=21&Sub_DepartmentID=193
PREAMBLE
Leisure, recreation, and play are inherent aspects of the human experience, and are essential to health and
well-being. All people, therefore, have an inalienable right to leisure and the opportunities it affords for play
and recreation. Some human beings have disabilities, illnesses, or social conditions which may limit their
participation in the normative structure of society. These persons have the same need for and right to leisure,
recreation, and play.
With the advent of the Americans with Disabilities Act, and mandatory compliance in 1992,
programming for persons with disabilities changed dramatically. Prior to this time, individuals with
major mental, emotional and often physical disabilities were programmed for as a group, separate
from the so-called "normal" population.
Now, all programs (with few exceptions) should be available to all persons; including those with
severe disabilities. Programs that exclude people with disabilities are in violation of the Act. (Most
of the following materials were excerpted from John McGovern's presentation at the 1993 KRPA
Conference, KC)
! This means that activities for disabled individuals should be modified when possible or
at least accommodations made. In baseball for example, persons in a wheelchair
should be allowed to play with modifications unless it can be shown that the chair
causes a liability to others.
! This means that classes must have an instructor or sign interpreter to communicate to
the hearing disabled.
! This means that a schizophrenic adolescent must be allowed in your teen center. Only
if they exhibit inappropriate behaviors (which you have listed in advance) can these
individuals be removed from programs.
! This means that separate programs for people with disabilities are permissible so long
as those separate programs are not the only choice for a person with a disability and so
long as such a program is necessary for the delivery of services to that person. This
means that persons with disabilities should expect the same range of programs and
times available, etc.
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Registration
To be sure you are in compliance, start your changes during the registration process. Add a section
that checks for Essential Eligibility.
Do you need an accommodation to safely and enjoyably participate in this program?

_______ yes no
If a registrant responds yes, the agency then must determine the type of accommodation needed. By
using this approach, you do not have to ask if someone is disabled (a violation).
What is a reasonable Accommodation? Public entities must be prepared to change rules, policies
and procedures to enable a person to meet participate as long as the agency is not overly burdened
by the necessary changes. These include but are not limited to: alternative forms of registration,
changing the rules of golf (to keep wheelchairs off of the green, the course must come up with an
estimated/but official score for putting).
Agencies are not bound entirely by the wishes of the consumer, but every effort should be made to
make reasonable accommodations. Many of these, however, are far beyond what any agency has
done before.
Fees No special fees may be charged to recover extra costs for persons with disabilities (e.g. sign
language interpreter). It is suggested that an additional fee be added to every program to cover
anticipated costs (e.g. $2-3).
What is an undue Burden? Agencies need not provide a reasonable accommodation if it poses an
undue burden for the public entity. This test will rarely be met, however. Undue burdens include:
a. Fundamental alteration in the nature of the program

massive change resulting in significant drop in people served
jeopardize program effectiveness (golf instruction)
(however extra time for disabled is expected)
diminished program viability (so costly as to jeopardize livelihood)
b. Undue economic burden
cost of accommodation
number of people to benefit extremely low
availability of budget funds
c. Undue administrative burden
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Resources:
ATBCB 800-872-2253
UFAS Retrofit Manual (for buildings)
ADA Handbook, NRPA 703-820-4940
VS Arts (formerly Very Special Arts)
* see the end of each chapter for related special recreation resources
Community Integration
Karen Luken (in) Recreation Through Re-Integration(RTR) (Bullock et
al.1994) outlines an innovative program that is designed to provide disabled
persons (particularly those with severe and persistent mental illness) with the
necessary skills so that these individuals may lead satisfying and successful
lives; including freely chosen recreation.
She suggests that people with severe mental illness are probably one of the
most neglected disabled populations; most of which is due to misconceptions.
The (RTR) Reintegration Through Recreation program she describes offers
some solutions to this dilemma. The goals of RTR specific to recreation include: 1) successful
community life, (2) more varied recreation interests, (3) the ability to follow through on
independently chosen and planned recreation choices, and (4) more satisfaction with free time.
The basis of RTR is an individualized leisure education program that proceeds through several
stages, lasting 10-12 months. Clients and counselors meet about once per week during this time;
with fewer meetings toward the end of the program to promote independence. The first stage
focuses on leisure awareness and proceeds through self monitoring behaviors - problem solving,
activity mastery - resource management skills.
Developmentally Disabled
An important point to ponder here is that one need not apologize to the non disabled public for
including the disabled into activities but instead champion the fact that, by including everyone, the
lives of everyone in the community will be enhanced.
Inclusive Programming
Programmers should strive at every opportunity for inclusive as opposed to exclusive programming.
You may be more familiar with the concept of mainstreaming. The concept is that people with and
without disabilities participate side by side.
Unified Sports, Colorado

http://www.colorado-springs.com/parksrec/adult/unified.htm
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Schleien ( ) suggests a 7-step process to improve inclusive programming:
1. Assess individual needs and preferences

2. Selecting age appropriate community leisure activities
3. Determining the environmental constraints
4. Assessing skill levels and deficits regarding the activity
5. Develop strategies to overcome these deficits
6. Use "inclusion"specialists to help program
7. Evaluate
Exclusive Programming
Exclusion is most typically becoming an "old school”. In this approach, segregated programs are
developed exclusively for people with disabilities; with the idea that the social exposure and
interactions are more manageable. With the cafeteria approach to program planning, one may
continue such an option for those with disabilities who might prefer it. In a large city, such as San
Diego,http://www.ci.san-diego.ca.us/park-and-recreation/activities/dsa.shtml the numbers of
disabled persons warrants its own special segment of programming.
..............DO NOT UNDERESTIMATE THE ABILITIES OF THE DISABLED...................
The USFS was recently sued for not providing accessible cabins in a remote area. To
prove their accessibility, several disabled hikers made the trek to the site.
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Celebrating the Multi-Cultural Mosaic
For the most part, recreation is void of race, religion, gender or sexual orientation bias. However,
recreation can provide us with the opportunity to celebrate not only our similarities but our
differences. Realize, that without some assistance and recognition by program planners, some very
enlightening and diversifying experiences may never be shared with Society. Facilitate ethnic
groups in planning specific events. Try resurrecting a culturally specific sport that don't draw
enough participants for a regular league.
Every program area or format can be modified for more culturally diverse experiences. Consider
native American sports, Chicano festivals, African dances, and the like.
Even consider modifying certain fishing or hunting regulations to allow for certain types of
culturally related techniques (Noodling comes to mind...Noodling is a form of hand fishing where
the participant feels around under ledges for large catfish and either stuffs his hand in their
mouth(the preferred method) or grabs them by the gills. It is presently outlawed in most states but
for reasons that are not scientifically justified. When review closely the harvest by this means
would surely be insignificant; given the risks involved.
The Outreach Format
There are many individuals who simply cannot afford to travel, or are afraid for their safety to try,
or have physical limitations that impair their travel to our site for recreation experiences. This is
more likely true of these special groups than of any others.
As a result, outreach programs or taking the program to the people approaches tend to be very
effective with special groups.
Leadership
Hiring a roving, street-wise teen leader in a gang infested neighborhood is more likely to
result in participation and positive impacts than expecting these youth to come to
institutionalized centers.
This notion of a hiring one-of their-own works almost as well in each of the other specific
groups mentioned in this chapter (seniors, disabled, ethnic, etc..)
A senior citizen, who understands other seniors, would be a likely choice for a specialist to
visit shut-ins and supply a brief bright spot in an otherwise dreary day.
Logistics
Mobility and Portability are typical descriptors used in outreach. A number of

commercially available units make this approach even more feasible. These include but are
not limited to (pools towable by an 18 wheeler, stages, concession stands, rent-an-inline-
skate centers, playmobiles, zoomobiles, etc..
Depending on the population served, fees are typically lower for this format....as the
special nature of the group often warrants additional public subsidy.
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1. Name five committee functions that would be crucial to the success of a major special
event.
2. What are the major barriers that prohibit many seniors from greater participation in
recreation activities?
3. What benefit derived from Athletics might also be derived from gang membership?
4. What benefits accrue to seniors via the Elderhostel experience?
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ASSIGNMENT
1. Describe a situation where a modification for participation by a disabled individual

warrants a change by the agency, and one where it doesn't.
2. Describe an adaptation that would make your activity inclusive to persons with a
disability that limits them to a wheelchair
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Chapter 14 The Arts
THE ARTS
CREATIVE AND PERFORMING
FOCUS ON THE INSTRUCTIONAL
FORMAT
Better understand the role of park and recreation agencies in supplying

fine and creative art programs
Comprehend the special nature of the Arts in being able to both
complement other programs and stand alone
Realize persons trained in recreation may not be the best suited to supply
many art activities.
The Arts are a unique form of expression and communication. The Arts are vital to human
enrichment in that they assist in the development of the full human potential; and particularly one's
ability to better understand oneself as well as others.
It is very appropriate that park and recreation programs are important suppliers of Arts programs.
The values of creativity, communication, and relaxation that art based experiences can provide are
closely aligned with the missions of these suppliers.
Because the Arts are so varied it seems necessary to delineate the profusion of opportunities into
two more succinct categories.
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The Arts Chapter 14
Creative vs. Performing Arts

