Alternativas Aos Equipamentos Com HG

An Investigation of
Alternatives to Mercury
Containing Products
January 22, 2003
Prepared for
The Maine Department
of Environmental Protection
by
Catherine Galligan
Gregory Morose
Jim Giordani
Lowell Center for Sustainable Production 2
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......................................................................................................................5
1.0 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................7
2.0 MERCURY NOTIFICATION DATA REVIEW.............................................................................8
3.0 MERCURY PRODUCT PRIORITIZATION ...............................................................................10
4.0 FINDINGS.......................................................................................................................................15
4.1 Costs of Using Mercury .................................................................................................................. 16
4.2 Sphygmomanometers ..................................................................................................................... 18
4.3 Esophageal Dilators (Bougies) and Gastrointestinal Tubes........................................................ 21
4.4 Manometers ..................................................................................................................................... 23
4.5 Thermometers (non-fever) ............................................................................................................. 24
4.6 Barometers ...................................................................................................................................... 27
4.7 Psychrometers/Hygrometers ......................................................................................................... 28
4.8 Hydrometers .................................................................................................................................... 28
4.9 Flow meters ..................................................................................................................................... 29
4.10 Pyrometers ..................................................................................................................................... 30
4.11 Thermostats (industrial and manufacturing) ............................................................................ 31
4.12 Float Switches................................................................................................................................ 31
4.13 Tilt Switches .................................................................................................................................. 40
4.14 Pressure Switches.......................................................................................................................... 46
4.15 Tempe rature Switches.................................................................................................................. 50
4.16 Relays ............................................................................................................................................. 54

4.16.A Mercury Displacement Relay ................................................................................................. 56
4.16.B Mercury Wetted Reed Relay................................................................................................... 57
4.16.C Mercury Contact Relay........................................................................................................... 59

4.17 Flame Sensor ................................................................................................................................. 64
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................................66
5.1 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 66
5.2 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 70
6.0 SOURCES......................................................................................................................................72
Appendix 1: Medical Device Reports for Spilled Mercury .............................................................. 75
Appendix 2: Cost of Mercury Spills .................................................................................................... 76
Appendix 3: Transition to Non-mercury Products.......................................................................... 77
Appendix 4: Maine DEP Letter to Manufacturers of Mercury-added Products ........................... 81
Appendix 5: Aneroid Sphygmomanometers ...................................................................................... 83

The LCSP study included a review of the
mercury product notification data submitted by
Executive Summary manufacturers to IMERC. The notification data
included a description of mercury added
The Maine Department of Environmental
components, number of components, amount of
Protection (DEP) will issue a report on January 1,
mercury per unit, amount of mercury in total
2003 that will include a comprehensive strategy
domestic sales, and purpose of mercury in the
to reduce the mercury content of products. To
product. At the time of the review, this included
assist in gathering information for this report, the
seventy-six manufacturers reporting 390 mercury
Maine DEP commissioned the Lowell Center for
containing products. The LCSP study also
Sustainable Production of the University of
included discussions with mercury product
Massachusetts Lowell to conduct a study of
experts, discussions with manufacturers of
alternatives to mercury containing products.
mercury products, review of responses to a May
Mercury’s chemical and physical properties
1, 2002 State of Maine letter to mercury product
have been applied to meet the requirements of
manufacturers (see Appendix 4), review of
thousands of products and applications including:
published mercury product stud ies, and review of
dental amalgams, scientific instruments,
pertinent data available on the internet.
electrical components, batteries, lamps, and
Since there are thousands of products that
medical devices. These mercury containing
contain mercury, a prioritization effort was
products are widely used in residential,
needed to focus on a core set of products that
commercial, industrial, military, marine, and
could then undergo further detailed study. The
medical environments.
criteria for this prioritization included: amount of
Mercury from these products can be released
mercury released to the environment, amount of
to the environment during various stages of the
mercury contained within the product, total
product life cycle including production,
amount of mercury reported for all product sales,
transportation, manufacturing, use, and disposal.
product coverage by current regulation, and the
Once released, the mercury can transform to
availability of non- mercury alternatives.
organic forms, and can readily disperse in the
Products and components were reviewed as part
environment through the air, soil, and water.
of the prioritization process. Components are
Mercury is persistent in the environment, and
typically sold to original equipment
also accumulates in concentration as it
manufacturers to be incorporated within a
biomagnifies within the food chain. Mercury is
product. For example, the mercury tilt switch is
highly toxic to humans; exposure can damage
a component that is incorporated in automobiles,
kidneys and the central nervous system. The fetus
vending machines, cranes, wheelchairs, and
is particularly sensitive to mercury’s toxic
numerous other products.
effects. Mercury also has adverse effects on
The priority products selected for further
wildlife including early death, weight loss, and
detailed study included sphygmomanometers,
reproductive issues.
gastrointestinal tubes, manometers, non- fever
In February 2002, the Interstate Mercury
thermometers, barometers, hygrometers,
Education and Reduction Clearinghouse
psychrometers, hydrometers, flow meters,
(IMERC) was formed under the auspices of the
pyrometers, and thermostats (industrial and
Northeast Waste Management Officials’
manufacturing only). The priority components
Association (NEWMOA). IMERC is an
selected for further detailed study included float
umbrella organization designed to assist the eight
switches, tilt switches, pressure switches,
northeast states in their implementation of
temperature switches, displacement relays,
mercury reduction laws and programs aimed at
wetted reed relays, mercury contact relays, and
getting mercury out of consumer products, the
flame sensors.
waste stream, and the environment.
After the priority products and components
were selected, detailed research and analysis was

then conducted. The findings from this research same desired functionality, such as providing an
include: accurate measure of blood pressure or sensing a
flame, there are often design considerations or
• Description of how the mercury
different techniques or practices that must be first
product/component operates
learned and communicated.
• Typical applications of the mercury
product/component
• Non-mercury alternatives available
• Cost range for the mercury
product/component and non-mercury
alternatives
• Advantages and disadvantages of the
mercury products/components and their
non- mercury alternatives
• Manufacturer information for non-
mercury alternatives
• Summary of findings for each mercury
product/component
In general, cost competitive non-mercury

alternatives were identified that meet the
functionality requirements for most priority
mercury products. Therefore, these products
could be targets for mercury reduction efforts.
The two products where alternative replacements
cannot be recommended are the gastrointestinal
tubes and the industrial thermostats.
For the following components there are cost
competitive non- mercury alternatives available
for new products and applications: flame sensors,
float switches, tilt switches, temperature
switches, and pressure switches. However, non-
mercury relays can cover most, but not all,
combinations of design parameters for new relay
products or applications.
Certain retrofit situations for mercury
switches and relays exist where the non-mercury
alternative is not cost comp etitive. Efforts to
reduce the sale of mercury switches and relays
for retrofitting existing products or applications
should take this into consideration.
There are many opportunities for substituting
non- mercury alternatives for mercury containing
products and components. Many alternatives are
not simple drop-in substitutions. Although a non-
mercury alternative may ultimately achieve the

1.0 Introduction • Identify non-mercury alternatives to the
products identified.
The Maine Department of Environmental • Conduct a qualitative evaluation of viable

Protection (DEP) will issue a report on January 1, alternatives, including their cost and
2003 that is required under An Act to Phase Out performance.
the Availability of Mercury Added Products, PL
2001, c. 620. The report will include a summary The research methodology undertaken to
of mercury product data and a comprehensive complete this study included:
strategy to reduce the mercury content of the
products. • Telephone communication and meetings
To assist in gathering information for this with Northeast Waste Management
report, the Maine DEP commissioned the Lowell Officials’ Association (NEWMOA) and
Center for Sustainable Production (LCSP) to Maine DEP personnel were conducted to
conduct a study of alternatives to mercury understand the information received on
containing products. This report summarizes the mercury-containing products.
findings of the LCSP investigation. • An internet search was conducted to
The LCSP develops, studies and promotes obtain data and understand the flow of
environmentally sound systems of production, mercury associated with products. This
healthy work environments, and economically data provided a reference against which
viable work organizations. The LCSP is based at the NEWMOA and DEP me rcury
the University of Massachusetts Lowell, where it product submissions could be compared.
works closely with the Massachusetts Toxics Use
Reduction Institute (TURI) and the Department • Telephone interviews of mercury
of Work Environment. reduction experts were held to gain
Because of its persistent, bioaccumulative and insight on their perspectives and to
toxic nature, the management of mercury reinforce or challenge conclusions drawn
presents a hazard to the environment that should by the researchers.
be addressed and minimized wherever feasible. • An internet search and phone interviews
Reducing mercury exposure can be accomplished were conducted to identify the function
by source reduction, by minimizing uses that of mercury in products and to identify
disperse the material into the environment, and alternatives for mercury containing
by diverting and reclaiming any mercury components and products.
containing products prior to disposal. While
regulations on use and waste diversion strategies • Telephone interviews were conducted
are necessary, an effective and economically with manufacturers to develop
efficient strategy would be, wherever possible, to information on the alternatives, their
substitute mercury containing products with applications, and their advantages and
products containing less hazardous materials. disadvantages.
• Interviews were held with users of
The objective of this study is to accomplish medical products to understand what
the following: made a product preferable from the
user’s perspective.
• Investigate mercury product information
in the public domain. • A search and review of literature in the
public domain was conducted to provide
• Identify priority products for investigating data on mercury products and
non- mercury alternatives. components and their performance.

Total Mercury in all Mercury Added
Products Form: This form requests
2.0 Mercury Notification Data manufacturer contact information, as well
Review as total amount of mercury in all units sold
in the United States for a particular product.
The Maine statutes (see 38 MRSA § 1661-A)
prohibit the sale of mercury-added products Approximately 700 letters in December 2001
unless the manufacturer has provided written and 1,100 letters in June 2002 were sent to
notification disclosing the amount and purpose of manufacturers to request such information for
the mercury. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and mercury containing products. IMERC has
Connecticut have passed similar mercury reviewed the received mercury notification forms
notification laws. for adherence to the requested information. The
In February 2002, the Interstate Mercury majority of notification forms received require
Education and Reduction Clearinghouse follow-up communications with the manufacturer
(IMERC) was formed. IMERC is an umbrella to address missing or erroneous data. Once the
organization designed to assist the eight review of the notification forms has been finished
Northeast states in their implementation of and has been considered complete, the
mercury reduction laws and programs aimed at information is entered into an IMERC electronic
getting mercury out of consumer products, the database.
waste stream, and the environment. For this study, the mercury notification
Launched under the auspices of the Northeast information in the IMERC electronic database
Waste Management Officials’ Association was reviewed in June and July of 2002. At that
(NEWMOA), IMERC has coordinated regional time, the database contained notification
mercury reduction efforts and assisted state information for seventy-six manufacturers
environmental agencies in developing and reporting 390 mercury containing products. The
implementing specific legislation and programs total amount of mercury for all units sold in the
for manufacturer notification, labeling, United States was available for ninety-eight of
collection, and eventual phase-out of products these products. Substantially more mercury data
that contain mercury. has been provided to IMERC since the LCSP
IMERC has consolidated the mercury comp leted its review.
notification information obtained by the
individual states prior to February 2002, and has The following table illustrates the
served as the clearinghouse for all mercury distribution of IMERC data for the various
notification information received since that time product types:
for Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and
Connecticut. IMERC has used two notification
forms to collect this data: Table 2.1: IMERC Data
Mercury Added Product Notification Form: Product Number of

The term “mercury added” is used to Products
indicate that the mercury was intentionally Reported
added to the product. This form requests Barometer 1
manufacturer contact information, as well Battery 16
as information pertaining to the mercury in
the product such as description of mercury Gas plasma display 7
added components, number of components, Lamp 16
amount of mercury, and purpose of mercury Lamp – cold cathode 1
in the product. Lamp – fluorescent 32

Product Number of
Products
Reported
Lamp – HID 36
Lamp – LCD 115
Lamp – mercury 18
xenon
Lamp – ultraviolet 1
Manometer 7
Relays 2
Sensor – flame 52
Sphygmomanometer 3
Switch – float 15
Switch – pressure 2
Switch - temperature 1
Switch - tilt 36
Thermometer 9
Thermostat 20
Total: 390
Source: NEWMOA Database, July 2002
The IMERC mercury product data were one

of several important sources of data for this
report. IMERC information was valuable for the
prioritization process discussed in section 3, and
for identifying the initial manufacturers to be
contacted for further information. Other sources
of mercury product information included
discussions with mercury product manufacturers
and experts, review of mercury product reports,
and review of relevant data available on the
internet.

properties have been applied by design engineers
to meet the needs of thousands of diverse
3.0 Mercury Product products and applications. The following table
Prioritization illustrates examples of products that employ
some of these properties.
A broad search was conducted to determine
the scope of products that contain mercury. The Table 3.1: Properties of Mercury
intent of this search was not to develop a
comprehensive list of products, but rather to Product Example Property of Mercury
develop background information on: Mercury wetted reed Electrical
relays conductivity
• How is mercury being used in Position sensing Liquid at ambient
products? products such as conditions
level sensors
• Why is mercury being used in Barometer Precise movement in
products? response to air
pressure differential
• How much mercury is in various Thermometer Precise
products? expansion/contraction
in response to
• What are common mercury temperature change
components for various products? Dental amalgam Easily alloys with
many metals such as
• Are non- mercury alternatives gold, silver, and tin.
available for these mercury containing Gastrointestinal tubes Density
products? Fluorescent lights When energized,
mercury in vapor
These questions were investigated through form emits ultraviolet
discussions with mercury product experts, energy
discussions with manufacturers of mercury Tilt switches utilize Combination of
products, review of IMERC mercury notification both the electrical properties
results, review of responses to a May 1, 2002 conductivity and
State of Maine letter to mercury product liquid at ambient
manufacturers (see Appendix 4), review of conditions properties
published mercury product studies, and review of
pertinent data available on the internet. Since there are thousands of products that
This review has shown that for mo st mercury- contain mercury, the research effort focused on
added products, the mercury is found in a number identifying a core set of priority products or
of common components. For example, tilt common components that could then undergo
switches are a common component in hundreds further detailed study. For the purpose of this
of products and applications such as building report, the terms product and component will be
security systems, automobile trunk lights, defined as followed:
scanners, and robotics. This is also true for
batteries, relays, and fluorescent lamps which are Product: A product is predominately sold to
each used in hundreds of products and the consumer in its final product state. For
applications. example, a thermometer is sold to the
The universe of products that use mercury is consumer for temperature measuring
extensive. Mercury’s chemical and physical purposes.

The higher the amount of mercury
Component: A component is predominately sold contained within a product, the more
to an original equipment manufacturer to be likely it would be a priority for further
incorporated within another product. For research. Various sources were used to
example, the tilt switch is sold to automobile obtain this information including:
manufacturers to be incorporated into an discussions with manufacturers of
automobile. mercury products, review of IMERC
mercury notification results, review of
The following five criteria were selected as published mercury product studies, and
the basis for this prioritization: review of pertinent data available on the
internet.
1. What is the contribution of the product
category to the total mercury released to 3. What is the total amount of mercury
the environment for all product reported for all sales of a specific type of
categories? product in the U.S.?
Only limited data is available on mercury The higher the total amount of mercury
released on an individual product basis. reported for all U.S. product sales, the
More information is available on mercury more likely it would be a priority for
released by product category. Thus, total further research. The primary source for
mercury released by product category was this data was a review of IMERC mercury
chosen as a screening criterion. The more notification results. However, this
mercury released by a product category, information was reported and available
the more likely that products in that for only a few product types at the time of
category would be a priority for further this study. Also, since all manufacturers
research. had not yet reported at that time, the value
of the highest product sales amount
The following report was selected as a reported from a single manufacturer for a
basis to support this criterion: “Substance particular product was used in Table 3.3.
Flow Analysis of Mercury in Products”
prepared by Barr Engineering Company 4. Is the product addressed by existing
for the Minnesota Pollution Control mercury regulations?
Agency on August 15, 2001. (Barr, 2001)
This report was chosen because it Mercury-added products already
provided a comprehensive review of total regulated by either the State of Maine or
mercury releases from numerous product federal Environmental Protection Agency
categories, it included mercury releases to (EPA) were eliminated as a priority for
each environmental media (land, air, and further study as part of this report. The
water), and it was recently published. Maine statutes on mercury-added
The releases by product category from products, 38 MRSA §1661 et seq., as well
this report have been categorized as high as pertinent EPA regulations were used as
for releases greater than 20% of total sources for this information.
releases, medium for releases from 5% to
20% of total releases, and low for releases 5. Have readily available non-mercury
less than 5% of total releases. alternatives been identified?
2. What is the amount of mercury within the If non- mercury alternatives are available
product? in the marketplace, then the product is
more likely to be a priority for further

study. The data sources for this effort • Wetted reed relays
included discussions with mercury • Mercury contact relays
product experts, discussions with • Flame sensors
manufacturers of mercury products,
review of published mercury product The results of applying these five criteria are
studies, and review of pertinent data summarized on the following page in Table 3.3
available on the internet. Priority Product Selection. The shaded cells
indicate the priority products selected.
Certain mercury products did not fall into a LCSP notes that the Maine DEP has prepared
product category. For many of these products a summary of IMERC data as of December 2002.
very limited information was available about This more recent review of the IMERC data
their current use, manufacture, and mercury supports the priorities identified by LCSP based
content. This included counterweights, jewelry, on the amount of mercury in the products and the
and advanced mercury alloys used in products total amount of mercury in domestic product
such as convertors, oscilloscopes, sales.
semiconductors, solar cells, satellites, and
infrared sensors. These products were therefore
not considered a priority for this project.
As a result of applying these five criteria to
mercury containing products, the following
products and components were selected for
further study as part of this report:
Table 3.2: Priority Products and Components
Products
• Sphygmomanometers
• GI tubes
• Manometers
• Thermometers (non-fever)
• Barometers
• Hygrometers
• Psychrometers
• Hydrometers
• Flow meters
• Pyrometers
• Thermostats (industrial and
manufacturing)
Components
• Float switches
• Tilt switches
• Pressure switches
• Temperature switches
• Displacement/plunger relays

Table 3.3: Priority Product Selection
Product Product Mercury Total Addressed Alternatives Priority

Category Content Mercury Use in Existing Identified
Releases1 (mg)2 By Single Legislation4
Manufacturer
(g)3
Sphygmo - > 1,000 1,815,000 No Yes Yes
manometers
Manometers > 1,000 6,956 No Yes Yes
GI Tubes > 1,000 Not Available No Yes Yes
Flame sensors > 1,000 1,267,000 No Yes Yes
Thermometers (non- Other > 1,000 765,443 No Yes Yes
fever) measurement &
Barometers, control devices > 1,000 Not Available No Yes Yes
hygrometer, (High)
psychrometer,
hydrometer, flow
meter, pyrometer
Permeter, barostat, Not Not Available No No No
oscillator, gyroscope, Available
otoscope, sequential
multiple analyser,
phanotron, ignitron
Amalgam Dental > 1,000 Tytin Alloy: Yes Yes No
(High) 8,811,270
Fever Thermometers Fever 100 – 1,000 Not Available Yes Yes No
Thermometers
(Medium)
Fluorescent Lamps Fluorescent Predom- 2,092 No No No
Lamps inately
(Medium) < 100
Float switch > 1,000 1,914,418 No Yes Yes
Tilt switch 100 to 1,000 11,329 No Yes Yes
> 1,000
Pressure Switch > 1,000 Not Available No Yes Yes
Temperature Switch > 1,000 Not Available No Yes Yes
Displacement/plunger Other Relays & 10 to 50, 50 16,174,300 No Yes Yes
relay Switches to 100
(Medium) 100 to 1,000
> 1,000
Wetted reed relay 10 to 50, 50 2,400 No Yes Yes
to 100
100 to 1,000
> 1,000
Other mercury 0 to 5, 5 to Not Available No Yes Yes
contact relays 10
10 to 50
100 to 1,000
> 1,000
Manufacturing and Thermostats 100 – 1,000 2,162 No Yes Yes
industrial thermostats (Medium) > 1,000
HID & Other Lamps HID & Other Predom- 16,051 No No No
Lamps inately
(Low) < 100

Product Product Mercury Total Addressed Alternatives Priority
Category Content Mercury Use in Existing Identified
Releases1 (mg)2 By Single Legislation4
Manufacturer
(g)3
Batteries Batteries Predom- 50,085 No No No
(Low) inately
< 100
Bulk Liquid Mercury Bulk Liquid Not Not Available Yes No No
Mercury applicable
(Low)
Chlor-alkali products Chlor-alkali Misc- Not Available No Yes No
products ellaneous
(Low) ppm/ppb
Pharmaceuticals Pharmaceuticals Misc. Not Available No No No
(Low) ppm/ppb
Latex Paint Latex Paint Misc. Not Available Yes Yes No
(Low) ppm/ppb
Fungicides Fungicides Misc. Not Available No Yes No
(Low) ppm/ppb
Film Film 0- 5 164 No No No
Convertor, Advanced Not Not Available No No No
oscilloscope, Materials available
semiconductors, solar (HgCdTe, HgTe,
cells, satellites, HgSe)
infrared sensors
Cleaners, detergents, Chemical Misc- Not Available No No No
catalysts, reagents, Compounds ellaneous
pigments, cosmetics, ppm/ppb
other
industrial/laboratory
use
Jewelry, Miscellaneous Not Not Available No No No
counterweights available
1
Source: “Substance Flow Analysis of Mercury in Products” Prepared for the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency,
August 15, 2001. Film, advanced materials, chemical compounds, and miscellaneous were not explicit product categories
within this report. High: greater than 20% of total releases, Medium: 5% to 20% of total releases, Low: less than 5%
of total releases.
2
From IMERC database, IMERC paper files, and other miscellaneous sources.
3
Total amount of mercury used in all products sold in calendar year 2001 as reported to IMERC. The value in the table
indicates the highest amount reported from a single manufacturer for a particular product. Total amounts have not yet
been reported by all manufacturers.
4
The Maine statutes restricting the sale and use of mercury-added products, 38 MRSA §1661 et seq., as well as pertinent
EPA regulations were used as sources.

