HEAT TRANSFER

Unsteady State Heat Transfer

Instructor: MSc. Trinh Ngoc Thao Ngan

Department of Food Engineering
Faculty of Food Science and Technology
1
 FOURIER’S SECOND LAW
Temperature is a function of two independent variables, time
(t) and location (x, y and z), the following partial differential
equation:

For any material k, 𝜌 and 𝐶𝑃 are all constants, the expression

(k/𝜌 𝐶𝑃 ) is also a constant that is frequently called α and is
given the name “thermal diffusivity”
α is characteristic of the material and describes how fast the
food is heated or cooled.
𝑚2 𝑓𝑓 2
The units of α are : or
𝑠𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑟
. 2
 THE BIOT NUMBER
A dimensionless number, used to evaluate the relative importance
of internal & external resistance to heat transfer
ℎ𝑑𝑐
𝐵𝐵 =
𝑘𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Where h = convective heat transfer coefficient
k solid = Thermal conductivity of the solid
dc = characteristic dimension of the solid
Characteristic dimension of a solid (dc) = volume/area, when the object is
finite:
4/3𝜋𝑟 3 𝑟
• = , for sphere
4𝜋2 3
𝜋𝑟 2 𝐿 𝑟
• = , for cylinder
2𝜋𝜋𝜋 2
dc = ½ thickness of infinite slab dc = r for infinite cylinder
3
 THE BIOT NUMBER
𝑑𝑐
ℎ𝑑𝑐 𝑘 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝐵𝐵 = = =
𝑘 1 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
ℎ

• Bi <0.1  Internal resistance is negligible (i.e. k is

very high) Boundary resistance controls heat transfer.
• Bi = 0.1 to 40  Both the internal and boundary
resistances control heat transfer.
• Bi > 40  Boundary resistance is negligible, internal
resistance controls heat transfer (i.e. k is very small).
Surface temp = Heating (or cooling) medium temp.

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Negligible Internal Resistance to Heat Transfer
(Bi < 0.1)
• The objects with high thermal conductivity are placed in a poor
conductive heat medium  Instantaneous heat transfer into the
object without temperature gradients with location
• Well-stirred liquid food in a container.

𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇
= 𝑒 −𝑏𝑏
𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑖
ℎ𝐴
Where 𝑏=
𝜌𝑐𝑃 𝑉

Ta: surrounding temperature (oC)

Ti: initial temperature (oC) 5
 Example
A flat aluminum plates (1m wide x 2m long x 0.5cm thick are
being used as cookie sheets in a bakery. They have a thermal
conductivity of 207 W/m.K, a specific heat of 0.9 kJ/kg.K and
a density of 2070 kg/m3. Estimate the time required for the
temperature of the plate s to drop to handling temperature of
40oC after they are removed from an oven at 230oC and placed
in ambient air at 21oC. The convective heat transfer coefficient
is estimated at 6 W/m2K

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 Solution

𝑊
ℎ𝑑𝑐 ℎ𝑉 6 2 𝐾 × 1𝑚 × 2𝑚 × 0.005𝑚
𝐵𝐵 = = = 𝑚 = 0.0072 × 10−3
𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑊
207 × (2𝑚 × 1𝑚) × 2
𝑚𝑚
ℎ𝐴𝐴
𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇 21 − 40 𝐶𝑝 𝜌𝜌
= =𝑒
𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑖 21 − 230
𝑊
21−40 −6 ×4(𝑚2 )×𝑡
𝑚2 𝐾
 𝑙𝑙 = 𝐽 𝑘𝑘
21−230 900 𝑘𝑘𝑜 𝐶 ×2707 3 ×0.01(𝑚3 )
𝑚

 −2.4 = −9.85 × 10−4 𝑡

 t = 40.6 min
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 Finite Internal and Surface Resistance to
Heat Transfer (0.1< Bi< 40)
Using temperature-time chart (Heisler chart) with 1/Biot
Number (1/Bi), Fourier Number (Fo) and temperature ratio.
𝑘𝑡 𝛼𝛼
𝐹𝐹 = 2 = 2
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑐 𝑑𝑐

1 𝑘
=
𝐵𝐵 ℎ𝑑𝑐

** Bi > 40  the line for 1/Bi = 0 represents negligible surface

resistance to heat transfer
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Fig1. Temperature at the geometric center of a sphere of radius dc 9
 10
Fig 2. Temperature at the geometric center of an infinite long cylinder of radius dc
 11
Fig 3. Temperature at the geometric center of an infinite slab of thickness 2dc
 Example
Estimate the time when the temperature at the geometric center of a 6 cm
diameter apple held in a 2oC water stream reaches 3oC. The initial
uniform temperature of the apple is 15oC. The convective heat transfer
coefficient in water surrounding the apple is 50 W/(m2oC). The properties
of the apple are thermal conductivity (k) 0.355 W/(moC); specific heat
(Cp) 3.6 kJ/(kgoC); and density (ρ) 820 kg/m3 .
Given
𝑑
Diameter of apple: d = 0.06 m  𝑑𝐶 = = 0.03 𝑚
2
Convective heat-transfer coefficient: h = 50 W/(m2oC)
Temperature of water stream: Ta = 2oC
Initial temperature of apple: Ti = 15oC
Final temperature of geometric center: T = 3oC
Thermal conductivity: k = 0.355 W/(moC)
Specific heat: Cp = 3.6 kJ/(kgoC)
Density: ρ = 820 kg/m3 12
Solution
𝑇𝑎 −𝑇 2 −3
Temperature ratio: = = 0.077
𝑇𝑎 −𝑇𝑖 2 −15
𝑊
ℎ𝑑𝑐 50 0.03 𝑚2
𝑚2 𝐾
The Biot number: 𝐵𝐵 = = 𝑊 = 4.23
𝑘 0.355
𝑚0 𝐶
1 1
= = 0.237
𝐵𝐵 4.23