For the purpose of classifying and aligning opportunities with similarities, dividing the Arts into
Creative Arts and Performing Arts seems appropriate. For our purpose, Creative Arts might also be
called Manual Arts, as the process typically involves the manual creation of an object; which may
be either a work of Art or a Craft. Other authors use the classification of Visual Arts at this level. I
have reserved visual arts as a subdivision of Creative Arts to better separate these Arts from Crafts.
Works of Art and handmade Crafts are not always distinctly different. Quality is no less evident in
one or the other. A number of authors however, feel that works of Art are those creations that in
reality serve little functional purpose but are appreciated for their aesthetic (pleasing to the
eye...color, form, texture, style, etc..) values or subliminal communications of, or ability to elicit
emotion. Crafts, which may be no less creative or artistic in nature or quality, tend to serve some
functional purpose. Baskets carry products; woolens and other woven fabrics clothe and protect us;
furniture comforts us and helps us be better organized; jewelry decorates us, etc. There is somewhat
of an elitist flavor to Art, but the elitism seems to come more from the observers (audience) point of
view that from the artists, at least in the Creative Arts.
In the Performing Arts, the elitist stigma has developed in part from the advanced
education/specialization many feel is necessary to perform, interpret and appreciate the exhibition.
Dance, Music and Drama, each a Performing Art is not surprisingly also often classified as a
Cultural Art. Many Universities further complicate the classification dilemma by characterizing a
few of these pursuits as Fine Arts. The Performing Arts, while also certainly creative, more
typically involve practice, refinement and finally a performance of some sort for an outside
audience.
Creative Arts
These programs are very popular, often second only to Sports in most recreation and park agencies.
Creative Arts is subdivided into Sub-Program Areas: Visual Arts, and Crafts.
Program Area: Examples of Creative Arts

Sub-Program Areas Visual Arts Crafts
Activity Areas Painting Woodworking
Sculpture Basketry
Drawing Ceramics
Photography Weaving
Printing Cooking
Leather work
Sample Activity Watercolor Painting Crafts Fair

Class MW eve Sat, Apr 15
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Chapter 14 The Arts
Current Trends
Crafts in particular are very fashionable today. A "do it yourself" theme is popular in the 90's and
crafts are one way to make useful products, to extend incomes and otherwise improve self-
sufficiency. Hands on projects also provide the "high touch" compliment needed in a high tech
Society. The modern workplace provides little opportunity for creativity and the Creative Arts is a
prime opportunity to satisfy this need.
Linkages
One primary value of the Arts is that is can be combined with many other programs for additional
benefits. Summer camps, playground programs, after-school or latchkey kids all can benefit from
Arts components of a larger program plan.
A good example of such a linkage is the activity of kite-making. First the kite is designed, then
constructed by the individual; who then flys it, which is yet another worthwhile and wholesome
activity. Outdoor recreation experiences lend themselves well to similar linkages with crafts. Craft
items can include equipment, shelter, furniture and appliances that are first enjoyed as they are made
and then again as each is used and enjoyed repeatedly.
Formats
Although Creative Arts can and should be offered in a variety of formats, the most popular formats
are those related to instructional; notably classes and clinics.
The primary objective of most Creative Arts classes is the acquisition of the skills and
knowledge to be able to independently create useful products. The instructional format
should be an obvious choice.
Session length. However, within this format, there has been a move away from long, multi-
session classes to the clinic format. This has been prompted by the busier schedules of
families. A periodic 3-5 hr slot for a clinic is far easier to schedule than 6-8 weeks worth of
Tuesday nights.
The special event format for Crafts as well as Visual Arts is popular. One special event that is
widely used is the Craft Fair; so much so that is currently over-used. Park and Recreation agencies
were the leaders in establishing this format. Many creative arts specialists developed Arts-in-the-
Park type programs that often combined and celebrated both the creative and performing arts. The
purposes included awareness and publicity, and possibly even revenue generation. Today, a city's
Convention and Visitor's Bureau often is involved, believing a primary value of such events is
economic impact. I strongly disagree. There are some exceptions but far too many of these events
draw few visitors from outside of the community, and also draw too few visitors in general to attract
quality vendors whose primary purpose today is profit.
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The Arts Chapter 14
One reason for this suggestion is that there is too much competition. It seems like every weekend,
someone is hosting a craft show. There are so many that the quality of items for sale has dropped
significantly; so that some now call the poorer shows "cr_p" shows instead. Several commercial
enterprises specialize in Arts and Crafts Shows. One sponsors about 20 shows per year in major
cities, averaging 60,000 attendees. These are well organized events that include good entertainment
and quality juried artisans.
Locally, every conceivable organization seems to sponsor some

type of craft show. Several churches sponsor fall Christmas shows,
the local military post's officer's wives club sponsors several shows
each year; the latest in conjunction with a volksmarch. Two other
major shows are available; one a private affair - called the pumpkin
patch draws about 20,000 visitors; the other show is part of the
Manhattan Park and Recreation Department's Folk Life Festival. It
draws about 15,000. The Mall hosts several dozen artisans several
times per year. Aggieville, a specialized shopping mall near
campus, also hosts 2-3 shows per year; it most notable at
Oktoberfest.
Agencies initiated these shows often as part of a special event, and many continue to exist that way.
The problem lies in that there are so many today that the uniqueness is gone. When there are one or
two shows per year, people look forward to the event. When one is held every other weekend, the
event becomes a marketplace; often more similar to a flea market than a specialty fair. The flavor is
gone. The value is gone. Give it up.
Benefits
Individuals participating in these programs gain personal enrichment by the opportunity to express
themselves, to be creative, to communicate. The well recognized therapeutic value of manipulation
of materials, whether these be wood, clay or oil and canvas is similarly evident. Hands-on
manipulation of physical materials appears to relieves stress. As one has to focus his or her entire
attention on the project at hand, the cares of the world are left behind. This temporary loss of time
and place is probably the most beneficial element of the creative arts. As recreation is done for its
own sake, the enjoyment of the moment, the intrinsic values inherent in creativity of this type is a
perfect philosophical fit.
Suppliers
Just like the overall agency program warrants study of the current resources in a community, a
community's creative arts programs has a number of suppliers and should be reviewed carefully.
Some of the these suppliers include schools, which offer graphic and manual arts curriculums at all
levels; commercial enterprises, including specialty stores which offer both materials and finished
items for sale as well as instruction in many cases. Senior Centers, Churches and individual crafters
also help to supply a community's needs in this area.
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Chapter 14 The Arts
Try to not directly compete. Remember our approach should be one of facilitation. If someone else
can do it better, or is at least meeting the needs, let them (help them do an even better job). Work
together. Cooperative arrangements between commercial enterprises and recreation and park
agencies can be win-win situations. The vendor will likely gain new customers and sales - the
agency increases the quality of instruction and numbers.
Facility Considerations
Quality creative arts programming necessitates certain specialized facility considerations:

Ideally, an agency has been able to justify a crafts center to its constituents. If not, still a number of
wonderful programs are housed in less than ideal conditions. Locally, the best craft facility is
located on the Fort Riley Military Base. This multi-purpose facility includes areas for woodcraft,
photography, painting, weaving, as well as pottery and ceramics, among others. Yet, the local park
and recreation department serves over 600 clients in part of an ancient undersized basement facility.
While its not the purpose of this text to get so specific as to list the detailed elements of a darkroom
and related photography needs or what every woodshop should have, it is the intent to convey that
details are important. Prior to building such a facility, do your homework to be able to build the
very best layout possible.
Community Colleges and Secondary schools often offer specialized creative arts rooms. Using
these areas for community use is often done through a rental agreement; but only with the good
graces of the instructor in charge. Get to know this person. and realize the importance of leaving the
facility each night in better shape than you found it, in order to remain welcome.
Facility elements to consider:
Good Ventilation: Toxic fumes are associated with many solvents, paints and materials used in a
number of projects. Both the EPA and OSHA are concerned about these conditions.
Easy Cleanup: Carpeted floors, while quiet and comfortable, have little place in this type of
facility. Spills and messes will occur and need to be cleaned up quickly and easily. Opt instead for
vinyl. Finished concrete is OK but hard for people to stand on for long periods.
Lighting: Specialized lighting should be considered. Pull down styles capable of pin point accuracy
should enhance general overhead lighting. Regardless, be sure there is plenty.
W ork Tables: Should be strong, durable and easy to clean as well. Damage from sharp instruments,
chemicals, and bumps and jars will take its toll eventually.
Storage: Seldom will a project be completed in one session and be taken home immediately.
Therefore, places to store unfinished projects, as well as the materials to make them is crucial. There
should be large amounts of secure (lockable) storage.
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Scheduling
Creative Arts programs should be available throughout the week; night and day so as to
accommodate varying ages and schedules of clientele. Each time of day offers certain advantages
however. Early morning appears (9:00) to be good for homemakers, who have just gotten the kids
off, as well as for senior citizens (who often like to start even earlier). Lunch time offers a special
opportunity for working men and women to take a break from their routines. Brown bag specials
(eat while you work) are popular; especially with crafts that aren't too messy and don't involve a lot
of prep or take down time. Early afternoon has worked well for mom and tots type programs as
often kindergartners are out of school at noon. This time can also be popular with shift workers.
After school programs often begin at 3:30 or 4:00 and can be extremely popular. Prime time starts
at 6:30. These programs are typically for adults who have worked during the day. Late night may
prove to be popular too, if there is sufficient population to warrant its consideration.
During this time a variety of formats should be included. Vary drop in times so that people can
come in when its convenient.. A facility ready for drop-in use will have a multi-talented instructor
supervising the facility that is capable of answering questions in a number of areas. An alternative
to this approach involves having each instructor schedule some drop in use time as part of each class
so that students may work on projects at other times.
Classes in creative arts typically should last at least 1.5 hrs and often last 2 to 2.5 hrs per session.
This is due to the time necessary for preparation, hands-on work and clean up. Each activity will
vary, so work closely with the instructor on scheduling times.
Leadership
Creative Arts instructors and other leaders can come from just about anywhere. Teachers are good
sources. Art graduates can be good. Shop owners and their employees can be great resources.
Individuals with degrees in parks and recreation, unless they have a minor in art or a specific
emphasis, do not typically have the specialized knowledge necessary to lead the courses, even
though they may possess the proper philosophical orientation.
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Chapter 14 The Arts
Performing Arts (Dance, Music and Drama)
Values and Benefits
The performing Arts, while recognized for their audience appeal, also offer significant benefits to
the participants. Many individually enriching benefits accrue as a result of ones participation in
individual, group, formal or informal programs. Because of these benefits to the participants it is
appropriate for park and recreation agencies to sponsor, plan and conduct these programs.
Park and Recreation agencies appropriately sponsor