Manufacturers
This section lists in table format the
4.0 Findings manufacturers of mercury containing
products/components and manufacturers of the
Once the prioritization process was completed non- mercury alternatives. This table also
and accepted by the Maine Department of provides product/component name, manufacturer
Environmental Protection, the analysis of the phone number, and manufacturer website
priority products and components was initiated. information.
After conducting research and analysis of the
priority products and components, the findings Format
were prepared. The findings of this study are There are two formats used in this report to
here presented in the following format: present findings. The priority products are
covered in sections 4.2 through 4.11 utilizing the
Description following format:
This section includes an overview of how the
product/component operates, background Description
information on the product/component, and
typical applications of the product/component. Alternatives
Alternatives Costs
This section identifies the non-mercury
product/component available to replace the Advantages/Disadvantages
function and performance characteristics of the
mercury containing produc t/component. Manufacturers
Costs Summary
The costs in this section are often provided in a
range. The range includes only list prices
available on the internet or by manufacturer The priority components are covered in sections
inquiry as part of this study. The range does not 4.12 through 4.17 utilizing a slightly different
necessarily include every model or every format. Since the components are used in a wide
manufacturer listed for a particular technology. variety of products and applications, the
The prices for a specific model may vary description, costs, advantages/disadvantages, and
considerably based upon options required, manufacturers information will be provided for
quantity ordered, customer discount, and other each non- mercury alternative identified. Also,
factors. The price ranges are only presented to the manufacturers of both mercury and non-
provide a gross cost comparison between the mercury manufacturers are provided. The
various technologies. following is the format for priority components:
Advantages/Disadvantages Description
This section compares the effectiveness of the
non- mercury alternative product/components to Costs
the mercury containing products or components.
The function of the mercury containing Advantages/Disadvantages
product/components will be considered, and the
merits and shortcomings of the alternatives will Manufacturers
be presented.
Summary

thermometers and sphygmomanometers that
4.1 Costs of Using Mercury could be avoided by using alternative non-
mercury products. For sphygmomanometers,
Traditionally the cost of using mercury has Kaiser found that “the aneroid alternative is
been focused on the purchase price of the device. significantly more expensive to purchase on a
What is often not recognized are the other costs unit basis. When associated lifecycle costs are
that go along with the use of mercury. These included … total costs per unit drop to about 1/3
other costs include potential for costly spills, the total costs of the mercury unit.” The findings
adverse health effects, liability, regulatory of the LCSP study indicate that in 2002, the
compliance costs and maintaining equipment and purchase cost of mercury and aneroid
trained personnel to handle mercury releases. sphygmomanometers are now comparable. This
Tellus Institute’s report “Healthy Hospitals: further reduces the lifecycle costs for the non-
Environmental Improvements Through Better mercury sphygmomanometers.
Environmental Accounting” proposes that Kaiser’s mercury minimization efforts
environmental costs and benefit information can reduced costs avoidance by reducing the
be incorporated into accounting practices to incidence of spills, exposure incidents and
attain a more meaningful cost. It considers liability, and staff toxics training, as detailed in
environmental costs, which are defined as the Table 4.2. Kaiser’s estimates suggest that for
“impacts, both monetary and non-monetary, every $1 spent on spill response, there is
incurred by a firm or organization resulting from potentially another $1.75 for training, fines, and
activities affecting environmental quality. These treatment of exposure. (Tellus Institute, 2000)
costs include conve ntional costs, potentially Although clean up costs are not well
hidden costs, and less tangible costs.” (Tellus documented in the literature, an internet search
Institute, 2000) revealed numerous reports that provide insight
into the financial impact of a mercury spill. A
Table 4.1: Mercury Costs summary of these reports is presented in
Appendix 2.
Potentially Hidden Less Tangible Costs While the LCSP study does not present the
Costs full life cycle costs for each of the mercury and
• Up-front: site • Liability: non- mercury products, the costs delineated in this
preparation, Superfund, section should be considered when evaluating
permitting, personal injury, these products.
installation property damage
• Back-end: site • Future regulatory
closure, compliance costs
disposal of • Employee safety
inventory, post- and health
closure care compensation
• Regulatory: • Organizational
training, image
monitoring,
recordkeeping
Source: Tellus Institute, 2001
The same report provides a case study of

Kaiser Permanente’s mercury minimization
efforts. Kaiser Permanente is the largest not- for-
profit Health Maintenance Organization (HMO)
in the United States. Kaiser considered the costs
in addition to the purchase price of mercury

Table 4.2 : Kaiser Permanente Case Study
Avoided Cost Sources of cost avoidance

Category and estimate
Amount
Spill preparation The cost of a mercury spill kit is
and response known, as is the cost of a spill
response by Kaiser Permanente’s
$20,000/year contractor. These costs,
combined with the average
historical number of spill
incidents from broken devices in
a year, permit an avoided cost
estimate to be made.
Compliance and Use of mercury-containing
liability devices necessitates staff
spill/exposure training.
$15,000/year
Further, given staff training,
careful use and appropriate spill
procedures, the presence of
mercury-containing devices
gives rise to the possibility of
fines from facility inspections or
spill incidents. The probabilistic
costs of mercury related
penalties were estimated using
representative statutory and
regulatory penalties multiplied
by the probability of a fine being
assessed for any particular
violation.
Treatment of A probabilistic cost. Even
exposure assuming very high standards of
appropriate and careful use,
some small number of mercury
exposures from broken devices
are likely when mercury-
containing devices are employed
throughout the Kaiser system.
Cost is determined from the
expected yearly cost of long-
term treatment of a single
pediatric exposure case
($100,000-plus), and the
probability of an exposure
incident within a given year.
Additional soft “Soft cost” savings were not
savings estimated, but could, include:
(environmental environmental contamination
staff were aware from mercury release,
of these costs, but subsequent health impact, and
they were not negative media attention.
quantified)
Source: Tellus Institute, 2000

4.2 Sphygmomanometers Korotkoff sounds, or sounds that characterize
different stages of blood flow during cuff
Description deflation. At certain points in the sound pattern,
Blood pressure is generated by the activity of the the clinician reads the pressure using a column of
heart and blood vessel system and is widely mercury or the dial of an aneroid (mechanical)
accepted as a measure of cardiovascular gauge. This technology is the most widely used
performance. Therefore blood pressure levels and because of its low cost and simplicity.
variations are considered to be a valid indicator The familiar mercury sphygmomanometer
of cardiovascular function and overall health. uses a column of mercury (manometer) to
Most blood pressure devices use an air filled provide the pressure readout. Mercury’s liquid
cuff to temporarily block blood flow through the state and its precise expansion and contraction in
artery, then apply a particular technique to obtain response to pressure are very suitable for
blood pressure data while the cuff deflates. The pressure indication. The manometer reads from 0
two most common techniques for pressure to 300 mmHg.
measurement are the auscultatory method A common aneroid gauge consists of a dial
(listening for characteristic blood flow sounds) or that reads in units of 0 to 300 mmHg and a thin
oscillometric technique (using a pressure brass corrugated bellows inside. There is a shaft
transducer). which connects two pins at right angles to each
The two main considerations for this other; one of these rests on the bellows, the other
discussion of blood pressure devices are 1) how is inside a concave sided triangle which meshes
the blood pressure is sensed (e.g. by ear or by with a pinion connected to the dial pointer. A thin
using a pressure transducer) and 2) the gauge or coiled spring (known as a hair spring) is also
indicator for the pressure value (mercury column, connected to the pinion and returns the pointer to
dial gauge, or microprocessor/digital display). A zero when the pressure is released. The gauge is
mercury column is the traditional method of connected to a blood pressure cuff around the
indicating blood pressure. patient's arm. As the pressure in the cuff rises, the
pin resting on the expanding bellows is lifted.
Alternatives This movement is transmitted by the other pin
In the field, two alternatives to mercury are which moves the triangle and therefore the pinion
widely marketed for clinical blood pressure and pointer. (Yeats, 1993)
measurement. They are aneroid (mechanical dial) Welch Allyn has recently introduced the Dura
sphygmomanometers and low-end professional Shock aneroid sphygmomanometer that utilizes a
electronic blood pressure monitors. There are new internal design. The new concept results in a
other non- mercury blood pressure monitors sphygmomanometer that is lighter in weight,
available as well, including home monitors, considerably lower in cost, and more shock
ambulatory blood pressure monitors, and high- resistant than a conventional aneroid
end vital signs monitors. These are not covered in sphygmomanometer. Further research is
this report because they are generally not warranted to understand the internal design.
considered direct replacements for mercury
sphygmomanometers. Oscillometric Blood Pressure Monitors
Auscultatory Sphygmomanometers (mercury and The oscillometric blood pressure monitor uses
aneroid) a pressure sensor and a microprocessor in place
of the ear and simple gage. During cuff deflation,
Mercury and aneroid sphygmomanometers a pressure sensor transmits an electric signal
rely on the auscultatory technique, in which a representing the distention of the artery. Within
clinician determines systolic and diastolic blood the microprocessor, this signal is translated to
pressures (SBP and DBP) by listening for systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and

DBP) using empirically derived algorithms. Table 4.3 Cost of Comparable Mercury and
Manufacturers spend considerable effort Aneroid Sphygmomanometers
validating their algorithms for accuracy.
In addition to SBP and DBP, this type of Manufacturer Type List or Model
device can display more comprehensive & Style Suggested
price1
information about blood pressure patterns, which
Welch Allyn Mercury $132 5097-26
can be useful for diagnostics. Because of its Wall unit Aneroid $134 5091-38
higher cost and technical sophistication, this type Welch Allyn Mercury $258 5097-29
of device is not as prevalent as the auscultatory Mobile unit Aneroid $253 5091-41
devices. The cost of these devices has dropped Welch Allyn Mercury Not
significantly over the past few years and available 2
companies are now marketing these to hospitals Pocket unit DuraShock3 $59 DS45-
aneroid 11
based on the breadth of information they can (portable) Aneroid $162 5098-02
provide. ADC Mercury $111 952B
Electronic equipment using the oscillometric Wall Unit Aneroid $105 750W
technique is common in two types of equipment: ADC Mercury $204 972
1. A mid-price blood pressure monitor, designed Mobile Unit Aneroid $204 750M
to compete with auscultatory devices. In the Trimline Mercury $299 0103N
Mobile Unit Aneroid $264 4103N
past few years several companies have begun Trimline Mercury $120 0303N
promoting this type of device and as their Wall Model Aneroid $137 4303N
cost has decreased, use is becoming more Trimline Mercury $148 0403N
widespread. Desk Model Aneroid $151 4203N
2. Vital signs monitors – This class of device is Trimline Mercury Not
often found in hospital settings where available 2
simultaneous monitoring of multiple vital Hand-held Aneroid $98 2273N
1
These prices were obtained by contacting each
signs (e.g. temperature, blood pressure, heart
manufacturer and/or their websites and requesting
rate, blood oxygen level) is desirable or pricing on comparable mercury and aneroid units.
critical for patient outcomes. The 2
No comparable unit because Hg column must be
instrument’s electronic box includes multiple rigidly mounted in perfectly vertical position;
modules, each for measuring a different sign. incompatible with hand-held or portable units.
3
The DuraShock is a new product for Welch Allyn
They are available from several device
that is more resilient than a traditional aneroid. This
manufacturers. These devices, though design also results in a significantly lower cost.
relatively common in hospitals, are not
considered further because they are not Oscillometric blood pressure monitors are
considered a one- for-one replacement for a considerably higher in price, as shown in the
mercury sphygmomanometer. following table.
Cost
Most manufacturers of auscultatory devices offer
both mercury and aneroid sphygmomanometers.
A sampling of prices for mercury and aneroid
devices revealed essentially no difference
between the two, as shown in the following table.

information may allow doctors to better
Table 4.4 Cost of Oscillometric Blood Pressure understand and manage a patient’s condition.
Monitors Mercury gauges are familiar, have a long
history of use, are on the low end of the cost
Manufactur List or Model spectrum and they have the unique advantage of
er & Style Suggested being perceived as the gold standard for blood
price
pressure. The primary disadvantages of the
Pulse Metric $995 DynaPulse
Pathway mercury gauge are associated with the toxicity of
VSM $645 BP Tru mercury. Mishandling may result in a mercury
MedTech spill and there is potential for a costly mercury
Ltd. cleanup. Even with proper handling and
Welch Allyn $805 Spot Vital maintenance, mercury gauges eventually require
Medical Signs™
Products
either handling of elemental mercury during
maintenance or disposal of mercury as a
Advantages/Disadvantages hazardous waste. For the clinician, mercury
From the perspective of clinicians and hospital gauges require positioning one’s head at the
systems, the considerations for blood pressure proper, but often awkward, angle to read the
devices include cost, accuracy, ease of use, glass tube’s mercury meniscus.
maintenance and calibration, and environmental Aneroid gauges are familiar, have a long
impact. One needs to consider the merits and history of use, are on the low end of the cost
shortcomings of the following two aspects of spectrum, are easy to read, and the clinician can
blood pressure devices: easily perform a rudimentary function check by
observing the zero resting point and the
1. The method of pressure sensing; i.e. smoothness of dial rotation. Mishandling may
auscultatory (listening to sounds) versus result in damage to the gauge. Aneroid gauges
oscillometric (using pressure transducers). have been maligned in the press recently, and
2. The pressure readout mechanism; i.e. there is an unsubstantiated perception that
mercury manometer, aneroid gauge, or accuracy of aneroid gauges is inferior to mercury
microprocessor with digital display. columns. The calibration is different from, but
comparable in complexity, to proper calibration
Auscultatory devices (mercury and aneroid) of the mercury devices.
rely on the human ear to detect and distinguish The electronic monitors on the oscillometric
sounds and there is a possibility for measurement devices are easy to use and provide an easy-to-
error due to individual skill and levels of auditory read digital display of the DBP and SBP. The
acuity and sensitivity. Auscultatory devices allow devices go through a self-calibration routine on
measurement of just SBP and DBP. In contrast, start up. In addition to SBP and DBP, many of
the oscillometric monitors are less dependent on the devices display comprehensive data that
operator technique and many offer a greater provides greater insight into patient health; as the
breadth of baseline data including mean arterial devices are used more widely it is likely that the
pulse (MAP) and pulse rate. Some monitors also full utility of features will be better recognized
allow addition of modules for other vital signs and reported. Some disadvantages of the
(temperature, pulse oximetry), pulse waveforms, electronic blood pressure monitors are initial cost
and data analysis. One manufacturer’s technical and the need for A/C power or a battery pack.
representative reported that he continues to learn
about the utility of the oscillometric device as
doctors phone in and describe how they are using
the data for diagnostics. In short, the breadth of

successfully converted to non-mercury
Manufacturers sphygmomanometers. Since 1993, Mayo Clinic
The following are manufacturers of alternative replaced approximately 1,500 mercury
sphygmomanometers: sphygmomanometers with wall- mounted aneroid
devices. At the same time a maintenance protocol
Mercury and Aneroid Sphygmomanometers was developed to ensure proper function and
Manufacturer Product Phone Number & accuracy of these devices. In March 2001, Mayo
Name Website published the results of an internal study in which
American ADC 613-273-9600
Diagnostic Sphygmo - www.adctoday.co
they concluded that the aneroid
Corporation manometer m sphygmomanometers provide accurate pressure
Trimline Trimline 800-526-3538 measurements when properly maintained.
Medical Sphygmo - www.trimlinemed. (Canzanello et al, 2001) Appendix 5, Aneroid
Products manometer com Sphygmomanometers, includes further discussion
and addresses some commonly held perceptions
W.A. Baum Baum 631-226-3940
Co. Inc. Aneroid www.wabaum.com about the use of aneroid sphygmomanometers.
Sphygmoma
nometer
Welch Allyn WelchAllyn 315-685-4100
Medical Tycos www.welchallyn.c
Products sphygmo - om 4.3 Esophageal Dilators (Bougies)
manometer
and Gastrointestinal Tubes
Oscillometric Blood Pressure Monitors
Manufacturer Product Phone Number & Esophageal Dilators (Bougies)
Website
Pulse Metric DynaPulse 866-3962-78573 Description
Pathway www.pulsemetric.c
An esophageal dilator, also called a bougie, is a
om
long, weighted flexible tube that is passed down
VSM BpTRU™ 913-307-9527 a patient’s esophagus to dilate a narrowed area.
MedTech Ltd. www.vsmmedtech. In the past, mercury was commonly used in the
com bougie. Its density and liquid state made mercury
Welch Allyn Spot Vital 800-535-6663 ideal as a flexible weight that assisted passing the
Medical Signs™ www.welchallyn.c
Products om
tube down the throat into the esophagus,
Vital Signs conforming to the shape of the esophagus and
Products exerting the pressure needed to enlarge the
narrowed section. The mercury- filled devices
Summary have a thick latex outer coating that contains
Research on sphygmomanometers suggests that about two pounds of mercury. Esophageal
there are numerous good alternatives to mercury dilators may be found in thoracic surgery,
sphygmomanometers. Aneroid sphygmo- otolaryngology, and the medical procedure units.
manometers are cost competitive, have a long
history in the field, and have been found Alternatives
acceptable by many hospitals. Blood pressure The alternatives to mercury bougies use a
monitors are more costly, but are becoming more tungsten gel to provide the flexible weight.
popular as costs are dropping and medical Because tungsten is a solid at room temperature,
practitioners are seeing advantages to their ease the tungsten within the device is a powder
of use and the breadth of information provided. suspended in a gel. This allows the dilator to flex
The Mayo Medical Center in Rochester, and conform to the shape of the esophagus, have
Minnesota is an example of a facility that has a “feel” similar to the density of mercury, and to

apply the proper pressure to enlarge the narrow Manufacturer Product Phone Number
area of the esophagus. & Website
Medovations, Weightright™ 800-558-6408
Inc Bougie www.medovatio
Cost ns.com
Mercury bougies are no longer widely available. Pilling Bougie Tubes 800-523-6507
Of the three manufacturers that were identified, (Maloney style www.pillingsurg
only one company still offers mercury bougies at and Hurst ical.com
a cost of $3,395 for a full set. The cost of a set of style bougies
are weighted
replacement tungsten gel bougies listed in the with tungsten
range of $3,000 to $4,400. At the $4,400 end of gel)
the range, one manufacturer was offering 10% Rusch Bougie Tubes 800-524-7722
discounts and a free mercury bougie take-back (Maloney style www.myrusch.c
option. and Hurst om
style bougies
are tungsten
Advantages/Disadvantages filled)
Bougies have an expiration date, due to the
potential for degradation of the outer rubber Summary
casing. At the end of its useful life, a mercury Phone interviews with manufacturers and
bougie must be disposed of as a hazardous medical practitioners suggest that tungsten filled
material. Mercury containing esophageal dilators bougies are widely available and well received as
have been known to rupture during handling or alternatives to mercury containing bougies. For
use causing potential environmental, patient, and example, a seasoned practitioner in a hospital in
employee hazards. The FDA Medical Device the northwest suburbs of Boston who was
Report (MDR) system includes reports of interviewed recalled her hospital’s much earlier
bougies rupturing and leaving mercury inside the use of mercury bougies. Her recollection was that
patient as well as in the room. Examples of the hospital had been using tungsten filled
MDRs for ruptured bougies are included in bougies for years and the non- mercury devices
Appendix 1. performed just fine.
The tungsten bougie is considered to be a
safer, more environmentally benign alternative.
The tungsten gel filled bougies perform like Gastrointestinal Tubes
mercury filled bougies, so there are no changes in
technique required. At the end of its useful life, a
Description
tungsten filled bougie can be disposed of in the
Another family of tubes, including Miller Abbott,
trash. Tungsten bougies have either a silicone
Blakemore, and Cantor tubes, are used for
covering or a PVC covering. An advantage of the
addressing intestinal obstructions. Historically
silicone surface is that it is non-slip when dry and
these tubes used mercury as a flexible weight to
slippery when wet, making handling easier. Some
guide the tube into place through gravity.
healthcare facilities are moving away from PVC
This family of products represents a data gap
because of a concern that when PVC is
in this report. Research suggested that these
incinerated as waste, there is potential for the
devices are no longer widely used and no
formation of dioxins during incineration.
manufacturers of mercury-containing devices
were identified. Unweighted tubes are available,
Manufacturers
and although the manufacturers do not supply
The following are manufacturers of non-mercury
mercury they believe some customers add their
and mercury esophageal dilators:
own mercury.

Alternatives Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center
Two manufacturers were identified that described reported that in 1995 they eliminated the use of
their products as viable alternatives for this type mercury in Miller Abbott Tubes by replacing the
of application. Andersen offered unweighted and mercury with water and a contrast media. When
tungsten weighted tubes that they described as the change was implemented, there was a
alternatives for Miller-Abbott and Cantor tubes. concern that because water is not as heavy as
Rusch’s Product Manager suggested that mercury, the procedure might take longer than
practitioners can add sterile water to the Cantor with mercury. However the Safety and
tube, as a weight to help move the tube. Environmental Programs office did not receive
complaints from clinicians about the
Cost replacement. It was reported that the nursing and
A cost comparison is not relevant since mercury housekeeping staff were pleased with the
products were not located. However, the cost of elimination of mercury because they were
the non- mercury Miller Abbott and Cantor tubes responsible for mercury spills.
were approximately $300 to $400.
Advantages/Disadvantages
One manufacturer reported that sterile water can 4.4 Manometers
be used as a weight for the cantor tube, in the
place of mercury. The disadvantage is that the Description
tube passes much more slowly, a disadvantage Manometers are used to measure air, gas, and
that translates to a longer medical procedure water pressure. The mercury in manometers
time. responds to air pressure in a precise way that can
be calibrated on a scale. Manometers are used in
Manufacturers laboratories, the dairy industry milking process,
The following are manufacturers of gastro- and for calibrating outboard motors and
intestinal tubes for which the buyer must provide motorcycle carburetors. Manometers are also
the weighted liquid: used by HVAC contractors for testing, balancing,
and servicing equipment.
Manufacturer Product Phone
Number &
Website Alternatives
Andersen Miller Abbott 800-523-1276 The three alternatives to a mercury manometer
& Cantor include the needle/bourdon gauge, the aneroid
Tubes manometer, and the digital manometer. The
needle/bourdon gauge operates under a vacuum
Rusch Cantor Tubes 800-524-7722
www.myrusch. with a needle indicator as a method to measure
com pressure. The aneroid ma nometer operates in a
similar fashion to the needle/bourdon gauge. The
digital manometer uses a digital computer
Summary programmed memory and gauges to measure the
Research on gastrointestinal tubes suggests that pressure.
this family of products is no longer widely used
in hospitals. It is unclear whether mercury is still Cost
used in settings where gastrointestinal tubes have Many digital manometers are manufactured for
not become obsolete and if so, whether an various purposes and most pressure-sensing units
alternative practice or product might be can be used interchangeably for different
acceptable. applications. Digital manometers can range in
price from $100 to $700 depending on the

application it is being used for. Needle/bourdon Wisconsin dairy farms. (Wisconsin Department
gauges range from $50 to $200 depending on the of Natural Resources, 2002) A similar program
application and manufacturer. in Maine has resulted in the replacement of
twenty-five mercury ma nometers from dairy barn
Advantages/Disadvantages milking machines. (Maine DEP)
Digital manometers, mercury manometers, and
needle/bourdon gauges require calibration. This
calibration ensures the accuracy of the instrument
reading. A digital manometer can be more 4.5 Thermometers (non-fever)
precise than the mercury manometer if properly
calibrated. Basal Thermometers
Manufacturers Background
The following are manufacturers of non-mercury An individual’s basal body metabolism is
manometers. reflected in basal metabolic temperature, or the
lowest normal body temperature of a person
Manufacturer Product Phone Number &
immediately on waking in the morning. Day-to-
Name Website
Mannix Digital 516-887-7979 day variations in basal temperature are indicative
manometer www.mannix- of the body’s cyclical changes. For example,
inst.com basal temperature is a useful index for evaluating
ovulation.
Testo Digital 973-252-1720/1- This baseline temperature is measured with a
manometer 800-227-0729
www.testo.com basal thermometer, which is more sensitive than
Extech Digital 781-890-7440 a conventional fever thermometer. The smallest
Instruments manometer www.extech.com division on a basal thermometers is 0.1 degree,
compared with 0.2 degree on a conventional
Carbtune Aneroid 011 44 28 9023 fever thermometer.
manometer 9007
www.carbtune.com
Mercury basal thermometers are similar in
Alnor Digital 1-800-424-7427 function to mercury fever thermometers. A
manometer www.alnor.com column of mercury within a glass tube expands
Dwyer Digital 219-879-8000 with increasing temperature and registers a
Instruments manometer, www.dwyerinstru reading at the peak temperature.
Needle/ ments.com
bourdon
gauge Alternatives
Alternatives to basal thermometers are galinstan-
Summary in- glass (liquid in a glass tube) and compact
It appears that the alternatives to a mercury digital thermometers.
manometer are cost competitive, reliable, and Galinstan basal thermometers are sold under
widely manufactured and used throughout the the brand name Geratherm. Like mercury
United States. An example of a successful thermometers, the Geratherm thermometer
mercury manometer replacement project is the consists of silvery liquid in a glass tube. The
effort undertaken for dairy farms in Wisconsin liquid is a mixture of gallium, indium, and tin
with a $40,000 grant from the EPA. Dairy that expands with temperature to provide a
equipment service providers participated in this reading. These are similar to Geratherm fever
program by collecting the mercury manometers thermometers.
used on dairy farms and replacing them with non- Battery-powered digital basal thermometers
mercury manometers. Under this program, more are the most common option for basal
than 100 manometers have been removed from

thermometers. These are similar in appearance digitals are easily accepted: the time for taking a
and function to digital fever thermometers. temperature is approximately 1 minute (vs. ~4
minutes for mercury), the thermometer provides
Cost beeps to signal when peak temperature is
Basal thermometers are fairly inexpensive and reached, and there is a memory chip that recalls
technologies are readily available for under $15. the last reading. The main drawback of a digital
The cost of devices is historically lowest for thermometer is that it uses a battery, which
mercury basal thermometers, mid-range for requires proper recycling/disposal at the end of
Geratherm, and highest for digital devices. its useful life. The digital basal thermometers are
A data gap exists for the cost of mercury basal also more expensive than either mercury devices
thermometers as our research was unable to or Geratherm thermometers.
easily identify a current manufacturer. Becton
Dickenson, a large medical manufacturer, Manufacturers
reported that they no longer offer mercury basal The following are manufacturers of basal
thermometers. Pharmacies in the researchers’ thermometers:
local area have also eliminated mercury basal
thermometers, although anecdotal information Manufacturer Product Phone Number &
suggests that mercury basal thermometers are Website
still available in other geographic locations. Becton Digital basal 201-847-6800
Dickinson thermometer http://www.bd.com
According to one manufacturer, their list price Mabis Digital basal 800-728-6811
for the Geratherm basal thermometer is $7.69- Healthcare thermometer http://www.mabis.
$7.99. Another manufacturer reported that the net
average list price for its digital basal thermometer Omron Digital basal 800-231-3434
is $12. Healthcare, thermometer http://www.omronh
Inc. ealthcare.com
R.G. Medical Geratherm 888-596-9498
Advantages/Disadvantages Diagnostics basal http://www.rgmd.c
The primary selling points for mercury are cost (U.S. thermometer om
and familiarity. The disadvantages of mercury Distributor) (Galinstan
basal thermometers are: lengthy dwell time to liquid -in-glass
thermometer)
peak temperature (3-5 minutes), shake down is
required between readings, difficulty reading the
Summary
column of mercury, fragile glass structure, and
Based on discussions with manufacturers and
mercury basal thermometers may not be widely
visits to local pharmacies, it appears that suitable
available.
alternatives are readily available for mercury
The Geratherm liquid- in-glass thermometer is
basal thermometers.
comparable in function to mercury. That is, it
consists of a glass tube containing a silvery liquid
that rises in a column with increasing
Other Thermometers (non-fever)
temperature. The Geratherm is lower in cost than
digital thermometers. Galinstan thermometers
Description
have several disadvantages: the toxicity of the
Non-fever thermometers are used for various
gallium- indium-tin mixture is not well researched
industrial, laboratory, and commercial
or understood, the silvery liquid may be mistaken
applications including food preparation, freezers,
for mercury, the fragile glass structure can break
laboratory refrigerators, and testing. The
easily, and the Geratherm is slightly larger than a
protocol for certain lab requirements and food
mercury basal thermometer.
preparation codes require that the thermometers
Digital basal thermometers appear to be the
be of a high quality.
most commonly available alternative to mercury
devices. There are a number of reasons that the

