IND U S T RY

Airborne Weather Radar

PART II: Theory & Operation for More Effective Troubleshooting

S T O R Y B Y D A V I D W . M A N S E N , T E X A S G Y R O

THEORY
EDITOR’S NOTE: ► Pulse Train
Avionics News will present RADAR, an acronym for RAdio Detecting And Ranging, works on the principle of
emitting a high frequency RF pulse and listening for its return. In theory, this is simple,
this white paper, authored by
but in real world applications, radar is incredibly complex.
TexasGYRO, in multiple parts. Today’s typical weather radar systems will emit 100 pulses-per-second, called the
This is Part II in the series. pulse repetition frequency and operate at a frequency of 9.345GHz or 9.375GHz.
This white paper presentation is A RF pulse travels at the speed of light, taking 12.36m (micro) seconds to travel
one nautical mile out and back. Round trip time will give the operator distance to the
for training purposes only. Its
target. For example; a RF pulse will take 123.6m seconds out and back from a target
sole intent is to improve the 10 nautical miles away.
maintenance technician’s
knowledge and understanding of
airborne weather radar systems.
Refer to manufacturer’s most
current technical data,
maintenance and/or installation
manuals or pilot’s guides
whenever performing maintenance
on aircraft or aircraft components.

-- Figure 3-1: RF Pulse Train --

74 avionics news • april 2011

 The radar transmits a pulse of 6 kilo (6,000) watts, yet receives
a very tiny signal of -110dbm, or .01 Nano (.000,000,000,000,01)
watts. The receiver will be blanked during transmit, and for a very
short period of time after transmit, to prevent the sensitive receiv-
er crystals from being damaged. For this reason, the system will
not paint targets at close range, typically less than one-fourth mile
in weather mode.
Sensitivity time constant is a means of ensuring that targets
both near and far are displayed at the rainfall density level. STC
provides consistent target returns throughout the system’s range
by adjusting the receiver gain over time, thus insuring that a tar-
get at 10 nautical miles will be displayed at the same level as a
target at 200 nautical miles.
Minimal discernable signal refers to the smallest signal
detected by the radar system. This is viewed on the bench and
measured in dbm. Typical MDS will be -110dbm.
► Target Detection
Azimuth, distance and amplitude are determined by the
following:
• The direction the beam is focused gives the azimuth.
• Roundtrip time is calculated to give distance to target.
• Relative amplitude of the returned pulse will give an
indication of the size of the target.
-- Figure 3-2: Target Detection --
► Radar Beam
The radar transmits a beam of radiation which gets wider
as it travels farther from the source, similar to a flashlight
beam which will illuminate a larger area at a distance than
it will close up. The radar beam is a cone of radiation which
will be tightly focused in the middle and less so towards the
edges. This is often called the radar “beam width” or “beam
diffusion.” The larger the parabolic dish or array, the tighter the
focus of the beam. More RF radiation is focused on the target
with a tighter, focused radar beam. The more radiation that is
focused on the target, the greater the return.
-- Figure 3-3: Radar Beam Width --
-- Figure 3-4: Radar Arrays of Various Sizes --
One degree of beam width will illuminate a circle 100 feet in
diameter at one nautical mile. Most radar arrays will have a beam
width anywhere between 6 degrees to 10 degrees. This image
illustrates the large areas of illumination at various distances.
Beam width versus array size can vary with each manufac-
turer’s unique array designs.
Continued on following page
avionics news • april 2011 75
AIRBORNE WEATHER RADAR
Continued from page 75
► Search (Small/Near Targets)
Design requirements that engineers must consider in
system development are:
• Size of target.
• Distance (near/far) of target.
• Relative speed of target.
These requirements will determine the system basics,
such as frequency, pulse width and the pulse repetition fre-
quency.
Frequency is fixed by the choice of the magnetron; this is
not variable. Pulse width and PRF are dynamically variable
and will change depending upon range and mode.
A typical weather cell is approximately three miles in diam-
eter. This is the size of the target that today’s weather radar
systems are designed to detect.
Most systems in use today have a ground map or search
mode. In map mode, variable gain will be enabled. (Operation
of variable gain is discussed in detail in the Pilot’s Perspective
section, which will be featured in Part 3 of the May issue.)
PRF will be varied and the PW will be varied. It is not uncom-
mon for PRF and PW to be varied with range in weather also,
but not to the extent as in search or map modes.
Map/Search modes have different STC curves and are
calibrated differently than weather modes and should never
be used for weather detection.
A wide pulse width on a large target will generate a larger
return; however, wide pulse widths poorly illuminate the
smaller targets. In search, we are usually looking for a small
target.
-- Figure 3-5: Small Object Identification --
76 avionics news • april 2011
-- Figure 3-6: Search Operations --
► Radar System Components
All radar systems, regardless of make, model or intended
function must have the following basic components:
1. A method of transmitting and receiving a pulse of RF
radiation.
2. A method of directing and scanning this pulse of RF
radiation from the RT in both the horizontal and vertical
axis (the antenna pedestal and array - ANT). The radar
antenna will focus and direct this pulse train into a radar
beam that scans in both azimuth and elevation.
3. A method of displaying the results to the pilot (the
Display - DSP). Often the display and controller will
be combined in one unit; this unit is usually called the
Indicator –IND.
4. A method of controlling the operation of the radar sys-
tem (the Controller - CON).
Each of these functions is placed in a line replaceable
unit. Often, multiple functions will be combined in one LRU.
Typically, weather radar systems are classified as two-box,
three-box or four-box systems.
A two-box radar system combines the functions of the
receiver/transmitter and the antenna pedestal into one LRU,
called an ANT/RT. Some system manufacturers refer to this as
an ART, while others call it a sensor. This LRU is mounted on
the nose of the aircraft where the antenna pedestal normally
goes. The second LRU is the indicator, combining the func-
tions of the controller with the display.
-- Figure 3-7: RDR-2100 --