personally enriching audience centered programs as well for
equally valued benefits. Recognized benefits at this level
include cultural diversity, appreciation of beauty, and
relaxation to name a few. Here though, there are many other
suppliers, including the commercial and many specialized
not-for-profit entities, such as the:
http://www.lkwdpl.org/beck/
Dance
Many consider dance one of man's earliest forms of expression. Each period in history offers its
variations to the theme. Today these variations are added quickly. New dance trends come and go
in a matter of months.
Desired Outcomes
Dance is considered expression through human movement. Its primary values beyond this
opportunity for communication include: social interaction and even physical fitness. Dance is
diverse. It has so many shapes and form; uses. A place can be designed for it in conjunction with
many other program offerings and a wide variety of ages.
Depending on the desired outcomes, the approach to program planning is drastically different. If the
objectives are audience centered, the focus is on a quality (flawless) performance which must be
rehearsed by the artists repeatedly. The expectations are high; as too are the costs and rewards.
If the objectives are participant centered, the focus changes from the product to the process. Here
participants gain more immediate satisfactions such as social interaction, fitness, exhilaration, etc..
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Examples of Dance Activity Areas Include:
Folk /Square Social Country Western

Ballroom Ballet Modern - Expressive
Tap Street Funk Line
(note* aerobics fits more closely with wellness and fitness programs in this author's opinion)
Popular activities ( abbreviated titles only) include:

teen dances, instruction in all types of dances, performances by ballet groups,
square dance clubs, clinics with touring specialists
Dance, like creative arts has the special characteristic of being easy to combine with any number of
program elements. Dance can easily be planned to be a part of another activity, or used to expand
the current program into a larger affair; even a special event. Examples of this concept include:
after school dance instructional programs leading up to a teen dance, social dances at camp, a
community dance as part of a week long celebration, a choreographed routine in a dramatic
presentation, etc..
Dance is popular with various age groups with social interaction the dominant benefit throughout.
Senior citizens, like teens find regular dances a very rewarding means of getting together and
socializing. We may need to focus special efforts on those in their 30's, 40's and 50's that seem to
have erected some barriers to participation in dance activities.
Facility Requirements
Many dance activities have special facility needs. A well ventilated area with good acoustics is
typically crucial. Size is always a consideration. Too small an area leads to discomfort and
restrictions of movement. Surface type varies too. Again concrete can work, as long as it is not
used repeatedly. Hardwood floors are the surface of preference; followed by vinyl. Musical
accompaniment also varies; from tapes and CDs to live bands. Facility considerations must also
meet the needs of these artists.
Leadership Considerations
Many dance activities are of a social nature, where participants know how to dance. These
programs can be planned, organized and conducted without any special dance related skills.
For classes and clinics, instructors with special skills and experience are essential. As in most cases
with recreation programs, these instructors need to bring to the program not just a high level of
technical skill, but a philosophical approach and personal demeanor that will allow them to happily
help people improve their skills. Two of my personal all time favorite dance instructors were
mature women (55 plus when I was a participant), who just loved what they were doing. They
were having a great time and so did everyone involved. They didn't brow beat or chastise. They did
expect and get attention, and they knew just about every dance ever invented.
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Chapter 14 The Arts
Drama
Dramatic activities are very personally rewarding for many individuals. Also a form of
communication or expression, drama in particular allows people to transcend their daily lives and
become, temporarily at least, whatever their heart desires. It allows us to share a part of ourselves
with others in a less threatening situation that the norm.
Nonetheless, Drama is life. It has been called the practice of living. It is playing house, or cowboys
or Indians, or charades. It is our expression of what is going on around us. It allows us to laugh at
our problems portrayed by characters that may otherwise be too difficult to deal with. We can try
out new people, faces characters, lifestyles with little risk.
Desired outcomes/benefits
Drama offers an exceptional opportunity to develop or express one’s imagination. Imagination has
been called resourcefulness, or the ability to mentally conjure images. This resourcefulness,
according to Brian Way (1967) is necessary for the full enrichment of life.
Other benefits one can gain from dramatic activities include a fuller use of and appreciation for the
five senses (taste, smell, touch, hearing and sight); a finer mastery of speech; the discovery and
control of emotion; and the development of intellect. Drama also affords opportunities for escape,
social interaction, fantasy and make-believe.
Nelle McCaslin (1974) finds Drama as a means to develop confidence and child’s feelings of self
worth. She thinks play is serious business. Her book, Creative Dramatics in the Classroom,
illustrates how the continuum of dramatic activities can be effectively utilized in classrooms, camps
and community settings. The values she sees in dramatic play in addition to those mentioned
include:
an opportunity for independent thinking

cooperation
a chance to build social awareness
an opportunity for a healthy release of emotion
Park and Recreation agencies sponsor a wide variety of dramatic experiences all across the
continuum shown in Table 14.__. These range from the most formal theatrical productions to spur-
of-the -moment dramatic play of children.
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The Arts Chapter 14
Table 14.__ A Continuum Illustrating the Diversity and Range of Dramatic Activities
FORMAL INFORMAL
(rehearsed, audience centered) (spontaneous, participant centered)
movie productions dramatic clubs story telling creative dramatics games

musicals acting classes dramatizations charades dramatic play
plays puppetry talent shows interpretive skits grab bag drama
melodramas improvisation
dramatic readings
Formal dramatics refers to productions, generally. A script is selected in advance and memorized
by the players. These activities are more for the audience than for the participant. Participants
nonetheless gain tremendously in skills, confidence and in a sense of accomplishment (all
worthwhile leisure values) as they prepare and showcase their talents. Formal dramatics also
involves direction, practice and rehearsals. Formal drama is often labeled as theater, and is
performed by artists.
Moving to the right on this continuum, activities involve less and less degrees of practice, and more
imagination and improvisation on the part of the participant. The least formal is dramatic play.
Dramatic play involves the free play of young children. It tends to exist only for the moment. It
can be as fleeting as the pretend tea party where one child asks another to pass the imaginary tea and
cookies.
Leadership concerns
Because of the wide variety of activities available there are many choices that need to be made to
match the correct type of leader with the situation and desired outcomes.
Brian Way (1967) suggested that a really fully, generous, compassionate interest in children, irrespective of
academic ability or gifts is the first requisite for working with young people and creative dramatics.
A knowledge of why to use drama is another.
On the other end of the spectrum, it certainly appears that high degree of skill and successful
experience could be the criteria for the director of a large community theater production.
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Chapter 14 The Arts
Drama for the Disabled
McCaslin (1974) notes that play has a special significance for the mentally retarded. Informal
dramatics affords the opportunity for integrating others in a group setting. Drama also offers the
opportunity for language and social development. While drama can be particularly beneficial from
a therapeutic viewpoint for emotionally disturbed children, one must be careful as the opportunities
for emotional release can backfire. One concern is that normal children can engage in fantasy and
return to normalcy while leaving the fantasy behind, but the disturbed child cannot always
distinguish any difference between real and fantasy. Leaders should have training(or assistant that
do) in dealing with these individuals. Two types of behavior that are often exhibited are inhibition
and aggression. The inhibited child can often benefit through puppetry which allows them the
opportunity to express themselves without drawing direct attention. Aggressive children appear to
benefit from physically active dramatic activities.
Those persons with physical disabilities can find dramatics particularly rewarding. As they are
unable to participate satisfactorily in many sports, they are often able to find excitement, adventure,
and team play situations in drama. Drama, with its imagination building ability, can help
individuals escape from their physically limited situations.
Because of the many benefits offered by the arts, the Joseph P.