Alternatives annually. Re-calibration is required due to the
The colored- liquid in glass thermometer (also gradual relaxation of residual mechanical strains
called “liquid thermometer”) is the most common in the glass that can affect the volume of the
replacement to the mercury thermometer. Its bulb.
appearance and structure are similar to mercury A disadvantage of all liquid thermometers is
in glass; it consists of a cylindrical tube the possibility of column separation. When a
containing a liquid that expands and contracts separated column occurs, the thermometer cannot
with increasing and decreasing temperature. The be used until the column is rejoined and
liquids used in such glass thermometers include recalibrated.
common organic liquids such as alcohol, Evidence provided by manufacturers indicates
kerosene, and citrus extract based solvents that that most alternatives to mercury thermometers
are dyed blue, red or green. Some manufacturers are as effective and reliable as the mercury
offer liquid thermometers described as non-toxic thermometer with regular calibration. The most
or environmentally friendly. Digital, bi- metal or common barrier to change is the widespread use
infrared thermometers are also alternatives to of mercury thermometers as the “standard” for all
mercury thermometers and are used in many of temperature sensing devices.
the same applications.
Manufacturers
Cost The following are manufacturers of alternatives
The costs of a thermometer can vary based upon to mercury thermometers.
the requirements of a particular application.
The following table illustrates these cost Manufacturer Product Phone Number
differences. Name & Website
ICL Liquid filled, www.icllabs.com
Calibration Digital
Table 4.5: Thermometer Costs Laboratories thermometer
Application Thermometer Cost Ertco (ever Liquid filled, 1-800-453-7826

Type ready Digital www.ertco.com
Food Mercury $10 - $40 thermometers) thermometer
Preparation Bi-metal $13 - $138
Digital $14 - $20 Comark Liquid filled, 1-800-555-6658
Liquid filled $2 - $28 Digital / 503-643-5204
Thermometer www.comarkltd.
Industrial Infrared $92 - 270
com
Laboratory Mercury $15 - $60 Miller Weber Liquid filled 718-821-7110
Digital $20 - $100 (Performather www.millerwebe
Liquid filled $20 – $60 m), r.com
Infrared $92 - $270 Digital,
Freezer/ Bi-metal $6 - $15 Bi-metal
Refrigeration Liquid filled $2 - $28 thermometer
Taylor Liquid filled, 630-954-1250
Digital, www.taylorusa.c
Advantages/Disadvantages Bi-metal om
The benefits of using a digital or infrared thermometer
thermometer are that they are very accurate and Weiss Liquid filled, 631-207-1200
easy to read. Infrared thermometers are much Instruments Digital, www.weissinstru
more costly than digital thermometers but in Bi-metal ments.com
thermometer
some applications the use of an infrared Cooper Liquid filled, 860-349-3473
thermometer is necessary. All thermometers, Instrument Digital www.cooperinstr
whether they are mercury, digital, bi- metal or Corporation thermometer ument.com
organic liquid, do need to be re-calibrated at least

Manufacturer Product Phone Number electrical properties (resistance or capacitance)
Name & Website that change as the atmospheric pressure changes.
Becton Liquid filled, 201-847-6800
These sensors are considered to be just as
Dickenson Digital www.bd.com
thermometer accurate as a traditional or an aneroid barometer.
Mannix Infrared, 516-887-7979 Additional electronic circuitry converts the
Digital www.mannix- sensor output into a digital display. There is also
thermometer inst.com a device called a water barometer that is similar
to a traditional mercury barometer. Changes in
Summary air pressure cause the water to rise and fall in the
It is apparent that there are many alternatives to spout. Low water level indicates high pressure
mercury thermometers that are cost effective and and fair weather. The water level rises as the air
acceptable. However, a Food and Drug pressure falls.
Administration procedure for food processing
was identified that requires at least one mercury- Cost
in- glass thermometer for each retort. This The digital barometer can cost between $50 -
requirement is outlined in the Code of Federal $300 depending on the manufacturer and the
Regulations under: 21 CFR Ch. 1 Part 113 – other applications the digital barometer can
Thermally Processed Low-acid Foods Packaged perform. Because mercury barometers and
in Hermetically Sealed Containers. aneroid barometers are often considered
An example of a successful mercury collector’s items, their prices are much higher,
thermometer replacement program is the ranging from $100 to over $1000.
“Mercury Thermometer Swap” program
undertaken by the University of Vermont. More Advantages/Disadvantages
than 1,400 mercury thermometers were replaced Aneroid barometers have been used for
with non- mercury alternatives under this approximately 200 years and are considered just
program. The majority of these replacements as accurate as the traditional mercury barometer.
occurred in laboratories within the chemistry The digital barometer is programmable and is
department. (Winkler, 1999) considered to be as accurate as the mercury
barometer.
4.6 Barometers
Manufacturers
Description The following are manufacturers of alternatives
Barometers are used to measure the atmospheric to mercury barometers.
pressure. The barometer is a long cylindrical
tube filled with mercury. The mercury is Manufacturer Product Phone Number/
displaced by the atmospheric pressure. When the Name Website
Howard Miller Aneroid www.howardmiller.c
mercury level rises in a barometer it indicates barometer om
increasing air pressure; when the mercury level is
decreasing it indicates decreasing air pressure. Weems & Aneroid 410-263-6700
Plath barometer www.weems -
Alternatives plath.com
Bacharach Digital 724-334-5000/1-800-
The aneroid barometer is more compact and barometer 736-4666
consists of an evacuated metal diaphragm linked www.bacharach-
mechanically to an indicating needle. As inc.com
atmospheric pressure increases or decreases the Kestrel Digital 610-447-1555
diaphragm compresses or expands, causing the barometer www.nkhome.com
indicating needle to show the change in pressure.
The digital barometer contains a sensor with

Summary Cost
The aneroid and digital barometers are cost The spirit- filled sling psychrometer and the
effective, in use, and acceptable alternatives to spirit- filled hygrometer are both similar in
the mercury barometer. pricing when compared to mercury versions of
the same product. The digital psychrometer was
4.7 Psychrometers/Hygrometers found to be more expensive than the spirit filled
version, but the digital hygrometer was found to
Description be less expensive than the spirit filled version,
A hygrometer is an instrument used to measure ranging from $15 to $60.
the moisture content of air or any gas. The most
common type of hygrometer is the "dry and wet- Advantages/Disadvantages
bulb psychrometer." The psychrometer is best The digital hygrometer and digital psychrometer
described as two mercury thermometers, one provide much more accurate results when
with a wetted base, and one with a dry base. The properly calibrated because the possibility of
water from the wet base evaporates and absorbs human error is eliminated.
heat causing the thermometer reading to drop.
Using a calculation table, the reading from the Manufacturers
dry thermometer and the reading drop from the The following are manufacturers of alternatives
wet thermometer are used to determine the to mercury psychrometers and hydrometers:
relative humidity.
Manufacturer Product Phone Number
The sling psychrometer is also used to Name & Website
determine relative humidity and is reliably Bacharach Spirit filled 1-800-736-4666
measured by both digital and alcohol type psychrometers www.bacharach-
psychrometers. The sling psychrometer is inc.com
basically a thermometer encased in a swiveling Testo Digital 973-252-1720/1-
mechanism that is swung around rapidly to psychrometers 800-227-0729
www.testo.com
record an accurate reading for relative humidity. Miller Weber Digital 718-821-7110
Psychrometers function the same as a hygrometer www.millerwebe
hygrometers, however the names are different r.com
due to the applications for which they are used. Mannix Spirit filled 516-887-7979
For example, the hygrometer is used to monitor psychrometers www.mannix-
inst.com
the moisture in the storage area for cigar tobacco Tramex Digital 353-1-282 3688
used by manufacturers and cigar aficionados. hygrometer www.tramexltd.c
Atmospheric scientists and weather enthusiasts om
use the psychrometer to monitor outdoor
humidity and moisture content. Summary
The spirit filled psychrometers and digital
Alternatives hydrometers appear to be acceptable, cost
Spirit-filled thermometers can be used in effective alternatives to mercury filled devices.
psychrometers instead of the mercury
thermometers and provide equally accurate
results. Another alternative is the digital 4.8 Hydrometers
hygrometer that uses electronic sensors and a
digital program to measure the humidity of the Description
air. Both the digital hygrometer and spirit filled A hydrometer is a device that measures the
hygrometer are relatively inexpensive, are readily density or specific gravity of a liquid.
available, and currently in use. Hydrometers are calibrated based upon the

specific gravity of water at 60°C being 1.000.
Liquids denser than water will have a higher
specific gravity, while liquids less dense will 4.9 Flow meters
have a lower specific gravity. The hydrometer is
used for many applications. For example it is Description
used in the petroleum and dairy industries, as Flow meters are used in many areas for
well as in amateur wine and beer making. measuring the flow of gas, water, air, and steam.
They are used in water treatment, sewage plants,
Alternatives power stations, and other industrial applications.
An alternative to a mercury hydrometer is the
spirit filled hydrometer. The spirit filled Alternatives
hydrometer comes customized to suit individual The manufacturers contacted stated that they did
applications. The manufacturer should be not use mercury in the manufacturing of new
consulted to use the most appropriate flow meters. However, most older flow meters
hydrometer. still in use contain mercury. Non-mercury
alternatives include digital and ball actuated flow
Cost meters.
The cost of a mercury hydrometer ranges from
$12 to $30, or about $2 less on average than a Cost
spirit filled hydrometer. The cost associated with flow meters depends on
the application. Some flow meters are custom
Advantages/Disadvantages designed for certain applications, which can
The accuracy of a spirit filled hydrometer is increase the cost. The manufacturers contacted
considered to be comparable to a mercury declined to provide a price range because they
hydrometer. felt it would be misleading.
Manufacturers Manufacturers
The following are manufacturers of alternatives The following are manufacturers of alternatives
to mercury hydrometers: to mercury containing flow meters:
Manufacturer Product Phone Manufacturer Product Phone
Name Number Name Number
Website
Website
Miller Weber Alcohol/spirit 718-821-7110
Eldridge Digital and 1-800-321-
filled www.millerwe Products, Inc ball actuated 3569
hydrometer ber.com flow meters www.epiflow.
com
Ertco (ever Alcohol/spirit 1-800-453-
Flow Digital and 602-437-1315
ready filled 7826 Technology ball actuated www.ftimeters
thermometers) hydrometer www.ertco.co flow meters .com
m
Alloborg Digital and 1-800-866-
ICL Alcohol/spirit www.icllabs.c
Instruments & ball actuated 3837
Calibration filled om Controls flow meters www.aalborg.c
Laboratories hydrometer om
John C. Ernst Digital and 973-989-0300
ball actuated www.johnerns
Summary flow meters t.com
The spirit filled hydrometer is cost effective, in Lake Monitors Digital and 1-800-850-
use, and an acceptable alternative to the mercury ball actuated 6110
flow meters www.lakemon
hydrometer. itors.com

Manufacturer Product Phone are also available, and use a thermocouple with a
Name Number digital output screen that relays the temperature.
Website
Universal Digital and 248-542-9635
Flow Monitors ball actuated www.flowmet Cost
flow meters ers.com The cost of an optical pyrometer is in the range
of $3000. The cost of a digital pyrometer is less
Digiflow Digital flow 419-756-1746 than an optical pyrometer, and can cost between
Systems meters www.digiflow $180 to $300 depending on the manufacturer.
sys.com
Primary Flow Digital and 877-737-3569
No manufacturers of a mercury pyrometer could
Signal, Inc. ball actuated www.primaryf be located, and therefore a price for a mercury
flow meters lowsignal.com pyrometer could not be determined.
Manufacturers of the alternatives would not
Summary speculate about the cost of a mercury pyrometer.
It appears that mercury flow meters are no longer
being manufactured, and alternatives to older Advantages/Disadvantages
mercury flow meters are in use, cost effective, Optical pyrometers are used in applications of
and acceptable. extreme heat and are extremely accurate. The
digital pyrometers are also considered to be
functional and reliable for temperature reading
4.10 Pyrometers but not as accurate as an optical pyrometer at
higher temperatures.
Description
Pyrometers are used to measure the temperature Manufacturers
of extremely hot materials, and are used The following are manufacturers of alternatives
primarily in foundry applications. No to mercury pyrometers:
manufacturers were ident ified that currently
Manufacturer Product Phone
provide mercury pyrometers. Some pyrometers Name Number
still in use do have mercury within the Website
temperature-sensing device. EDL Optical/digital 1-800-342-
pyrometers 5335
Alternatives www.edl-
inc.com
There are two alternatives available, the optical
MIFCO Digital 217-446-0941
pyrometer and the digital pyrometer. An optical pyrometer www.mifco.co
pyrometer is a device that allows temperature to m
be measured by using incandescence color. The Spectrodyne Optical/ 215-977-7780
theory behind an optical pyrometer is that when a pyrometers www.spectrod
substance is heated to about 700°C, it begins to yne.com
Precision Optical/ 1-800-468-
glow a deep red color. This indicates that the Pyrometer pyrometers 7976
object is emitting enough energy in the visible www.pyromet
portion of the spectrum for detection. As the er.com
temperature increases, the object changes from
red to orange to white, with concurrent dramatic Summary
increases in brightness. The hot target is viewed It appears that the mercury pyrometer is no
through an optical system that contains a lamp longer being manufactured, but may be in use in
filament whose brightness can be adjusted until it some locations. The digital and optical
equals that of the target, and gives you an already pyrometers are reliable technologies which
known temperature that has been measured and function as alternatives to the mercury
recorded into the pyrometer. Digital pyrometers pyrometer.

light industrial purposes report that they may not
meet the most demanding applications.
Situations in which digital thermostats would not
4.11 Thermostats (industrial and perform as well as mercury products are cases of
extreme environmental conditions and areas at
manufacturing) risk of explosions or fire.
Description Manufacturers
Industrial thermostats provide temperature The following are manufacturers of industrial
control in manufacturing and industrial settings. thermostats:
The mercury thermostat uses a mercury switch to
activate the heating/cooling device. The mercury
in the switch is part of an electric current relay Manufacturer Product Phone Number
which relies on an electric current to activate and Name & Website
deactivate the heating/cooling device when the Chromalox Thermostats 412-967-3800
mercury in the switch is tipped. http://www.myc
hromalox.com/
Honeywell Thermostats 612-951-1000
Alternatives International www.honeywell.
Digital electronic thermostats are available for com
industrial type workloads and temperature Kelvin Thermostats 1-800-458-5246
control. Digital thermostats use a simple device Technologies www.kelvintech.
called a thermistor to measure temperature. A com
thermistor is a resistor whose electrical resistance
changes with temperature. The microcontroller in Summary
a digital thermostat can measure the resistance It appears that no functional alternatives to
and convert that number to a temperature mercury thermostats for industrial settings with
reading. harsh environmental conditions are available.
Costs
Manufacturers were unable to provide specific
price quotes because industrial thermostats are 4.12 Float Switches
often custom tailored to meet the requirements of
a specific application. The price is then derived There are two basic types of float switches: 1)
on an application specific basis. Manufacturers a float switch can be located in a buoyant float
believed it would be misleading to provide a housing and is actuated based upon rising and
price range of industrial thermostats they had falling liquid levels, or 2) a float switch can be
previously manufactured for specific stationary and is actuated by the presence or
applications. absence of liquid. Float switches are used for
liquid monitoring and control in tanks, wells,
Advantages/Disadvantages chambers, drillings, and other containers. Float
Digital thermostats have limits that should be switches are used to actuate alarm and control
researched by the buyer to determine the type of circuits. Float switches have been used for
thermostat best suited for an industrial purpose. monitoring various liquids including, among
Many industrial thermostats are needed to others, water, sewage, wet sludge, oil, chemicals,
regulate higher temperatures than household grease, and liquid nitrogen.
thermostats. Industrial thermostats are created to A float switch is a versatile component used
be more durable and withstand higher to meet the needs of thousands of varied products
temperatures and harsher environments. and applications. A float switch can be
Manufacturers who supply digital thermostats for incorporated into a product (e.g. bilge pumps,

automobiles, etc.), or can be purchased as a processes, food processing, power
component to be used in a customer specific stations, etc.
application (e.g. waste treatment plant). Listed
below are examples of products and applications There are numerous design parameters that
that use float switches. Many of these products affect the specification and selection of a float
and applications may already use non-mercury switch for a particular product or application.
float switches. : Float switch design and product options vary
greatly by manufacturer. The design
• Pump control: bilge, sump, utility, requirements have a significant impact on
shower, effluent, waste, lubrication, etc. technology selection, manufacturer selection,
product model selection, product option
• Equipment Control: magnetic valve, selection, and ultimate product cost. The
cooling equipment, motors, etc. following is a concise listing of some of the more
critical design parameters:
• Alarm/Outputs: programmable logic
controllers, distributed control systems, • Switch points: number of control points,
supervisory control and data acquisition, number of alarm points, field adjustable
etc. points, etc.
• Industrial/manufacturing: processing • Level detection: point level, continuous

liquids, waste treatment, air conditioners, level
semiconductor manufacturing, automatic
plating machinery, etc. • Accuracy: tolerances, calibration
requirements
• Residential: sump pumps, septic tanks,
hot water heaters, automatic plumbing • Liquid environment: viscosity,
fixtures, etc. conductivity, foam, bubbles, turbulence,
contaminants, debris, etc.
• Marine: bilge pumps, shower pumps,
ocean liner sewage disposal, balance tank • Mounting: side, bottom, or top of
on ships, etc. enclosure, free standing/suspended cable,
pipe mount, stem mount, etc.
• Automobile: fuel tank, windshield wash
reservoir, etc. • Output contact rating: inductive load,
resistive load, current, voltage, power,
• Municipal: pumping stations, waste water etc.
treatment, sewage plants, etc.
• Buoyancy: ball, counterweight, specific
• Commercial: boilers, vending machines, gravity, etc.
electrical equipment such as liquid
insulated transformers, etc. • Life expectancy: switch, controlled
equipment, etc.
• Miscellaneous: food processing, irrigation
systems, petrochemical processing, • Regulatory approval: Underwriters
laundry tray, food warmers, steam Laboratories, Canadian Standards
cookers, mineral processing, hydraulic Association, etc.
equipment, water filters, pharmaceutical

• Operating parameters: differential non- mercury mechanical float switch at a cost
between control/alarm points, angle of less than the mercury float switch for the same
operation, etc. functionality.
One manufacturer charged more for a metallic
• Environmental conditions: temperature, ball float switch than for a mercury float switch
pressure, explosiveness, shock, vibration, with comparable functionality.
corrosiveness, moving equipment, etc.
• Input power requirements: 115 Volts AC, The mercury float switch has high reliability and
230 Volts AC, 24 Volts DC, 12 Volts DC, long operational life because it has few
other components and is not subject to arcing. Life-
cycle testing has been conducted for more than
• Switch: number of poles, number of one million cycles. The mercury float switch can
throws, normally open, normally closed, handle a high inductive load, has a quiet
relay, etc. operation, has no bounce on contact, and can be
hermetically sealed to provide increased
• Other parameters: signal time delay (to protection from various environmental factors
compensate for wave action), float switch (e.g. dust, moisture, etc.). The mercury float
enclosure material, intrinsically safe, switch can use one float for both on and off
cleaning requirements, space available for functions.
operation, etc. The mercury float switch requires a swing
area to properly operate. If the application is in a
tight location (e.g. windshield washer reservoir),
Mercury Float Switch then a magnet/reed float switch may be more
appropriate. Because the switch contains
Description mercury, it is becoming less desirable for many
A mercury float switch is typically located in a applications, including the food and beverage
buoyant float housing and is actuated based upon industry.
the rising and falling liquid levels. The mercury
float switch contains a small tube with electrical Manufacturers
contacts at one end of the tube. As the tube lifts, The following are manufacturers of mercury float
the mercury collects at the lower end, providing a switches.
conductive path to complete the circuit. When
the switch is tilted back the circuit is broken. Manufacturer Product Phone Number &
Name Website
The mercury float switch operates in a similar
Advanced 7000 888-340-8820
fashion to the mercury tilt switch. The mercury Control Series www.actsensors.com
content reported to IMERC for float switches Technology,
was in the range of greater than 1,000 mg/switch. Inc.
Comus Numerous 973-777-8405
Cost International models www.comus-
The cost of a mercury float switch is intl.com
approximately $15 to $150 depending upon Conery 2900 419-289-1444
product type or application requirements. Two Manufacturing Series www.conerymfg.co
manufacturers were identified that have both Inc. m
mercury and non-mercury float switches with the
same functionality. These manufacturers charge Contegra Inc. FS 96 651-905-0900
www.contegra.com
the same price for the mercury float switch and
the non- mercury mechanical float switch. One
manufacturer was identified that provides the

Manufacturer Product Phone Number & same price for the mercury float switch and the
Name Website non- mercury mechanical float switch. One
Electro- MLS 800-328-6170
manufacturer was identified that provides the
sensors, Inc. Series www.electro-
sensors.com non- mercury mechanical float switch at a cost
less than the mercury float switch for the same
ITT Industries E-8, 80, 773-267-1600 functionality.
McDonnell & 65, and www.mcdonnellmill
Miller 165 series er.com Advantages/Disadvantages
ITT Industries Models 978-281-0440
The mechanical float switch has high reliability,
Rule Industries 35, 37, & www.rule- long operational life, can handle high inductive
40 industries.com loads, and can be hermetically sealed to provide
Mercury A, B, C, 616-663-8574 increased protection from various environmental
Displacement &D www.mdius.com factors (e.g. dust, moisture, etc.). Mechanical
Industries Inc. Series
switches are often designed to have an
Scientific FG Series 888-525-7300
Technologies www.levelandflow.c operational life in excess of one million cycles.
Inc. om The mechanical float switch can use one float for
both on and off functions.
Septronics, 4701, 888-565-8908 The mechanical float switch typically needs a
Inc. 4704 www.septronicsinc.c swing area to properly operate. However, this is
Series om
not the case for mechanical float switches that
Signal FS121, 732-793-4668 use magnets in a vertical stem to activate the
Systems CW101 www.signalsystem.c micro-switch.
International Series om
Inc. Manufacturers
S.J. Electro Numerous 888-342-5753
The following are manufacturers of mechanical
Systems Inc. Models www.sjerhombus.co
m float switches:

Alternative 1: Mechanical Switch Name Website
Advanced 7300 888-340-8820
Control Series www.actsensors.com
Description Technology,
A mechanical float switch is typically located in Inc.
a buoyant float housing and is actuated based Aggressive AMF 248-477-5300
upon the rising and falling liquid levels. The Systems, Inc. Series www.aggressivesyste
mechanical switch can be a snap switch or micro- ms.com
switch that can be actuated using a variety of
Contegra Inc. FS90 651-905-0900
methods. The most common method is that the Series www.contegra.com
lever arm is actuated by a metallic rolling ball Dwyer L6, L8 219-879-8000
that changes position based upon gravity and the Instruments, Series www.dwyer-inst.com
position of the buoyant float housing. Inc.
(Mercoid)
ITT Industries FS20 949-609-5106
Cost
Jabsco www.jabsco.com
The cost of a mechanical float switch is
approximately $10 to $150 depending on product ITT Industries ECO- 978-281-0440
or application requirements. Two manufacturers Rule Industries Switch www.rule-
were identified that have both mercury and non- Model 39 industries.com
mercury float switches with the same
functionality. These manufacturers charge the

Manufacturer Product Phone Number & Cost
Name Website The magnetic dry reed float switch cost is
Kari-Finn Numerous Scientific
approximately $6 to $500 depending on product
(Finland) models Technologies Inc.:
U.S. Rep: 888-525-7300 or application requirements.
STI www.kari-finn.fi
Automation Advantages/Disadvantages
Sensors The magnetic dry reed switch is ideal for use in
Division
small or narrow enclosures. The magnetic dry
Kobold NGS 800-998-1020
series www.kobold.com reed switch has a long operational life.
The magnetic dry reed switch cannot handle a
Lovett Marine Models 800-673-5976 high inductive load, and therefore has a low
3208 and www.lovettmarine.co contact rating. The magnetic dry reed switch
3209 m must be used in a clean environment, because
debris collected on the stem will impair proper
Mercury Numerous 616-663-8574
Displacement models www.mdius.com functioning. The reed switch can have its
Industries Inc. contacts welded together when exposed to high
MJK 7030 Danfoss: voltage sources.
Automation Series 800-621-8806
(Denmark) www.us.water.danfos
Danfoss – U.S. s.com
Representative Manufacturers
The following are manufacturers of magnetic dry
Nivelco Nivofloat Hitech reed switches:
(Hungary) and 215-321-6012
Hitech – U.S. NivoMag www.nivelco.com Manufacturer Product Phone Number
Representative MK-200 Name & Website
Series Advanced Numerous 888-340-8820
Scientific FT, FTN, 888-525-7300 Control models www.actsensors.
Technologies and MLS www.levelandflow.c Technology, Inc. com
Inc. Series om
Aggressive AOE model 248-477-5300
Septronics, SD and 888-565-8908 Systems, Inc. www.aggressive
Inc. HD www.septronicsinc.c systems.com
models om Barksdale, Inc. BLS Series 800-835-1060
www.barksdale.c
Zoeller Numerous 800-928-7867 om
models www.zoeller.com
Clark Reliance Magnicator 281-240-4243
Corporation II Model www.clark-
Jerguson Gage RS-2 reliance.com
Alternative 2: Magnetic Dry Reed and Valve
Switch Division
International models www.comus-
Description intl.com
Permanent magnets are embedded in the float
housing that move vertically along the tubing or Crydom RSF Series 619-210-1600
stem. The reed switches are embedded in the Magnetics (UK) www.crydom.co.
stem. The magnets activate the reed switches in uk
Dwyer F7 Series 219-879-8000
the stem at pre-determined levels for control or Instruments, Inc. www.dwyer-
alarm purposes. inst.com

