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23.1
Wageningen B-Series
The Wageningen B-series was developed in the middle of the 20th century and is
the most extensive propeller series (Troost, 1938, 1940, 1951). Its name refers to
the
town Wageningen, which is the home of the Netherlands Ship Model Basin (NSMB).
NSMB is now called MARIN (Maritime Research Institute Netherlands). In older
books the series might be referred to as Troost series. The series encompasses a
total
of 120 propellers with systematic variations of number of blades Z, expanded area
ratio AE /A0 , and pitch-diameter ratio P/D. The Wageningen B-Series propeller had
been among the first to use aerofoil shaped section profiles. Circular segment
(ogival)
sections have only been used from radius x = 0.6 to the blade tip. Figure 20.12
shows
the blade sections within the expanded view. The propellers feature a 15 degree
rake
which is rather high by modern standards.
23.1
Origin
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
23.2
Tab. 23.1: Basic characteristics of the propellers in the Wageningen B-Series. For
each combination
of Z and AE /A0 propellers with P/D = 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, and 1.4 have been
tested
2 0.30
3
0.35
0.50
0.65
0.80
4
0.40
0.55
0.70
0.85 1.00
5
0.45
0.60
0.75
1.05
6
0.50
0.65
0.80
7
0.55
0.70
0.85
There are twenty different combinations of Z and AE /A0 , and for each of the
combinations six pitch-diameter ratios have been tested. Table 23.1 summarizes the
20
basic combinations. Over the years propellers have been added to the series and
several adjustments have been made. For instance, the first set of propellers with
Z = 4
blades featured a reduction of the pitch by 20% from radius x = 0.475 to the hub.
This
feature was removed for propellers with less or more than four blades. The original
blade contour was widened later to improve cavitation characteristics. This shape
was
called the BB-Series and equations presented here refer to this form (Kuiper,
1992).
The hydrodynamic characteristics of the Wageningen B-Series tests have been
reported
in graphical form as open water diagrams and as regression formulas. The set of
data
was extended with open water tests under cavitation conditions.
23.2
Data range
Oosterveld and van Oossanen (1975) present a detailed analysis of the available
open
water test results for the Wageningen B-Series. Coefficients are provided to
retrieve
blade and foil section shapes and to compute the thrust and torque coefficients as
a
function of the basic propeller characteristics diameter D, number of blades Z,
expanded area ratio AE /A0 , pitch-diameter ratio P/D, and the advance ratio J.
Regression analysis
For our studies in ship propulsion, we need the open water thrust and torque
curves.
Oosterveld and van Oossanen (1975) provide the following regression formulas:
KT
KQ
38
X
# #ci # #di
P
AE
=
ai J
Z ei
D
A0
i=0
# #ci # #di
46
X
AE
bi P
=
ai J
Z ei
D
A0
bi
(23.1)
(23.2)
i=0
The open water efficiency ηO follows from Equation (21.15): ηO = (KT /KQ )J/(2π).
Figure 23.1 shows an open water chart based on the polynomials. Note that the open
water efficiency has its own scale on the right-hand side of the plot. The key ‘B4-
85’
used in the title identifies the propeller:
NAME 3150, L. Birk
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
23.3
1.6
KT
10KQ
ηO
1. 4
P/D =
1.2
0.3
P/D = 0. 8
0.0
0.0
P/D = 1
.4
P/D = 1
.2
P/D = 1
.0
P/D = 0
.8
P/D = 0. 5
0.2
0.4
P/D = 0
.6
P/D = 0
.5
0.2
0.4
0.2
P/D = 0. 6
0.4
0.5
P/D = 1. 0
0.8
0.6
0.6
2
P/D = 1.
1.0
0.7
1.4
0.8
P/D =
0. 8
P/D
=
1. 0
0.6
0.8
1.0
advance ratio J = vA /(nD) [−]
P/D
=
1. 2
1.2
P/D
=
0.1
1. 4
1.4
0.0
1.6
Fig. 23.1: Open water chart for a Wageningen B-series propeller with Z = 4 and
AE /A0 = 0.85 derived
from KT and KQ polynomials (23.1) and (23.2)
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
23.4
Tab. 23.2: Factors and exponents for thrust coefficient polynomials of Wageningen
B-Series propellers
(Oosterveld and van Oossanen, 1975)
i
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
ai
+0.00880496
−0.204554
+0.166351
+0.158114
−0.147581
−0.481497
+0.415437
+0.0144043
−0.0530054
+0.0143481
+0.0606826
−0.0125894
+0.0109689
−0.133698
+0.00638407
−0.00132718
+0.168496
−0.0507214
+0.0854559
−0.0504475
0
0
1
2
0
1
2
0
0
1
1
0
0
3
6
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
2
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
+0.010465
−0.00648272
−0.00841728
+0.0168424
−0.00102296
−0.0317791
+0.018604
−0.00410798
−0.000606848
−0.0049819
+0.0025983
−0.000560528
−0.00163652
−0.000328787
+0.000116502
+0.000690904
+0.00421749
+0.0000565229
−0.00146564
bi
ci
di
ei
1
2
0
1
3
0
1
0
0
1
2
3
1
1
2
0
0
3
0
6
6
3
3
3
3
0
2
0
0
0
0
2
6
6
0
3
6
3
2
2
0
0
0
1
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
2
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
All model propellers in the series have a diameter of D = 240 mm and some scale
effects due to the model scale Reynolds numbers are expected. The polynomials
(23.1)
and (23.2) have been normalized to a Reynolds number Re0.75 of 2 · 106 . The
Reynolds
number Re0.75 is based on the chord length at radius x = 0.75. As resultant flow
speed
the combined magnitude of axial and rotational speed is used and induced velocities
are ignored.
q
c0.75
Re0.75 =
2 + (0.75 π n D)2
vA
(23.3)
ν
at radius x = 0.75 may be estimated with Equation (23.4).
