Mendel‘s Law of Inheritance

Mendelian laws of inheritance are statements about the way certain characteristics are
transmitted from one generation to another in an organism. The laws were derived by the Austrian
monk Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) based on experiments he conducted in the period from about 1857
to 1865. For his experiments, Mendel used ordinary pea plants. Among the traits that Mendel studied
were the color of a plant's flowers, their location on the plant, the shape and color of pea pods, the
shape and color of seeds, and the length of plant stems.

Mendel's approach was to transfer pollen (which contains male sex cells) from the stamen (the
male reproductive organ) of one pea plant to the pistil (female reproductive organ) of a second pea
plant. As a simple example of this kind of experiment, suppose that one takes pollen from a pea plant
with red flowers and uses it to fertilize a pea plant with white flowers. What Mendel wanted to know is
what color the flowers would be in the offspring of these two plants. In a second series of experiments,
Mendel studied the changes that occurred in the second generation. That is, suppose two offspring of
the red/white mating ("cross") are themselves mated. What color will the flowers be in this second
generation of plants? As a result of these experiments, Mendel was able to state three generalizations
about the way characteristics are transmitted from one generation to the next in pea plants.

Mendel’s Laws

1. Mendel's law of segregation describes what happens to the alleles that make up a gene during
formation of gametes. For example, suppose that a pea plant contains a gene for flower color in
which both alleles code for red. One way to represent that condition is to write RR, which
indicates that both alleles (R and R) code for the color red. Another gene might have a different
combination of alleles, as in Rr. In this case, the symbol R stands for red color and the r for "not
red" or, in this case, white. Mendel's law of segregation says that the alleles that make up a gene
separate from each other, or segregate, during the formation of gametes. That fact can be
represented by simple equations, such as:
RR → R + R or Rr → R + r

2. Mendel's second law is called the law of independent assortment. That law refers to the fact
that any plant contains many different kinds of genes. One gene determines flower color, a
second gene determines length of stem, a third gene determines shape of pea pods, and so on.
Mendel discovered that the way in which alleles from different genes separate and then
recombine is unconnected to other genes. That is, suppose that a plant contains genes for color
(RR) and for shape of pod (TT). Then Mendel's second law says that the two genes will segregate
independently, as:
RR → R + R and TT → T + T
 3. Mendel's third law deals with the matter of dominance. Suppose that a gene contains an allele
for red color (R) and an allele for white color (r). What will be the color of the flowers produced
on this plant? Mendel's answer was that in every pair of alleles, one is more likely to be
expressed than the other. In other words, one allele is dominant and the other allele is recessive.
In the example of an Rr gene, the flowers produced will be red because the allele R is dominant
over the allele r.

Predicting Traits

The application of Mendel's three laws makes it possible to predict the characteristics of
offspring produced by parents of known genetic composition. The picture on page 1248, for example,
shows the cross between a sweet pea plant with red flowers (RR) and one with white flowers (rr). Notice
that the genes from the two parents will segregate to produce the corresponding alleles:
RR → R + R and rr → r + r
There are, then, four ways in which those alleles can recombine, as shown in the same picture.
However, all four combinations produce the same result: R + r → Rr. In every case, the gene formed will
consist of an allele for red (R) and an allele for "not red" (r).
The drawing at the right in the picture on page 1248 shows what happens when two plants from the first
generation are crossed with each other. Again, the alleles of each plant separate from each other:
Rr → R + r
 Again, the alleles can recombine in four ways. In this case, however, the results are different
from those in the first generation. The possible results of these combinations are two Rr combinations,
one RR combination, and one rr combination. Since R is dominant over r, three of the four combinations
will produce plants with red flowers and one (the rr option) will product plants with non-red (white)
flowers.
Biologists have discovered that Mendel's laws are simplifications of processes that are sometimes much
more complex than the examples given here. However, those laws still form an important foundation for
the science of genetics.

Source:

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/laws-of-inheritance/

Genetic Disease
About birth defects

A birth defect is a problem that occurs when a baby is developing in utero (in the womb). Approximately
1 out of every 33 babies in the United States is born with a birth defect.

Birth defects can be minor or severe. They may affect appearance, organ function, and physical and
mental development. Most birth defects are present within the first three months of pregnancy, when
the organs are still forming. Some birth defects are harmless. Others require long-term medical
treatment. Severe birth defects are the leading cause of infant death in the United States, accounting for
20 percent of deaths.