Manufacturer Product Phone Number The optical float switch has a higher price
Name & Website range than other float switch technologies.
Flowline Liquid Numerous 562-598-3015
Intelligence models www.flowline.co
m Manufacturers
The following are manufacturers of optical float
Innovative LS and SM 860-621-7220 switches:
Components Series www.liquidlevel.
com Manufacturer Product Phone Number &
Name Website
Kobold Model N 800-998-1020 Com Fiber Optic 954-600-1962
www.kobold.co connection Float Switch http://comconnecti
m on.tripod.com
Dwyer OLS Series 219-879-8000
K-Tech Numerous 905-840-7106 Instruments, www.dwyer-
Industrial models www.process- Inc. inst.com
Products Inc. controls.com/KT
ech Kobold OPT Series 800-998-1020
Nivelco NivoPoint Hitech www.kobold.com
(Hungary) 215-321-6012
Hitech – U.S. www.nivelco.co Pulnix FL, FLH 800-445-5444
Representative m America Inc. Series www.pulnix.com
Scientific FCN, LF, 888-525-7300
Technologies FL, SLS, www.levelandflo Scientific OPL Series 888-525-7300
Inc. and TLS w.com Technologies www.levelandflow.
Series Inc. com
Signal Systems Numerous 732-793-4668
International Inc. models www.signalsyste
m.com
Alternative 4: Conductivity
Description
Alternative 3: Optical Float Switch The conductivity float switch uses electrodes to
measure conductivity and sense the presence or
Description
The optical float switch utilizes optical principles absence of a liquid. It relies on the conducting
properties of liquids to complete an electrical
to detect the presence or absence of a liquid as
compared with air. The sensor contains a small circuit between electrodes, or between an
infrared LED and a phototransistor light receiver electrode and the metal tank.
to detect the presence of liquid.
Cost
The cost of a conductivity float switch is
Cost
The cost of an optical float switch is approximately $40 to $800 depending on product
approximately $120 to $400 depending on or application requirements.
product or application requirements.
The conductivity float switch has no moving
The optical sensor is unaffected by liquid color or parts and is therefore very reliable and can be
density. The optical float switch has very slight used in vessels with moving equipment that may
damage other types of float switches. The
hysteresis, high repeatability, and is highly
chemical resistant. conductivity sensor can sense the presence of
different liquids. For bilge pump applications, it

can detect gas, oil, and diesel fuel in bilge water
that can trigger an automatic shutdown of the
pump. This prevents pumping of contaminants Alternative 5: Metallic Ball
into waterways.
The conductivity float switch must be used in Description
a conductive liquid for proper operation. A rolling metallic ball is used to make or break
the actual electrical connection for a circuit. The
Manufacturers metallic ball moves based on the float movement
The following are manufacturers of conductivity as the liquid level rises and falls.
float switches:
Cost
Manufacturer Product Phone Number One manufacturer reported that the cost of their
Name Website
metallic ball switch is about 10 – 15% higher
Advanced Numerous 888-340-8820
Control models www.actsensors. than their mercury float switch with similar
Technology, Inc. com functionality.
Aggressive IPF model 248-477-5300 Advantages/Disadvantages

Systems, Inc. www.aggressive The metallic ball float switch can have a long life
systems.com
if it is only used for small rated loads.
ITT Industries LPC series 773-267-1600 The metallic ball float switch is not suitable
McDonnell & www.mcdonnell for applications subject to shock or vibration
Miller miller.com because it can experience false contacts due to
bounce. The metallic ball float switch requires a
Kari-Finn Numerous STI: 888-525-
swing area for proper operation. The metallic
(Finland) models 7300
U.S. Rep: www.kari-finn.fi ball can become welded to the electrical contacts
STI Automation due to overheating or arcing. The metallic ball
Sensors Division float switch cannot handle loads greater than two
Kobold NEH, NEW 800-998-1020 amps without experiencing arcing issues.
Models www.kobold.co
m
Manufacturers
MJK Conduct- Danfoss : The following is a manufacturer of metallic ball
Automation ivity Level 800-621-8806 float switches:
(Denmark) Switch 501 www.us.water.da
Danfoss – U.S. nfoss.com Manufacturer Product Phone Number
Representative Name Website
Nivelco NivoCont K Hitech International models www.comus-
(Hungary) Series 215-321-6012 intl.com
Hitech – U.S. www.nivelco.co
Representative m
Product Bilge Buddy 845-796-4526

Innovators www.411web.co
m/P/ Alternative 6: Sonic/Ultrasonic
PRODUCTINN
OVATORS/
Description
Default.htm
Scientific ELS Series 888-525-7300 The sonic/ultrasonic float switch utilizes a sensor
Technologies www.levelandflo containing a piezoelectrical crystal. The crystal
Inc. w.com excites oscillations, allowing the liquid level to
be measured by oscillation frequency. As the

probe tip becomes immersed in liquid, the Manufacturer Product Phone Number
crystals acoustically couple and the switch Name & Website
Ohmart Vega Vegaswing 800-367-5383
changes state. Series www.ohmartveg
a.com
Cost
The cost of a sonic/ultrasonic float switch is Scientific DFN-30 888-525-7300
approximately $150 to $600 depending on Technologies Series www.levelandflo
product or application requirements. Inc. w.com
Siemens ULS 200 817-277-3543

Advantages/Disadvantages Milltronics Series www.milltronics.
The sonic/ultrasonic float switch is highly com
accurate and can be used for non-conductive
liquids as well as highly viscous liquids. The
sensor can be quickly removed for cleaning as
required by the food, beverage, and
pharmaceutical industries. Alternative 7: Pressure Transmitter
The sonic/ultrasonic sensor needs to be rigid
mounted for proper operation. Description
The pressure transmitter float switch utilizes one
Manufacturers of two technologies:
The following are manufacturers of 1) The float switch is actuated by a piezo-
sonic/ultrasonic float switches: recitative mechanism that senses the
hydrostatic pressure within a container.
Manufacturer Product Phone Number 2) The float switch is actuated by
Name & Website compression of a captive air column in
Advanced ELC - 8 888-340-8820
the detecting pipe beneath a diaphragm.
Control www.actsensors.
Technology, Inc. com
Cost
Cosense Inc. LL Series 631-231-0735 One manufacturer sells one of its pressure
www.cosense.co transmitter models for $825. A cost range for all
m available models was not determined, but will
Dwyer GS Series 219-879-8000
depend on product or application requirements.
Instruments, Inc. www.dwyer-
inst.com Advantages/Disadvantages
The piezo-recitative technology provides highly
Flowline Liquid Numerous 562-598-3015 reliable results. The diaphragm technology can
Intelligence models www.flowline.co
be used in applications where electrical power is
m
not available or hazardous conditions exist.
Kobold NWS Model 800-998-1020
www.kobold.co Manufacturers
m The following are manufacturers of pressure
transmitter float switches:
MJK MJK 7005 Danfoss :
Automation 800-621-8806
(Denmark) www.us.water.da
Name Website
Danfoss – U.S. nfoss.com
Dwyer PLT 219-879-8000
Representative
Instruments, Inc. Series www.dwyer-
inst.com

Manufacturer Product Phone Number & Manufacturer Product Phone Number
Name Website Name Website
MJK MJK Danfoss: Comus Alloy float 973-777-8405
Automation 7050, 800-621-8806 International switch www.comus-
(Denmark) 7060 www.us.water.danf intl.com
Danfoss – U.S. oss.com
Representative
Scientific NLS 888-525-7300
Technologies Series www.levelandflow.
Inc. com Alternative 9: Thermal
Description
The thermal float switch utilizes the thermal
dispersion principle of the dissipation of heat by
Alternative 8: Alloy a liquid to detect the presence or absence of a
liquid as compared with air. The sensor typically
Description contains a resistor in the form of a thermistor. A
A gallium indium alloy replicates the fluid and thermistor is a semiconductor material that
electrical properties of mercury. This alloy is detects heat and converts heat into an electrical
used as a direct replacement of mercury within signal. The switch is actuated when heat
the switch. generated by the thermistor is dissipated by a
liquid.
Cost
The alloy float switch has limited commercial Cost
usage and is still in the early development stage. The cost of a thermal float switch was obtained
The cost of an alloy float switch is significantly for one model from one manufacturer for $87. A
higher than a mercury switch, ball contact switch, range of values was not available at the time this
or magnetic/reed switch. report was completed.
Advantages/Disadvantages Advantages/Disadvantages
The gallium indium alloy functions as a direct The thermal float switch can be used for caustic
replacement for mercury within the switch and liquids such as acids and alkalines. Light to
therefore provides similar advantages such as moderate buildup on the sensor will not affect
quiet operation, high reliability, and long thermal dispersion performance.
operational life. This alloy eliminates bounce The thermal float switch is not suited for high
problems and false contacts associated with the temperature applications, and cannot be used for
metallic ball contact device. high viscosity liquids.
The gallium indium alloy cannot be used in
applications less than 20 degrees Fahrenheit. Manufacturers
This precludes its use for many non-water The following are manufacturers of thermal float
applications. The gallium indium alloy is switch sensors:
difficult to handle, will oxidize easily, and is
potentially toxic. Manufacturer Product Phone Number &
Name Website
Manufacturers JC Controls SN Series 877-837-6677
The following are manufacturers of alloy float www.ln2.net
switches: Scientific TDL 888-525-7300
Technologies Series www.levelandflow.co
Inc. m

products and applications. It appears that these
non- mercury alternatives are cost competitive
and can meet the functional requirements for new
Alternative 10: Capacitance
float switch products and applications. However,
Description these non- mercury alternatives may not meet the
The capacitance level float switch is typically requirements for retrofitting all existing float
comprised of two electrodes separated by an switch products and applications.
insulating medium. Air provides a reference
capacitance value, and when the probe is covered
by liquid the resultant capacitance change causes
a signal to actuate the switch. 4.13 Tilt Switches
Cost Tilt switches sense changes in position or
The cost of a capacitance float switch is rotation and actuate a switch based upon these
approximately $150 to $500 depending on changes. The tilt switch can be used to activate
product or application requirements. alarms, control equipment, turn on lights, or
accomplish other functions.
Advantages/Disadvantages A tilt switch is a versatile component used to
The capacitance float switch contains no moving meet the needs of hundreds of position
parts, has extremely high chemical resistance, monitoring/control products and applications. A
and moderate vibration resistance. tilt switch can be incorporated into a product (e.g.
The capacitance float switch cannot be used video cameras, motion detectors, etc.), or can be
for highly viscous liquids. purchased as a component to be used in a
customer specific application (e.g. mining
Manufacturers operations). Listed below are examples of
The following are manufacturers of capacitance products and applications that use tilt switches.
float switches: Many of these products and applications may
already use non- mercury tilt switches.
Name Website
Dwyer CLS 219-879-8000 • Test & Laboratory Equipment: precision
Instruments, Series www.dwyer-inst.com measuring devices, plotters, power
Inc. supplies, etc.
Flowline Numerous 562-598-3015
Liquid models www.flowline.com
• Heavy equipment: construction vehicles,
Intelligence
Kobold NTS 800-998-1020 cranes, hoists, chutes, scissor lifts, static
Series www.kobold.com platforms, etc.
Robertshaw Model 865-981-3100 • Industrial: processing equipment,

304B www.robertshawindu
strial.com
conveyor controls, extruders, speed
controls, foot pedals, coal level
Scientific CP30 888-525-7300 monitoring, etc.
Technologies Series www.levelandflow.c
Inc. om • Marine: rudder controls, deep sea
manipulators, salt water platforms, ship &
Summary barge leveling etc.
There are numerous non- mercury alternative
technologies currently in use for float switch

• Medical equipment: x-ray machines, MRI
scanners, position controls, wheelchairs, • Measurement requirements: tilt or
etc. rotation angle, number of axes, etc.
• Robotics: analog inputs, remote operated • Switch points: number of control points,
vehicles, creature animation, etc. number of alarm points, field adjustable
points, etc.
• Agriculture: tractors, conveyor controls,
food processing, bins, silos, grain level • Accuracy: tolerances, calibration
monitoring, etc. requirements
• Other: signaling alarms, lights, interfacing • Output contact rating: inductive loading
with programmable logic controllers, (amps, voltage, power), resistive loading
personnel digital assistants, cell phones, (amps, voltage, power)
computer security, anti tamper devices,
utility metering, pump control, digital • Life expectancy: switch, controlled
cameras, video cameras, portable space equipment, etc.
heaters, pinball game machine, swimming
pools, payphones, survey leveling • Regulatory approval: Underwriters
equipment, gyroscopes, steam irons, anti- Laboratories, Canadian Standards
locking brake systems, digital compass Association, etc.
correction, submarines, virtual reality
equipme nt, oil rig leveling, laser • Operating parameters: differential
instruments, geophysical monitoring, between control/alarm points, angle of
laser leveling, grading, continuous operation, etc.
casting, weapons platform leveling, wheel
alignment, land navigation, auto security, • Environmental conditions: temperature,
RVs, exercise equipment, automobiles, pressure, explosiveness, shock, vibration,
glove compartments, video cameras, corrosiveness, moving equipment, etc.
commercial popcorn poppers, electric
organs, space heaters, oil well pump • Input power requirements: 115 Volts AC,
control, machine tools, fishing lures, 230 Volts AC, 24 Volts DC, 12 Volts DC,
greenhouses, motion detectors, pneumatic other
tube communication, man-lifts, antenna
positioning, mining, aircraft, • Switch output: single pole single throw,
transportation, etc. double pole double throw, normally open,
normally closed, relay, etc.
There are numerous design parameters that
affect the specification and selection of a tilt
• Other parameters: display requirements,
switch for a particular product or application.
Tilt switch basic design and product options vary enclosure material, intrinsically safe,
cleaning requirements, space available for
greatly by manufacturer. The design
requirements have a significant impact on operation, signal time delay, etc.
technology selection, manufacturer selection,
product model selection, product option Mercury Tilt Switches
selection, and ultimate product cost. The
following is a concise listing of some of the more Description
critical design parameters: Mercury tilt switches are small tubes with
electrical contacts at one end of the tube. As the

tube lifts, the mercury collects at the lower end, Manufacturer Product Phone Number &
providing a conductive path to complete the Name Website
George Risk 4561 800-523-1227
circuit. When the switch is tilted back the circuit Industries Series www.grisk.com
is broken. The mercury content reported by
manufacturers to IMERC for tilt switches ranged Kahl Scientific Series 619-444-2158
from 400 mg to 71,000 mg/switch. Instrument 03EA www.kahlsico.com
Corporation
Cost Siemens Mill- 817-277-3543
Milltronics tronics www.milltronics.c
The cost of a mercury tilt switch is approximately Tilt om
$2 to $300 depending on product or application Switches
requirements. Signal Systems Series 732-793-4668
International Inc. 3004 www.signalsystem.
Advantages/Disadvantages com
The mercury tilt switch has high reliability and
long operational life because it has few
components and is not subject to arcing. Life
cycle testing has been successfully conducted for Alternative 1: Metallic Ball
more than one million cycles. The mercury tilt
switch can handle a high inductive load, has a Description
quiet operation, has no bounce on contact, and A rolling metallic ball is used to make the actual
can be hermetically sealed to provide increased electrical connection. The metallic ball moves
protection from various environmental factors based on the movement of the tilt switch housing,
(e.g. dust, moisture, etc.). or can be moved by actuator magnets using the
The mercury tilt switch contains mercury, principle of spherical magnetism.
which is becoming less desirable for many
applications including the food and beverage Cost
industry. The cost of a metallic ball tilt switch is
approximately $1 to $11 depending on product or
Manufacturers application requirements.
The following are manufacturers of mercury tilt
switches. Advantages/Disadvantages
The metallic ball tilt switch is suited for
Name Website
applications with high levels of electromagnetic
Abra Electronics Model 35- 800-717-2272 interference (EMI) such as generators and
760 www.abra - motors, or high stress applications that require a
electronics.com robust switch. The metallic ball tilt switch can
have a long life if it is only used for small rated
Celduc Relais IB600099 Laube Technology:
loads.
(France) Series 805-388-1050
Laube www.celduc- The metallic ball tilt switch is not suitable for
Technology – relais.com applications subject to shock or vibration because
US it can experience false contacts due to bounce.
Representative The metallic ball can become welded to the
electrical contacts due to overheating or arcing.
International models www.comus-
intl.com The metallic ball tilt switch cannot handle loads
greater than two amps without experiencing
Electro-Sensors, MTS 800-328-6170 arcing issues.
Inc. Series www.electro-
sensors.com

and shock. Electrolytic tilt sensors have low
Manufacturers power consumption.
The following are manufacturers of metallic ball Electrolytic tilt sensors are complex devices
tilt switches: due to their sensitivity to internal circuitry and
external environmental influences.
Name Website
Manufacturers
International Models The following are manufacturers of electrolytic
www.comus- tilt sensors:
intl.com
Magnasphere Magna- 262-792-1306 Name Website
Corp. sphere www.magnasphereco
Switch rp.com
Fredericks Numerous 215-947-2500
Signal NM 1001, 732-793-4668 Company models. www.fredericksco
Systems NM 2001, www.signalsystem.c m.com
International NM 3001, om
Inc. NM 4001 Nanotron, Inc. Ultimate I 480-966-9006
and II www.nanotronusa.
Series com
Spectron Glass The 631-582-5600

and SP5000 www.spectronsens
Alternative 2: Electrolytic Electronics, and ors.com
Inc. AU6000
Description series
The electrolytic tilt sensorcontains multiple
electrodes and is filled with an electrically
conductive fluid. As the sensor tilts, the surface
of the fluid remains level due to gravity. The Alternative 3: Potentiometers
conductivity between the electrodes is
proportional to the length of electrode immersed Description
in the fluid. Electrically, the sensor is similar to Potentiometers consist of a curved conductive
the potentiometer, with resistance changing in track with a connection terminal at each end and
proportion to tilt angle. The electrolyte material a moveable wiper connected to a third terminal.
can vary in conductivity and viscosity to meet As the shaft of the potentiometer is rotated, the
different design parameters. The voltage output length of the electrical path and resistance
from the electrolytic tilt sensor can be used for changes proportionally. Potentiometers can be
certain tilt switch applications. used to detect linear motion as well as single turn
or multiple turn rotation.
Cost
The cost of an electrolytic tilt sensor is Cost
approximately $5 to $50 depending on product or Potentiometers were found to range from
application requirements. approximately $0.25 for simple, high volume
applications to $300 for high quality audio
Advantages/Disadvantages applications.
Electrolytic tilt sensors provide excellent
repeatability, stability, and accuracy. These Advantages/Disadvantages
sensors are rugged and can be used in Potentiometers are inexpensive, reliable, and
environments of extreme temperature, humidity, have long operational life, often greater than 20

million cycles. Potentiometers are also available amount of pressure to actuate the switch action.
in micro- miniature size for space saving design The mechanical tilt switch can be used as a limit
requirements. switch to detect the position of some moving
part. Numerous limit switches can be used to
sense multiple positions.
Manufacturers
The following are ma nufacturers of Manufacturers
potentiometers: The following are manufacturers of mechanical
tilt switches:
Name Website
ETI Systems LCP8, 760-929-0749 Manufacturer Product Phone Number &
SP12B, www.etisystems.co Name Website
Series m/singledesign.htm Binmasater BM-T 800-278-4241
Precision RV4, RV6 416-744-8840 Series www.binmaster.com
Electronic Series www.precisionelect
ronics.com Monitor TC Series 800-601-6302
Technologies www.monitortech.co
Tocos G3, G4 847-884-6664 LLC m
America, Inc. Series www.tocos.com
Omron D7E 847-882-2288
Vishay 249, 357, 402-563-6866 Electronics Series www.omron.com
533 Series www.vishay.com
Alternative 4: Mechanical Switch Alternative 5: Solid-State
Description Description
The mechanical tilt switch can be a snap switch The solid-state tilt switch is often referred to as
or micro-switch that can be actuated in a variety an inclinometer or accelerometer depending upon
of methods. The most common method is that the application. Various operational methods are
the lever arm is actuated by a metallic rolling ball used including:
that changes position based upon gravity and the
changing position of the switch housing. • Using a Hall effect integrated circuit
sensor that provides a voltage output ratio
Cost as a function of the mechanical angle of
The cost of a mechanical tilt switch is the shaft
approximately $100 to $350 depending on
product or application requirements. • Using a highly stable silicon micro-
machined capacitive inclination sensor
Advantages/Disadvantages element
The mechanical tilt switch has high reliability,
long operational life, can handle high inductive • Using force balance accelerometer
loads, and can be hermetically sealed to provide technology
increased protection from various environmental
factors (e.g. dust, moisture, etc.). Mechanical tilt Cost
switches are often designed to have an The cost of a solid-state tilt switch is
operational life in excess of one million cycles. approximately $100 - $250 depending on product
The mechanical tilt switch requires only a small or application requirements.

Cost
Advantages/Disadvantages The cost of a capacitive tilt switch is
The solid-state tilt switch offers high resolution, approximately $80 to $250 depending on product
accuracy, fast response, and maintains its or application requirements.
accuracy over temperature ranges. The solid-
state tilt switch requires a low supply voltage and Advantages/Disadvantages
has a long operational life, often greater than ten The capacitive tilt switch has high accuracy, high
million cycles. The solid-state tilt switch can be long-term stability, and low power requirements.
used in strong vibration and shock environments. The capacitive tilt switch is suitable for
The initial cost is higher than mercury, applications requiring high measurement
potentiometer, or electrolytic tilt switches. accuracy with low linearity deviations, and for
measurement of relatively large inclination
Manufacturers angles.
The following are manufacturers of solid-state tilt
switches: Manufacturers
The following are manufacturers of capacitive tilt
Manufacturer Product Phone Number & switches:
Name Website
Clarostat HRS100 800-872-0042 Manufacturer Product Phone Number
Sensors and Series www.clarostat.com Name & Website
Controls Measurement Accustar and 800-745-8008
Columbia SI-701 800-813-8471 Specialties Accuswitch www.schaevitz.co
Research Labs Series www.columbia Series m
researchlab.com
Rieker Inc. N Series and 610-534-9000
Crossbow CXTA and 408-965-3300 NG Series www.riekerinc.co
CXTLA www.xbow.com m
Series
Seika NG2, NG3, Reiker Inc.
Jewell LSO Series 800-227-5955 (Germany) and NG4 610-534-9000
Instruments www.jewellinstrum Reiker Inc. – Series www.seika.de
LLC ents.com U.S.
Representative
Omron D6B Series 847-882-2288
Electronics www.omron.com
Summary
There are numerous no n- mercury alternative
technologies currently in use for tilt switch
products and applications. It appears that these
non- mercury alternatives are cost competitive
Alternative 6: Capacitive and can meet the functional requirements for new
tilt switch products and applications. However,
Description these non- mercury alternatives may not meet the
The capacitive tilt switch utilizes a capacitive requirements for retrofitting all existing tilt
based sensor that produces output directly switch products and applications.
proportional to the relative tilt. The sensor is An example of a successful tilt switch
typically composed of hermetically sealed replacement program is the “Switch the Switch”
capacitive domes with a high dielectric constant program initiated by the Michigan based Clean
fluid that fills the space between the domes. Car Campaign. Mercury tilt switches in hood
lights and trunk lights were replaced with non-
mercury tilt switches in automobiles across the
nation. This was a simple, drop- in exchange that

took about ten minutes per switch to accomplish. • Bellows: A bellows actuated pressure
Across the United States, thirteen tilt switch switch uses a bellows elastic element that
replacement events took place. Some expands and contracts axially with
participating dealerships replaced mercury changes in pressure. Changes in the
switches in vehicles on their lots, while other measured pressure cause the bellows to
dealerships offered the service, free of charge, to work against an adjustable spring. This
their customers. The participating municipal and spring determines the pressure required to
state agencies replaced the mercury tilt switches actuate the switch. Through suitable
in their fleets of vehicles. (Clean Car Campaign, linkage, the spring causes the contacts to
2002) open or close the electrical circuit
automatically when the operating pressure
falls below or rises above a specified
4.14 Pressure Switches value.
A pressure switch is a device that converts a • Flex Circuit: A flex circuit diaphragm is a
pressure change into an electrical switching small metal diaphragm etched from one
function. The pressure change might be measured layer of a circuit board. This diaphragm is
as pressure, vacuum, or differential between two able to make contact with another layer,
pressure inputs. In every case, the pressure combining sensor and switch. The
switch will employ a diaphragm, piston, or other advantage of this device is that it can
pressure-responsive sensor, which has been open and close at a very high frequency
coupled to actuate a mechanical switch, mercury over a very long duty cycle.
switch, or transistor. Examples of pressure
responsive sensors used in pressure switches Each type of sensor provides performance
include: tradeoffs that must be evaluated for each
particular application. For example, bellows
• Diaphragm: A diaphragm actuated actuated pressure switches have excellent
pressure switch has a large surface area sensitivity, however they are subject to metal
and very flexible diaphragm fatigue in rapidly cycling applications.
material. This type of sensor is able to A pressure switch is a versatile component
convert a relatively small amount of used to meet the needs of hundreds of pressure
pressure or vacuum into sufficient monitoring/control products and applications. A
mechanical force to actuate a snap-action pressure switch can be incorporated into a
switch. In a pressure switch, positive product (e.g. boiler, air conditioner, vacuum
pressure pushes the diaphragm. In a cleaner, etc.), or can be purchased as a
vacuum switch, negative pressure pulls component to be used in a customer specific
the diaphragm. In a different ial switch, application (e.g. semiconductor processing).
both sides of the switch housing are Listed below are examples of products and
linked to two pressure sources, and the applications that use pressure switches. Many of
diaphragm responds to the resulting net these products and applications may already use
force. non- mercury pressure switches.
• Piston: A piston actuated pressure switch • Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning:
uses a metal piston as the sensor. Its electrostatic air cleaners, filter indicators,
robust design and stronger materials reservoir level, gas fired heating,
enable this type of sensor to work at high ventilation, utility heaters, heat pumps,
pressures, or in hostile media. furnaces, flue gas, fuel delivery, etc.