-- Figure 3-8: RDR-160 Monochrome/Color --
A three-box radar system consists of a receiver transmitter,
an antenna pedestal and an indicator, combining the functions
of the controller with the display.
-- Figure 3-9: Primus 400 --
A four-box radar system consists of a receiver transmitter,
an antenna pedestal, a controller and a display. Most aircraft
with EFIS have a radar controller and use the aircraft’s EFIS
MFD to display the radar’s target information, thus eliminat-
ing the need for an indicator.
-- Figure 3-10: Primus 700 Controller --
► LRU Functions
This section will discuss and focus on a typical three-box
radar system. It is meant to present the general concept and
theory, not to teach specifics of any one system.
As a general convention when referring to the indicator, we
mean a display and controller as one unit. When we discuss a
display, we are referring to the multi-function display only.
► System
System control and target data is communicated in many
different methods by the manufacturers. Older systems
used proprietary control and data methods, either analog,
digital or some combination. Most newer systems use
ARINC-429 for control of the RT and antenna and ARINC-
453 for target data transfer.
-- Figure 3-11: Radar System Block Diagram --
► Receiver Transmitter
The receiver transmitter contains all of the circuitry to gener-
ate the RF pulse and to listen for its return. It sends this data to
the display in many different ways, depending on the system.
-- Figure 3-12:
RT-4001 Receiver
Transmitter --
Continued on following page
avionics news • april 2011 77
AIRBORNE WEATHER RADAR
Continued from page 77
-- Figure 3-13: Receiver Transmitter Block Diagram --
The timing and control synchronizes all circuitry in the RT.
It sets the PW and PRF and generates the trigger. It controls
the STC and AGC to the IF amp and the AFC sweep/lock to
the LO. Operation of the timing and control is controlled by the
system’s indicator or controller in the cockpit.
The magnetron is a special vacuum tube that is at the cen-
ter of the RT. It will generate a clean pulse at 9.375GHz when
excited by a high voltage pulse. This will be a narrow, clean
pulse with balanced harmonics. The first harmonic will be 10db
down from the main.
-- Figure 3-14: Magnetrons --
78 avionics news • april 2011
-- Figure 3-15: RF Spectrum --
The modulator Pulse Forming Network creates the high
voltage (5,000 volt), high current (5 amp) pulse to fire the
magnetron. The timing and control sends a trigger pulse to
the “modulator.”
The circulator is a RF device with four ports: magnetron,
antenna, receiver and AFC. High power RF from the mag-
netron will travel from the magnetron port out and out the
antenna port.
The transmit/receive limiter is a RF switch. This switch
opens during transmit, preventing high power RF from dam-
aging the receiver.
The mixer/duplexer-local oscillator combines the received
signal (9.375GHz) with a 9.405GHz signal from the local
oscillator thus creating an intermediate frequency of 30MHz.
It is a known principle that when two RF signals of different
frequencies are combined in a non-linear device (diode), the
result is four frequencies: the two originals, the sum and the
difference. This is how the very high 9.375GHz RF signal is
down-converted to a workable 30MHz frequency.
The mixer/duplexer is a terminated waveguide component.
Two crystal diodes in the mixer/duplexer detect the RF signal,
changing it from electromagnetic radiation in the waveguide
to electron flow.
The IF amp and video detectors (video in the radar world
refers to a low frequency signal that contains target inter-
rogation data) process the signals and send the data to the
indicator.
Automatic frequency control keeps the local oscillator
locked to exactly 30MHz difference from the magnetron.
Magnetrons drift in frequency; the receiver is tuned for exactly
30MHz.
► Indicator
This LRU contains all the circuitry to display the weather
data to the pilot. Older systems will utilize a cathode ray tube,
while newer units will have a LCD.
-- Figure 3-16: DI-2007
Radar Indicator --
The indicator will display the data on a CRT. The CRT is an
electron tube which requires 12,500 volts to pull the electrons
off of the grid. This voltage is provided by the high voltage
power supply. Often, the HVPS will get a high voltage drive
pulse from the sweep/display.
Command and control is commanded by the operator con-
trols. This circuitry sends azimuth scan and elevation tilt con-
trols to the antenna control and then to the antenna pedestal.
Command and control sends the RT its mode and range
commands through the RT interface.
Command and control directs the digitizer/memory and
sweep/display circuits to display the desired data to the pilot.
The RT interface will interface the RT with the indicator. It will
send mode and range commands received from command and
control to the RT. Target data from the RT is received and sent
to the digitizer/memory.
The digitizer/memory processes the target data, converts
it from Rho-Theta to raster and sends the data to the sweep/
display.
Rho-Theta scan is from the apex out; this is how the radar