Birth defects can be a result of:

-Genetics
-Lifestyle choices and behaviors
-Exposure to certain medications and chemicals
-Infections during pregnancy
-A combination of these factors
However, the exact causes of certain birth defects are often unknown

Genetics
The mother or father may pass on genetic abnormalities to their baby. Genetic abnormalities
occur when a gene becomes flawed due to a mutation, or change. In some cases, a gene or part of a
gene might be missing. These defects happen at conception and often can’t be prevented. A particular
defect may be present throughout the family history of one or both parents.

Nongenetic causes
The causes of some birth defects can be difficult or impossible to identify. However, certain
behaviors greatly increase the risk of birth defects. These include smoking, using illegal drugs, and
drinking alcohol while pregnant. Other factors, such as exposure to toxic chemicals or viruses, also
increase risk.

All pregnant women have some risk of delivering a child with a birth defect. Risk increases under any of
the following conditions:
-family history of birth defects or other genetic disorders
-drug use, alcohol consumption, or smoking during pregnancy
-maternal age of 35 years or older
-inadequate prenatal care
-untreated viral or bacterial infections, including sexually transmitted infections
-use of certain high-risk medications, such as isotretinoin and lithium

Women with pre-existing medical conditions, such as diabetes, are also at a higher risk of having a child
with a birth defect.
Common Birth Defects

Birth defects are typically classified as structural or functional and developmental.

Structural defects are when a specific body part is missing or malformed. The most common structural
defects are:
-Heart defects
-Cleft lip or palate, when there’s an opening or split in the lip or roof of the mouth
-Spina bifida, when the spinal cord doesn’t develop properly
clubfoot, when the foot points inward instead of forward

Functional or developmental birth defects cause a body part or system not to work properly.
These often cause disabilities of intelligence or development. Functional or developmental birth defects
include metabolic defects, sensory problems, and nervous system problems. Metabolic defects cause
problems with the baby’s body chemistry.

The most common types of functional or developmental birth defects include:

-Down syndrome, which causes delay in physical and mental development
-Sickle cell disease, which occurs when the red blood cells become misshapen
-Cystic fibrosis, which damages the lungs and digestive system

Some children face physical problems associated with specific birth defects. However, many
children show no visible abnormalities. Defects can sometimes go undetected for months or even years
after the child is born.

How are birth defects treated?

Treatment options vary depending on the condition and level of severity. Some birth defects can
be corrected before birth or shortly after. Other defects, however, may affect a child for the rest of their
life. Mild defects can be stressful, but they don’t typically affect overall quality of life. Severe birth
defects, such as cerebral palsy or spina bifida, can cause long-term disability or even death. Speak with
your doctor about the appropriate treatment for your child’s condition.

Medications: Medications may be used to treat some birth defects or to lower the risk of complications
from certain defects. In some cases, medication may be prescribed to the mother to help correct an
abnormality before birth.

Surgeries: Surgery can fix certain defects or ease harmful symptoms. Some people with physical birth
defects, such as cleft lip, may undergo plastic surgery for either health or cosmetic benefits. Many babies
with heart defects will need surgery, as well.

Home care: Parents may be instructed to follow specific instructions for feeding, bathing, and monitoring
an infant with a birth defect.

How can birth defects be prevented?

Many birth defects can’t be prevented, but there are some ways to lower the risk of having a
baby with a birth defect. Women who plan to become pregnant should start taking folic acid
supplements before conception. These supplements should also be taken throughout the pregnancy.
Folic acid can help prevent defects of the spine and brain. Prenatal vitamins are also recommended
during pregnancy.
Women should avoid alcohol, drugs, and tobacco during and after pregnancy. They should also
use caution when taking certain medications. Some medications that are normally safe can cause serious
birth defects when taken by a pregnant woman. Make sure to tell your doctor about any medications
you may be taking, including over-the-counter drugs and supplements.
Most vaccines are safe during pregnancy. In fact, some vaccines can help prevent birth defects.
There is a theoretical risk of harm to a developing fetus with some live-virus vaccines, so these kinds
should not be given during pregnancy. You should ask your doctor which vaccines are necessary and
safe.
Maintaining a healthy weight also helps reduce the risk of complications during pregnancy.
Women with pre-existing conditions, such as diabetes, should take special care to manage their health.
 It’s extremely important to attend regular prenatal appointments. If your pregnancy is
considered high risk, your doctor can do additional prenatal screening to identify defects. Depending on
the type of defect, your doctor may be able to treat it before the baby is born.