Kennedy, Jr. Foundations provided funding in 1974 to support a
national conference on arts for persons with mental retardation.
Eventually this interest was transformed into the Very Special Arts
(VS Arts), a global service with a mission to assure that persons
with disabilities have equal opportunity to participate in programs
which demonstrate the value of the arts in the lives of all individuals and provide opportunities for
the integration of people with disabilities into society.
Physical Facilities
The physical facilities for drama are also varied. Those least formal need no props, stage, sound or
speech. We add to this in varying degrees as we increase the formality. Improv-isation, while
creative drama, can often benefit from limited props and costumes as these can free the participant’s
imagination. At the theater level, the stage must be elaborate; capable of handling several scene
changes, mixing light and sound by trained technicians, etc..
Many community centers contain stages; as do most jr. high and high schools. The latter often
have elaborate auditoriums, designed just for this purpose. Recreation and park agencies can
effectively cooperate in win-win situations with the school systems.
Many park and recreation agencies have their own facilities. A number of communities offer both
indoor and outdoor stages. The outdoor stage is typically used for the city’s Arts-in-the-Park
program; which includes dance, music and dramatic performances by local and touring artists.
Depending on the type of production and the weather, these performances can also be moved into
the civic auditorium or the jr. high theater.
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Formats
Use them all. Directly supply some experiences and facilitate others. A wide variety has been
illustrated. Every community should be exposed to most of these, at least periodically. Develop
partnerships with local arts councils and the schools to offer the highest quality of programming.
Many touring groups can also be contracted. These vary from professional mimes and tours
designed to work with small group and in workshops on dramatic play and the creative use of
dramatics (which would be extremely useful for a playground or day camp situation) ...to individual
talents (monologues and dramatic readers)....to full blown theater productions.
As is true of all of the Arts, dramatics also lends itself to be easily combined with other types of
activities. For example: Persons involved in a musical could easily gain and exhibit creative arts
skills in making the props, followed by a combination of dramatic, musical and dance skills needed
for this type of production.
Music
Music has been called the universal language. It has such a wide, cross-cultural appeal that this
claim is certainly true. Each of us participates in some fashion, usually in several; as listeners,
players of an instrument, or vocalists (either in or out of the shower).
Benefits
The most unique quality of music is its ability to affect or stir our emotions. People don’t just listen
to music they feel music. Our demand for it is almost entirely intrinsic - for the experience or
pleasure is contained within. As such almost all music is recreational; except for those artists that
get paid to produce it. Music sets the mood. In many programs we use music to set the tone;
exciting, relaxing, etc.. What would an aerobic exercise class be without music? How about a
major league baseball game?....or a campfire program?
Music is beautiful scenery for the ears. We value music because it is so aesthetically pleasing.
Interestingly, our tastes and preferences are as varied as for the visual kind.
Leadership concerns
Unfortunately, recreation programmers do not utilize more often as a stand-alone activity because
they are not highly skilled in it. This is almost always be the case. Therefore, admit this weakness
and hire qualified specialists to present the type of program needed. Music specialists can be hired
for the playground program, or as instructors of a class, or as part of the interpretive staff for the
state park campfire program. These individuals will be para-professionals in most cases, contracted
for a limited period of time for their knowledge and skills in a specific area.
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Chapter 14 The Arts
Each community has an abundance of musical resources to draw from; including teachers,
professional musicians and performers of all types (vocal, instrumental, etc..) and instructors. Park
and recreation agencies often have facilities for practice and performance so the two have some
middle ground for which to negotiate their services.
Formats
Russell (19 ) illustrates the types of music activities under two general categories of Vocal and
Instrumental in Table 14.__.
Vocal Instrumental
Performance Performance
Glee clubs Orchestras
Madrigal groups Ensembles
Barbershop quartets Bands
Christmas caroling Talent shows
Listening Listening
records and tapes records and tapes
concerts concerts
operas/musicals recitals
Instruction Instructions
voice string, percussion
song leader workshops flute, piano, brass, etc..
Composition Composition
song writing improvised jam sessions
Practice Practice
sing alongs or at home scheduled rooms/times
A wide range of activities should be available in each community. A needs analysis will help
pinpoint the niche that park and recreation agencies should fill.
Often an agency’s niche is not lessons, as these are supplied by many specialists across a
community. Many music instructors work out of their homes. The schools also supply a good deal
of this market. Yet, there are exceptions. Some types of lessons lend themselves more readily to
groups. Modern technology has assisted there as well. Keyboards are such an example. A dozen
keyboards can be placed in a room, and with the use of earphones, only the player can hear his/her
work.
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The Arts Chapter 14
Musical performances are one area where agencies are needed as suppliers. Part of the reason for
this is costs. It is extremely difficult to profit from concerts. There is a great deal of risk that few
individuals can afford to undertake. Tax resources of a city allow the subsidy to contract with
groups and not require a profit.
Arts in the Park typically involves a musical component. This popular format sometimes showcases
local musical talent. It certainly is a format for attracting nationally recognized entertainers as well.
Often there is no fee to community residents for this type of program. Revenue is instead obtained
from sources like the following:
Tax support The Musician’s Trust Fund

The National Endowment for the Arts The State Arts Council
Local Arts Councils Corporate Sponsorships
Concerts can also be a source of revenue. The country stampede earned a local state park a
guarantee of $40,000 above an additional $15,000 in extra campground revenues. The security
problems with these events are enormous though; as is the site degradation.
Entertainment Contract Negotiations
Tips for Effective Negotiations with Agents

1. Tell the agent about your program (its goals, purpose, etc.)
2. Prefer to not book an act on the first contact, leave yourself time to negotiate
3. Let the agent quote you a price first
4. Always take notes, price and terms sometimes get forgotten
5. Your budget is your business, not the agent’s
6. Give them a price that will allow room for bargaining
7. Make a fair offer, not an insulting one
8. Watch out for verbal commitments
9. The agent is working for you, don’t let him/her make you feel guilty
10. Always be assertive. If the answer is NO, be sure to indicate so.
11. Be honest, don’t give excuses
12. Always return phone calls
13. If the terms can’t be agree upon, don’t give in - there are other fish in the sea
14. Always ask what specific riders are to be attached to the contract and don’t be
afraid to negotiate the conditions of these as well
15. Read the entire contract thoroughly
16. W atch out for cancellation dates
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Chapter 14 The Arts
Entertainment Event planning checklist
! Get artist approved by your agency (if necessary)

! Reserve facility
! If your agency can meet specifics of a technical rider, contract artist or agent to adjust
! Make a firm offer to artist’s agency
! Obtain confirmation from artist’s agency for his/her appearance
! Sign and return contracts
! Secure promotional materials (bio, pictures, recordings, etc..)
! Arrange for appropriate sound and lighting as specified in contract rider
! Initiate marketing (ad) campaign
! Arrange staging and other equipment
! Arrange for transportation and lodging of artists and entourage
! Arrange for all necessary personnel
! Arrange ticket printing
! Contract for or otherwise arrange security
! Request checks for artists (don’t prepay but pay immediately after event)
! Arrange for special food items (beverages, snacks, etc..) as per rider
! Make sure event is set up on time
! Arrange for post conference cleanup
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The Arts Chapter 14
The City of
____________ Manhattan, KS_________________

CONTRACT
This CONTRACT for the personal services of musicians on the engagement described below is made this
________day of ________________, 20___ between the undersigned, City of Manhattan, and the undersigned
musician or musicians and their agents.
1. Name of Band/Group/ Musician(s) ____________________________________

2. Address of same ____________________________________
____________________________________
3. Number of performers #_____ to be used in this engagement
The names of all performers to be used in this engagement:
_________________________________ ____________________________________
________________________________ ____________________________________
________________________________ ____________________________________
4. Description of performance to be give at this engagement:
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Compensation agree upon $________/_____
6. This CONTRACT may be terminated by either the City of Manhattan or the band or group leader or their
agent providing that written notice of termination is provided to the City or band/group/performer no
later than (30) days prior to the schedule performance.
7. Additional requirements:______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
8. Name of Purchaser (city representative)________________________ Title______________
9. Signature of City Representative___________________________________
10. Address of City representative
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
Phone #________________e-mail__________________
11. Name of Signatory (Musician/Band/Group Leader or agent)_____________________________
12. Signature of Signatory (Musician/Band/Group Leader or agent)__________________________
Phone #________________e-mail_________________
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Chapter 14 The Arts
1. Why are craft shows that are organized by public park and recreation agencies not as appropriate
or successful today as they were a decade ago?
2. Differentiate between creative and performing arts.
3. What are several important scheduling concerns when planning a craft class?
4. The important elements of a contract with a performing artist include?
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The Arts Chapter 14
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Download and submit a form used by a (non-local) park and recreation agency
for the purpose of contracting with a musical or other entertainment group. Dr.
Stevenson will post the states from which you must download this information.
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Chapter 15 Trips and Tours
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
TRIPS AND TOURS
Comprehend the array of planning elements needed to organize trips ranging