# #
D AE
c(x) = Cr (x)
Z A0
(23.4)
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
23.5
Tab. 23.3: Factors and exponents for torque coefficient polynomials of Wageningen
B-Series propellers
(Oosterveld and van Oossanen, 1975)
i
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
ai
+0.00379368
+0.00886523
−0.032241
+0.00344778
−0.0408811
−0.108009
−0.0885381
+0.188561
−0.00370871
+0.00513696
+0.0209449
+0.00474319
−0.00723408
+0.00438388
−0.0269403
+0.0558082
+0.0161886
+0.00318086
+0.015896
+0.0471729
+0.0196283
−0.0502782
−0.030055
+0.0417122
0
2
1
0
0
1
2
0
1
0
1
2
2
1
0
3
0
1
0
1
3
0
3
2
0
0
1
2
1
1
1
2
0
1
1
1
0
1
2
0
3
3
0
0
0
1
1
2
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
−0.0397722
−0.00350024
−0.0106854
+0.00110903
−0.000313912
+0.0035985
−0.00142121
−0.00383637
+0.0126803
−0.00318278
+0.00334268
−0.00183491
+0.000112451
−0.0000297228
+0.000269551
+0.00083265
+0.00155334
+0.000302683
−0.0001843
−0.000425399
+0.0000869243
−0.0004659
+0.0000554194
bi
ci
di
ei
0
0
3
3
0
3
0
1
0
2
0
1
3
3
1
2
0
0
0
0
3
0
1
3
6
0
3
6
0
6
0
2
3
6
1
2
6
0
0
2
6
0
3
3
6
6
2
2
0
0
0
1
1
2
2
2
2
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
8
X
# #ci # #di
#f
P
AE
=
ai J
Z ei log10 Re0.75 − 0.301 i
D
A0
i=0
# #ci # #di
12
X
#f
P
AE
=
ai J bi
Z ei log10 Re0.75 − 0.301 i
D
A0
bi
(23.5)
(23.6)
i=0
Coefficients for the Reynolds number corrections to thrust and torque coefficients
are
provided in Table 23.5.
The ITTC procedure also requires the thickness to chord length ratio tmax /c. The
maximum thickness of the standard form is given by Equation (23.7).
#
tmax (x) = D Ar (x) − Br (x)Z
(23.7)
Thickness to chord
length ratio
Note that structural strength may require thicker blade sections in some cases.
Values
for the coefficients Ar and Br are also found in Table 23.4. The original data from
NAME 3150, L. Birk
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
23.6
Tab. 23.4: Coefficients for the estimate of maximum thickness and chord length of
Wageningen BSeries propellers (Kuiper, 1992). For convenience values have been
added at radii x =
0.15, 0.25, and 0.75 by interpolation
x = r/R
Ar
Br
Cr
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.0588
0.0526
0.0495
0.0464
0.0402
0.0340
0.0278
0.0216
0.00425
0.0040
0.00375
0.0035
0.0030
0.0025
0.0020
0.0015
1.473
1.600
1.719
1.832
2.023
2.163
2.243
2.247
0.75
0.0185
0.00125
2.208
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
0.975
1.0
0.0154
0.0123
0.0092
0.0061
0.00455
0.003
0.0010
0.00075
0.0005
0.00025
0.000125
0.000
2.132
2.005
1.798
1.434
1.122
0.000
Kuiper (1992) do not contain values for the radii 0.15 (already within hub), 0.25,
and
0.75. These values have been found by interpolation through the given data points.
In contrast to the equivalent full scale correction in the ITTC method (see
Equations (21.26) and (21.27)), ∆KT (23.5) and ∆KQ (23.6) are added to the values
determined with Equations (23.1) and (23.2).
KT S = KT + ∆KT
KQS = KQ + ∆KQ
(23.8)
The correction ∆KQ should be negative and ∆KT should be positive for Reynolds
numbers Re0.75 > 2 · 106 .
23.3
This section briefly summarizes other propeller series with references for further
study.
An extensive summary of different propeller series is given in Carlton (2007).
The Gawn series is a set of 37 three-bladed propellers with pitch-diameter ratios
between 0.4 and 2.0 and expanded area ratios from 0.2 to 1.1 (Gawn, 1953). The
extended
blade shapes are elliptical and only ogival sections have been used. Although the
geometry is outdated, this series is important because its model propellers are
exceptionally
large with a diameter of 20 in (508 mm). The series data therefore has very little
to
no scale effects. The series also covers a wide pitch-diameter ratio which makes it
applicable to high-speed and naval vessels. Blount and Hubble (1981) provide
regression
NAME 3150, L. Birk
Gawn series
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
23.7
Tab. 23.5: Factors and exponents for Reynolds number effects on thrust coefficient
and torque coefficient of Wageningen B-Series propellers (Oosterveld and van
Oossanen, 1975)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
+0.000353485
−0.00333758
−0.00478125
+0.000257792
+0.0000643192
−0.0000110636
−0.0000276305
+0.0000954
+0.0000032049
0
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
0
0
1
0
6
6
0
1
3
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
0
0
0
2
1
2
2
1
1
i
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
1
2
2
0
1
6
6
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
2
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
polynomials analog to the ones for the Wageningen B-Series. The polynomials are
also
published in Carlton (2007).