• Medical: respiratory sensors, therapy tent requirements have a significant impact on
nebulizers, automated blood pressure technology selection, manufacturer selection,
systems, sip and puff movement controls, product model selection, product option
anesthesia leak detection, saline pumps, selection, and ultimate product cost. For
tourniquet systems, reverse osmosis example, sensor selection is a key determinant of
purification systems, dental aspirator range, sensitivity, accuracy, life expectancy, and
pumps, respiratory therapy, disposable cost of a pressure switch. The following is a
surgical vacuum systems, etc. concise listing of some of the more critical design
parameters:
• Automotive: tire pressure, emission
control, manifolds, air conditioning, • Variable measured: pressure, vacuum,
engine crankcase pressure, air brakes, differential
lumbar seat pressure, exhaust gas re-
circulation, etc. • Operating parameters: set-point, dead-
band, factory set, field adjustable
• Appliance: commercial dish washers,
floor scrubbers, vacuum cleaners, food • Enclosure: general purpose, weather
storage sealers, air conditioners, resistant, explosion proof, etc.
commercial fryers, hot water dispensers,
hot water heaters, etc. • Regulatory approval: Underwriters
Laboratories, Canadian Standards
• Other: fire pump controllers, scrubbers, Association, etc.
venting hoods, construction equipment,
tape braking systems, tape tension • Switch type: mercury, snap switch,
controls, door safety, spa pumps, machine micro-switch, transistor, etc.
tools, automated test equipment,
packaging machinery, pulp digesters, • Switch: number of poles, number of
boilers, well heads, polymerization throws, amperage, voltage, hermetically
reactor vessels, mine gas samplers, garage sealed, etc.
doors, industrial gas pressure sensing,
vacuum radon detection, missile guidance • Load: resistive, inductive, other
applications, spray painting equipment,
semiconductor process equipment, • Accuracy: repeatability, calibration
injection water systems, submarine requirements
navigation control, robotics, organs,
pump control, automobiles, pressurized • Monitoring: local, remote
air systems, bioprocess applications,
sanitary systems, hydraulic systems, • Mounting: vertical, horizontal
sprayers, pressurized tanks, altitude
sensing, portable test equipment, fire • Materials: enclosure, sensor, switch, etc.
protection systems, and waste treatment
plants.
• Visual display: status, power on, etc.
There are numerous design parameters that affect
• Sensor type: diaphragm, bellows, piston,
the specification and selection of a pressure
bulb & capillary, etc.
switch for a particular product or application.
Pressure switch basic design and product options
vary greatly by manufacturer. The design • Pressure: range to be measured,
maximum operating pressure, etc.

quiet operation, has no bounce on contact, and
• Life expectancy: time in service, number can be hermetically sealed to provide increased
of cycles protection from various environmental factors.
The mercury pressure switch contains
• Electrical connection: terminal block, mercury, which is becoming less desirable for
conduit, etc. many applications including the food and
beverage industry.
• Physical: size, weight, etc.
Manufacturers
• Power input: 120/240Volts AC, The following is a manufacturer of mercury
12/24Volts DC, current, etc. pressure switches.

• Environmental conditions: shock, Name Website
vibration, explosion, corrosiveness, Dwyer PQ, PR, 219-879-8000
temperature, humidity, radio frequency Instruments BB, DP, www.dwyer-inst.com
interference, etc. (Mercoid) and DA
Series
• Other: pressure surge protection, test
button, reset button, etc.
Alternative 1: Mechanical Pressure

Switches
Mercury Pressure Switches
Description
Description The mechanical pressure switch typically uses a
The mercury pressure switch typically uses a piston, diaphragm, bellows, or combination
piston, diaphragm, or bellows acting as the piston/diaphragm as the pressure sensor. The
pressure sensor to actuate the mercury switch. sensor can either 1) directly actuate the switch, or
The mercury content reported by manufacturers 2) use a pushrod, lever, or compression spring to
to IMERC for pressure switches was in the range actuate a snap acting micro-switch.
of greater than 1,000 mg.
Cost
Cost The cost of a mechanical pressure switch is
The cost of a mercury pressure switch is approximately $40 to $600 depending on product
approximately $150 to $170 based on pricing or application requirements.
obtained for only two product models. The range
could be much greater depending on various Advantages/Disadvantages
product and application requirements. One Mechanical pressure switches have high
manufacturer provides comparable pricing for reliability, a long operational life, and can also
mercury pressure switches and mechanical provide high accuracy when used with a
pressure switches with similar functionality. diaphragm sensor. Certain models of the
mechanical pressure switch use a diaphragm and
Advantages/Disadvantages negative rate Belleville spring that provides
The mercury pressure switch has high reliability superior resistanc e to shock and vibration.
and long operational life because it has few
components and is not subject to arcing. Life Manufacturers
cycle testing has been successfully conducted for The following are manufacturers of mechanical
more than one million cycles. The mercury float pressure switches:
switch can handle a high inductive load, has a

Name Website Alternative 2: Solid-State Pressure
Barksdale, Inc. D1, B1, 800-835-1060 Switches
E1S, C9612
Series www.barksdale.co
m Description
Solid-state pressure switches contain one or more
Custom 6800 and 818-341-4610 strain gauge pressure sensors, a transmitter, and
Control 6900 Series www.ccsdualsnap. one or more switches all in a compact package.
Sensors, Inc. com In addition to opening or closing the pressure
Dwyer PG, DP, 219-879-8000
switch circuit, they can provide a proportional
Instruments APS, AVS, www.dwyer- analog or digital output. Diffused silicon
(Mercoid) and DS- inst.com piezoresistive sensors are widely used in solid-
7300 Series state pressure switches. The sensor contains
Emerson Numerous 314-569-4500 homogeneous silicon measuring cells containing
Electric Co., models www.alcocontrols.
two vacuum-welded silicon plates. The
Alco Controls com
Division piezoresistive effect causes element resistance to
Hobbs Series 3000 217-753-7752 change proportionally with measured pressure.
Corporation and 5000, www.hobbs- Thin film strain gauges can also be used as the
(Invensys Series III corp.com pressure sensor. A microprocessor is used to
Company) and V
process the strain gauge sensor information and
Kobold KPH 8000 800-998-1020
and KPH www.kobold.com actuate the switching element. The switching
8200 Series element is typically a transistor.
Micro MPL 500 954-973-6166
Pneumatic Series www.pressureswitc Cost
Logic, Inc. h.com Solid-state pressure switches cost approximately
(MPL)
$200 - $350 depending on product or application
Neo-dyn/ITT 100P, 152P, 661-295-4000
Industries 160P, 142P, www.neodyn,com requirements. This is higher than the cost for
and 182P mechanical or mercury pressure switches. Solid-
Series state pressure switches become more cost
Potter Electric ADPS 800-325-3936 effective when monitoring more than one point
Signal Model www.pottersignal.c
and other of its various features are needed.
Company om
SOR Inc. Series 20 800-676-6794
www.sorinc.com Advantages/Disadvantages
Solid-state pressure switches provide higher
Tecmark Series 3000 440-205-7600 accuracy than mechanical switches. Solid-state
Corporation www.tecmarkcorp. pressure switches can improve process quality,
com
resulting in reduced scrap and waste. Solid-state
Texas Numerous 888-438-2214 pressure switches have long life at rated loads
Instruments models www.ti.com that can often be ten million cycles or greater.
Solid-state sensors usually have built- in
United Electric Spectra 10, 617-926-1000 temperature compensation to ensure accuracy
Controls Deltapro 24, www.ueonline.com
and Spectra
over a wide temperature range. The solid-state
12 Series pressure switch can provide proportional analog
Weed Model 800-880-9333 or digital output. The electronic control unit can
Instrument GR2/4 www.weedinstrum be mounted remotely from the sensor. Solid-
ent.com state pressure sensors often have a built- in
keypad and display to simplify setup and ongoing

field adjustments. Solid-state pressure switches approved, and comply with National Fire
provide a wide range of set-point and dead-band Protection Association (NFPA) standards.
adjustment. The transistor switch is highly According to the manufacturers, these fire pump
reliable, has no contact bounce, accommodates controllers have achieved high customer
fast switching, and has no arcing. satisfaction and acceptance. The fire pump
The transistor is usually restricted to low- level controllers with non- mercury switches are
direct current voltage applications. High considered as reliable as the fire pump controllers
temperatures or transient pressure spikes can that use mercury switches. In addition, the two
damage a solid-state pressure sensor. manufacturers can now avoid the high costs of
shipping replacement mercury pressure switches
Manufacturers that are considered a hazardous material.
The following are manufacturers of solid-state The following are manufacturers of fire pump
pressure switches: controllers that use non- mercury pressure
switches:
Name Website Manufacturer Product Phone Number &
Barksdale, Inc. PS Series 800-835-1060 Name Website
www.barksdale.com Joslyn Clark Fire Pump 800-476-5463
Controls Controller www.joslynclark.co
Kobold PDD 800-998-1020 m
Series www.kobold.com Metron Fire Pump 303-592-1903
Controller www.metroninc.com
SOR Inc. SGT 800-676-6794
Series www.sorinc.com
United Electric One 617-926-1000 It appears that these non- mercury alternatives are
Controls Series www.ueonline.com cost competitive and can meet the functional
requirements for new pressure switch products
and applications. However, these non-mercury
Summary alternatives may not meet the requirements for
There are numerous non- mercury alternative retrofitting all existing pressure switch products
technologies currently in use for pressure switch and applications.
products and applications. The use of pressure
switches in fire pump controllers is illustrative.
The fire pump controller is used to control diesel
and electric pumps that provide water for fire
suppression in large buildings. 4.15 Temperature Switches
Two fire pump controller manufacturers were
A temperature switch is a device that converts a
identified that discontinued use of mercury
pressure switches, and instead use non-mercury temperature change into an electrical switching
function. The temperature switch uses a
pressure switches for their fire pump controllers.
One manufacturer uses non- mercury pressure temperature responsive sensor that is coupled to a
switches for both its diesel and electric fire pump switch. The switch can be a mercury switch,
solid state, micro-switch, or snap switch. The
controllers. One manufacturer converted its
electric fire pump controller line to non-mercury following are examples of temperature sensors
commonly used in temperature switches:
switches in 2003, and will convert their diesel
pump controllers to non- mercury pressure Thermocouple: A thermocouple is comprised
switches in 2004. of two wire strips of dissimilar metals. These
These fire pump controllers using non- metal wires are joined at one end and the
mercury pressure switches are Underwriters voltage is measured at the other end. Changes
Laboratories (UL) listed, Factory Mutual (FM) in the temperature at the juncture induce a

change in electromotive force at the other A temperature switch is a versatile component
end. As the temperature goes up, the output used to meet the needs of hundreds of
electromotive force of the thermocouple rises. temperature monitoring/control products and
There are many different types of applications. A temperature switch can be
thermocouples made of different types of incorporated into a product (e.g. food warming
wire with very different properties. trays, hot water boilers, etc.), or can be purchased
as a component to be used in a customer specific
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD): An application (e.g. plastics injection molding
RTD is based on the fact that the electrical process). Listed below are examples of
resistance of a metal changes as its products and applications that use temperature
temperature changes. The resistance will rise switches. Many of these products and
more or less linearly with temperature. RTDs applications may already use non-mercury
use a length of conductor (platinum, nickel, temperature switches.
iron or copper) wound around an insulator.
Newer styles use a thin film of the conductor Ovens, sterilizers, moulding machines, heat
deposited on a ceramic substrate. RTDs are exchangers, labelling machines, water baths,
stable and have a fairly wide temperature heat sealers, refrigerating equipment,
range, but are not as rugged and inexpensive ventilating equipment, alarm systems,
as thermocouples. Since they require the use bearings, gear reducers, bucket elevators,
of electric current to make measurements, hammer mills, generators, conveyors, dryer
RTDs are subject to inaccuracies from self- bearings, mechanical drives, grinders, pumps,
heating. motors, presses, mixers, appliances, vending
machines, platens, plastic laminating presses,
Thermistor: A thermistor is also based on the
dental equipment, popcorn machines, hot
fact that the electrical resistance of a material
stamping, food warming trays, hydraulic
changes as its temperature changes.
laminating presses, livestock applications, hot
Thermistors rely on the resistance change in a
water boilers, hot water storage tanks, heavy
ceramic semiconductor, with the resistance
oil pre- heaters, watering fountains, label
dropping non- linearly with a temperature rise.
adhesive applicators, paint drying equipment,
Thermistors tend to be more accurate than
typesetting machines, hot stamp printers,
RTDs and thermocouples, but they have a
vending machines, deep fat cookers, and
much more limited temperature range
textiles.
because of their marked non-linearity.
Thermistors can be a low cost solution to
There are numerous design parameters that
temperature measurement. They tend to have
affect the specification and selection of a
large signal outputs and their small size
temperature switch for a particular product or
permits fast response to temperature changes.
application. Temperature switch basic design
Integrated Circuit Sensor: The newest type and product options vary greatly by
of temperature sensor on the market is the manufacturer. The design requirements have a
integrated circuit temperature transducer. significant impact on technology selection,
Integrated circuit sensors can be designed to manufacturer selection, product model selection,
produce either voltage or current output and product option selection, and ultimate product
are extremely linear. Integrated circuit cost. For example, sensor selection is a key
sensors are a very effective way to produce determinant of range, sensitivity, accuracy, life
an analog voltage proportional to expectancy, and cost of a temperature switch.
temperature. They have a limited temperature The following is a concise listing of some of the
range and are used to measure temperatures more critical design parameters:
from -50° to 300° F.

• Operating parameters: Set-point, dead-
band, factory set, field adjustable • Environmental conditions: shock,
vibration, explosion, corrosiveness,
• Enclosure: general purpose, weather temperature, humidity, RFI, etc.
resistant, explosion proof, etc.
• Other: temperature surge protection, test
• Regulatory approval: Underwriters button, reset button, etc.
Laboratories, Canadian Standards
Association, etc.
• Switch type: mercury, snap switch, Mercury Temperature Switches

micro-switch, transistor, etc.
Description
• Switch: number of poles, number of The temperature switch employs a temperature
throws, amperage, voltage, hermetically responsive sensor, which is coupled to the
sealed, etc. mechanical means of actuating a mercury switch.
The temperature responsive sensor is typically
• Load: resistive, inductive, other either a thermocouple, resistance temperature
detector (RTD), or gas actuated bourdon tube.
• Accuracy: repeatability, calibration The mercury content reported by manufacturers
requirements to IMERC for temperature switches was in the
range of greater than 1,000 mg.
• Monitoring: local, remote
Cost
• Mounting: vertical, horizontal The cost of a mercury temperature switch is
approximately $150 to $250 depending on
• Materials: enclosure, sensor, switch, etc. product or application requirements. For one
manufacturer, the cost of a temperature switch
• Visual display: status, power on, etc. with a snap action switch is less than the cost of a
mercury temperature switch with the same
• Sensor type: RTD, integrated circuit , functionality.
thermistor, thermocouple, etc.
• Temperature: range to be measured, The mercury temperature switch has high
maximum operating temperature, storage reliability and long operational life because it has
temperature, etc. few components and is not subject to arcing.
Life cycle testing has been successfully
• Life expectancy: time in service, number conducted for more than one million cycles. The
mercury temperature switch can handle a high
of cycles
inductive load, has a quiet operation, has no
bounce on contact, and can be hermetically
• Electrical connection: terminal block,
sealed to provide increased protection from
conduit, etc.
various environmental factors.
The mercury temperature switch contains
• Physical: size, weight, etc.
mercury, which is becoming less desirable for
many applications including the food and
• Power input: 120/240VAC, 12/24VDC, beverage industry.
current, etc.

Manufacturers Manufacturer Product Phone Number
The following table lists a manufacturer of Name & Website
Barksdale, Inc. THR, TPR, 800-835-1060
mercury temperature switches. T1X, L1X www.barksdale.c
Series om
Name Website
Chromalox AR, ARR, and 800-443-2640
Dwyer M-51, FM, 219-879-8000 3000 Series www.chromolox.
Instruments DA-36, DA- www.dwyer-
com
(Mercoid) 37 Series inst.com
Custom 6900 and 604 818-341-4610
Control Series www.ccsdualsna
Sensors, Inc. p.com
Dwyer RRT, D-7435, 219-879-8000

Alternative 1: Mechanical Temperature Instruments DA-36, and www.dwyer-
Switches (Mercoid) DA-37 Series inst.com
Description Kidde-Fenwal, Series 15000, 508-881-2000

Inc. 16000, 17000, www.fenwalcont
The mechanical temperature switch employs a and 18000 rols.com
temperature responsive sensor, which is coupled
to the mechanical means of actuating a Kobold TWR and TRS 800-998-1020
mechanical switch. The temperature responsive Series www.kobold.co
sensor can typically be a thermocouple, bulb and m
capillary, resistance temperature detector (RTD), Neo-dyn/ITT Series 100T 661-295-4000
welded alloy, or gas actuated bourdon tube. Industries and 132T www.neodyn,co
m
Cost
The cost of a mechanical temperature switch is Selco S200 and SIO 800-257-3526
Series www.selcoprodu
approximately $8 to $600 depending on product
cts.com
or application requirements. For one
manufacturer, the cost of a temperature switch United Electric 55 Series 617-926-1000
with a snap action switch is less than the cost of a Controls www.ueonline.c
mercury temperature switch with the same C54S-103 om
functionality.
B54-103
Weed Model PR7 800-880-9333
Advantages/Disadvantages Instrument Series www.weedinstru
The mechanical temperature switch has high ment.com
reliability, long operational life, and can handle
high inductive loads. The reliability and
accuracy of a mechanical temperature switch is
largely dependent on the sensor technology used.
The mechanical temperature switch provides Alternative 2: Solid State Temperature
similar functionality to the mercury temperature Switches
switch without the attendant mercury
management issues. Description
The solid-state temperature switch utilizes
Manufacturers temperature coefficient thermistors, RTDs, or
The following are manufacturers of mechanical integrated circuits sensor to monitor temperature,
temperature switches: and a semiconductor for the switching output.

Cost products and applications. However, these non-
The cost of a solid-state temperature switch is mercury alternatives may not meet the
approximately $350 to $600 depending on requirements for retrofitting all existing
product or application requirements. The cost of temperature switch products and applications.
a solid-state temperature switch is generally
higher than the cost of a mercury or mechanical
temperature switch.
4.16 Relays
The use of solid-state technology provides A relay is an electrically controlled device that
improved accuracy, repeatability, and reliability opens or closes electrical contacts to effect the
as compared with mechanical or mercury operation of other devices in the same or another
temperature switches. Switching point, electrical circuit. Relays are often used to switch
hysteresis, and other parameters are often field large current loads by supplying relatively small
programmable. Solid-state temperature switches currents to a control circuit. There are two
provide tighter control that can increase the life general families of relays: electromechanical
of controlled equipment. Solid-state temperature and semiconductor. Electro- mechanical relays
switches operate with low voltage and low include mercury displacement, mercury wetted
current consumption. Solid-state temperature reed relay, mercury contact relay, dry reed relay,
switches do not require calibration. and other miscellaneous electromechanical
Solid-state temperature switches usually have relays. Semiconductor relays include solid-state
a higher initial cost than mechanical or mercury relays and silicon controlled rectifiers.
temperature switches. A relay is a versatile component used to meet
the needs of hundreds of varied products and
Manufacturers applications. A relay can be incorporated into a
The following are manufacturers of solid-state product (e.g. copiers, heaters, conveyors, etc.), or
temperature switches: can be purchased as a component to be used in a
customer specific application (e.g. petrochemical
processing). Listed below are examples of
Name Website
Kobold TDD – 2, 800-998-1020 products and applications that use relays. Many
TDD - 4 www.kobold.com of these products and applications may already
use non- mercury relays.
Maxitronic HB Series 800-659-8520 • Commercial aircraft: power control,
www.maxitronic.com
master power switches, motor control
Seiko S-8130AC 310-517-7771 switching, heavy current load switching,
Instruments Series www.seiko-usa- instrument panel, generator switching,
USA ecd.com alternator power switching, antenna
changeover, channel selection, etc.
United Electric D1C2L1N, 617-926-1000
Controls D1C2L2A, www.ueonline.com
D1A2L1N • Air conditioning and heating equipment:
compressor motors, fan motors, coolant
Summary pump motors, duct heaters, etc.
There are numerous non- mercury alternative
technologies currently in use for temperature • Lighting controls: street lamps, dimmer
switch products and applications. It appears that controls, parking lots, scoreboards, high
these non- mercury alternatives are cost intensity lamps, traffic signals, tungsten
competitive and can meet the functional lamps, etc.
requirements for new temperature switch

• Telecommunications: trunk switching, operated machines, ships, laboratory
test panels, telecomm circuit boards, load baths, flask heaters, robotics, packaging
switches, radio base stations, ground start, machines, pharmaceutical processes,
input/output cards, control panel textiles, paper & pulp drying, infrared
exchanges, antenna switches, loop current ovens, high temperature materials
test, etc. processing, electric ranges, multiplexers,
communication modules, modems, data
• Hospitals: surgical equipment, X-ray access arrangement circuits, etc.
machine control, energy management
systems, surgical lighting, etc. The global market for relays was $4.658
billion in 2001 revenues. Approximately 89.1%
• Food Industry: food processing, deep of these revenues were for electromechanical
fryers, pizza ovens, baking ovens, electric relays and 10.9% was for semiconductor relays.
grills, dishwashers, etc. The three largest industry applications were
telecommunications (25.3%), transportation
• Office equipment: copiers, computer (18.4%), and industrial automation (12.4%).
power supplies, blue print machines, etc. There are numerous design parameters that
affect the specification and selection of a relay
• Manufacturing: injection molding for a particular application. The following is a
machines, kilns, ink heating, vacuum concise listing of some of the more critical
forming, soldering systems, factors:
semiconductor processing, programmable
logic controllers, etc. • Mounting: printed circuit board, din rail,
bracket/flange mount, socket/plug- in
• Production test equipment: component style, surface mount, etc.
testers, cable testers, circuit testing, etc.
• Reliability: failure rate, mean cycles
• Laboratory test instruments: voltmeters, before failure (MCBF), etc.
ohmmeters, recorders, environmental
chambers, etc. • Enclosure: open, National Electrical
Manufacturers Association (NEMA),
• Machine tool control: solenoid operated hermetically sealed, etc.
valves, heavy motor starting, signal lights,
etc. • Pole specifications: single pole, double
pole, triple pole, etc.
• Miscellaneous: mining equipment, pool
heaters, dry cleaning equipment, • Throw specifications: single throw,
notebook computers, ceramic heaters, double throw, etc.
industrial furnaces, alarm systems, battery
chargers, farm incubators, chemical tank • Isolation: optically isolated, etc.
heaters, film packaging, glass furnaces,
engraving equipment, plastic extruders, • Contact ratings: maximum switching
steam generators, automobiles, printing current (amps), maximum switching
machines, silicon carbide heaters, voltage, maximum switching power
controlled rectifiers, graphite heaters,
infrared dryers, book binding machines, • Contacts: normally open, normally
trucks, conveyors, appliances, missiles, closed, contact material, etc.
aerospace, petrochemical processing, coin