from day outings to tours lasting several weeks.
Be able to set an appropriate trip price to meet various agency objectives.
Understand the value of trips as a recreation format.
Understand the concerns of the private sector regarding the public supply of
travel.
Many public recreation and park agencies either directly supply or facilitate travel experiences for
their constituents. Travel experiences are appropriate recreation activities because of the numerous
benefits and satisfactions they provide participants; most of which are directly linked to enhancing
personal enrichment and enjoyment. People are motivated to participate in travel experiences for a
variety of reasons. This list was adapted from a list of motivators developed by R. McIntosh and C.
Goeldner (1984).
Physical Motivators
physical rest
sports participation (excitement, physical fitness)
Cultural Motivators
better understanding of other countries and cultures
increased knowledge of arts, dances, folklore, religions
Interpersonal Motivators
desire to meet new people visiting friends and relatives escape from routine
Status and Prestige motivators
desire for recognition enhanced worldliness expanded knowledge base
263
Trips and Tours Chapter 15
Readers should notice that many of these motivations are closely matched to the perceived benefits
received from outdoor recreation participation (Chapter 10). Not surprisingly then, natural areas,
parks and outdoor experiences are often the primary attraction drawing many recreational travelers.
Valene Smith's (1977) five categories of non-business tourism is another attempt to classify the
types of travel experiences people select for destinations. These included Ethnic Tourism, Cultural
Tourism, Historical Tourism, Environmental Tourism, and Recreational Tourism.
Another approach to understanding traveler's motivations was explored by Stanley
Plog of Plog Research. http://www.plogresearch.com/ He classified
individuals according to various psychographic characteristics; ranging from the
very self centered (psychocentrics) to those individuals with extremely varied and
open lifestyles (allocentrics). Plog then correlated travel preferences with these
characteristics and suggested the following types of travel motivations for each of
four categories:
Allocentrics M id centric motivations

educational and cultural motives relaxation and pleasure
search for the exotic health
gambling satisfying personal contacts with friends
activities satisfying need for power appreciation of beauty
and freedom sensual indulgence
Near allocentrics escape
religious pilgrimages joy of transportation
participation in sports events
travel as a challenge or test Near psychocentric or psychocentric
special entertainment ego enhancement, quest for status
___________________________________________________________________
Figure 15.1 the Range of Travel Motivations
Still, another approach can be found in a review of Jonathon Robbin's Prizm Cluster system (1974)
where he says,"Tell me someone's zip code and I can tell you what they eat, drive and even think".
The concept is similar in that an analysis of psychological, sociological and economic factors can
help discern who we are and what we do.
Barriers to Travel
Authors have grouped people's reasons for not traveling more often (or at all) into five categories.
These include:
1. expense (can also be interpreted as perceived to be a low value experience)
2. lack of time (has resulted in more 3-4 day trips)
3. Physical limitations (losing validity as carriers make it easier to travel for everyone.
4. Family state (parents with young children often do not travel because of the inconvenience)
5. Lack of interest (see little benefit in effort, or are unaware of possible experiences)
264
Concerns
Recreational travel sponsored by public agencies is not always viewed favorably. Local business
owners may not appreciate a public agency making it more convenient for local dollars to leave the
community to be spent on distant destinations. The local director heard this gripe when his agency
organized a Christmas tour which included some shopping to visit the world famous light display in
Kansas City's Plaza area.
Travel agencies and other trip sponsors (churches, social and service clubs, etc.) may feel that
public agencies should not be a competitor in this marketplace. To counter the loss of retail sales
complaint, agencies should emphasize the quality of life benefits resulting from travel experiences
that enhance resident's lives and help keep them happy, productive, healthy and desirous of
remaining local residents. Secondly, there is some evidence to suggest that recreation expenditures,
particularly travel to unique destinations, are not purely transferable (substitutable). In other words,
persons desiring a non-local experience will find the means to obtain it rather than substitute some
local, non-recreational good for it.
The argument about competition has some validity. Recreation agencies should not become direct
suppliers of all types of travel. This should be left up to travel agencies and trip planners.
Sponsored group experiences with an identifiable recreation or life enhancement theme,