The open water tests for the Gawn series were conducted in a towing tank and
performance under cavitation conditions was originally not investigated. However,
Gawn
and Burrill (1957) tested a set of 30 slightly smaller propellers with 16 in (406.4
mm)
diameter in the cavitation tunnel of the King’s College, Newcastle, UK1 . The
series
was conceived for fast naval vessels, hence the name King’s College Admiralty or
short
KCA series. It is also referred to as Gawn-Burrill series. Nowadays it is mostly
used
as design basis for high-speed small craft.
Newton-Rader series
The effect of of skew on the propeller was investigated by Boswell (1971). Open
water
and cavitation data is reported for four propellers with skews of 0, 36, 72, and
108 degree
at the blade tip. No other propeller characteristics were modified besides the
skew.
Therefore this mini-series is not suitable for propeller selection, however, the
propellers
provide important test cases for computer codes that predict effects of skew on
propeller
performance.
Oosterveld (1970) conducted extensive open water and cavitation tests with ducted
propellers, the so called Ka-series. Regression polynomials are provided for thrust
and
Ducted propellers,
Ka-series
In 1963 King’s College was renamed into University of Newcastle upon Tyne
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
23.8
optimum
diameter
Task
optimum rate
of revolution
given
wanted
design constant
delivered power PD
diameter
speed of advance vA
rate of revolution n
thrust
diameter
rate of revolution n
delivered power PD
rate of revolution
speed of advance vA
pitch-diameter ratio P/D
diameter
thrust
speed of advance vA
diameter
#
KQ
PD n 2 η R
=
5
J
2π ρ vA5
speed of advance vA
rate of revolution
KT
J4
#
=
T n2
ρ vA4
#
KQ
PD η R
=
3
J
2π ρ D2 vA3
#
KT
J2
#
=
T
ρ D2 vA2
torque of the propeller as well as the influence of the nozzle (duct). Four
different
nozzle types have been investigated.
Series data are limited for controllable pitch propellers. Data for three-bladed
propellers
can be found in Gutsche and Schroeder (1963) and Chu et al. (1979). Hansen (1967)
reports data for five different controllable pitch propellers with four blades.
MARIN
recently added the Wageningen C- and D-series to its portfolio which provide data
for
controllable pitch propellers with and without duct. Dang et al. (2013) provide
some
results in the form of charts but regression polynomials have not yet been released
to
the public.
Controllable pitch
propellers
Section 23.4 explains the principal propeller selection tasks and process. More
examples
will follow.
23.4
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
23.9
Note that the number of blades Z and the expanded area ratio AE /A0 are not listed.
The number of blades Z is chosen to detune natural frequencies of propeller, shaft,
and engine. The expanded area ratio AE /A0 is determined by a suitable cavitation
criterion (see later). Besides Z and AE /A0 , the input for a propeller design task
consists of a combination of speed of advance vA , thrust T or delivered power PD ,
and
rate of revolution n or diameter D. The missing parameters pitch-diameter ratio P/D
and diameter D or rate of revolution n are chosen to provide the highest possible
open
water efficiency ηO . How will be discussed below.
Delivered power PD and thrust T are commonly determined for trial conditions (calm
and deep water, no wind, no current). For propeller design purposes PD and T have
to be augmented with a service margin sM .
Tservice = (1 + sM ) T
PDservice = (1 + sM ) PD
Service margin
(23.9)
The service or sea margin accounts for increases in ship resistance during
operation.
Over time fouling will roughen the hull surface and increase its frictional
resistance. It
will also increase the wake fraction. Wind, current, and waves will increase
resistance
as well. If the propeller is erroneously optimized for trial conditions, it will
have too
much pitch. As a consequence, the engine might not reach its design rate of
revolution
during normal operations.
Service margins are to a large degree a matter of choice. The margin is influenced
by
• owner preferences
• target area of operations
• size and trade of the vessel
Resistance of a vessel will be higher than the calm water resistance even during
normal operation in fair weather. Wind, waves, and currents may cause the
resistance to
increase by 15%-35%. In head seas and heavy weather it might be even more, however,
the ship will sail slower anyway to avoid damage to the ship structure. Typical
weather patterns influence the size of the margin. Winter navigation on the rough
North Atlantic between Europe and North America will require a higher service
margin than service in the calmer Mediterranean. On one hand, a smaller margin
might
suffice for large vessels because they are less affected by wind and waves. On the
other
hand, frictional resistance is the largest resistance component for large and slow
vessels. Therefore an increase in surface roughness due to fouling will have a
comparatively
larger negative effect than on a fast container ship for which wave (making)
resistance
is a sizable part of resistance. Marine fouling can cause a 25% to 50% increase in
frictional resistance depending on hull coating and docking intervals. Vessel which
sail
on a tight schedule, like container ships and ferries, may need larger margins to
be able
to recover lost time.
