Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
1
What we will study today:
• And, shake off some of your undergraduate notions of dynamics - - Ask when you are in doubt or confused!
2
Dynamics according to
We offer this work as the mathematical principles of philosophy; for all the difficulty of philosophy
seems to consist in this – from phenomena of motions to investigate the forces of nature, and then from
these forces to demonstrate the other phenomena; and to this end the general propositions in the first
and second book are directed.
3
Transition from Statics to Dynamics
Statics Dynamics
Force equilibrium
for a free body:
f ij − mi ai = 0§ (1.1)
P P
j f ij = 0 j
Moment equilibrium
around point ”P”:
§
MP j − rP j × (mj aj ) =
P P
MP j = 0 0
j
§
Observation: A critical aspect of dynamics is the need to compute the acceleration vector for every mass
in the system.
4
Landau’s Uniqueness Theorem∗
If all the position vectors {x1 , x2 , ..., xn } and the velocity vectors {ẋ1 , ẋ2 , ..., ẋn } for n particles are
given at some instant, the accelerations {ẍ1 , ẍ2 , ..., ẍn } at that instant are uniquely defined.
The relations between the accelerations, velocities and position vectors are called the equations of
motion.
∗
L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshits, Mechanics (3rd ed.), Pergamon Press, 1959.
5
Reference Frame and Position Vector
Consider two frames, K and K0 , where V is constant in both magnitude and direction, and in which the
properties of space and time are the same.
6
Example of Two Inertial Frames
Frame K'
r
Frame K
r'
Vt
O'
O
r = Vt + r'
Fig. 1. Reference Frame
7
The kinematic relations between frames K and K0 are:
r = Vt + r0
ṙ = V + ṙ0 ⇒ v = V + v0
(1.2)
r̈ = r̈0 ⇒ a = a0
Conclusion: The acceleration vectors are the same in all inertial frames!
In all inertial frames, the laws of mechanics are the same, which is referred to Galileo’s relativity principle, one of the
most important principles of mechanics.
8
Newton’s Eight Definitions
DEFINITION I: The quantity of matter[mass] is the measure of the same, arising from its density and
bulk conjointly.
DEFINITION II: The quantity of motion[linear momentum] is the measure of the same, arising from the
velocity and quantity of matter conjointly.
DEFINITION III: The vis insita, or the innate force of matter[inertia force], is a power of resisting, by
which every body, as much as in it lies, continues in its present state, whether it be rest, or of moving
uniformly forwards in a right[straight] line.
DEFINITION IV: An impressed force is an action exerted upon a body, in order to change its state,
either of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line.
9
Newton’s Eight Definitions - cont’d
DEFINITION V: A centripetal force is that by which bodies are drawn or impelled, or any way tend,
towards a point as to a centre.
DEFINITION VI: An absolute centripetal force is the measure of the same, proportional to the efficacy
of the cause that propagates it from the centre, through the spaces round about.
DEFINITION VII: The accelerative quantity of a centripetal force is the measure of the same, proportional
to the velocity which it generates in a given time.
DEFINITION VIII: The motive[motion-causing] quantity of a centripetal force is the measure of the same,
proportional to the motion which it generates in a given time.
10
Newton’s Three Laws
Law I: Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to
change that state by forces impressed upon it.
Law II: The change of motion is proportional to the motive force impressed; and is made in the direction of the
right line in which the force is impressed.
Law III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction; or, the mutual actions of two bodies upon
each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts.
11
Test of Galileo’s Relativity Principle
12
Fig. 2. Example of a Spring Mass System
13
Test of Galileo’s Relativity Principle - cont’d
14
Test of Galileo’s Relativity Principle - cont’d
Remark 1: The mass-point based coordinate system (frame K) must include the dead weight mg in the
equations of motion.
Remark 2: The ground based coordinate system (frame K0 ) does not require to account for the static
equilibrium.
Remark 3: When the ground itself moves, i.e., buildings subjected earthquakes and automobile riding on
wavy roads, one has to modify h to X = xg + h − d + x where xg is the motion of the ground. A similar
modification must be made for X0 .
15
Test of Galileo’s Relativity Principle - cont’d
What happens to the mass point-based coordinate system when the ground moves?
16
Fig. 3. Centripetal vs. Centrifugal Forces
17
Fig. 4. Source: I. B. Cohen, ”Newton’s Discovery of Gravity,” Scientific American, March 1981.
18