Genetic counseling

A genetic counselor can advise couples with family histories of a defect or other risks factors for
birth defects. A counselor may be helpful when you’re thinking about having children or already
expecting. Genetic counselors can determine the likelihood that your baby will be born with defects by
evaluating family history and medical records. They may also order tests to analyze the genes of the
mother, father, and baby.

Protein Synthesis
Protein synthesis is the process whereby biological cells generate new proteins; it is balanced by
the loss of cellular proteins via degradation or export. Translation, the assembly of amino acids by
ribosomes, is an essential part of the biosynthetic pathway, along with generation of messenger RNA
(mRNA), aminoacylation of transfer RNA (tRNA), co-translational transport, and post-translational
modification. Protein biosynthesis is strictly regulated at multiple steps. They are principally during
transcription (phenomena of RNA synthesis from DNA template) and translation (phenomena of amino
acid assembly from RNA).

Steps in Protein Synthesis:

STEP 1: The first step in protein synthesis is the transcription of mRNA from a DNA gene in the nucleus.
At some other prior time, the various other types of RNA have been synthesized using the appropriate
DNA. The RNAs migrate from the nucleus into the cytoplasm.

Prior to the beginning of the protein synthesis, all of the component parts are assembled in the
ribosome which is the brown/tan structure in the left graphic.

STEP 2: Initiation:

In the cytoplasm, protein synthesis is actually initiated by the AUG codon on mRNA. The AUG codon
signals both the interaction of the ribosome with m-RNA and also the tRNA with the anticodons (UAC).
The tRNA which initiates the protein synthesis has N-formyl-methionine attached. The formyl group is
really formic acid converted to an amide using the -NH2 group on methionine (left most graphic)

The next step is for a second tRNA to approach the mRNA (codon - CCG). This is the code for
proline. The anticodon of the proline tRNA which reads this is GGC. The final process is to start growing
peptide chain by having amine of proline to bond to the carboxyl acid group of methinone (met) in order
to elongate the peptide.

STEP 3: Elongation:

Elongation of the peptide begins as various tRNA's read the next codon. In the example on the left the
next tRNA to read the mRNA is tyrosine. When the correct match with the anticodons of a tRNA has
been found, the tyrosine forms a peptide bond with the growing peptide chain .

The proline is now hydrolyzed from the tRNA. The proline tRNA now moves away from the
ribosome and back into the cytoplasm to reattach another proline amino acid.

Step 4: Elongation and Termination:

When the stop signal on mRNA is reached, the protein synthesis is terminated. The last amino acid is
hydrolyzed from its t-RNA.

The peptide chain leaves the ribosome. The N-formyl-methionine that was used to initiate the
protein synthesis is also hydrolyzed from the completed peptide at this time.
 Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an organism's
genes using biotechnology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells,
including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel
organisms. New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using
recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising the DNA. A construct is usually created and
used to insert this DNA into the host organism. The first recombinant DNA molecule was made by Paul
Berg in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with the lambda virus. As well as inserting
genes, the process can be used to remove, or "knock out", genes. The new DNA can be inserted
randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome.

Cloning

In biology, cloning is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical

individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plants reproduce asexually.
Cloning in biotechnology refers to processes used to create copies of DNA fragments (molecular cloning),
cells (cell cloning), or organisms. The term also refers to the production of multiple copies of a product
such as digital media or software.

1) Corn
Almost 85 perecent of corn grown in the U.S. is genetically modified. Even Whole Foods’s brand of corn
flakes was found to contain genetically modified corn. Many producers modify corn and soy so they are
resistant to the herbicide glyphosate, which is used to kill weeds.

15 GMO Products Sold in Market

More than sixty genetically modified crops have been approved for US food and feed supplies:

-Corn (20 varieties)

-Oilseed Rape/Canola (11 varieties)
-Cotton (11 varieties)
-Tomato (6 varieties)
-Potato (4 varieties)
-Soybean (3 varieties)
-Sugar Beet (3 varieties)
-Squash (2 varieties)
-Cantaloupe
-Rice
-Flax
-Raddicchio
-Papaya
-Alfalfa
-Wheat

Of these crops, only corn, soybeans, cotton, canola, squash, and papaya grown in Hawaii, are
commercially produced. More than 85 percent of soybeans grown in the United States are transgenic,
GM cotton is grown on more than 70 percent of cotton fields, and GM corn is grown on about 50 percent
of corn acreage. Many of the other crops have either been taken off the market, such as potato, sugar
beet, flax, and tomato, or have never been commercially grown, such as wheat and rice, due to market
opposition.