From Figure 1 , for a temperature ratio of 0.077 and (1/Bi ) of 0.237, the
Fourier number can be read as Fo = 0.5

𝑘𝑡
The time: 𝐹𝐹 = = 0.5
𝜌𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑐 2
𝑘𝑘 1000𝐽 2
0.5 × 820 × 3.6 × 0.03 𝑚
𝑚3 𝑘𝑘𝑜 𝐶
𝑡 = = 3742 𝑠 = 1.04 (ℎ𝑟)
𝑊
0.355
𝑚𝑜 𝐶
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 Finite Objects
 A finite cylinder considered as a part of an
infinite cylinder and an infinite slab

 A finite brick shape considered to be constructed

from three infinite slabs maintaining width,
depth and height, respectively, as the finite
thickness

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 Example
Estimate the temperature at the geometric center of a beef (80 x 120 x
120 mm dimension can exposed to boiling water at 100oC for 30 min.
The product is assumed to heat and cool by conduction. The initial
uniform temperature of the product is 35oC. The properties of the food
are thermal conductivity (k) 1 W/(moC); specific heat (Cp) 1600
J/(kgoC); and density (ρ) 800 kg/m3.The convective heat transfer
coefficient for the boiling water (h) is estimated to be 1000 W/(m2oC).

𝑇𝑎 −𝑇 𝑇𝑎 −𝑇 𝑇𝑎 −𝑇 𝑇 −𝑇
= 𝑥 𝑥 𝑎
𝑇𝑎 −𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑎 −𝑇𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,120𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑇𝑎 −𝑇𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,120𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑇𝑎 −𝑇𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠,80𝑚𝑚𝑚

120mm

80mm
120mm
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Given:
Beef dimensions:
Width 120 mm = 0.12 m  𝑑𝑐 = 0.06
Height 120 mm = 0.12 m  𝑑𝑐 = 0.06
Depth 80 mm = 0.08 m  𝑑𝑐 = 0.04
Convective heat transfer coefficient h = 1000 W/(m2oC)
Temperature of heating media Ta = 100oC
Initial temperature of food Ti = 35oC
Time of heating t = 10 min = 600 s
Thermal conductivity: k = 1 W/(moC)
Specific heat: Cp = 1600 J/(kgoC)
Density: ρ = 800 kg/m3
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Solution

 Treat the beef as an infinite slab with 0.08 m thickness

The Biot number:
𝑊
ℎ𝑑𝑐 1000 0.04 𝑚2 1 1
𝑚2 𝐾
𝐵𝐵 = = 𝑊 = 40 → = = 0.025
𝑘 1 0 𝐵𝐵 40
𝑚 𝐶
The Fourier number
𝑊
𝑘𝑡 1 𝑚𝑜 𝐶 ×600 (𝑠)
𝐹𝐹 = = = 0.29
𝜌𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑐 2 𝑘𝑘
800 3 ×1600
𝐽
𝑜 ×0.04 2 (𝑚2 )
𝑚 𝑘𝑘 𝐶

From Figure 3 , for a Fourier number of 0.29 and (1/Bi ) of 0.025, the
temperature ratio can be read as 0.7

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Solution (cont)

 Treat the beef as an infinite slab with 0.12 m thickness

The Biot number:
𝑊
ℎ𝑑𝑐 1000 0.06 𝑚2 1 1
𝑚2 𝐾
𝐵𝐵 = = 𝑊 = 60 → = = 0.016
𝑘 1 0 𝐵𝐵 60
𝑚 𝐶
The Fourier number
𝑊
𝑘𝑡 1 𝑚𝑜 𝐶 ×600(𝑠)
𝐹𝐹 = = = 0.13
𝜌𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑐 2 𝑘𝑘 𝐽
800 3 ×1600 𝑘𝑘𝑜 𝐶 ×0.062 (𝑚2 )
𝑚

From Figure 3 , for a Fourier number of 0.13 and (1/Bi ) of 0.016, the
temperature ratio can be read as 0.8

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 The temperature ratio for a finite beef is

Ta − T Ta − T Ta − T Ta − T
= x x
Ta − Ti Ta − Ti slab,120mmm
Ta − Ti slab,120mmm
Ta − Ti slab,80mmm

= 0.8 x 0.8 x 0.7 = 0.448

Ta − T 100 − 𝑇
= = 0.448 → 𝑇 = 70.88 𝑜𝐶
Ta − Ti beef
100 − 35

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