Topic

10: Respiratory System (Chapter 18)

Learning Objectives

• Define ventilation and respiration

• Describe the structure and function of the parts of the respiratory system

• Contrast the processes of inspiration and expiration during ventilation

• Define the terms used to describe volumes of air moved during ventilation

• Summarize the methods by which oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood

• Explain how the nervous system controls the process of breathing.

• Explain the role of chemoreceptors and pH levels in regulating breathing rate respiratory volumes

Lung Cancer
- In 2015, lung cancer remains the leading cause of cancer death for both men and
women in Canada. It represents 14% of all cancer cases in 2015.
- Common lung diseases include: asthma, tuberculosis, emphysema
Overview
- The respiratory system is closely connected with the cardiovascular system, and in
combination these systems ensure that O2 enters the body and CO2 leaves the body
- The respiratory system has the following functions in the body:
o Taking in oxygen and removing carbon dioxide
o Regulating blood pH by removing carbon dioxide
o Warming and moistening inhaled air
o Filtering particles from inhaled air
o Providing a sense of smell
o Producing sound by moving air past the vocal cords
Anatomy of the Respiratory System
The respiratory system is divided into upper and lower regions
- The upper respiratory system consists of the following parts:
- Nasal cavity
o Parts that filter/warm/moisten air
- Pharynx – shared passageway for both food and air
o Pipes that transport air
- Larynx + Glottis
o Structures that produce sound
- Epiglottis – flap that covers the glottis and stops food from
entering the larynx
- Conducting zone: nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
- Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli



Conductive vs Respiratory Zone
Conductive Zone
- Nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
Respiratory Zone
- Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles
(bronchioles with some alveoli on them),
alveolar ducts, alveoli

The lower respiratory system consists of the
following parts:
- Pipes that transport air
o Trachea
o Bronchi – branches
o Bronchioles – smaller branches
- Structure where gas exchange occurs between air and blood
o Alveoli
§ Surfactant
- Sac that holds air
o Lungs
- Muscles for ventilation
o Diaphragm
- Cilia – line the respiratory tract and sweep out
impurities
- Right lung has 3 lobes, left lung has 2 lobes.
- Type I alveolar cells are simple squamous
epithelium make up the majority of the alveoli and
are the site of gas exchange; Specialized alveoli
(Type II) produce and release surfactant
- Specialized alveoli (Type II) produce and release
surfactant: relieves surface tension on the alveoli and
prevents them from collapsing from the pull of the H
bonds in the water
Lung Membranes
- B The lungs are surrounded by mucus membranes
called pleura:
- Visceral pleura covers the lungs
- Parietal pleura covers the inside of the thoracic cavity
- Space between the two pleural membranes is very small and is called the pleural cavity,
which is filled with fluid that prevents friction during breathing


Pathway of Air
- The pathway of air starts in the nose and finishes in the alveoli
- ORDER:
o Nose/nasal cavity
o Pharynx
o Larynx
o Trachea
o Bronchus (L/R)
o Bronchioles (L/R)
o Alveoli
Pulmonary Ventilation
- Ventilation refers to the process of breathing. It
occurs in 2 stages:
- Inspiration
o Active
o Inhalation - brings air into lungs
- Expiration
o Passive
o Exhalation - expels air out of lungs
Stage 1: Inspiration (steps)
- Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract
- Diaphragm moves down and rib cage moves up and out, increasing the
thoracic cavity
- Air is pulled into lungs due to:
o Increase in lung volume
o Decrease in air pressure
- Boyle’s law states that volume is inversely proportional to pressure
- Atmospheric pressure = pressure in the environment (~760 mmHg)
- Alveolar pressure = pressure inside the lungs
- Intrapleural pressure = pressure in between the visceral and parietal
pleura
- Intrapleural pressure must always be lower than the alveolar pressure
so the lungs do not collapse (at rest it is typically -4 mmHg compared
to alveolar/atmospheric pressure)
Stage 2 Expiration
- Diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax
- Diaphragm moves up and rib cage moves down and in, decreasing the
thoracic cavity
- Air is pushed out of lungs due to:
- Decrease in lung volume
- Increase in air pressure


Lung Volumes
- Tidal volume – Amount of air moved with 1 breath at rest (normal respiratory cycle)
- Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) – Amount of air inhaled forcibly in 1 breath
- Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) – Amount of air exhaled forcibly in 1 breath
- Vital capacity (VC) – Maximum amount of air exhaled after taking the deepest breath
possible
- Residual volume – Air remaining in lung after expiration
- Total lung capacity – sum of vital capacity plus residual volume (approx. 5.8-6 L)

Gas Exchange and Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Gas Exchange
- Alveoli are air sacs that are surrounded by capillaries. This is where gas exchange
occurs within the lungs.
- Total surface area of alveoli is very large, which permits rapid exchange of large
quantities of oxygen and carbon dioxide by diffusion – size of a tennis court if all laid
out.
- Some specialized alveolar cells produce detergent-like substance called “surfactant”



Transport of Oxygen
- Most oxygen is transported by being bound to hemoglobin proteins in RBCs
- The rest (~1.5%) is dissolved in the plasma

Transport of Carbon Dioxide
- Carbon dioxide is transported in three ways:
- 7-10% is dissolved in plasma
- 25-30% is bound to hemoglobin (different spot than oxygen)
- 60-65% in the form of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)



Regulation of Breating
- On average, adults take 12-20 breaths per minute however, this can be increased or
decreased using 2 control mechanisms:
- Nervous
o Through the medulla oblongata (in brain stem)
o Pons fine-tunes
- Chemical
o Through chemoreceptors (medulla oblongata, carotid arteries, aortic arch)
- Chemoreceptors in carotid arteries detect low O2 and high H+
- Chemoreceptors in medulla oblongata detect high CO2 (high H+)
Nervous Control
- The nervous system controls the rate and depth of breathing
using the medulla oblongata, a control center within the brain
- To cause inspiration, medulla oblongata sends out nerve
impulses to 2 types of nerves:
o Intercostal nerves – causes intercostal muscles to
contract
o Phrenic nerve – causes diaphragm to contract
- To cause expiration, medulla oblongata ceases to send nerve
impulses causing the intercostal muscles and diaphragm to
relax
Chemical Control
- The body has ways to control breathing by measuring chemicals in the blood using
chemoreceptors
- CO2 in blood can form carbonic acid causing low pH (high
H+)
- Chemoreceptors in medulla oblongata (brain) and carotid
bodies (blood vessels) detect low pH levels if CO2 is too
high and tell medulla oblongata to increase breathing
rate
- Most humans cannot hold their breath for more than 1
min because the excess carbon dioxide makes the blood
too acidic and the brain “over rides” this voluntary
control
- The medulla oblongata can also detect lowered levels of
O2, but increased CO2 levels remains as the primary
stimulus.
Concept review questions
- Refer to 18.1 Page 358 #1
- Refer to 18.2 Page 363 #2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
- Refer to 18.3 Page 368 #1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10
- Refer to 18.4 Page 373 #4, 7
- Refer to 18.5 Page 376 #3, 4, 5, 6
- Refer to 18.6 Page 377 #1, 2, 3, 4, 6