In summary, it is important that thrust T and delivered power PD reflect service
conditions rather than trial conditions. Current practice is to adjust trial
estimates with
a service margin. Service margins are a crude tool considering the effort that goes
into
estimating, measuring, and computing ship resistance and hull-propeller interaction
NAME 3150, L. Birk
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
23.10
parameters. Many ships arguably sail across the oceans with underutilized engine
power. The ITTC added a manual to its set of recommended procedures with the goal
of making service margin estimates more rational ITTC (2008). See also the method
proposed by Stasiak (2004).
Engine manufacturers provide for their engines the maximum continuous rating (M CR)
and the associated rate of revolution n. The maximum continuous rating is the brake
power an engine can deliver during prolonged operation. M CR and n of an engine
may be adjusted within narrow limits. The brake power used for propeller selection
is typically 10% to 15% lower than MCR. This so-called engine margin allows engine
operation with greater fuel economy during normal operation and provides reserve
power for maneuvering and bad weather. It comes on top of the service margin.
Engine margin
The available input data is combined into a dimensionless design constant specific
for
each task. It will allow us to find the self propulsion points. This is essentially
the
same process we used during the full scale power prediction (see Section 22.5.2).
Design constants
23.5
Let us first discuss the optimum diameter selection tasks. In group (i) the rate of
revolution n has to be determined first. There are two likely scenarios:
• The owner already operates ships of similar type and size. He may specify that
the new ship must have the same engine as an existing vessel. This will simplify
crew training and management. It may also lower maintenance cost.
• A preliminary powering estimate has been completed by assuming desired propeller
data. An engine is pre-selected based on the estimated delivered power.
23.5.1
Besides the rate of revolution n, we have to know the delivered power PD and the
speed
of advance vA (see Table 23.6). Delivered power may be derived from brake power by
means of the mechanical or shafting efficiency: PD = PB ηS . Delivered power and
rate
of revolution also specify the available propeller torque in behind condition.
Q =
PD
2πn
Task 1, given:
PD , vA , n
wanted:
D, P/D, ηO
(23.10)
Using the relative rotative efficiency (19.27) yields the torque QO for open water
conditions:
QO = Q ηR
(23.11)
The next step is to find propellers which absorb this torque at the provided
combination
of speed of advance and rate of revolution.
The torque absorbed by the propeller is embodied in the torque coefficient KQ of
the
open water diagram:
QO
KQ =
(23.12)
ρ n2 D5
NAME 3150, L. Birk
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
23.11
Tab. 23.7: Input data to illustrate Task 1: optimum propeller diameter selection
based on delivered
power, speed of advance, and rate of revolution
number of blades
expanded area ratio
delivered power (service)
rate of revolution
design ship speed
wake fraction
relative rotative efficiency
salt water density (at 15◦ C)
Z
AE /A0
PD
n
vS
w
ηR
ρ
4
0.85
23400.00 kW
108.00 rpm
21.30 kn
0.243
1.03
1026.021 kg/m3
In this equation we miss the propeller diameter D. Dividing Equation (23.12) by the
fifth power of the advance coefficient J = vA /(nD) eliminates the diameter from
the
right hand side:
QO
QO
KQ
QO n3
QO n5 D5
ρ n2 D5
ρ n2 D5
=
=
=
=
#
#
vA 5
J5
J5
ρ n2 D5 vA5
ρ vA5
nD
(23.13)
The last expression in Equation (23.13) is known. Equations (23.11) and (23.10)
replace
the open water torque with delivered power and relative rotative efficiency ηR .
The
result is the dimensionless design constant for Task 1:
#
#
KQ
PD n2 ηR
=
(23.14)
J5
2π ρ vA5
Omitting the relative rotative efficiency is an option if a good estimate for it is
unavailable.
Solution of propeller design Task 1 is illustrated based on the data set given in
Table 23.7. Input data has to be carefully converted to a consistent set of SI-
units: delivered power PD =23400.00 kW=23400000 W, rate of revolution n =108.0
rpm=1.8 s−1
and ship speed vS =21.3 kn=10.958 m/s. The speed of advance is not directly
specified
but we can compute it from ship speed and wake fraction.
Example data
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
1.6
0.8
KT
10KQ
ηO
1.4
thrust and torque coefficients KT , 10 KQ [−]
23.12
P/D = 1. 2
4
= 1.
P/D
0.7
0.6
1.0
0.5
.0
P/D = 1
0.8
0.0
0.0
P/D = 1. 2
P/D
=
1. 4
P/D = 1. 0
P/D = 0. 8
P/D = 0. 6
P/D = 0. 5
0. 5
P/D =
0.2
P/D = 1. 4
0.3
0.2
.6
P/D = 0
0.4
0.4
8
P/D = 0.
0.6
1.2
P/D
= 1. 2
0.1
P/D = 0. 5 P/D = 0. 6
P/D = 0
.8
P/D =
1.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Fig. 23.2: Design Task 1 – Input: Open water diagram for Wageningen B-series
propellers with Z = 4
and AE /A0 = 0.85 derived from KT and KQ polynomials (23.1) and (23.2). Torque
coefficient curves 10KQ are emphasized
Check the units to make sure the design constant is dimensionless. The design
constant
for Task 1 measures how much torque is available to turn the propeller.