however should be very appropriate.
Other ways to avoid these complaints include cooperative ventures with travel agencies. Jackson
Co. (Mo) Park and Recreation District put its travel program out to bid and uses the travel agencies
(on the resulting contract) to be the actual supplier of the services. The Park and Recreation
Department works to enhance the trip with planned programs and experiences. P&R staff also help
with trip details.
Some agencies put all trips in a given year out to bid. Others bid by trip. Still others merely use
travel agencies for lodging and transportation and take care of all other details themselves. Larger
agencies with extensive programs may actually establish travel agencies in their departments.
Planning Considerations
Intricate planning and attention to detail are crucial considerations in trip planning. Moreso than
any other activity, trips involve high cost, high risk of financial loss, and multiple problem
opportunities. Anticipating problems in advance becomes an important skill in the trip planners
repertoire.
Market
There are two general approaches to marketing trips and tours. The first approach involves
designing a quality experience that can be attractive across a number of markets. For example: a day
265
or overnight trip to a professional sports contest would likely attract families, partial families,
couples, singles, and seniors. A 5 day ski trip will attract a different clientele; likely more affluent
and younger. A three week tour of the nation's western national parks will draw primarily seniors.
The specific market slice approach allows the planner to gear the entire trip to the more specific
needs and desires of the target group. Generally, senior citizens are the most likely travelers due to
their schedules, discretionary incomes and desire for companionship that group trips provide. Many
travel programs were initiated to serve seniors and later expanded to other clientele.
The Fort Collins (CO) Park and Recreation Department has a well developed travel program. A
Board of Directors (seniors) reviews trip proposals for value, itinerary, comprehensiveness, and
destination. South Suburban Rec District (Denver) also has a substantial travel program, primarily
for seniors, that focuses on day excursions.
"Annie Get Your Gun" DENVER BRASS National Western Stock Show
"Chicago" DENVER NUGGETS Ocean Journey
"Guys and Dolls" Denver Public Library Old Town Burlington & Carousel
JOURNEY INTO JAZZ" Denver Puppet Theater Peru; the Mysterious Journey
"South Pacific" Boulder Dinner Fine Arts at Four, Red Square Plowboy Poetry Gathering
Thtr
Fresh Fish Company Brunch Radio Days, Town Hall Arts
"Sweet Charity"
Garden Tour of Littleton Radisson Indy 200
Anheuser-Busch Brewery
Governor's Mansion Rafting on the Arkansas River
Anita's Crab Company
Gunslingers, Ghosts & Gold REI Flagship Store
Arapahoe Philharmonic
Highline Canal Challenge Reynold's Park Hike
Bachfest-St. John's Cathedral
ILIFF SCHOOL OF Rocky Mountain National Park
itterbrush Hike THEOLOGY Hike
Blue House Tea Room International Bell Museum & Senior Stomps
Lunch at Keys on the Green,
BOYERS COFFEE TOUR Seven Brides for Seven Brothers
Evergreen
Briarwood Inn Simpich Character Doll Factory
International Hearing Dog Inc.
Central City Opera, "La Traviata" Ski Cooper Senior Days
Iron Springs Chateau Melodrama
Chamber Music Soceity of Snow Mobiling, Winter Park
LAKEWOOD HERITAGE CTR
Lincoln Champions on Ice
Snowshoeing
Littleton History Walking Tour
Cheyenne Mountain Resort
STEPHANY’S CHOCOLATES
Lost Worlds of the Middle East
Cheyenne Mountain Zoo SUNDAY BRUNCH
Mardi Gras Casino
COLORADO AVALANCHE Sunday Brunch; El Rancho,
Mesa Trail Hike Terry Bison Ranch
Colorado Rockies vs NY Mets
Mock Jury THE BALDPATE INN, ESTES
Colorado Trail, Buffalo Creek
Trail Dust Steakhouse
area Mountain Christmas Lights Tour
Waldo Canyon Hike
Colorado Trail, Kenosha Pass MUSICAL MERRIMENT
Whales & the Vikings IMAX
Cross Country Skiing DOC SEVERINSEN
Denver Art Museum Mystery at the Mansion
266
A review of the community's needs analysis and a close review of the psychographic and economic
profile of local residents will also help programmers plan appropriate destinations. Often a
destination decision will depend on where the trip leader or organizer wants to go. If this individual
is influential enough or has interests representative of a large enough segment of the market, this
approach can work.
Specifics
The following example is designed to expose the reader to many of the decisions that must be made
for a sponsored ski trip. This particular trip is sponsored by a midwestern community of 40,000.
The ski areas are distant, averaging 500 miles away. Certainly, additional options exist. The
primary market for this trip included couples, families and partial families (adults in their 30's and
40's) and some singles in their 20's.
SKI TRIP 45 passenger bus = transportation mode
Philosophy/Purpose. First of all, one must decide if the activity is appropriate for a public
agency. Here the general purpose of the trip is to provide a low cost, family trip; primarily for
beginners or intermediate skiers, who are not comfortable, or who cannot afford to travel
independently. Other general benefits one could expect might include: the acquisition or
enhancement of a sport skill; social interaction; or the general enrichment brought about by the
exposure to winter sports.
Analysis of the Competition. What other suppliers in your community are offering ski trips
(typical suppliers include Travel agencies, churches, senior's center, retail ski shops, clubs, service
clubs, etc.)? At what price? What is the focus of these trips? Are they family oriented? There may
still be a niche if you review these offerings carefully. While trip planning is a very enjoyable part
of program planning, an agency does not have to be a direct supplier. Consider co-sponsoring, or
being a facilitator.
Destination Where shall we go? Which area offers the right combination of difficulty, quality,
convenience, and price to suit the objectives of this trip? For a low budget trip one may choose
Winter Park. Steamboat may be better suited for a more expensive excursion, focusing on quality
skiing and short lift lines. Consider these alternatives:
Aspen is elitist
Steamboat is distant, but offers a lot of good intermediate skiing
Winter Park is close and reasonably priced. It offers a particularly good
program for the disabled
Beginner slopes 36%
Intermediate slopes 47%
Expert slopes 17%
267
The Summit The SUMMIT Area offers several choices in close proximity:
Keystone, Copper Mountain, Breckenridge, etc.
http://www.colorado.net/
This decision can be aided by consulting with other agencies that have sponsored trips. The best
way to gain this information though is to visit; better yet to ski these areas. If your agency is
contemplating planning a ski trip, try to assist with another agency's trip to gain experience.
Many ski areas offer complimentary passes for skiing if you explain your situation. Be sure to write
using letterhead stationery. They know that recreation agencies plan trips and want your business.
Use this to your advantage.
Season Once you have decided where, the next concern should be when. The peak period at most ski
areas is the week of Christmas to New Years. Avoiding this slot will result in cheaper (off peak) rates
and much less crowded conditions. Areas vary so check for events. Ski carnival week is another busy
time to either plan to enjoy or avoid, depending on your perspective. The coldest conditions generally
occur in January and early February.
Because of the likelihood of poor snow conditions, it is generally risky to plan trips in November or
early December, even though the discounts offered by the Ski Areas can be substantial.
Again, depending on the level of skier you attract, you might wish to plan your trip to coincide with
special events like NASTAR races....or availability of SNOWBOARD half pipes and access.
At home, be sure to avoid scheduling problems caused by major athletic or other special events. 3-
day weekends are a good bet, but these will be popular and crowded for the same reason.
Duration Many resort complexes require a minimum of 3-5 day stays. Balance this
requirement with the most popular trip duration of 3 days of skiing. One popular format is to leave
after work on Friday and ski Sat-Mon, returning Monday night. Tuesday is shot though.
Transportation Buses are the most typical mode of transportation for this type of trip. A typical
charter bus holds 45 passengers. A more comfortable (and expensive) sleeper bus holds 33 usually.
You may wish to request a specific driver.
Lodging Several alternatives in all types of price ranges exist. On one end, you can choose a
dormitory style, on the other a condo housing 2-3 couples. Prices could be as high as $350 per night.
Thoroughly check out lodging in advance. It would be very advantageous to make a trip in advance
(with another agency) to get more familiar with the options. At minimum, ask for recommendations
from another programmer who has used the place before.
Value for your money can vary greatly and a first hand inspection is about the only sure means of a
valid comparison of features.
268
Things to consider:
# proximity to the ski area (closer is more expensive but also more popular)
# cooking facilities (saves on meal costs)
# complimentary room for escorts
# children
# cancellation policy (in event of poor snow conditions....usually no refund)
# deposit required
# other amenities such as indoor pools, fitness rooms, racquetball, etc..
Arrangements must be made months in advance. Many are actually scheduled immediately after
one year's trip for the next year. A deposit of 25% is typical. The remaining balance is often due 30
days prior to your visit.
Skiing Consider the actual skiing as optional. More and more, some participants want to go along
but prefer not to ski. To get discount pricing, it is important that a minimum number of travelers be
skiers though. This requires the planner to know the area, not just the ski hill. What else is
available (hot springs, hot air balloon rides, dinner theaters, libraries, dog sled rides, ice skating, ice
fishing, etc..)
Arrange ski rental in advance. Good rental shops have information cards asking for size and skiing
ability. Use shops fairly close to the ski area because of the probable need for repairs, exchanges or
replacements. Some rental shops will arrange to meet you at your place of lodging. Fitting
everyone on a bus will take about an hour and a half.
Lift ticket prices are often discounted, either for groups or after 3 days duration. Be aware of
specials. One should never pay full price...as almost every hill offers at least 25% discounts via
some outlet.
Meals Depends on lodging. If condos have kitchens, less is necessary. Breakfast is probably the
most important because it gets everyone up and going. Lunch is on-your-own, but a sack lunch is
feasible. Dinner should be up to the individual. There are many choices at a resort and this is half
of the fun...the budget conscious can prepare meals in their rooms and still have a great time.
Socials, such as an apres ski wine and cheese are appreciated. One per trip is probably sufficient.
Schedule these from about 5:30 to 7:00pm.
If you plan any meals enroute with a bus load, please either make advance reservations or try to eat
at a non peak time. Cafeterias seem to be a good choice for these stops.
Kick off Party These socials can be a valuable orientation tool and get people in the mood as well
as better prepared for the trip. A number of important questions can be addressed during this
informal meeting.
269
Kick off party hints.

Use name tags
Note any obvious physical disabilities
Be prepared to cover obvious questions like
What to bring? What is there to do?
roommate assignments? skiing specs
Registration Non typical registration is needed. The deposits and other required information make
it necessary to develop a special registration form and process. An example is attached that
illustrates the type of information needed for ski rental. Beyond the cutoff date, this deposit is non-
refundable unless someone on a waiting list can take their place.
Pricing Though there are two different approaches to pricing a trip, in reality one uses similar logic
in each. First determine the approximate willingness to pay of the clientele and then design a trip to
fit into that price range. In other words, the target price might be $325 per person. Therefore the
planner must select trip components(site, length of stay, lodging, meals, etc.) to fit into this price.
Secondly, one merely builds a trip piece by piece, careful to obtain the best price possible for each
component and then charge the price necessary to cover the costs plus. Yet, since the selection of
the components determines the price the planner can (consciously or otherwise) plan for a certain
price throughout. These components must reflect a knowledge of the clientele's wishes. A ski trip
could vary by several hundred dollars per person just by varying the destination, the quality of the
lodging and meals, etc..
Once the direct expenses are calculated one should add an amount for risk and overhead. Instead of
adding 15% for overhead as we did when pricing sport leagues, the desired amount of overhead
may need to be higher to reflect the additional financial risk. Merely alter the number of people the
trip prices should be divided by.
Note that the trip costs must be figured for all persons but that pricing should be calculated,
assuming 30 or 33 people paying. This will result in additional revenue ($10,000/43 (2 free
supervisors)= $233, while $10,000/30= $333. Therefore if 43 paying customers go on this trip (43 x
$333 = $14,319) the agency would net $4,319 over direct expenses.
Transportation 2,000
Lodging 3,600
Meals (3 provided) 800
Lift Tickets 2,100
Ski Rental 1,300
Misc 200
$ 10,000
270
This same result can be achieved by the more traditional approach. Begin by setting the desired
percentage for overhead (which should be higher than 15% as a rule for two reasons): (1) the
service is private like, with almost no spin-off benefits to the community; and (2) there is a much
higher financial risk associated with trips.
Set the desired rate of recovery for overhead at 43% (the fact that this % matches the number of
paying guests is purely coincidental). At calculated costs of $10,000 plus 43% for overhead, the
expenses that need to be recovered total $ 14,300.
This total should be divided by 43 paying clients to equal approximately $333. Had the desired
overhead been set at 25%, the calculations would be:
direct expenses overhead total expenses to be recovered
$10,000 x 25% = $ 12,500
revenue needed paying clients cost per person
$ 12,500 / 43 $ 291
Pricing for trips is often an estimate of willingness to pay so whether you recover 25% or 43% or
some other amount for overhead is up to your professional judgement. Do not feel guilty in
bringing in extra revenue though, because there will be losses associated with trip planning at some
point, and a source of funds to cover these losses is needed.
Risks Trips are risky because of the weather conditions. Poor weather can strand travelers
overnight enroute. The agency can assume this risk or it can be passed on to the customer. If
assumed by the agency, this additional cost is a real one as it will very likely occur sometime; hence
the higher revenues are needed to pay for this expense when it does happen. Trips are also risky
because of the deposits up-front, often before the trip is filled. If a trip attracts fewer clients than
required the agency can lose money via non-refunded deposits if you don't go, or by deciding to go
with less than the break-even number of clients.
Some agencies reduce this latter risk by cooperating with other communities on the same trip. In
this fashion a waiting list is almost always generated; ensuring that the trip will meet its financial
obligations.
Accidents. Another form of risk on ski trips in particular (but could occur on any trip) is injury.
Participants should understand that if they are injured and need hospitalization that the group cannot
wait for them. It will be their responsibility to arrange return transportation at their own cost.
Some related forms for ski trips include:
Ski Vacation Planner (equip' rental form) Ski Vacation Planner (lift ticket info)
Initial Reservation response by lodge Confirmation letter (lodging)
Promotional flyer Ski Trip fact sheet
Specialized registration form Seating assignment and travel regulations
271
Quality Ski Equipment