• Materials: contacts, insulation, soldering Original equipment manufacturers that use
fluxes, finishes, etc. relays as a component within their products or
equipment were interviewed by Venture
• Regulatory approval: Underwriters Development Corporation. They were asked to
Laboratories, Canadian Standards identify the most important criterion for their
Association, etc. selection of relays in their products. The
following table illustrates the results:
• Resistance: contacts, coil, insulation
Table 4.6: Most Important Relay Product
Selection Criteria
• Voltage: Direct current or alternating
current Product Selection Criteria Percent of OEM
Respondents
• Load types: inductive, motor, lamp, etc. Citing as Most
Important
• Load characteristics: inrush current, step Reliability/Quality/Durability 41.4%
Contact Current Specifications 27.6%
up, ramp up, soft start, etc. Physical Characteristics 27.6%
Lifespan/Cycles 24.1%
• Life expectancy: electrical components, Coil/Control Specifications 19.0%
mechanical components, controlled Resistance Parameters 15.5%
equipment, etc. Ease of Maintenance & 13.8%
Replacement
Isolation Parameters 15.5%
• Physical: weight, size, noise level, etc. Regulatory/Customer 10.3%
Requirements
• Coil ratings: voltage range, resistance Energy Efficiency 3.4%
range, nominal power, etc. Other 12.1%
Source: Venture Development Corporation
• Performance specifications: make/operate

time, break/release time, contact chatter,
contact bounce, time delay, etc. 4.16.A Mercury Displacement Relay
Description
• Environment: operating temperature, The mercury displacement relay uses a metallic
shock, vibration, acceleration, humidity, plunger device to displace mercury. The plunger
etc. is lighter than mercury so it floats on the
mercury. The plunger also contains a magnetic
• Control panel: space available, natural shell or sleeve, so it can be pulled down into the
convection available, etc. mercury with a magnetic field. The plunger
provides the same functionality in a mercury
• Output device for solid-state relays: displacement relay as an armature in a
metal oxide semiconductor field effect mechanical relay. When the coil power is off,
transistor (MOSFET), silicon controlled the mercury level is below the electrode tip and
rectifier, bipolar transistor, triac, etc. no current path exists between the insulated
center electrode and the mercury pool. When
• Other features: time delay, instrinsically coil power is applied the plunger is drawn down
safe, visual indicators, sealed enclosure, into the mercury pool by the pull of the magnetic
test button, latching controls, energy field and the plunger centers itself within the
efficiency, etc. current path. Upon removing the coil power, the
buoyancy force of the mercury causes the
plunger assembly to again rise to the starting

position. This drops the level of the mercury and pivots, hinges, pins or mechanical linkages
breaks the current path through the center resulting in limited wear. Mercury displacement
electrode and the mercury pool. relays last on average between 1,000,000 to
The amount of mercury in mercury 10,000,000 cycles. Factors that affect the
displacement relays varies considerably based on longevity of the relay include: voltage being
number of poles, current rating, termination switched, ratio of line voltage to rated voltage,
requirements, and other factors. The mercury and number of cycles per hour. Mercury
content reported by manufacturers to IMERC for displacement relays have bounce free operation
relays was in the range of greater than 1,000 mg. because the mercury surface tension enable the
The mercury can be released to the environment mercury to bridge the contacts during the plunger
during product use. For example, if the load is settling time.
short circuited, the MDR can burst. Some Mercury displacement relays need to be
manufacturers offer free take-back programs for mounted in a specific orientation in order for the
their mercury relays. mercury to function properly. Mercury
Mercury displacement relays are used in high displacement relays can burst, causing an on-site
current, high voltage applications such as hazardous waste problem, if the relay is
industrial process controllers, power supply overheated due to rapid cycling or if the load is
switching, resistance heating, tungsten lighting, short-circuited. In addition, disposal of worn out
welding, high current/voltage lighting, flood contactors can be expensive. Control of
lights, copiers, battery chargers, energy equipment is limited compared with solid-state
management systems, and industrial ovens. relays. Thermal shock can occur for the
equipment being controlled by the relay.
Cost
The cost of a mercury displacement relay is Manufacturers
approximately $20 to $150 depending on product The following are manufacturers of mercury
or application requirements. The cost of a displacement relays:
mercury displacement relay is comparable with
other electromechanical relays. The cost of a
mercury displacement relay is less than a solid Name Website
state relay for low current applications, but cost Chromalox HGR 800-443-2640
becomes comparable for higher current series www.chromolox.com
applications.
Magnecraft & WM and 843-393-5778
Advantages/Disadvantages Struthers-Dunn WML www.magnecraft.com
Series
Mercury displacement relays have hermetically
sealed contacts that provide internal and external Mercury Numerous 616-663-8574
protection from arcing and environmental abuse. Displacement models www.mdius.com
The mercury rewets the contact electrode Industries Inc.
providing a new contact surface with each Watlow Electronic HG Series 507-454-5300
Manufacturing www.watlow.com
actuation, so the surface does not pit or weld. Company
Mercury displacement relays can cycle faster
than a mechanical relay, and have low contact
resistance because large electrodes and
surrounding mercury volume creates large 4.16.B Mercury Wetted Reed Relay
contact mating areas. Mercury displacement Description
relays have quiet operation because acoustical A mercury wetted reed relay is a type of electro-
noise from rebounding contacts is eliminated. mechanical relay that employs a hermetically
Mercury displacement relays have long life sealed reed switch. The reeds are thin flat
because they contain one moving part and no

ferromagnetic blades that serve as a contact, between the logic and input and output devices is
spring, and magnetic armature. The mercury less complicated and less expensive for reed
wetted reed relay consists of a glass encapsulated relays. The mercury wetted reed relay has the
reed with its base immersed in a pool of mercury following advantages over a dry reed relay: no
and the other end capable of moving between two contact bounce, longer life, and lower contact
sets of contacts. The mercury flows up the reed resistance.
by capillary action and wets the contact surface Reed relays used for inductive loads such as
of the reed and the stationary contacts. The motors, relay coil, solenoids, etc., are subject to
mercury wetted reed relay is usually actuated by high induced voltages during opening of the load
a coil around the capsule. circuit contacts. This high transient voltage may
Wetted mercury reed relays are typically cause damage to the reed switch or significantly
small circuit controls that are used in electronic reduce its life. Reed relays used for capacitive
devices for switching or signal routing functions. loads such as capacitors, incandescent lamps or
Reed relays are primarily used in test, calibration, long cables, are subject to high surge/inrush
and measurement equipment applications where current. Therefore, protective circuits such as
stable contact resistance over the life of the surge suppressors or current limiting resistors are
product is necessary. often used. Reed relays located near sources of
strong magnetic interference such as steel plates,
Cost transformers, etc. can experience changes in
Prices for the mercury wetted reed relay ranged operational characteristics and false operation is
from approximately $10 for printed circuit board likely. The wetted mercury reed relay must be
mounted low amperage devices, to $40 for larger mounted in the vertical position for proper
5 amp devices. For one manufacturer, the cost of operation.
mercury wetted relay was the same as a dry Mercury wetted reed relays can be replaced by
magnetic reed relay for a similar device. For dry reed magnetic relays for most applications
another manufacturer, the cost of a mercury with the exception of applications that require no
wetted relay was double the cost of a dry contact bounce, long operational life, or low
magnetic reed relay for a similar device. Overall, contact resistance.
prices for mercury wetted relays appear to be
comparable to prices for dry reed relays. Manufacturers
However, life cycle costs are higher for the The following are manufacturers of mercury
mercury wetted reed relay due to the higher costs wetted reed relays:
associated with shipping, management, and
disposal of the mercury containing device. Manufac turer Product Phone Number &
Name Website
American Numerous 562-944-0447
Advantages/Disadvantages Relays, Inc. DIP, SIP, www.americanrela
Hermetically sealed contacts in a clean and ys.com
atmosphere are unaffected by dust, corrosion, or encapsulated
oxidation, and also eliminate the opportunity for , models
sticking, binding, or wearing of hinged joints.
Celduc Relais F81A, Laube Technology:
With proper circuitry, magnetic reed relays can (France) F72C2 805-388-1050
offer a life span in excess of one billion Laube Series www.celduc-
operations. The mercury wetted reed relay can Technology – relais.com
operate in the millisecond range. Although US
slower than solid-state relays, reed relays are Representative
Computer Numerous 800-864-2815
sufficiently faster than other electromechanical Components, models www.relays-
relays and therefore can be used in high speed Inc. unlimited.com
switching applications. When compared to solid-
state relays, the necessary coupling circuitry

Manufac turer Product Phone Number & usually plated with rhodium, ruthenium, or gold
Name Website to provide a low contact resistance when they
Crydom DIP Series Crydom USA
meet.
Magnetics 619-210-1600
(UK) www.crydom.co.uk Dry magnetic reed relays are typically small
circuit controls that are used in electronic
Meder MRE and 800-870-5385 devices. Reed relays are primarily used in test,
Electronic, MT Series www.meder.com calibration, and measurement equipment
Inc. applications where stable contact resistance over
SRC Devices MSS Series, 858-292-8770
HGWM www.srcdevices.co
the life of the product is necessary.
Series m
Cost
The cost of dry magnetic reed relays are
approximately $2 to $15 depending on product or
application requirements. For one manufacturer,
4.16.C Mercury Contact Relay
the cost of mercury wetted relay was the same as
Description a dry magnetic reed relay for a similar device.
The mercury contact relay establishes contact For another manufacturer, the cost of mercury
between electrodes in a sealed capsule as a result wetted relay was double the cost for a dry
of the capsule being tilted by an electromagnetic reed relay for a similar device.
magnetically actuated armature, either on pickup
or dropout. No manufacturers were identified Advantages/Disadvantages
that currently produce this type of mercury relay, The dry magnetic reed relay has long operational
and therefore there will be no further coverage of life, fast cycling time, no mercury life cycle
this type of relay in this report. impacts to address, and can be mounted in any
position for proper operation.
The dry magnetic reed relay experiences
similar effects from electromagnetic interference
Alternative 1: Dry Magnetic Reed as the mercury wetted reed relay. Exposure to
Relay high voltage may cause the contacts to weld
together. The dry magnetic reed relay has more
Description contact bounce than mercur y wetted reed relays,
A dry magnetic reed relays consists of a pair of shorter operational life than mercury wetted reed
low reluctance, ferromagnetic, slender flattened relays, and has higher contact resistance than the
reeds. These reeds are hermetically sealed into a mercury wetted relay.
glass tube with a controlled atmosphere in
cantilever fashion so that the ends align and Manufacturers
overlap with a small air gap. Since the reeds are The following are manufacturers of dry magnetic
ferromagnetic, the extreme ends will assume reed relays:
opposite magnetic polarity when brought into the
influence of a magnetic field. When the magnetic Manufacturer Product Phone Number &
Name Website
flux density is sufficient, the attraction force of American Numerous 562-944-0447
the opposing magnetic poles overcomes the reed Relays, Inc. models www.americanrelays
stiffness causing them to flex toward each other .com
and make contact. This operation can be repeated
millions of times at extremely high speeds. Celduc Relais D31 and Laube Technology:
(France) D41 805-388-1050
Energizing the coil sets up a magnetic field that Laube Series www.celduc-
acts in the same manner as the permanent Technology – relais.com
magnet. At the contact area, these relays are US
Representative

Manufacturer Product Phone Number & requirement goes up, the price for other electro-
Name Website mechanical relays rises and they become less cost
competitive with solid-state relays.
Components, models www.relays-
Inc. unlimited.com
Coto Numerous 401-943-2686 Other electro-mechanical relays are often used as
Technology models www.cotorelay.com safety devices because of the complete
mechanical break in the electrical circuit,
Crydom S Series Crydom USA
Magnetics 619-210-1600
whereas solid-state units are subject to leakage
(UK) www.crydom.co.uk current. Other electromechanical relays are
often selected because of their low initial cost.
Magnecraft & W107 843-393-5778 Electromechanical relays are desirable when
Struthers- Series www.magnecraft.co electrical interference is likely to be present or
Dunn m
when low heat dissipation is required.
Meder H, LI, HE, 800-870-5385 Other electro-mechanical relays will typically
Electronic, MRX, MT www.meder.com wear out either mechanically or electrically
Inc. and other within several hundreds of thousands of cycles.
series This is a shorter operational life than for either
NTE R56 973-748-5089 mercury or solid-state relays. Labor costs and
Electronics, Series www.nteinc.com
Inc. production down time to change a failure are
SRC Devices Series 858-292-8770 significant when selecting this type of rela y for
DSS4 and www.srcdevices.com high cycling applications. Other electro-
PRMA mechanical relays also have a slow cycle time.
Therefore, the control of equipment is poor for
many sensitive applications. The controlled
equipment may be damaged and heater life can
Alternative 2: Other Electro- be shortened due to thermal shock.
Mechanical Relays
Manufacturers
Description The following are manufacturers of other electro-
There are several classifications of electromechanical relays:
mechanical relays including mercury
displacement, mercury wetted reed, dry reed, and Name Website
other electromechanical relays. This section Chromalox CONT 800-443-2640
will focus on the other electro-mechanical relays Series www.chromolox.co
that include general purpose, definite purpose, m
heavy duty, and printed circuit board mounted
relays. Most electromechanical relays are driven Computer Numerous 800-864-2815
Components, models www.relays-
electro-magnetically, by passing a current Inc. unlimited.com
through a coil and generating a magnetic flux.
This flux then causes an armature to move Magnecraft & W199 843-393-5778
prompting isolated electrical contacts to open or Struthers- Series www.magnecraft.co
close. Dunn m
Meder TC Series 800-870-5385

Cost Electronic, www.meder.com
The cost for other electromechanical relays is Inc.
approximately $1 to $35 depending upon product NTE R10 973-748-5089
or application requirements. As the power level Electronics, Series www.nteinc.com
Inc.

Manufacturer Product Phone Number & Solid-state relays experience voltage drops
Name Website across the device resulting in heat generation.
Omron MJN and 847-882-2288
The more current put through the device, the
Electronics MGN www.omron.com
Series greater the quantity of heat that needs to be
SRC Devices LM Series 858-292-8770 dissipated. Overheating protection is usually
www.srcdevices.com provided by heat sinks or cooling fans. Solid-
state relays require proper fusing for short circuit
Teledyne Numerous 800-284-7007 protection. Solid-state relays also may require
models www.teledynerelays.
com
protection from transient voltage spikes. This is
usually provided by metal oxide varistors. Solid-
state relays only turn circuits on or off, resulting
in controlled equipment receiving either full
current or no current. Some solid-state relay
manufacturers use infrared light emitting diodes
Alternative 3: Solid State Relay (LEDs) made of gallium/aluminum/arsenic to
control the optically coupled input. The solid-
Description
state relay experiences current leakages, and the
A solid-state relay is a semiconductor, electronic
contact resistance is typically higher than
switching device that operates a load circuit
mercury wetted relays.
without the use of physical mechanical contacts.
The solid-state relay contains an input circuit, an
Manufacturers
opto-coupler chip, and an output circuit designed
The following are manufacturers of solid-state
to switch either an alternating current or direct
relays:
current voltage. Solid state relays control power
by switching on and off at the zero cross point.
Cost Name Website
The cost of a solid-state relay is approximately ABB SSAC Numerous 315-638-1300
models www.ssac.com
$1 to $150 depending on product or application
requirements. Carlo Gavazzi RN and Allied:
(Switzerland) RS1A Series 800-433-5700
Advantages/Disadvantages U.S. Rep - www.carlogavazzi.
Solid state relays provide the following Allied com
advantages: very long operational life, immunity
Celduc Relais SC Series Laube Technology:
to electromagnetic interference, lower power (France) 805-388-1050
consumption, high operating speeds, bounce- free Laube www.celduc-
operatio n, low level control signals, small Technology – relais.com
package size, and multi function integration. The US
printed circuit board mounted solid-state relay Representative
Chromalox 7750 Series 800-443-2640
has a tremendous size advantage over the www.chromolox.c
electromagnetic relay, resulting in critical printed om
circuit board space savings. The solid-state relay
is also more immune to physical shock, vibration, Clare CPC, LCA 978-524-6700
and damage. Solid-state relay operational testing Series www.clare.com
by one manufacturer resulted in a mean time
between failure (MTBF) of thirty-three years. Components, models www.relays-
Compared to the dry reed relay, the solid-state Inc. unlimited.com
relay has no contact bounce, and longer
operational life.

Manufacturer Product Phone Number & • Phase-angle- fired controls – Provides
Name Website smooth, variable application of power to
Continental SV, RS, and 703-669-1306
Industries Inc. RV Series www.ciicontrols.co
heaters.
m
• Zero- voltage switching controls –
Crouzet 84132 and 972-471-2555 Proportionally turns on and off each full
Corporation 84130 Series www.crouzet.com cycle of the power line.
Crydom H12 Series Crydom USA
Magnetics 619-210-1600 • On/off controls – Function similar to
(UK) www.crydom.co.uk electro-mechanical or mercury relays, but
has much faster cycle times.
International PV Series 310-322-3331
Rectifier www.irf.com
Cost
NTE RS1 and 973-748-5089 The cost of a silicon controlled rectifier is
Electronics, RS3 Series www.nteinc.com approximately $30 to $150 depending on product
Inc. or application requirements. The cost of silicon
Solid State Numerous 888-377-4776 controlled rectifiers is higher than electro-
Optronics, Inc. models www.ssousa.com
mechanical relays at low power, but becomes
Teledyne C3P24D25 800-284-7007
more comparable with electromechanical relays
Model www.teledynerelay at mid to high power levels.
s.com
Tyco SSRD, 800-468-2023 The silicon controlled rectifier is an extremely
Electronics SSRQ, and www.relay.tycoele
SSRT Series ctronics.com
fast switch that can be cycled in milliseconds.
Silicon controlled rectifiers offer the following
Vishay LH Series 402-563-6866 advantages: improved response time, closer
www.vishay.com process control, extended life of controlled
equipment, reduced maintenance costs, silent
Watlow SSR Series 507-454-5300
operation, and reduced peak power consumption.
Electronic www.watlow.com
Manufacturing The level of process control that can be achieved
Company with a silicon controlled rectifiers is unattainable
with any other relay type. Silicon controlled
rectifiers are excellent for addressing high inrush
current, soft start, step up, ramp up, or other
Alternative 4: Silicon Controlled applications where variable power is required and
satisfied by using phase angle functionality.
Rectifiers The silicon controlled rectifier needs to be
physically disconnected before servicing
Description
controlled equipment, and has heat dissipation
The silicon controlled rectifier functions as a
switch that can rapidly turn power on or off in a requirements. The silicon controlled rectifier
costs more than other relays for low current
variety of applications. The silicon controlled
rectifier is made up of four layers of applications.
semiconductor material. Silicon controlled
Manufacturers
rectifiers can deliver electrical power to
controlled equipment in several ways: The following are manufacturers of silicon
controlled rectifiers:

Manufacturer Product Phone Number & relay slightly less than its mercury displacement
Name Website relay with comparable functionality.
Avatar A1P, A3P, 610-543-5155
Instruments B, C1P, D, www.avatarinstrum
CZ, and R ents.com Advantages/Disadvantages
Series By combining solid state and electromechanical
Carlo Gavazzi RM1A and Allied: relay technology, the hybrid relay eliminates the
(Switzerland) RE Series 800-433-5700 internal heating effect caused by current flow
U.S. Rep - www.carlogavazzi. through electronic power components. This
Allied com
eliminates the need for integrated heat sinks and
Chromalox 4001 SCR 800-443-2640 consequently reduces the physical size of the
Series www.chromolox.c relay. The hybrid relay provides a long
om operation life, often greater than five million
cycles. The hybrid relay has a virtually silent
Tyco SSR Series 800-468-2023
operation, enabling the relay to be mounted in
Electronics www.relay.tycoele
ctronics.com noise sensitive areas.
A wide range of hybrid relays is not currently
Watlow DIN-A- 507-454-5300 available to meet all design parameters.
Electronic MITE Series www.watlow.com However, the hybrid relay is a good alternative
Manufacturing
for retrofitting mercury relays when the hybrid
Company
relay can cover the necessary design parameters.
Manufacturers
The following are manufacturers of hybrid
Alternative 5: Hybrid (Electro- relays:
mechanical and Solid-State) Manufacturer Product Phone Number &
Name Website
Description Carlo Gavazzi RZ Series Allied:
Hybrid relays combine electromechanical and (Switzerland) 800-433-5700
U.S. Rep - www.carlogavazzi.com
solid-state technologies, offering the advantages Allied
of both without the disadvantages associated with Crouzet 84138 972-471-2555
either individually. The switching of a hybrid Corporation Series www.crouzet.com
relay is controlled by a microprocessor. When
switched on, the circuit is closed by the solid- Watlow E-Safe 507-454-5300
state element and the load energized, while Electronic Relay www.watlow.com
Manufacturing
absorbing transient peaks. The solid-state Company
element is then short-circuited a few milliseconds
later by an electromechanical relay contact, Summary
which maintains the load. The reverse cycle There are numerous non- mercury alternative
operates when the control signal disappears and technologies currently in use for relay products
the circuit is de-energized. The hybrid power and applications. The non- mercury alternatives
relay is designed to cycle power on and off for a have been designed for use in various
variety of applications including heating, applications, including demanding process
ventilation, air conditioning and lighting. control applications in industries such as food,
glass, plastics, semiconductors, chemical, and
Cost petroleum. It appears that these non-mercury
The cost of a hybrid relay is approximately $40 alternatives are cost competitive and can meet the
to $140 depending on product or application functional requirements for most, but not all new
requirements. One manufacturer prices its hybrid relay products and applications. In addition,
these non- mercury alternatives may not meet the

requirements for retrofitting existing relay Manufacturers
products and applications in some circumstances. The following are manufacturers of mercury
flame sensors:
4.17 Flame Sensor Manufacturer Product Phone Number

Name & Website
Andy Baumen Mercury 1-800-387-817
Mercury Flame Sensor Associates, Flame Sensor www.andybaum
Ltd. enltd.com
Description
Channel Mercury 440-423-0113
Flame sensors are used as a safety device in gas Products Inc. Flame Sensor
appliances. The flames sensor will stop the flow
of gas if there is no heat being produced by an White-Rodgers Mercury 314-577-1300
open flame meaning the pilot light is out, or the Flame Sensor www.white-
product is malfunctioning. The mercury within rodgers.com
the bulb of the sensor vaporizes and expands Fenwal Mercury 508-881-2000
when the pilot light is on causing the gas valve to Flame Sensor www.fenwalcont
open. rols.com
Cost Derlite Mercury 44-1208-72565

Limited Flame Sensor www.derlite.com
The difference in cost of flame sensors as a
component is difficult to find. One cost Harper- Mercury 630-870-3300
comparison made was between gas ranges that Wyman Co. Flame Sensor www.harper-
contain a mercury flame sensor and those that wyman.com
have an electronic ignition system. The prices Invensys Mercury 804-756-6524
were comparable ranging from $300 up to $1000. Appliance Flame Sensor www.invensys.c
Controls om
A low-end quality name gas range with an
electronic ignition and a gas range with a Major Mercury 847-593-0796
mercury flame sensor were both around $300. International Flame Sensor www.majorinter
The leading manufacturer of mobile home national.com
products also offers an electronic ignition system Sit La Precisa Mercury +39-049-
S.p.A. Flame Sensor 8293111
in its ranges and hot water heaters. No cost www.sitgroup.it
difference was noted in any product literature,
and almost every model manufactured was
offered either as electronic ignition flame
detection or a mercury flame sensor.
Alternative 1: Electronic Ignition
Advantages/Disadvantages System
The mercury flame sensor provides the safety of
controlling the flow of gas when no flame is lit. Description
This prevents natural gas from leaking out and Using an electronic ignition system in gas
creating a serious situation. A majority of the appliances eliminates the need for a standing
manufacturers identified offered an electronic pilot light. The electronic ignition sparks when
ignition flame detection unit that does not use the gas is turned on to ensure rapid lighting of
mercury in its sensor. gas and to prevent gas discharge before sparking.