With this design constant a self propulsion point may be estimated for a given
propeller.
Of course, we do not yet have a specific one, but we have the open water diagram
for
the B-Series propellers B4-85 (Figure 23.2). The curves represent six propellers
with
varying pitch–diameter ratios but all have four blades and an expanded area ratio
of
AE /A0 = 0.85. The torque coefficient curves have been emphasized in Figure 23.2
because they represent the torque needed to turn the propellers as a function of
the
advance ratio J. This is equivalent to saying that the propellers absorb the
delivered
power 2π n QO .
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
1.6
0.8
KT
10KQ
ηO
1.4
P/D = 1. 2
4
= 1.
P/D
1.2
0.6
h
10
1.0
KQ i 5
J
J5
0.5
.0
P/D = 1
0.8
0.0
0.0
P/D = 1. 2
P/D
=
1. 4
P/D = 1. 0
P/D = 0. 8
P/D = 0. 6
P/D = 0. 5
0. 5
P/D =
0.2
P/D = 1. 4
0.3
0.2
.6
P/D = 0
0.4
0.4
8
P/D = 0.
0.6
0.7
23.13
P/D
= 1. 2
0.1
P/D = 0. 5 P/D = 0. 6
P/D = 0
.8
P/D =
1.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Fig. 23.3: Design Task 1 – Step 2: Locate self propulsion points ◦ at which the
propellers absorb the
delivered power specified with the design constant [KQ /J 5 ] from Equation (23.15)
Any of the six propellers is a possible solution to our design problem. For
example,
for a pitch-diameter ratio P/D = 0.8 the intersection point is at the advance ratio
J0.8 = 0.5775. From the advance ratio J0.8 we may compute the missing propeller
diameter D0.8 .
J0.8 =
vA
vA
8.295 m/s
= 7.979 m
−→ D0.8 =
=
n D0.8
n J0.8
1.8 s−1 · 0.5775
The open water efficiency of the propeller with PD = 0.8 at J0.8 = 0.5775 is
0.5982.
That is not necessarily bad, however, our objective is to find the pitch–diameter
ratio
which will maximize the efficiency. Therefore a check of the achievable open water
efficiency is needed.
In Figure 23.4 the open water efficiencies are marked with times for each self
propulsion
point. Of these, the open water efficiency is highest for P/D = 1.0.
The best possible open water efficiency seems to be found for a pitch–diameter
ratio
in between P/D =0.8 and 1.0. We draw an interpolation curve through the six open
water efficiency points × (see Figure 23.5). This curve is sometimes called the
auxiliary
curve. It represents the achievable open water efficiency for this set of B4-85
propellers
and the given design constant (23.15).
The maximum of the auxiliary curve marks the highest open water efficiency which
can
be achieved for the chosen data set. Figure 23.6 shows the optimum at ηO = 0.6051
and the associated self propulsion point # and optimum advance ratio J = 0.6202.
Step 5: optimum
propeller
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
1.6
0.8
KT
10KQ
ηO
1.4
P/D = 1. 2
4
= 1.
P/D
1.2
0.6
h
10
1.0
KQ i 5
J
J5
0.5
.0
P/D = 1
0.8
0.0
0.0
P/D = 1. 2
P/D
=
1. 4
P/D = 1. 0
P/D = 0. 8
0. 5
P/D =
0.2
P/D = 1. 4
P/D = 0. 6
P/D = 0. 5
0.3
0.2
.6
P/D = 0
0.4
0.4
8
P/D = 0.
0.6
0.7
23.14
P/D
= 1. 2
0.1
P/D = 0. 5 P/D = 0. 6
P/D = 0
.8
P/D =
1.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Fig. 23.4: Design Task 1 – Step 3: Find open water efficiencies × for self
propulsion points ◦
vA
8.295 m/s
=
= 7.430 m
nJ
1.8 s−1 · 0.6202
This diameter is only optimal for open water condition. The optimum propeller
diameter is 2% to 7% smaller for the behind condition. We will come back to this
mystery
in the following chapter.
The pitch–diameter ratio of the optimum propeller has to be found by interpolation
between the torque coefficient curves. A 10KQ curve is sketched through the self
propulsion point # of the optimum propeller. Figure 23.6 reveals that the optimum
pitch–diameter ratio is P/D = 0.9227. Table 23.8 summarizes the optimum propeller
characteristics based on the input from Table 23.7. In propeller design Task 1 we
match
the propeller torque to an available torque. There is no guarantee that the
resulting
optimum propeller produces sufficient thrust to achieve the design speed. For that
reason, the thrust generated by the optimum propeller has to be checked against the
thrust required by the ship in design tasks which use the delivered power as input.
If the produced thrust is insufficient, the rate of revolution must be lowered or
the
available power must be increased.
Next steps
In addition, the initial value for the expanded area ratio has to be checked
against a
suitable cavitation limit. A higher expanded area ratio must be chosen if the limit
is
exceeded. For the sake of brevity these steps are skipped here but we will perform
them in the examples of the following chapter.
NAME 3150, L. Birk
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
0.8
KT
10KQ
ηO
1.4
1.2
P/D = 1. 2
4
= 1.