Ski Vacation Planner
Ask for Rodney or Janet to plan your

complete ski vacation package.
1-800-433-9217 303-453-2138
Recreation Equipment
Recreation Rates
Skis: Dynastar Concept
LO W SEASO N H IGH SEASO N KID S
Bindings: Salomon 447 Open to 12/7 12/18 to 1/3
Boots: Salomon Rear Entry 1/4 to 2/1 2/12 to 4/3
Our most popular package is for novice o intermediate
skiers. The concept is a sport ski designed for ease of 1 DAY ($ 20) ($ 22) ($ 14)
turn initiation and predictable response. The one buckle 2-4 days ($18) ($ 20) ($ 12)
rear entry Salomon boot provides exceptional comfort, 5 + days ($ 16) ($ 18) ($ 10)
warmth and convenience. Adult lengths 135-190 cm:
Kids: 70-150cm.
OTHER OPTIONS:
Performance Equipment Performance Rates
Competition Equipment Competition Rates
Group Rates
Date(s) party will be skiing ________________
SKIER'S Ht. Wt S Ability Skis Ski Boot Pr ice

. h Size
NAME Never kids Len
o
gth
e Beginner rec
Intermedia perf
s Expert com
i
z
e
TOTALS
A deposit of $10/skier or ($50) minimum is required for reservations VISA MC AMEX
272
Tannahauser on Main Street

420 South Main Street
Post Office Box 28
Breckenridge, Colorado
Sept 12, 1998
_______________Park and Recreation Dept

Box __
Anywhere, USA
Dear ____________,
Thank you for making your reservation with Good Earth. Your deposit has been received and we are pleased
to confirm your reservation. For additional payments, please make checks payable to Good Earth, or phone in
and charge to a VISA, BankCard or AmExpress via 800-433-9217.
Deposits are refundable (less a $60 cancellation fee) 45 or more days out.
Add 9.2% tax on all non tax exempt lodging.
Your Reservation Record is as follows: Confirmation # 3456494
_________Park and Rec Dept
Anywhere, USA
Tannhauser Lodge 6 units
02/02/97 to 02/04/97 SMTW TFS
Room assigned: 1A1 Rate: $ 149/night
Deposit paid to date $298
273
Below is a sample flier that might be used to promote such a ski trip.
274
Adapted from Boulder, CO. Trip Escorting Policies
For Day Trips the following is recommended:
Arrive at the Center at least 1/2 prior to departure (Seniors like to be prompt)
Have a check-in area
Leave on time
Take an accurate count before the bus leaves the Center and after every stop (don't rely just
on count though...use buddy system to check if partner are on board. In one instance the
count was correct, but a bag-lady in Denver had joined the group and we left one of our
own behind)
Attitude
A professional manner is crucial. Older adults must trust you and believe you are not only
competent to lead but friendly enough to approach. Be helpful and attempt to find answers
to questions. Don't play favorites...sit with different people at each meal. This is work...not
a vacation for the escort.
Sit in the seat directly behind the driver

Once underway make announcements
introduce yourself
no smoking
seat rotation rules(keep switching after each stop...clockwise is OK)
rundown on day's agenda
procedures for meal (if one is planned)
Upon arrival
distribute tickets
establish procedure for departure (time, place)
note which side of bus departs first
Upon return to the Center
open it for restroom and phone use
check for items left on the bus
stay until everyone has left
275
Special Considerations for Bus travel
Rest stops There should not be more than 2 hours between rest stops. Many older adults take
diuretics and are very uncomfortable after several hours. In order to prevent leg swelling and
cramps, passengers should do some exercises while seated...and should be encouraged to walk
around at rest stops.
Food and Treats. On long trips, this helps enhance morale and reduces boredom. Themed
treats or those available only from the region you are visiting are particularly appropriate. Food that
is nutritionally valuable is recommended.
Games and Songs. Don't overdo, but an occasional audience participation gimmick can be fun.
Rotation. Many tour guides like to rotate passengers. On a longer trip the idea has merit, but on
a short trip the confusion limits its effectiveness.
Back Seat. Keep it open if possible so a person could lie down if necessary.
Other Trip Criteria:
In your contract with the travel agency, specify that the agency is responsible for placing ads in
local papers if the trip has not filled within 6 weeks of departure.
Be sure to specify if transportation to and from the airport is (or is not) included in the cost
One or two Park and Recreation Dept escorts are priced into the trip (plus $40 per diem if meals are
not included)
Any night entertainment should include transportation
Full American breakfasts are to be priced into the trip cost. Many older adults wouldn't eat
breakfast otherwise and they should due to low blood sugar (as a rule).
The tour should be priced to go with a minimum of 30.
Several cocktail hours should be priced in the trip. Hold these in staff's rooms. Purchase food and
drink items separate from the hotel to save $$.
Schedule few free days (1/2 days at most).
276
Travel Agency proposals should be reviewed by board of directors and judged on the following
criteria: value, destination, itinerary and comprehensiveness.
Senior Trip Registration Information
Some special information is required of seniors and other travelers planning an extended
excursion. Be sure to include but not limit this information to:
Persons to notify in case of emergency (home & work addresses and phone #'s)
Medications being taken
Medications allergic to
Other allergies
Health insurance policy #
Health rating and approval if required
277
1. Partial Overhead Pricing involving the use of 15% of direct operating costs for overhead is
substituted by a pricing policy that allows the program planner to determine the rate of
revenue recovery by modifying the number of participants the cost is divided by. Which of
the two methods is more equitable? Why?
2. Why does counting heads not always work as a means of keeping track of travelers?
3. Explain how the destination, timing and price of the trip can be modified to reach various
objectives.
4. What is an appropriate agency policy if an individual is injured on a ski trip and cannot
return home on the bus with the group?
5. t f Tours on buses carrying 45 passengers should be priced to go with 30
minimum.
6. Describe several scheduling concerns when planning a 3-5 day ski trip
ASSIGNMENT
1. Price a ski trip to the Summit Area of Colorado from Manhattan, KS

http://www.colorado.net/
given the following information
A. Check the prices of lift tickets and discount these by 25%

B. Plan sending 2 supervisors
C. You have 43 clients going
D. All direct expenses including lift tickets is $13,000
E. Price to charge participants $______________
F. Show the itinerary (days, time spent skiing, enroute, other, etc.)
G. Explain your decisions
278
Chapter 16 Evaluation and Summary
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
EVALUATION
Comprehend the importance of evaluating program offerings regularly so that

the program can maintain the highest quality.
Be able to develop a program evaluation survey form using a variety of
questioning formats.
Understand the limitations of surveying participants.
The primary intent of program evaluation is program improvement.
Program planners want their activities to be so well designed as to perfectly meet the needs of
clients. Seldom is anyone so good at this task as to get it right the first time, though. Program
planning is a process. It involves a loop design of listening to customers, designing
programs...listening more and making the necessary modifications and so on.
1. M arket and Needs Analysis

(internal, external, clients,
competitors)
2. Program Design
based on a combination of identified
professional expertise, and
available resources
3. Evaluation
Input from customers and review of efficiency of resource use...leading
to enhanced quality
279
Evaluation and Summary Chapter 16
While agencies cannot be expected to conduct a full blown market analysis on an annual basis, as
these are quite expensive and time consuming, they must conduct continuous program evaluation in
order to expect to maintain quality opportunities. Neither does each program need to be evaluated
in the same manner, nor every session. Certainly programs of longstanding and proven demand
need not be reviewed as critically as new (probationary type) activities, where value or demand has
not yet been established.
"Has the agency maintained quality while being an efficient supplier ?" is the more oft asked
question today. Agencies are being held more accountable to the public and this new scrutiny
requires evidence that justifies actions. Good program evaluation can supply the evidence both in
terms of efficiency (as in cost/person) and effectiveness (as in the ability to reach objectives such as
improved fitness, socialization or problem solving).
Effective program development depends on information. An evaluation can offer infor-mation

crucial to the success of current and future programs. However, many evaluation methods in use
today actually raise more questions than they answer. In this chapter we will explore the benefits
and limitations of a number of approaches to program evaluation.
Who should conduct the evaluation? A good evaluation process would employ the services of
personnel at all levels of the agency and periodically would utilize the services of 3rd party
(outside) reviewers. The major advantage of the internal review is that agency personnel are
familiar with the programs and understand the restrictions under which the agency must work. The
major disadvantage is their lack of training in survey and related research techniques, and the
opportunity for bias (or influencing of the findings) in their or someone else's favor...or being too
close to the problem to be objective.
The major advantage of the external review is the reduction in bias. Theoretically, a third party
reviewer has nothing to gain from their findings, which should greatly enhance objectivity. The
major disadvantages are cost and unfamiliarity with program components.
The type of review also depends on what type of information is being reviewed. The more objective
the information; such as determining the cost per person or demand comparisons of various
activities can easily be done in-house. Survey analysis or interpretation of attitudes and preferences
may be better off conducted by a specialist.
Evaluation Techniques:
Research Methods Approach