Cost Manufacturer Product Phone Number
In general, the difference in cost between a range Name & Website
Trivar Inc. Electronic 905-671-1744
with an electronic ignition and the cost of a range Flame Sensor www.trivar.com
with a mercury flame sensor is negligible. Steelman Electronic 903-984-3061
However, one manufacturer indicated that the Industries, Inc. Flame Sensor www.steelman.c
price of their electronic ignition range was 10% - om
20% higher than the price of their pilot model Capable Electronic 630-860-6514
range containing a mercury flame sensor. A low Controls Flame Sensor
end quality name gas range with an electronic Derlite Electronic 44-1208-72565
ignition starts at $300 and can run up to $1000. Limited Flame Sensor www.derlite.com
A majority of the manufacturers identified
offered an electronic ignition flame detection unit Harper- Electronic 630-870-3300
that does not use mercury in its sensor. Wyman Co. Flame Sensor www.harper-
wyman.com
The leading manufacturer of mobile home
Invensys Electronic 804-756-6524
products also offers an electronic ignition system Appliance Flame Sensor www.invensys.c
in its ranges and hot water heaters. No cost Controls om
difference was noted in any product literature,
and almost every model manufactured was Johnson Electronic 414-524-1200
offered either as electronic ignition flame Controls Flame Sensor www.johnsonco
ntrols.com
detection or a mercury flame sensor. Major Electronic 847-593-0796
International Flame Sensor www.majorinter
Advantages/Disadvantages national.com
One key concern when using an electronic Sit La Precisa Electronic +39-049-
ignition gas product is the fact that electricity S.p.A. Flame Sensor 8293111
www.sitgroup.it
must be present in order to light the appliance. In
remote areas where electricity is not offered
Summary
safety becomes a concern. The electronic
The electric ignition system is a cost effective
ignition flame detection products can still be lit
and functional replacement for the mercury flame
without electricity, but offer no safety to control
sensor. Electronic ignition systems are currently
the gas flow. The mercury flame sensors do not
in use for many applications. In remote areas
require electricity to function, but ensure the
where electricity is intermittent or unavailable,
detection of a flame and the control of gas flow.
the electronic ignition system is not a safe
The electronic ignition system ranges do not
alternative to the mercury flame sensor. Even
contain any mercury containing devices or
when electricity is available, the mercury flame
sensors, and are a good alternative.
sensor cannot always be easily retrofitted with an
electronic ignition system for existing
applications because the flame sensor is often
Manufacturers
highly integrated within a product.
The following are manufacturers of electronic
ignition systems:

Name & Website
Andy Baumen Electronic 1-800-387-817
Associates, Flame Sensor www.andybaum
Ltd. enltd.com
Ventronics, Electronic 908-272-9262

Inc. Flame Sensor www.ventronicsi
nc.com

and other types of measuring instruments. Some
exemptions remain for spare parts of existing
5.0 Conclusions and products and applications. Other European
Recommendations countries have banned or restricted the import,
sale, and/or use of various mercury containing
5.1 Conclusions products. (UNEP, 2002)
In the United States, there is legislation at the
state level to address the sale of various mercury
Researching alternatives to the priority
containing products. For example, Rhode Island
mercury added products showed that many of
and Connecticut have recently adopted into law
these mercury-containing products can be
mercury product phase-out legislation based on
replaced with non- mercury products of equal or
the NEWMOA Mercury Model Legislation.
greater functionality at comparable costs.
For most priority products examined in this
Sphygmomanometers
study, at least one manufacturer of the non-
Alternatives to mercury sphygmomanometers are
mercury alternative was identified where the cost
available from a number of manufacturers. The
differences between mercury and non-mercury
basic function and purchase price of the aneroid
technologies were minimal. The research
(dial) sphygmomanometer appear to be
findings suggest that many non-mercury
comparable to that of the mercury
alternatives are available to address the full range
sphygmomanometer. A relatively new class of
of functions required by consumer products.
electronic blood pressure monitors is also now
Examples of some product specific mercury
available. This type of device, with an entry level
replacement programs were discussed in the
price of approximately $700 (roughly five times
findings section of this report. In addition, there
the cost of the least expensive me rcury gauge), is
are mercury replacement programs that address
promoted as being more forgiving of operator
multiple mercury containing products. For
technique and providing more comprehensive
example, the Mercury Pollution Prevention
information about blood pressure.
Initiative involves three Indiana steel mills that
are inventorying mercury containing products,
Esophageal (Bougie) Tubes
identifying non- mercury alternatives, and
Tungsten gel- filled bougies are readily available
replacing the mercury products with non-mercury
from medical device manufacturers and appear to
alternatives. Products included in this effort are
be quite acceptable to practitioners.
barometers, manometers, hydrometers,
pyrometers, thermometers, thermostats, pressure
Gastrointestinal Tubes
switches, tilt switches, float switches, and relays.
The research suggests that gastrointestinal tubes
The inventory effort identified approximately one
are not widely used and tubes seem to be
thousand pounds of mercury in equipment and
consistently sold empty of mercury. Thus, a
devices at these three steel mills. The three mills
facility electing to use these tubes would supply
have committed to a reduction of 330 pounds of
its own mercury for weighting. One manufacturer
mercury in equipment by the end of 2000, a
advised using sterile water for weighting,
reduction of 660 pounds by the end of 2004, and
although it may result in a longer time for the
a reduction of 900 pounds by the end of 2008.
medical procedure.
(Delta Institute, 2001)
Legislation to address mercury containing
Manometers
products has been in existence since the early
Mercury manometers can be replaced by digital
1990s. In 1993, Sweden banned or phased-out
or vacuum gauge manometers. Both alternatives
the manufacture, import, or sale of thermometers,
are available and cost competitive. The digital
barometers, manometers, tilt switches, float
manometer is very accurate, and routine
switches, pressure switches, thermostats, relays,

calibration of the digital manometer will ensure Hydrometers
its accuracy. The hydrometer has many different applications;
its primary use is in the beer and wine making
Basal thermometers industry. The use of a spirit filled hydrometer is
Non-mercury basal thermometers are readily preferable because it is reliable and cost
available and it appears that digital and liquid- in- competitive with the mercury hydrometer.
glass alternatives would be functional and
acceptable to consumers. The digital basal Flow Meters
thermometers offer features that the mercury During this study, no manufacturers of mercury
thermometers lack: easy-to-read digital display, flow meters were identified. The reliability of the
beep upon achieving maximum temperature, and digital flow meters and other non- mercury flow
memory functionality. One supplier offers a meters are of high caliber, and are in use in
liquid- in-glass thermometer that is similar in numerous application.
appearance and function to a mercury basal
thermometer. Although non-mercury basal Pyrometers
thermometers are slightly more expensive than During this study, no manufacturers of mercury
the mercury counterpart (by a few dollars), this is pyrometers were identified. The alternatives to a
an infrequent purchase and is in the same price mercury pyrometer (used mainly in foundries to
range as some single- use fertility related products measure the temperature of extremely hot
(e.g. over-the-counter pregnancy test kits). materials) include the digital pyrometer and the
optical pyrometer. The optical pyrometer is
Thermometers (other non-fever) manufactured for large industrial type foundries.
Many viable alternatives exist to the mercury The digital pyrometer seems to be a much more
thermometer for multiple applications. The economical choice than the optical pyrometer for
alternatives to mercury thermometers are widely smaller foundries.
available in the United States, have been in use
and are considered to be comparable in accuracy Thermostats
to mercury thermometers. The overall cost to Rugged industrial thermostats are made to
switch from mercury to non-mercury is minimal. withstand extreme environmental conditions and
are used in lieu of electronic thermostats where
Barometers there is a risk of explosion. The manufacturers of
Aneroid barometers can be manufactured with or digital thermostats ind icated that they are not
without mercury. Some digital barometers can designed for rugged industrial use, but can be
perform other tasks, and therefore cost more. used in low- level industrial applications. In some
The digital barometer can be very inexpensive if circumstances the mercury thermostat may be
it is only needed to perform the task of measuring replaced with a digital thermostat. However, for
atmospheric pressure. The aneroid and digital extreme environmental conditions, the
barometers appear to be cost competitive manufacturer should be contacted to help
alternatives to the mercury barometer. determine the appropriate technology.
Hygrometers/Psychrometers Flame Sensors

Both the hygrometer and psychrometer are used The mercury containing flame sensor is used in
to measure the relative humidity. They both can many applications as a safety device to prevent
be replaced with a spirit- filled thermometer the flow of gas when a pilot lamp is not lit. An
instead of a mercury thermometer and provide alternative to the mercury flame sensor is the
the same functionality at similar costs. electronic ignition system. The electronic
ignition system can be used in similar
applications as the mercury flame sensor and is
available for most products. The mercury flame

sensor is often used in remote areas where and relay technologies because there are
electricity is not always available. Without many design features and options
electricity the electronic ignition system cannot available for each component, it appears
automatically light the pilot or range. The pilot that mercury and non- mercury
or range can however be lit by hand, but this switches/relays with similar functionality
poses a safety issue. for many applications are comparable in
price.
Switches and Relays
There were many common findings and • At least one manufacturer was identified
conclusions during this research for float that produced both the mercury and non-
switches, pressure switches, temperature mercury relay/switch with comparable
switches, tilt switches, mercury wetted reed functionality at comparable costs.
relays, and mercury displacement relays. The
following is a summary of these similarities:
The key differences identified between the
• These components are used in a wide mercury switches and relays are as follows:
range of products and applications.
Switches: No design parameters for new
• Numerous design parameters need to be switch products/applications were identified
considered prior to final component where the mercury containing component
selection. could not be replaced by a non- mercury
alternative for a comparable cost.
• Several different non- mercury alternative
technologies were identified to replace Relays: The majority of design parameters
each of the mercury switches and relays. for new relay products/applications could be
met by a non- mercury alternative for a
• Several manufacturers were identified for comparable cost. However, in some cases the
most non- mercury alternative design parameters could not be met by a non-
technologies. mercury alternative. For example, a mercury
wetted reed relay application that requires
• Manufacturers of mercury containing long life, no contact bounce, and low contact
resistance cannot be satisfied by any single
products often provide non- mercury
alternatives. non- mercury alternative.
Non-mercury alternatives appear to be

• Manufacturers often provide more than
available in the United States marketplace to
one non- mercury alternative technolo gy.
meet the various design parameters that specify
float, tilt, pressure, and temperature switches in
• The non- mercury technologies identified
new products and applications. Non-mercury
provide a variety of options for each alternatives appear to be available in the United
major design parameter.
States marketplace to meet most, but not all,
design parameters specifying the use of mercury
• Non-mercury alternatives were identified wetted reed and mercury displacement relays in
to meet the needs from low cost, simple new products and applications.
applications to higher cost, more Although there are readily available non-
demanding applications. mercury alternatives for new products and
applications, complications can appear when
• Although, it is difficult to precisely retrofitting existing mercury switches or relays in
compare pricing for the various switch

existing products and applications. The relay or only cost effective option because of the
switch component of an existing product or following:
application can wear out and require replacement
before the end of service life for the product or 1) Solid-state relays and silicon controlled
application. In some instances, the mercury rectifiers have power dissipation issues
switch or relay is embedded in an existing that need to be addressed. These relays
application in such a way that currently available cannot be easily retrofitted to existing
non- mercury alternatives cannot be retrofitted control panels because they may not fit
into the existing product or application. The in the available footprint, or there may
following two scenarios illustrate this situation: not be enough ventilation to cool the
device. In this case, a significant
Retrofit Scenario 1: Mercury Tilt Switch control panel retrofit expense would be
The Michigan based Clean Car Campaign required to accommodate the solid-state
initiated its “Switch the Switch” program in relay or silicon controlled rectifier.
2001 to replace mercury tilt switches with 2) A non- mercury electromechanical
non- mercury tilt switches in automobiles relay may not be sufficient to meet the
across the nation. This program used the demands of this fast cycle application.
metallic ball tilt switch to replace mercury 3) A dry reed relay may not be sufficient
tilt switches found in hood lights and trunk to meet the high current demands of this
lights. For many vehicle models, this is a existing application.
simple, drop- in exchange that takes about 4) The market for hybrid relays appears to
ten minutes. not be mature enough to cover the other
design parameters for this particular
Tilt switches are also used in antilock existing application.
braking systems (ABS) for certain trucks
and sport utility vehicles. However, the As the two examples above illustrate, the
ABS system usually consists of two to three retrofitting of mercury switches and relays in
mercury tilt switches that are physically existing products or applications can present
embedded in a plastic box that is integrated challenges. The cost of the relay or switch
with the braking mechanism. Because of component is often a small fraction of the total
this complex design, there is not a simple cost of the product or application. In situations
drop-in non- mercury tilt switch where a non- mercury alternative cannot be used
commercially available for retrofitting the for retrofit purposes, it would be unreasonable
ABS tilt switch system. and cost prohibitive to require the consumer to
replace the entire product or retrofit the
Retrofit Scenario 2: Mercury application.
Displacement Relay Relays and switches are used in hundreds of
An industrial application utilizes a control existing products and applications. Each product
panel populated with twenty mercury or application would need to be examined on a
displacement relays to control on-site case-by-case basis to determine if retrofitting
equipment that requires high current. This with a non- mercury alternative is cost
equipment also requires fast cycling for competitive. Therefore, it is not possible to
proper control. One of the mercury specify situations in which retrofitting of existing
displacement relays fails, and there is now a products or applications is cost competitive
need to replace this failed mercury relay in without conducting further study of individual
the existing control panel. A review of the products and/or applications. However, there are
non- mercury alternatives reveals that a new certain common factors that could negatively
mercury displacement relay may be the affect the cost competitiveness of retrofitting

with non- mercury alternatives. These factors that fits the amperage requirements of the pump.”
include: (Pollution Probe, 2000).
• Factor 1: Numerous switches and/or LCSP contacted two float switch/bilge pump
relays are combined to perform a manufacturers to determine if their float switches
particular function could be used to retrofit bilge pumps with
• Factor 2: The switch or relay is integrated external float switches. Both manufacturers
with other components of the product or indicated that their float switch could be used to
application retrofit their own bilge pumps, as well as other
• Factor 3: There are heat dissipation issues manufacturer’s bilge pumps. One of these
presented by using the non-mercury manufacturers did not recommend using their
alternative float switch to retrofit another manufacturer’s
• Factor 4: The physical size limitations or bilge pump because their float switches were not
other design parameters of the specifically tested on other manufacturer’s bilge
product/application cannot be met by the pumps. However, this manufacturer does
non- mercury alternative provide non- mercury bilge pump models.
• Factor 5: A custom-designed rather than LCSP also contacted a float switch
off-the-shelf switch or relay is used to manufacturer that provides both mercury and
meet unique operating requirements non- mercury float switches for use with bilge
pumps and other applications. The manufacturer
Float switches are used in bilge pumps and estimated that 98% of their float switches sold
provide an illustrative example of retrofit were non-mercury models, and the remaining 2%
considerations for existing equipment. There are were mercury models.
two types of bilge pumps: There may be a small number of instances
1. Non-automatic operation: The bilge pump where the mercury float switch in a bilge pump
does not contain a float switch and the cannot be replaced by a non- mercury float
bilge pump is often controlled by manual switch. Factor 2 could occur when a mercury
methods. However, non-automatic bilge float switch is integrated into the bilge pump
pumps can often be converted to housing for automatic operation. Factor 4 could
automatic mode by connecting an occur for bilge pumps with high amperage
external float switch. requirements. For example, the Atwood 4201
2. Automatic operation: The bilge pump is non- mercury float switch is marketed as being
controlled by a timer, a water detection able to convert any bilge pump to fully automatic
technology, a combination of timer and operation that draws less than 12 amps at 12 volts
water detection technology, or a float direct current. No situations were identified
switch. If a float switch is used, it can where Factors 1, 3, or 5 would occur for bilge
either be integrated into the bilge pump pump retrofit situations.
housing or can be connected to the bilge
pump and mounted externally to the 5.2 Recommendations
pump.
The float switch used in bilge pumps can be The product research conducted for this report
either a mercury or non- mercury model. suggests that there are cost competitive, viable
According to a recent study of mercury float non- mercury alternatives for a large majority of
switches in bilge pumps, “Most switches are the priority mercury containing products. In most
easily accessible for easy replacement of old cases, the purchase price of an alternative is
switches, which have a shorter life span than comparable to the mercury device and if the
bilge pumps. An old switch can usually be downstream costs are considered, non-mercury
replaced by any mercury or non- mercury variety alternatives can be considerably more cost
effective. Additional information to assist with

the transition to non- mercury alternative products
is provided in Appendix 3.
Non-mercury alternatives have been
researched and recommended for the following
products: sphygmomanometers, esophageal
dilators, manometers, barometers, non- fever
thermometers, hygrometers, psychrometers,
hydrometers, flow meters, and pyrometers. The
two products where alternative replacements
cannot be recommended for all applications are
gastrointestinal tubes and industrial thermostats.
More research is needed to understand
gastrointestinal tubes applications and the
viability of mercury replacement.
It appears that digital thermostats cannot
withstand the harsh environmental conditions
demanded by certain industrial settings, and
mercury thermostats are currently the only
industrial type thermostats available that can
perform effectively.
There are cost competitive, viable non-
mercury alternatives available and recommended
for the following components of new products
and applications: flame sensors, float switches,
tilt switches, temperature switches, and pressure
switches. The majority of design parameters for
new relay products/applications could be met by
a non- mercury alternative for a comparable cost.
However, in some cases the design parameters
could not be met by a non- mercury alternative.
Also, the use of electronic ignition systems is not
recommended to replace mercury flame sensors
in remote areas where electricity is unavailable.
Non-mercury alternatives were identified and
recommended to meet the needs of retrofitting
existing relay/switch products or applications.
However, there are certain retrofit circumstances
in which the cost implications preclude the use of
the non-mercury alternatives.

Hoerr, Donald, Solid-State Pressure Switches –
Technology for Today’s Fluid Power
6.0 Sources Applications, IICA Journal.
Barr Engineering Company, “Substance Flow ICL Calibration Laboratories, www.iclslabs.com.

Analysis of Mercury in Products” Prepared for
the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, August Inform, Inc., Purchasing for Pollution Prevention
15, 2001. Project (2002). “Mercury-Containing Products
and Alternatives in the Health Care Setting”.
California DHS, A Guide to Mercury Assessment Available at:
and Elimination in Health Care Facilities. http://www.informinc.org/fsmerchealth.pdf
(August, 2002).
California Poison Control System, University of
California (2000-2002). “Mercury and its Many Kansas Department of Health and Environment,
Forms”. Available at: “Mercury Information Page”. Available at:
http://www.calpoison.org/pub lic/mercury.html http://www.kdhe.state.ks.us/mercury/ (August,
(August, 2002). 2002).
Canzanello, Vincent J., MD; P.L. Jensen, RN; Knoop, Alan R., Fundamentals of Relay Circuit
GL Schwartz, MD, “Are Aneroid Design, Reinhold Publishing, New York.
Sphygmomanometers Accurate in Hospital and
Clinic Settings?”, Arch Intern Med. Maine Department of Environmental Protection,
2001;161:729:731. “Mercury in Maine: A Status Report”, February
2002.
Clean Car Campaign, Driving Forward – Switch
the Switch, Volume 3, March 2002. Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Managing
Mercury Switches: Hazardous Waste Fact sheet
Delta Institute, Inland Ispat Indiana Harbor #4.26 October 1998.
Works, Bethlehem Steel Burns Harbor Division,
United States Steel Gary Works, and Lake Minnesota Office of Environmental Assistance
Michigan Forum, “A Guide to Mercury Mercury applications in major appliances and
Reduction in Industrial and Commercial heating/cooling systems, April 1998.
Settings”, July, 2001. Available at: http://delta-
institute.org/Steel-Hg-report-0627011.pdf Minnesota Office of Environmental Assistance,
(September, 2002). Mercury in Households and Commercial
products and applications, John Gilkeson,
Gordon, John A., Venture Development November 1997.
Corporation, An Executive White Paper On: The
World Electromechanical and Solid State Relay Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, “Mercury”.
Industry, Fifth Edition, Volume I – North Available at:
America. http://hubble.pca.state.mn.us/air/mercury.html
(August, 2002).
Gordon, John A., Venture Development
Corporation, An Executive White Paper On: National Association of Relay Manufacturers,
2001/2002 Global Relay Market Intelligence Engineers Relay Handbook 2nd and 5th Edition,
Service, April 2002. Hayden Book Company, New York.
New York Academy of Sciences, “Pollution

Prevention and Management Strategies for

Mercury in the New York/New Jersey Harbor”, Tellus Institute, “Healthy Hospitals:
May 14, 2002. Environmental Improvements Through Better
Environmental Accounting”, July 2000.
Association, “Mercury-Added Product Timbrell, J.A., “Introduction to Toxicology”,
Notification Form”. Second Edition, 1995, Taylor & Francis; pp. 118-
121.
Association, “Total Mercury in All Mercury- United Natio ns Environment Programme
Added Products”. (UNEP), (July, 2002). “Global Mercury
Assessment”. Available at:
Northeast Waste Management Officials’ http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/WG-
Association, “Reported Mercury Spills in the meeting1-revised-report-download.htm (October,
Northeast States”, October 2001. 2002).
Offner, Arnold, How do Relays Work, Motion United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Control, July/August 1999. Mercury Study Report to Congress, December
1997.
Pollution Probe, A Study of the use of Mercury
Switches in Bilge Pumps of Pleasure Boats in United States Environmental Protection Agency
Ontario, March 2000. and Environment Canada, “Background
Information on Mercury Sources and
Powell, William B. and Pheifer, David, “The Regulations; Appendix C. Regulations on
Electrolytic Tilt Sensor”, Sensors, May 2000. Products that Contain Mercury”. Available at:
http://www.epa.gov/grtlakes/bnsdocs/mercsrce/9
Pulse Metric, Inc., “Non-Invasive Blood Pressure 409merc.pdf (August, 2002).
Measurement and Pressure Waveform Analysis”,
(1996). United States Geological Survey, “Mercury in
the Environment”, Fact Sheet 146-00 (October
Purdue University, Department of Agricultural 2000)
and Biological Engineering. “What Devices
Contain Mercury?” Available at: United States Geological Survey, 2002 Mineral
http://pasture.ecn.purdue.edu/~epados/mercbuild/ Commodity Summary – Mercury.
src/devicepage.htm (August, 2002).
University of Michigan Pollution Prevention
Sedivy, David, Electronic Controls Spawn Program, “Mercury-Filled Esophageal Devices”.
Integration, Appliance Manufacturer. Available at:
http://www.p2000.umich.edu/mercury_reduction/
State of California Department of Health mr1.htm (August, 2002).
Services, “A Guide to Mercury Assessment and
Elimination in HealthCare Facilities”, September Von Rein, K. and Hylander L.D., Experiences
2000. Available at: from Phasing out the Use of Mercury in Sweden,
http://www.dhs.cahwnet.gov/ps/ddwem/environ Regional Environmental Change, 2000, 1:126-
mental/med_waste/guide_to_mercury_assessmen 134.
t_v1.00.pdf (August, 2002).
Williams, Raymond R., Sensors Magazine, April
State of Maine Statutes, Title 38, Chapter 16-B, 1997, “An Introduction to Solid State Pressure
Mercury-added Products and Services. Switches”.

Winkler, Robert, and Wells Erik A., “The UVM
Mercury Thermometer Swap. January, 1999.
Available at:
http://esf.uvm.edu/chemsource/thermoswap/
(October, 2002)
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources ,

Draft Wisconsin Mercury Source Book.
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources,

Success Stories & Partnerships, August, 2002.
Available at:
http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/caer/cea/projects/
pollution/reports/1999/report2_p6.htm (October
2002)
Yeats, Mike, Derriford Hospital, Plymouth, UK,

“The Maintenance of an Aneroid
Sphygmomanometer”, Update in Anesthesia,
Issue 3 (1993) Article 8, World Federation of
Societies of Anaesthesiologists. Available at:
http://www.nda.ox.ac.uk/wfsa/html/u03/u03_018
.htm (August, 2002).

Appendix 1: Medical Device Reports for Spilled Mercury
The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the use of medical devices in the
United States. In 1990, the Medical Device Reporting (MDR) system was implemented as a
mechanism for the Food and Drug Administration to receive significant medical device adverse events
from manufacturers, importers and user facilities, so they can be detected and corrected quickly. The
following MDRs demonstrated the potential for health or environmental problems with mercury in
healthcare. In addition to remediation associated with the mercury release (both environmental and
health related), each MDR requires investigation and documentation at the reporting facility, the
manufacturer, and the FDA.
Date FDA Received Reference & Description

Report
05/09/2002 Baumanometer Stand-by Blood Pressure Machine
“A blood pressure unit blew, causing 2.5 ounces of
mercury to vaporize.”
10/23/2000 Baumanometer
“Glass tube containing mercury on Baumanometer cracked
causing mercury to spill in facility.”
01/05/2000 Rusch Maloney Esophageal Bougie
“It is reported that the tip of the bougie broke off during use.
Distal end was not retrieved at the time of the event. Upon
removal of the device, it was noted that mercury was
leaking from the broken end of the tube.”
10/12/1999 Pilling-Weck Maloney Esophageal Dilator 24 Fr.
“During procedure, a bougie dilator for esophagus was
transected inside the stomach, allowing mercury from the
dilator to escape... The bougie that was used for the
procedure had been expired.”
07/14/1999 Rusch Cantor Tube
“It is alleged that a Cantor tube was inserted and mercury
instilled. A subsequent x-ray indicated the presence of
mercury in the stomach.”