P/D
auxiliary curve
0.6
h
10
1.0
KQ i 5
J
J5
0.5
.0
P/D = 1
0.8
0.0
0.0
P/D = 1. 2
P/D
=
1. 4
P/D = 1. 0
P/D = 0. 8
0. 5
P/D =
0.2
P/D = 1. 4
P/D = 0. 6
P/D = 0. 5
0.3
0.2
.6
P/D = 0
0.4
0.4
8
P/D = 0.
0.6
0.7
1.6
23.15
P/D
= 1. 2
0.1
P/D = 0. 5 P/D = 0. 6
P/D = 0
.8
P/D =
1.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Fig. 23.5: Design Task 1 – Step 4: Draw auxiliary curve through open water
efficiency values
number of blades
expanded area ratio
delivered power (service)
rate of revolution
advance ratio
pitch-diameter ratio
open water efficiency
optimum diameter
23.5.2
Z
AE /A0
PD
n
J
P/D
ηO
DO
4
0.85
23400.00 kW
108.00 rpm
0.6202
0.9227
0.6051
7.43 m
The second propeller design task uses the same input as Task 1 except that the
delivered
power is swapped for the required service thrust T . Since the final propeller
produces
exactly the thrust a ship needs the aforementioned check on ship speed is obsolete.
However, one must select an engine which must be capable to generate the required
torque at the selected rate of revolution.
Task 2, given:
T , vA , n
wanted:
D, P/D, ηO
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
0.8
KT
10KQ
ηO
1.4
1.2
P/D = 1. 2
4
= 1.
P/D
optimum ηO = 0. 6051
0.6
h
10
1.0
KQ i 5
J
J5
0.5
.0
P/D = 1
0.8
0.0
0.0
P/D = 1. 2
optimu
P/D = 1. 0
P/D = 0. 8
m P/D
= 0. 92
27
0. 5
P/D =
0.2
P/D = 1. 4
P/D = 0. 6
P/D = 0. 5
.6
P/D = 0
0.4
0.4
8
P/D = 0.
0.6
0.7
1.6
23.16
P/D = 0. 5 P/D = 0. 6
P/D = 0
.8
P/D
=
1. 4
0.3
0.2
P/D
= 1. 2
0.1
P/D =
1.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
advance ratio
J = vA /(nD) [−]
optimum J = 0. 6202
Since the thrust is given, the design constant is based on the definition of the
thrust
coefficient KT . The equation is divided by the fourth power of the advance ratio
to
eliminate the unknown diameter D.
#
KT
J4
T
T
T n2
ρ n2 D4
ρ n2 D4
=
=
=
J4
ρ vA4
vA4
n4 D 4
(23.17)
We use the input data from Task 1 again but exchange the delivered power PD in
Table 23.7 for the estimated thrust for the service condition.
T = 1762.35 kN
(23.18)
The resultant design constant yields the curve of required thrust for the example
data.
#
#
KT
J 4 = 1.1755 J 4
required thrust curve
KTrequired =
J4
The self propulsion points are now defined by the intersections of the available
thrust
curve with the KT curves of the propellers in the open water diagram. Rather than
showing all intermediate steps of the process Figure 23.7 presents the final
result. Note
that in contrast to Figure 23.6 from Task 1 the solid lines are now the thrust
coefficient
curves KT . The reader should complete the process as an exercise.
NAME 3150, L. Birk
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
0.8
KT
10KQ
ηO
1.4
1.2
P/D = 1. 2
4
= 1.
P/D
optimum ηO = 0. 6070
0.6
1.0
0.5
.0
P/D = 1
0.8
0.0
0.0
P/D = 1. 2
P/D = 1. 0
P/D = 0. 8
P/D = 0. 6
P/D = 0. 5
optimum
P/D = 0
. 9060
0. 5
P/D =
0.2
P/D = 1. 4
.6
P/D = 0
0.4
0.4
8
P/D = 0.
0.6
0.7
1.6
23.17
P/D = 0. 5 P/D = 0. 6
P/D
=
KT
J4
1. 4
J4
0.3
0.2
P/D
= 1. 2
0.1
P/D =
1.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
advance ratio
J = vA /(nD) [−]
optimum J = 0. 6146
Although a consistent data set has been used for both, Tasks 1 and 2, it should not
surprise that results slightly differ between the tasks. Locating the maximum of
the
auxiliary curve precisely is hard because the curve may be quite flat around the
self
propulsion point. In addition, we are working with thrust and torque curves derived
from regression polynomials. They themselves have been produced by extensive
fairing
of the available open water data (Oosterveld and van Oossanen, 1975). In our
example,
efficiency is minimally higher for the propeller from Task 2. The diameter is 1%
larger
and the pitch diameter ratio is 2% smaller (see Table 23.9).
23.6
Propeller design Tasks 3 and 4 mirror design Tasks 1 and 2, respectively, however
now
the diameter D instead of the rate of revolution is known. Consequently the
objective
is to find a combination of rate of revolution n and pitch–diameter ratio P/D which
provide the best efficiency ηO .
An initial estimate of the diameter D may be derived in two ways:
• In early design stages the diameter may be estimated from regression formulas.
See later.