Standards Approach
Comparing results to Goals and Objectives
Discussion Model
Cost Benefit Analysis
280
Research Methods Approach
Surveys For a survey approach to be useful, the data collected must yield a valid and reliable
assessment of customer satisfaction. Lewis and Pizzam (1981) review some of the common faults
of survey approaches.
Excellent to Poor Rating Systems
Please rate us excellent good fair poor

Painting class _____ _____ _____ _____
Using this approach often raises more questions than it answers. For example, if a client
checks fair does it mean that the instructor needed to pay more personal attention to the
client? Or does it mean that the Wednesday night schedule was almost impossible to meet,
or the room was too hot, or too crowded? Or does it mean that the client found everything
about he class just below average. Lastly, does it answer the important question, "Will the
client return?"
Unfortunately, too many amateur reviewers would find the last example as the most
appropriate. In actuality, the results defy measurement. We know the overall rating might
have been fair, but have no idea as to why.
__________________________________________________________________________
Using nominal responses such as in the following example are even more difficult to interpret.
HOSPITALITY
Were you personally greeted as you entered? yes___ no___
What does a yes response mean? It doesn't tell how the client was greeted. Was it
courteously, rudely? Ask yourself how individual responses would be interpreted and the
necessary action taken to correct problems. If you know no more about the specific
problems than you did before the survey, it is not worth the time invested or the paper it is
printed on.
Interval Scales give some additional value and variation to responses. Instead of just yes or no,
there is now some degree of variation. It is important that the client recognize that a rating of 4 is
twice as acceptable as a rating of 2 when tallied to be interval.
281
Interval Scale (example)
Please rate (5 star = excellent, 1 star = unacceptable)
Instructor
Water Color ***** **** *** ** *
Painting Class _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Equipment WCPC _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Room WCPC _____ _____ *** _____ _____
To discern one problem with this approach, answer this question. "What action should
management take to remedy the situation of a less than stellar performance for a rating of
*** on the room?"
__________________________________________________________________________
Exceeds Meets Below Instructor: W ater Color Painting

Expectations Expectations Expectations ________________________
Class:
_____________________________
W as the instructor knowledgeable in the subject matter
being presented? ___________________
W as the instructor able to give you

personal attention? _____________
____ _yes , she was very friendly ______
One problem with this form lies in tabulating the written (subjective) responses. How does one compare the
values of friendly to professional to too quiet, which could all be listed in this section?
Still, the approach has merit. Just be aware of the limitations of various types of questions, and do
not claim more than the data can reliably and accurately indicate.
Standards Approach
The NPRA publishes facility standards but much less is known about programs. Given the
marketing approach, and recognizing every community is unique, standards are rather contrary in
philosophy to our approach in this text. However, the Kansas Recreation and Park Association has
282
recently developed a member database that includes a substantial amount of program planning
information. This data can be cut in quite a number of ways to indicate what other agencies of
similar types, size, etc.. are doing. Admittedly, this should serve just as a guide, but the
comparisons should be useful, given the general opinion that there is at least some wisdom in
numbers.
Data include the type of costs recovered for youth and adult activities
affiliations with sanctioning bodies
# of participants
breadth of program offerings
price the agency would charge for a specific program scenario
sale of supplies
day camp licensure
teen center hours of operation
Comparing results to Goals and Objectives approach
This method is globally touted as a basic evaluation tool. Its value lies in its philosophically
appropriate purpose of eliminating the discrepancies between intent and result. The difficulty in
using this approach lies in writing very specific and measurable objectives and then being able to
accurately determine if the results indeed match the intent, and if they don't what action should be
taken to remedy the discrepancy.
If an objective is an increase in activity participation by 10% over a specific season:
Either it is met or it isn't.. If it isn't though, one must address why? Is the problem in the
marketing, or in the basic program design (is the format inappropriate, or the timing bad?)
Here it is important to gain additional input from clients; probably using the research
(survey) method.
Similarly, a performance objective can easily be tested (in some cases), such as:
By the end of the 4 week leadership course, 70% of the students will have enhanced scores
(10 pt mean gain) on the Michigan Self Concept Test. If the objective is not met though,
again what action should be taken. Pinpointing the cause of the shortfall is not as simple
(Was it related to age? activities? leaders? facility?...etc.?
Discussion Model
This process essentially involves a two-way exchange of information. It is more personal in nature
that a survey form as it generally involves face to face interaction. A focus group is a good example
283
of this approach. Here the intent is to delve in-depth into a few areas; trying to determine real
feelings and causes of behaviors related to a specific program.
The difference between this method and the focus groups used in market research is that the group
here should consist of activity participants.
The best discussions typically are rendered by third parties, who have no emotions at stake. An
instructor conducting a review of their own program using this approach would not likely get to the
meat of the issues, for fear by clients of offending their mentor.
Cost Benefit Analysis
A review of the budget (revenues and expenses) is the basis for this approach.
Care should be taken here to ensure that one compares apples to apples; especially when program
continuation is at stake. For example, the local park and recreation agency is evaluating whether to
continue a youth gymnastic program; particularly because of some concerns raised related to private
competition.
At first glance the program appears very expensive per person when compared to other
youth programs. But on closer inspection, one can tell that when all of the costs are much
more in line.
Because the agency does not own a facility capable of housing gymnastics, it had to rent
one. This rental meant that the agency was responsible for 100% (plus some amount for
profit to the landlord) of the facility costs. This program was being compared to others
such as baseball and crafts, where the agency owned the facility (paid for by taxes) and
therefore did not need to recover any capital costs. This oversight inflated the cost of the
gymnastic program. When a rental fee was calculated for the other programs, the
comparison was much more valid.
Good measures of cost benefit analysis include:
cost per person subsidy level

cost per person per hour consumer surplus
This information must also be reviewed in more subjective terms. A program that may
appear expensive per person such as a teen-at-risk activity, could actually pay for itself
several times over in community benefit via reduced crime. Board policy and philosophy
will help in this regard.
284

_________________________________________________________________________
1. Who should conduct the evaluation of agency programs?
2. What is the danger of subjective responses?
3. How often should programs be evaluated?
4. Comparing results to objectives sounds effective. Is it?
285
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Develop an evaluation instrument for your activity using a variety of methods

(see Dr. Stevenson’s homepage (LOGISTIC PLAN) for details)
286
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Bullock, C., K. Luken, R. ALphon, and M. Mahon (1990-94) Reintegration Through
Recreation: Center for Recreation and Disability Studies, University of North
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Recreation Program

and Event Planning for

CHAPTER ONE RECREATION AND LEISURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER TWO THE MARKETING CONCEPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

CHAPTER THREE UNDERSTANDING THE RECREATION CONSUMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

CHAPTER FOUR COMMUNITY AND AGENCY PROFILES STRATEGIC PLANNING . . . . 59

CHAPTER FIVE PREPARING A PLAN OF ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

CHAPTER SIX PRICING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

CHAPTER SEVEN PROMOTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

CHAPTER EIGHT AQUATICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

CHAPTER NINE SPORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

CHAPTER TEN OUTDOOR PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

CHAPTER ELEVEN RECREATION CENTERS AND PLAYGROUNDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

CHAPTER TWELVE SPECIAL EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

CHAPTER THIRTEEN SPECIAL GROUPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

THE ARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

CHAPTER FIFTEEN TRIPS AND TOURS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

CHAPTER SIXTEEN EVALUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

References Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

Upon completing this Chapter the reader should:

Understand the elements of a leisure experience.

Why Recreation Programming?

Recreation experiences are qualitative.

1. Personal Development 7. Independence and Freedom 14. Mental Health

Table 1.1 Order of Importance of Benefits Ranked by Recreation and Park

1. Basic Services to Poorer Residents

2. Protection of the Natural Environment

3. Civic Identity and Pride

4. Community Visual Appeal and Function

5. Develops Strong Communities

6. % of Population Using Regularly

7. Individual Growth and Development

8. Avoidance of Costly Damage Due to M ismanagement of the Ecological

9. Prevents Social Problems

10. Reduces Health Problems and Costs

11. Integrates Disabled, Disadvantaged, and Socially Alienated

12. Job Creation

13. % of Population Who Might Use

14. Assists the Tourism Industry

15. Attracts Industry

16. Prepares Individuals to Cooperate with Others

17. Increases Property Values and Tax Revenues

18. Provides Opportunities for the Unemployed

19. Desire to Replace Volunteer Effort

20. Saves Property Owner Expense

21. Stimulates the Retail Industry

Table 1.2 Benefits of Leisure

Specific Individual benefits Rank/Count Percent

Exercise, fitness and conditioning 236 11.5%

Relaxation and peace 125 6.1%

Open space 88 4.3%

Place for kids to go 67 3.3%

Family time together 57 2.8%

Fun and entertainment 56 2.7%

Enjoy being outdoors/natural resources 52 2.5%

Place for recreation 51 2.5%

Specific Household Benefits

Exercise, fitness and conditioning 144 13.5%

Relaxation and peace 58 5.4%

Fun and entertainment 53 5.0%

Place for kids to go 46 4.3%

Place to play 41 3.8%

1. Benefit: Explanation:________