Appendix 2: Cost of Mercury Spills
Cost Estimate for Reference & Description

Clean-up
Small spill - $1000 http://www.melg.org/mcea/rcbmcrmt.htm
Large spill - $tens of "Mercury Contamination Risk Control", Middle Cities Risk Management Trust, Okemos, MI
thousands " A typical thermometer contains ½ to 3 grams (.018 to .11 ounces) of mercury. A typical
household mercury fever thermometer contains approximately 1 gram of mercury. A typical
barometer contains 1 pound (454 grams) of mercury and poses a significant spill risk. The
cost of cleaning up a spill will vary by the size of the spill and the degree of exposure to
property and people. Small spill clean-ups usually cost around $1,000 and large spills can go
into the tens of thousands of dollars."
3 oral fever http://cc.ysu.edu/eohs/bulletins/MERCURY.htm
thermometers - "The Hazards of the Element Called Mercury," Youngstown State University
$5000 "Unfortunately, it does not take a large amount of mercury to produce a problem. In one
specific instance, three oral fever thermometers were broken. The mercury fell onto the floor
Not uncommon … in an office that was approximately ten square feet in size. Following the accident, the
to exceed $25,000 mercury vapors present in the air of that room were about three times that permitted by
OSHA. Consequently, the room had to be decontaminated, all carpeting had to be discarded
at a total cost of about $5000. This was a very small mercury spill. It is not uncommon for
cleanup costs of mercury spills to exceed $25,000."
Reported costs went c) http://www.des.state.nh.us/nhppp/hospital_survey.htm
up to $130,000 New Hampshire Mercury Reduction Project: Hospital Baseline Survey 1999 Preliminary
survey results, New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services
"Spills and Breakages - Seven hospitals indicated some kind of mercury spill or equipment
breakage and release during 1998. The actual number of spills may be higher, as small spills
and breakages may not always be reported. Most hospitals did not have any idea of the cost
of clean-up, but reported costs went up to $130,000!!"
~$5,000 for 1 http://dnr.metrokc.gov/swd/bizprog/waste_pre/MIRTsem8.htm
broken Medical Industry Waste Prevention Round Table Reducing Mercury in Hospitals and
sphygmomanometer Biomedical Facilities (A MIRT Seminar, May 23, 2001), King County, Seattle, WA
" Economic Considerations
One hospital spent · Clean up costs – It often costs ~$5,000 for 1 broken sphygmomanometer - you could buy 30
$10,054 to clean up or 40 non-mercury ones for that cost. One local hospital recently spent $10,054 dollars to
a spilled clean up a spilled sphygmomanometer.
sphygmomanometer · Regulatory Costs - 30-ppt pretreatment level in some places (fines)
· Hazardous Waste training costs
· Joint Commission on Accreditation of Health Care Organizations (JCAHO) compliance -
JAHCO is starting to ask questions"
$570,000 to clean up http://dnr.metrokc.gov/swd/bizprog/waste_pre/MIRTsem8.htm
after sink trap work "Question: How did you get voluntary switch-out of Hg?
Answer: VA People remember the Hg spills and are willing to work to avoid going through it
Environmental again. UW always calls in Foss Env. for any spills. Just for Foss's services costs $1000-
service (alone) for $1500.
any spill costs Someone at Bowling Green University changed their sink traps, piled them up and carried
$1000-1500 them across campus. Mercury was spread everywhere. Cost $570,000 to clean up."
$350,000 to clean up http://204.178.120.25/library/college.htm
contamination and XL Environmental, Exton, PA
restore building to “ Spill Spreads Mercury Contamination - A large university in Ohio contracted plumbing
original condition work on one of its science labs. While dismantling laboratory piping, the contractor
discovered an existing mercury spill that resulted in mercury contamination throughout the
building. Costs to clean up the contamination and restore the building to its original condition
were $350,000.”

alternative was sought. An alcohol thermometer
was chosen from a catalog because it was similar
Appendix 3: Transition to Non- in size, shape and temperature range and
appeared to be a drop- in substitution. The alcohol
mercury Products thermometer proved to be unsuitable when the
alcohol column quickly separated due to the
There are many challenges to substituting bumping and jarring the thermometer received in
more benign alternatives for mercury containing the application. When the supplier was consulted,
products and components. Most alternatives are after the fact, a much more appropriate
not drop- in substitutions. That is, although an alternative was recommended and it performed
alternative may ultimately achieve the same capably.
outcome, such as providing an accurate measure Fortunately there are many resources available
of blood pressure or sensing a flame, there are for smoothing the transition away from mercury
usually design considerations or different components and products. These include
techniques or practices that must be learned and manufacturers’ technical support staff, online
communicated. Even under the best of how-to guides, email lists that share questions
circumstances progress involves risk and there and answers, and pollution prevention
may be unexpected outcomes, both favorable and organizations that can provide guidance. A
undesired. sampling of useful resources follows. (Many of
On the bright side, one manufacturer reported these resources are related to healthcare, an
that he continues to learn about the utility of his industry that has been at the forefront of mercury
company’s oscillometric blood pressure monitor reduction).
from doctors using the device. The breadth of
blood pressure information offered by the Organizations’ Websites
monitor was unexpectedly revealing of a
patient’s condition, far exceeding the diagnostic
Health Care Without Harm (HCWH)
utility of the simple systolic and diastolic blood
http://www.noharm.org
pressures provided by a mercury
The mercury section of the HCWH website
sphygmomanometer. In another example, a
contains a wealth of information about reducing
digital manometer used for calibrating
mercury in healthcare. The Health Care Without
sphygmomanometers can result in more accurate
Harm coalition is an international campaign to
calibration than the mercury manometer.
reform the environmental practices of the health
Depending on the quality of instruments used, the
care industry. Health Care Without Harm
difference can be as great as having a
(HCWH) is comprised of more than 300
sphygmomanometer with an accuracy of +
organizations in 27 countries and includes major
3.1mm Hg by using a digital manometer for a
health care systems, regulatory bodies, and
reference, versus + 6 mm Hg by using a mercury
industry leaders.
manometer. (Welch Allyn, 2002)
On the negative side, many well designed
Hospitals for a Healthy Environment (H2E)
products and practices will need to be rethought
http://www.h2e-online.org/
and non- mercury components may not even fit in
The goal of H2E is to educate health care
the footprint of an existing product. There is also
professionals about pollution prevention
a learning curve associated with new designs and
opportunities in hospitals and healthcare systems.
components and it is likely that there will be
H2E fosters the development and communication
glitches and unintended outcomes as products are
of best practices, model plans for waste
changed over. One example is the replacement of
management, resource directories, case studies,
a mercury column thermometer in an industrial
and how-to tools for minimizing the volumes of
setting. After a mercury thermometer broke in
waste generated and the use of persistent,
use and required clean up, a non-mercury

bioaccumulative, and toxic chemicals. H2E is a
joint project of the American Hospital Sustainable Hospitals Project
Association (AHA), the Environmental http://www.sustainablehospitals.org
Protection Agency, Health Care Without Harm The Sustainable Hospitals Project (SHP)
and the American Nurses Association. In provides technical support to the healthcare
addition, various state and local resources are industry for selecting products and work
active participants in the effort to help hospitals. practices that eliminate or reduce occupational
Two areas of note are the Listserv, an online and environmental hazards. The SHP website
forum for discussion, and the H2E website’s lists alternative products and manufacturer
Mercury area. contacts and SHP maintains a technical help line
(phone & email) to provide technical support and
s H2E Listserv help hospitals improve their practices.
http://www.h2e-online.org/programs/list.htm
The Hospitals for a Healthy Environment (H2E) Journal Article & Reports
Listserv is a communication tool for health care
professionals to share information about Vincent J. Canzanello, MD; Patricia L. Jensen,
minimizing the volume and toxicity of health RN; Gary l Schwartz, MD, “Are Aneroid
care waste. Healthcare facilities across the Sphygmomanometers Accurate in Hospital and
country are designing and implementing many Clinic Settings?”, Arch Intern Med, 2001;
projects, including starting recycling programs, 161:729-731.
eliminating mercury containing devices, and This article summarizes an evaluation done at
purchasing environmentally preferable products. Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota to assess
There are countless opportunities to share the accuracy of aneroid sphygmomometers used
questions, answers, and advice through this in their hospitals. Their conclusion was “Aneroid
Listserv. sphygmomanometers provide accurate pressure
measurements when a proper maintenance
s H2E Mercury Resources protocol is followed.”
http://www.h2e-online.org/tools/mercury.htm
The Mercury area of the H2E website includes Maine Department of Environmental Protection,
many resources and links for reducing mercury. (February, 2002). “Mercury in Maine: A Status
One very nice document is the “Mercury Virtual Report”. This report provides an update to the
Elimination Plan”, found at: http://www.h2e- 1997 report on Mercury in Maine and it
online.org/tools/merc-over.htm addresses the Maine mercury reporting
This is a comprehensive how-to guide to help requirements enacted in May 2000. Available at:
hospitals assess existing mercury sources, http://www.state.me.us/dep/mercury/hginmerepo
develop action plans for elimination, and set up rt.htm (September, 2002)
an environmentally preferable purchasing plan.
non- mercury Tellus Institute, (July, 2000). “Healthy Hospitals:
Northeast Waste Management Officials’ Environmental Improvements Through
Association (NEWMOA) Environmental Accounting”. This report
http://www.newmoa.org examines environmental accounting practices in
http://www.newmoa.org/Newmoa/htdocs/prevent the health care industry and explores whether
ion/mercury/ environmental accounting is a useful approach
The information resources available in the for uncovering waste minimization opportunities.
mercury area of the NEWMOA website are The report also considers opportunities for
designed to help the NEWMOA states achieve influencing upstream procurement practices and
their “virtual elimination” goal for mercury by supply chain issues. Available at:
focusing in particular on efforts to reduce or
eliminate mercury from the waste stream.

http://www.epa.gov/opptintr/acctg/pubs/hospitalr http://www.welchallyn.com/medical/support/man
eport.pdf (September, 2002) uals/Aneroid%20Calibration%20Memo.pdf
(August, 2002)
United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), (July, 2002). “Global Mercury Online Case Studies & Mercury Videos
Assessment”. This report provides a global
assessment of mercury and mercury compounds, Clean Car Campaign, “Switch the Switch”,
including options for addressing significant Driving Forward: Volume 3, March 2002.
global adverse impacts of mercury. The Available at
document examines and summarizes worldwide http://cleancarcampaign.org/pdfs/wol_3%20_Ma
efforts to control releases and limit use of and rch_2002.pdf (September 2002).
exposure to mercury, including: national
initiatives, international agreements and The Delta Institute, Inland Ispat Indiana Harbor
instruments, international organizations and Works, Bethlehem Steel Burns Harbor Division,
programs, and sub-regional and regional United States Steel Gary Works, and Lake
initiatives. Sections that most relate to Maine Michigan Forum, “A Guide to Mercury
DEP study include: Reduction in Industrial and Commercial
8. Prevention and control technologies and Settings”, July, 2001. Available at: http://delta-
practices institute.org/Steel-Hg-report-0627011.pdf
9. Initiatives for controlling releases and (September, 2002).
limiting use and exposure
Appendix. Overview of Existing and Future Sustainable Hospitals Project “Mercury
National Actions, Including Legislation, Reduction Case Studies”, Available at:
relevant to mercury; by Region. http://www.sustainablehospitals.org/HTMLSrc/I
Available at: P_Merc_CS_Strong.html (September, 2002).
http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/WG-
meeting1-revised-report-download.htm (October, Tellus Institute, (July, 2000). “Healthy Hospitals:
2002). Environmental Improvements Through
Environmental Accounting”. Appendix B in this
report includes a mercury reduction case study at
Manufacturer’s Resources Kaiser Permanente.
Welch Allyn, Inc. (January 11, 2000). "Analysis United States Environmental Protection Agency,
of Different Sphygmomanometer Technologies". “Mercury Pollution Prevention in Michigan
This provides a discussion on the different types Hospitals”. Available at:
of blood pressure devices and their merits and http://www.epa.gov/seahome/mercury/src/prevca
shortcomings. Available at: se.htm (September, 2002).
(http://www.welchallyn.com/medical/support/ma
nuals/Tycoswhitepapers.PDF University of Michigan, Occupational Safety and
(August, 2002). Environmental Health, “Mercury-Filled
Esophageal Dilators”. Available at:
Welch Allyn, Inc. (July 10, 2002) "Calibrating http://www.p2000.umich.edu/mercury_reduction/
Your Sphygmomanometer". This describes mr1.htm (September, 2002).
considerations for routine calibration of
sphygmoma nometers and describes how digital University of Vermont, “Mercury Thermometer
reference meters can potentially offer a more Swap”. (Lab thermometers) Available at:
accurate calibration than mercury references. http://esf.uvm.edu/chemsource/thermoswap/
Available at: (September, 2002).

Western Lake Superior Sanitary District, (March,
1997) “Addressing Sources of Mercury: Success
Stories”. Available at:
http://www.wlssd.duluth.mn.us/Blueprint%20for
%20mercury/HG12.HTM (September, 2002).
The Michigan Department of Environmental

Quality , Bowling Green University, Ohio
Environmental Protection Agency and Radar
Environmental have produced two video clips
which allow viewers to see mercury vapor rising
from elemental mercury. Two short online videos
show mercury vapor at room temperature rising
from a petri dish of mercury and from mercury
spilled from a broken fever thermometer onto a
carpet. Available at:
http://www.ecosuperior.com/pages/mercuryvapo
ur.html (September, 2002).

Appendix 4: Maine DEP Letter to Manufacturers of Mercury-added
Products
The information request below was sent to manufacturers who filed information on mercury-added
products with the Interstate Mercury Education and Reduction Clearinghouse (IMERC). As explained
in section 2.0 of this report, IMERC was formed under the auspices of the Northeast Waste
Management Officials’ Association to, among other things, coordinate implementation of state laws
that prohibit sale of mercury-added products unless the manufacturer has disclosed the amount and
purpose of the mercury. Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut and Rhode Island have such laws.
May 1, 2002
Dear [manufacturer]:
Enclosed please find a copy of An Act to Phase Out the Availability of Mercury-added
Products as recently enacted by the Maine Legislature.
The law contains two sections. Section 1 prohibits the sale or distribution of a mercury-added
thermostat in Maine for most residential and commercial applications after January 1, 2006. It also
provides an exemption process from the prohibition where specified demonstrations can be made.
Section 2 of the bill requires the Department to review information on mercury-added products
and, based on that review, prepare a comprehensive strategy to reduce their mercury content. The
strategy is due to the Legislature by next January, and presumably will be considered by the
Legislature as it contemplates additional legislation regarding mercury-added products.
One of our main sources of information that will be utilized in this effort is the data you and
other manufacturers already provided under the mercury product notification law enacted last year. As
you will recall, that law-38 MRSA §1661-A-prohibits the sale of mercury-added products in Maine
after Janua ry 1, 2002 unless the manufacturer has notified the Department as to the amount and
purpose of the mercury.
Preparation of the strategy the Legislature seeks will also require additional information, such
as the availability of non-mercury alternatives, and on manufacturers' plans (if any) to phase out the
use of mercury. This is why I write to you now - to provide you with the opportunity to provide
specific information on your product(s) that can be considered by the Department in the development
of its strategy. The additional information you provide will be considered in conjunction with research
performed by a consultant the Department intends to retain shortly.
At this time, we are focusing our inquiry on mercury-added products (other than lamps and
dental amalgam) that contain more than 100 milligrams of mercury or, for formulated products like
cosmetics and cleansers; that have a mercury concentration exceeding 50 ppm. If you make such a
product or products, we invite you to submit the following information:
• Your plan, if any, for reducing or phasing out the use of mercury, including relevant

timetables for such reductions or elimination,
• Information bearing on the availability, feasibility and affordability of non-mercury
alternatives to the product;
• The public health, environmental or other societal benefits (if any) of continuing to use
mercury in the product; and
• Any other information you believe relevant to the development of the Department's
strategy.
The timetable for completing this strategy is driven by the Legislature's January 1, 2003
deadline. To meet this deadline, we need to receive your information by June 30, 2002 so that it can
be adequately considered by the Department and its consultant before preparation of a draft document.
The draft document should be available in early fall, and I will provide one at your request.
Thank you for your help, and please feel free to call me at (207) 287-8556 or email me at
Enid.Mitnik@state.me.us if you have questions.
Sincerely,
Enid Mitnik

Appendix 5: Aneroid sphygmomanometers, rather than selecting
portable aneroid devices. One manufacturer has
Sphygmomanometers also responded to these concerns by developing
and introducing a gear-free aneroid
Aneroid sphygmomanometers are comparable to sphygmomanometer that purportedly can fall 30
mercury sphygmomanometers in cost, technique inches onto a hard surface and still remain
and performance. However, some medical accurate. (Welch Allyn)
professionals hesitate to adopt aneroid blood
pressure devices because of conflicting Comparative Characteristics of
statements they have heard about aneroid gauge
performance. This appendix addresses common Sphygmomanometers
perceptions about aneroid sphygmomanometers.
Sphygmomanometers are introduced to the
marketplace only after thorough testing and
What are the concerns about aneroid
evaluation. Sphygmomanometers sold in the
sphygmomanometers? United States are regulated and must be approved
by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
Obtaining accurate blood pressure measurement The FDA approval process requires companies to
is a foremost concern in the selection of show that new sphygmomanometers are
sphygmomanometers. Once calibrated, there is substantially equivalent to models already on the
no expected difference in performance between market and to demonstrate accuracy through a
aneroid and mercury sphygmomanometers clinical validation study. The FDA recognizes
manufactured by reputable companies. All ANSI/AAMI SP-9 (a voluntary standard) as a
sphygmomanometers need routine calibration performance standard and both aneroid and
checks and regular preventive maintenance. The mercury sphygmomanometers meet this standard.
procedures are different for mercury and aneroid This Standard covers functionality, accuracy and
sphygmomanometers, but are otherwise safety, including requirements and suggested
equivalent in frequency, complexity and the tests to verify compliance.
amount of attention required. In practice, aneroid
and mercury sphygmomanometers require Many United States hospitals have eliminated
different calibration techniques but otherwise mercury sphygmomanometers. Indeed, several
proportionate amounts of attention. hospitals in Maine are among those that
eliminated the mercury devices, including:
Some medical professionals have concerns that Eastern Maine Medical Center in Ba ngor, Maine
aneroid sphygmomanometers are easily damaged General Health in Augusta, Mercy Hospital in
during use, resulting in inaccuracy due to the Portland, Mid Coast Hospital in Brunswick, St.
device being dropped or bumped and knocked Andrew’s Hospital in Boothbay Harbor, and
out of calibration. This is perceived to be less of Southern Maine Medical Center in Biddeford.
a concern for mercury sphygmomanometers due Four of these hospitals interviewed in a recent
to the mercury column’s rigid mounting survey reported that the alternatives perform
requirements. Because the mercury column must satisfactorily. There are many more hospitals that
be perfectly vertical in its mounting and the have not completely eliminated mercury
mounting perpendicular to the floor for accuracy, sphygmomanometers but have phase out
most mercury devices are either wall mounted or programs underway. (EPA, HCWH)
mounted on robust mobile stands. Concerns
about dropping aneroid devices can be alleviated Both mercury and aneroid sphygmomanometers
by purchasing aneroid sphygmomanometers as require routine maintenance. Key issues for
either wall- mounted units or mounted on mobile mercury gauges include: verify (and adjust if
stands, comparable to the mercury

necessary) the zero level of mercury, replace air accurate measurements if properly calibrated”.
filter, verify that column is perpendicular in its (Perloff et al)
unit and vertical to the ground, check for American Heart Association: “… because of the
oxidation of mercury (making column appear risk of the toxic effects of mercury spills,
dirty and difficult to read) and clean tube if mercury manometers must be handled carefully
necessary. Key issues for maintenance of aneroid and their use has been discouraged in some areas
gauges include: check needle for smooth rotation, of high traffic where accidental spills are more
and test accuracy at several intervals against a prone to occur.” (Perloff et al)
reference meter. American Medical Association: “When in proper
functioning condition, both mercury and aneroid
In addition to managing the maintenance and sphygmomanometers are acceptable instruments
calibration of the sphygmomanometers for blood pressure measurement.” (Bailey and
themselves, hospitals that use mercury gauges Bauer)
must also maintain the capability to safely handle American Medical Association: “Lest clinicians
mercury and respond to a mercury spill. Mercury be lulled into a false sense of security about the
spill capability includes personnel trained to accuracy of the mercury column manometer,
respond to a spill on a 24-hour, 7 day per week frequent examination of the instrument is
basis, a mercury spill kit, hazardous waste necessary to eliminate it as a source of blood
resources for decontaminating a spill area and pressure measurement error.” (Bailey and Bauer)
removing the mercury, and the financial Working Meeting on Blood Pressure
resources for the spill response and liability Measurement: “There is no reason to fear
associated with mercury exposure. replacing mercury manometers with manual
aneroid devices. The issue is ensuring validation,
Increasingly hospital Group Purchasing calibration, and regular maintenance.” (Summary
Organizations (GPOs) are voluntarily supporting Report: National High Blood Pressure Education
pollution prevention efforts. Premier, a Program, “Equipment Calibration” discussion by
healthcare alliance collectively owned by more Dr. Bruce Morgenstern, April 19, 2002)
than 200 independent hospitals and healthcare
systems in the United States (representing more References and Supplemental
than 1,500 hospitals and healthcare sites) recently Information
announced it will no longer allow products
containing mercury to be offered through any Richard H. Bailey and John H. Bauer, “A review
group contract, unless no viable alternative of common errors in the indirect measurement of
exists. This means that mercury blood pressure sphygmomanometry”, Archives of
sphygmomanometers will no longer be offered. Internal Medicine, December 27, 1993
Consorta, Inc, (a cooperative health care resource This document reviews three sources of error in
management and GPO, whose shareholders are indirect measurement of blood pressure (observer
Catholic-sponsored, faith-based or non-profit bias, equipment, and lack of measurement
health systems) also has an effort underway to standardization) and the effect of these errors on
obtain shareholder approval to take mercury accuracy. It also reviews techniques for proper
containing medical devices off their contracts. for blood pressure measurement.
Conclusions from National Medical EPA Region 1 Mercury Challenge Program

Associations on Sphygmomanometers http://www.epa.gov/region01/assistance/neeat/m
ercury/Directory2000.pdf (accessed 1/13/03)
American Heart Association: “The aneroid http://www.epa.gov/region1/pr/2001/apr/010428.
manometer is also widely used and can provide html (accessed 1/13/03)

These references highlight mercury reduction blood pressure. It is a useful resource that
activities in the New England region under the includes potential errors in measuring blood
EPA’s Region 1 Mercury Challenge program. pressure and ways to correct or avoid them.
About a year ago, the Mercury Challenge
program was merged with EPA nationwide “The Sixth Report of the Joint National
efforts under the Hospitals for a Healthy Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation,
Environment Program (H2E). and Treatment of High Blood Pressure”, National
Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and
“Guidance for Industry: Non-Automated Blood Institute, NIH Publication No. 98-4080,
Sphygmomanometer (Blood Pressure Cuff) November 1997
Guidance Version 1”, November 19, 1998 http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/hypertensio
http://www.fda.gov/cdrh/ode/blprcuff.pdf n/jnc6.pdf (accessed 1/13/03)
(accessed 1/13/03) This document provides guidance for primary
This is the FDA requirement for manufacturers to care clinicians.
obtain approval to introduce new
sphygmomanometers. Summary Report: National High Blood Pressure
Education Program (NHBPEP)/National Heart,
Health Care Without Harm (HCWH), “A New lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) and American
Era: The Elimination of Mercury Heart Association (AHA) Working Meeting on
Sphygmomanometers” Blood Pressure Measurement. National Institutes
http://www.h2e- of Health, April 19, 2002
online.org/pubs/news/sphygmo.pdf (accessed http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/prof/heart/hbp/b
1/13/03) pmeasu.htm (accessed 1/13/03)
This publication discusses elimination of mercury This working group meeting examined the
sphygmomanometers in hospitals. It includes a science supporting current blood pressure
table of hospitals that had eliminated mercury measurement policies and sought to identify
sphygmomanometers as of January 2002. additional research needed to develop policies to
improve blood pressure measurement.
Dorothee Perloff, Grim, Carlene; Flack, John;
Frohlich, Edward D.; Hill, Martha; McDonald, Welch Allyn DuraShock Sphygmomanometer
Mary; Morgenstern, Bruce, “Special Report: http://rcs.welchallyn.org/productpg.nsf/intro/dur
Human Blood Pressure Determination by ashock?opendocument (accessed 1/14/03)
Sphygmomanometry” [AHA Medical/Scientific This web reference is a link to product
Statement] information on a gear free aneroid
American Heart Association, Volume 88(5), sphygmomanometer that is more shock resistant
November 1993, pp 2460-2470 than traditional aneroid sphygmomanometers.
http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?id (There is no implied endorsement of the product).
entifier=3000894 (accessed 1/13/03)
This is the American Heart Association’s
recommendation for indirect measurement of

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An Investigation of

January 22, 2003

1.0 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................7

2.0 MERCURY NOTIFICATION DATA REVIEW.............................................................................8

3.0 MERCURY PRODUCT PRIORITIZATION ...............................................................................10

4.1 Costs of Using Mercury .................................................................................................................. 16

4.2 Sphygmomanometers ..................................................................................................................... 18

4.3 Esophageal Dilators (Bougies) and Gastrointestinal Tubes........................................................ 21

4.4 Manometers ..................................................................................................................................... 23

4.5 Thermometers (non-fever) ............................................................................................................. 24

4.6 Barometers ...................................................................................................................................... 27

4.7 Psychrometers/Hygrometers ......................................................................................................... 28

4.8 Hydrometers .................................................................................................................................... 28

4.9 Flow meters ..................................................................................................................................... 29

4.10 Pyrometers ..................................................................................................................................... 30

4.11 Thermostats (industrial and manufacturing) ............................................................................ 31

4.12 Float Switches................................................................................................................................ 31

4.13 Tilt Switches .................................................................................................................................. 40

4.14 Pressure Switches.......................................................................................................................... 46

4.15 Tempe rature Switches.................................................................................................................. 50

4.16 Relays ............................................................................................................................................. 54

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5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................................66

5.1 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 66

5.2 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 70

Appendix 1: Medical Device Reports for Spilled Mercury .............................................................. 75

Appendix 2: Cost of Mercury Spills .................................................................................................... 76

Appendix 3: Transition to Non-mercury Products.......................................................................... 77

Appendix 4: Maine DEP Letter to Manufacturers of Mercury-added Products ........................... 81

Appendix 5: Aneroid Sphygmomanometers ...................................................................................... 83

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In general, cost competitive non-mercury

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The Maine Department of Environmental • Conduct a qualitative evaluation of viable

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Mercury Added Product Notification Form: Product Number of

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The IMERC mercury product data were one

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Table 3.2: Priority Products and Components

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Product Product Mercury Total Addressed Alternatives Priority

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The same report provides a case study of

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Avoided Cost Sources of cost avoidance

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Application Thermometer Cost Ertco (ever Liquid filled, 1-800-453-7826

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