• Once preliminary hull lines have been drawn the shape of the stern defines the
NAME 3150, L. Birk
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
23.18
number of blades
expanded area ratio
thrust (service)
rate of revolution
advance ratio
pitch-diameter ratio
open water efficiency
optimum diameter
required delivered power
Z
AE /A0
T
n
J
P/D
ηO
DO
PD
4
0.85
1762.35 kN
108.00 rpm
0.6146
0.9060
0.6070
7.498 m
23394.60 kW
largest possible diameter which may be used as a starting point. Observe the
clearances! A minimum vertical clearance between propeller tip and hull surface
of 25% should be considered. Smaller vessels may have inclined shafts where the
propeller disk reaches below the baseline. However, larger commercial vessels
maintain a clearance of about 3% of the diameter to the baseline. It protects the
propeller and simplifies docking procedures.
23.6.1
Task 3, given:
PD , vA , D
wanted:
n, P/D, ηO
Based on the torque coefficient
KQ =
QO
PD ηR
=
2
5
ρn D
2π ρ n3 D5
(23.19)
we derive the design constant for Task 3. The unknown rate of revolution n is
eliminated
by dividing Equation (23.19) above by J 3 .
#
KQ
J3
PD
PD ηR
2π ρ n3 D5
=
=
2π ρ D2 vA3
vA3
n3 D 3
(23.20)
(23.21)
Figure 23.8 shows the polynomial (23.21) and the self propulsion points at the
intersecNAME 3150, L. Birk
0.8
KT
10KQ
ηO
1.4
1.2
0.7
P/D = 1. 2
= 1. 4
P/D
optimum ηO = 0. 6110
0.6
1.0
0.5
m P/D
P/D = 1. 0
= 1. 05
67
P/D = 0. 8
P/D = 0. 6
P/D = 0. 5
8
P/D = 0.
0.0
0.0
optimu
P/D = 1. 2
0. 5
P/D =
0.2
P/D = 1. 4
.6
P/D = 0
0.4
10
KQ i 3
J
J3
.0
P/D = 1
0.8
0.6
1.6
23.19
0.4
P/D
=
1. 4
0.3
0.1
P/D = 0. 5 P/D = 0. 6
P/D = 0
.8
P/D =
1.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
advance ratio
J = vA /(nD) [−]
optimum J = 0. 6851
tions with the open water torque 10KQ curves. The maximum achievable open water
efficiency marks the optimum advance ratio J = 0.6851. This is about 10% higher as
in
Task 1 although the delivered power is the same as in Task 1 and we used the
resulting
diameter D = 7.430 m of Task 1 as input. The pitch–diameter ratio is also higher.
As
a consequence of the higher advance ratio the optimum rate of revolution nO is
smaller
than the input to Task 1.
nO =
vA
8.295 m/s
=
= 1.6297 s−1 = 97.782 rpm
DJ
7.430 m · 0.6851
(23.22)
23.6.2
Task 4, given:
T , vA , D
wanted:
n, P/D, ηO
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
0.8
KT
10KQ
ηO
1.4
1.2
P/D = 1. 2
4
= 1.
P/D
optimum ηO = 0. 6114
0.6
1.0
0.5
.0
P/D = 1
0.8
0.0
0.0
P/D = 1. 2
P/D = 1. 0
optimum
P/D = 0. 8
P/D = 1
. 0452
0. 5
P/D =
0.2
P/D = 1. 4
P/D = 0. 6
P/D = 0. 5
P/D = 0. 5 P/D = 0. 6
P/D
=
1. 4
0.3
0.2
.6
P/D = 0
0.4
0.4
8
P/D = 0.
0.6
0.7
1.6
23.20
KT iJ 2
J2
P/D
= 1. 2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
advance ratio
J = vA /(nD) [−]
optimum J = 0. 6808
The design constant for Task 4 was already introduced when we discussed the
prediction
of full scale power prediction (see Section 22.5.2).
#
KT
J2
T
T
T
ρn2 D4
ρn2 D4
=
=
=
= CS
2
2
J
ρ D2 vA2
vA
n2 D 2
(23.23)
ηO = 0.6114
J = 0.6808
PD = 23210.89 kW
Like for the other tasks, this result has to be corrected for the behind condition
and
double checked against the cavitation limit. Details of this process will be
explained in
the following chapter.
NAME 3150, L. Birk
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
23.21
Fig. 23.10: Simplified Task 1 design chart for Wageningen B-Series propeller with Z
= 4 and AE /Ao = 0.85
23.7
Design Charts
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
23.22
Propeller design charts are plotted into an axes system of task specific design
constant
and pitch–diameter ratio. Each task has therefore a specific type of chart. Beware
that
the horizontal axis uses the fourth root of the design constant! For Task 1 we use:
s#
#
#
#0.25
KQ
PD n2 η R
4
=
(23.24)
J5
2π ρ vA5
As shown in Figure 23.10, this stretches the horizontal axis and makes it easier to
read.
BP and BU propeller design charts consist of three distinct sets of curves (Figure
23.10):
(i) curves of constant open water efficiency ηO = const,
(ii) curves of constant inverse advance ratio 1/J = const, and
(iii) optimum propeller curves.
The highly curved open water efficiency isolines may be interpreted like the lines
of
constant altitude on a map. Open water efficiency changes faster where the isolines
are
closer together and it changes slower where the isolines are farther apart. The
open
water efficiency forms a ‘ridge’ that curves from the top left corner to the lower
right
corner of the chart. At the end of a selection process we want to end up somewhere
close to the crest of the ridge.