-- Figure 3-17: Indicator Block Diagram -- Continued on following page

avionics news • april 2011 79

AIRBORNE WEATHER RADAR
Continued from page 79
scans for targets. A raster scan is from left to right; similar to
how you would read a book. This is how the display will show
the data.
The digitizer/memory reads the radar data as a Rho-Theta
format and sends the display data out as raster scan.
Some of the older monochrome displays will scan the CRT
in a Rho-Theta scan.
-- Figure 3-18: Rho-Theta Scan vs. Raster Scan --
The sweep/display generates the horizontal, vertical and
color intensity drive signals for the CRT. It is commanded by
the command and control and gets its data from the digitizer/
memory.
The operator control allows user interface and system con-
trol, i.e. mode, range and tilt.
► Antenna
The Antenna will direct the RF beam in the desired scan and
tilt as commanded by the Indicator or Controller.
-- Figure 3-19: AP-4001 Antenna Pedestal --
80 avionics news • april 2011
-- Figure 3-20: Antenna Block Diagram --
The Antenna contains rotary joints, which are essentially
rotary waveguides, allowing motion in both azimuth and eleva-
tion. Motors and gears move the assembly in both azimuth and
elevation to scan and tilt the array. Resolvers provide feedback
to maintain precise control.
A stabilization control circuit monitors the pitch and roll from
the aircraft’s vertical gyro. A comparison of pitch and roll with
the 400Hz reference from the inverter gives direction of pitch
or roll. The amplitude of the pitch and roll signals gives the
amount of pitch and roll. This is sine wave of 50 millivolt per
degree for fixed wing aircraft or 200 millivolt per degree for
helicopters.
The concept of stabilization will be discussed in detail in Part
3 next month.
A stabilization alignment will be discussed in flight-line
troubleshooting and repair.
► Waveguides
Waveguide Principles
A waveguide is a transmission device, similar to a coax-
ial cable. A coaxial cable will experience severe losses
at the high frequency of today’s radars. A waveguide is a
hollow aluminum tube whose diameter is dependent upon
the operating frequency. This hollow tube will allow high
frequency RF to pass with very little loss.
A flexible waveguide must never be flexed or bent
beyond the manufacturer’s rated specs. A rigid wave-
guide must never be bent or twisted. This will impede the
RF transmission down the center of the waveguide.
Rigid waveguides can have bends by design; these
bends are called an H-Bend and E-Bend. Imagine an
H-Bend as “hard” and an E-Bend as “easy.”
The connector at the end of the waveguide will either
be a “Flange” (Flat) or “Choke” (deep choke groove and
shallow o-ring groove). An o-ring must be installed in the
o-ring groove. The deep groove is a RF choke, used for
impedance matching and must be left empty.
When connecting waveguides together, you must con-
nect a Flange to Choke for best impedance matching,
this will minimize voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR,
reflected RF waves).

-- Figure 3-21: Waveguide Components --
-- Figure 3-23: Flange Termination --
-- Figure 3-22: Waveguides --
-- Figure 3-24: Choke Termination --
Waveguide Pressurization
At altitudes above 25,000 feet,
the high power RF pulse will arc
in the waveguide due to low atmo-
spheric pressure. Special fittings
allow aircraft cabin pressurization
to be pumped into the radar’s wave-
guide. This waveguide pressuriza-
tion prevents arcing of the RF.
O-rings and pressure windows
must be used on a pressurized sys-
tem. If an O-ring or pressure window
is left out, the system will leak, with
a constant flow of air through the
system. Moisture will accumulate,
and corrosion in the waveguide will
occur. Corrosion and moisture will
deteriorate the performance of the
radar system. q
Editor’s Note: Part III of “Airborne
Weather Radar” will appear in next
month’s issue of Avionics News.
avionics news • april 2011 81