The lines of constant inverse advance ratio 1/J appear like a hatching pattern
roughly
tracing from the lower left towards the upper right on the chart. In contrast to
the
open water efficiency, values of 1/J = const increase from the upper left to the
lower
right corner of the chart.
With open water diagrams we found the maximum open water efficiency as the highest
point on the auxiliary curve. In Figure 23.10 the lower, solid optimum propeller
curves
reflects the pitch–diameter ratios with the maximum open water efficiency ηO,opt .
The
‘P/D for ηO,opt ’-curve marks the points where the open water efficiency isolines
have
vertical tangents. Any vertical line in the chart corresponds to a specific design
constant
value. Deviation from the P/D for ηO,opt curve upwards or downwards along
p
4
KQ /J 5 = const causes a decline in open water efficiency. The decline is, however,
much smaller for increases in P/D-ratio than for lower P/D-ratios.
Optimum propeller
curves
Many published propeller design charts only feature the curve for the optimum
efficiency ηO,opt . However, as mentioned before, this line identifies the best
propeller under
open water conditions. It does not necessarily mean that this is the best propeller
for
the behind condition. Design experience shows that the optimum propeller in the
behind condition operates at a reduced 1/J-ratio. In fact, diameter or rate of
revolution
of the optimum propeller are 2% to 7% smaller for the behind condition compared to
the optimum propeller for the open water condition. The additional optimum
propeller
curves (dash-dotted lines) represent the proper pitch–diameter ratio for reductions
in
1/J from 1% to 5%.
Even simpler than the BP - and BU -charts are plots of the data along the optimum
open water efficiency curve. Figure 23.11 shows curves for three expanded area
ratios.
BP -charts like Figure 23.10 contain data for just one expanded area ratio.
However,
NAME 3150, L. Birk
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
1.1
ηO [ − ] and P/D [ − ]
1.0
0.9
3.5
1/J for AE /A0 = 0. 70
1/J for AE /A0 = 0. 85
P/D for AE /A0 = 1. 00 1/J for AE /A0 = 1. 00
P/D for AE /A0 = 0. 85
P/D for AE /A0 = 0. 70
3.0
inverse advance ratio 1/J [ − ]
1.2
23.23
2.5
0.8
2.0
0.7
ηO for AE /A0 = 0. 70
ηO for AE /A0 = 0. 85
ηO for AE /A0 = 1. 00
0.6
1.5
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.8
rh
4 K i
Q
J5
1.0
rµ
=
4
PD n 2 ηR
2πρ vA5
1.2
1.4
1.0
in many cases AE /A0 is adjusted during the selection process according to the
chosen
cavitation criterion. The middle curve of each triplet represents the same data as
the
Bp -chart in Figure 23.10. Two report from Bernitsas and Ray (1982a,b) contain a
complete set of design charts like Figure 23.11.
Harvald (1983) explains the use of so-called logarithmic propeller design charts.
Their
advantage is that all four tasks may be solved with a single design chart. They
are,
however, fairly complex and data take off is more difficult compared to the charts
discussed above.
23.8
Computational Tools
The propeller design charts above have been derived from the thrust and torque
coefficient polynomials of the Wageningen B-series propellers. It is fairly
straight forward
to include the polynomials in an optimization tool which solves the selection
process
computationally rather than with charts. For design Task 1 one could minimize the
function
#
f P/D, [KQ /J 5 ] = 1 − ηO (JQS , P/D, AE /A0 , Z)
(23.25)
171125, lb
Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
23.24
The pitch–diameter ratio serves as free variable in the optimization process and
the
design constant [KQ /J 5 ] is a parameter which defines the self propulsion point.
The
open water efficiency is computed from the KT - and KQ -polynomials (23.1) and
(23.2)
ηO =
(23.26)
with the advance ratio JQS as solution of the implicit and nonlinear equilibrium
condition for the self propulsion point
#
0 =
#
KQ
5
JQS
− KQ (JQS , P/D, AE /A0 , Z)
J5
(23.27)
The process is the same for the other design tasks except for the last equation
which
determines the self propulsion point.
The results of the propeller selection based on design charts provide the necessary
data
to complete the power prediction for a ship design. The results also form the basis
for
further computations. For the final design at least a propeller lifting line code
should
be used which will help solving the following details of the propeller design.
• Circulation distribution Γ which in turn determines section lift coefficients and
section camber.
• Adjust pitch-distribution to account for axial and tangential wake distribution
(if
available) and unload propeller tips to reduce tip vortices.
• Optimize chord length distribution to reduce cavitation issues.
Lifting line codes represent the simplest numerical approximation of hydrodynamics
propeller characteristics. Unfortunately, this topic extends already beyond the
scope
of this book. Interested readers should take a look at the OpenProp lifting line
code
(http://engineering.dartmouth.edu/epps/openprop/, last visited 8/25/2017) and
the associated documentation (Epps, 2010a,b). Further analysis with lifting surface
and panel codes may be required if cavitation inception and sound signature are of
interest. For details see Breslin and Andersen (1994) and Kerwin and Hadler (2010).
References
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Report 245, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA.
Bernitsas, M. and Ray, D. (1982b). Optimal revolution B-Series propellers.
Technical
Report 244, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA.
Blount, D. and Hubble, E. (1981). Sizing segmental section commercially available
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23.25
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Lecture 23 – Propeller Series Data and Propeller Selection
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