HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

Road:

A road is a thoroughfare, route or a way on land between two places that has been paved or
otherwise improved to travel by foot or some kind of conveyance, including a motor vehicle,
cart, bicycle or horse.

Figure 1 Typical Road

Highway alignment:

The alignment is the route of the road, defined as the center line layout or position on the
ground surface contains a series of horizontal tangents and curves. The profile is the vertical
aspect of the road, including crest and sag curves, and the straight grade lines connecting them.
There are two types of alignments, which are horizontal Alignment and Vertical Alignment.

Vertical Curves
Horizontal Curves

Figure 2 Alignment along a Hill Pass

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 The horizontal alignment along the route of the road, defined as the horizontal profile which is the
horizontal aspect of the road, including transition and horizontal curves. Horizontal
Alignment contains the straight path, curves or deviation in horizontal direction.

The vertical alignment along the route of the road, defined as the vertical profile which is the
vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag curves, and the straight grade lines
connecting them. Vertical Alignment contains the vertical curves and gradient on the ground.

But it is difficult to change the alignment once the road is constructed, so care has to be taken
in finalizing the alignment.

Basic requirements of an Ideal Alignment:

Basic Requirement of an Ideal Alignment:

1. It should have a shortest path.
2. The alignment must be easy to construct and maintain and also it should be easy for
vehicle operation.
3. It should be safe in case of designing the horizontal and vertical curves.
4. The alignment should be selected in such a way that it is economical during
construction.

Factors controlling Alignment:

Factors Controlling Alignment:

1. Obligatory Points

These are control points governing the alignment of Highways.

a. Points through which the Alignment has to pass:

 Hill Pass

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 Figure 3 Hair Pin Bend

 Location of Bridge

Figure 4 Proper Location of Bridge

 Connecting Intermediate Town

Figure 5 Connecting Intermediate Town

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  Avoiding an Intermediate Area

Figure 6 Avoiding an Intermediate Area

b. Points through which the Alignment should not pass:

 If it is a case of religious place like temple, mosque, church ,grave etc. The
Alignment should not pass as per law.

2. Traffic

 Alignment should be selected based on traffic surveys. Origin and Destination

study should be carried out in that area and also we have to consider the
future development in that road network.

3. Geometric Design

 Alignment is decided based on the design of horizontal and vertical curves,

sight distance and gradient of that section. It is also decided based on the
Design Speed of that Highway.

4. Economy

 It is based on the initial cost of construction and maintenance cost of the

road, if it a shortest path the cost of construction will be reduced. (Decision is
based on Quantity of Cutting and Filling of Earth.)

5. Special considerations or care for Hill Roads

 Common problems in hill roads are land sliding, stability of road, providing
adequate drainage facility, reducing hairpin bends, needless raise and fall.

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Horizontal and Vertical alignment:

There are two types of alignments about which an highway engineer required to know about
are:

 Horizontal Alignment,
 Vertical Alignment.

A horizontal curve in a roadway refers to the alignment, or how “straight” the roadway
section is. A vertical curve refers to a roadway's change in elevation, or the “flatness” of the
roadway.

Horizontal Alignment:

Horizontal alignment is a broad term that encompasses several aspects of transportation

engineering. In this discussion, we will focus on the design of horizontal curves.

The key steps in the design of horizontal curves are listed below. This will serve as a guide, as
you explore the remaining topics within the horizontal alignment section of geometric design.

1. Determine a reasonable maximum superelevation rate.

2. Decide upon a maximum side-friction factor.
3. Calculate the minimum radius for your horizontal curve.
4. Iterate and test several different radii until you are satisfied with your design.
5. Make sure that the stopping sight distance is provided throughout the length of your
curve. Adjust your design if necessary.
6. Design the transition segments.

Vertical Alignment:

The two basic elements of vertical alignment are Grades and Vertical Curves.

 Grade
 Vertical Curves

The design of the curve is dependent on the following factors:

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 1. Intended design speed for the roadway.
2. Drainage.
3. Slope.
4. Acceptable rate of change.
5. Friction.

Engineering Surveys conducted for highway alignment and locations:

Before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project, engineering surveys are required
to be carried out. The surveys may be completed in Four Stages. The first three stages consider
all possible alternate alignments keeping in view the various requirements of highway
alignment. The fourth stage is meant for the detailed survey of the selected alignment.

The stages of the Engineering Surveys are:

a. Map Study,
b. Reconnaissance,
c. Preliminary Surveys,
d. Final Location and Detailed Surveys.

a. Map Study:

If the topographic map of the area is available, it is possible to suggest the likely
routes of the road. In India topographic maps are available from the Survey of
India, with 15 or 30 meter contour intervals. The main features like rivers, hills,
valleys etc. are also shown on these maps. Requirements of Map Study are as
follows:

 Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes.

 When the road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through a
mountain pass.
 Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of
the river, if any.
 When a road is to be connected between two stations, on at the top of
the hill and other on the foot, then alternate routes can be suggested
keeping in view the permissible gradient; say the ruling gradient.

b. Reconnaissance

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 The second stage of surveys for highway location is the reconnaissance to
examine the general character of the area for deciding the most feasible routes
for detailed studies. A field survey party may inspect a fairly broad stretch of
land along the proposed alternative routes of the map in the field using simple
instruments like abney level, tangent clinometers, barometer etc. Some of the
details to be collected during reconnaissance are given below:

i. Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures and
other obstructions along the route which are not available in the map.
ii. Approximate values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of curves
of alternate alignments.
iii. Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and observation
of geological features.
iv. Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries.

c. Preliminary Survey

The main objectives of the preliminary survey are:

i. To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the

reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical information and
details topography, drainage and soil.
ii. To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a
good alignment.
iii. To estimate the quantity of earth work materials and other construction
aspects and to workout the cost of alternate proposals.
iv. To finalize the best alignment from all considerations.

The preliminary survey may be carried out by any one of the following
methods:

a. Conventional approach, in which a survey party carries out

surveys using the required field equipment, taking
measurements, collecting topographical and other data and
carrying out soil survey.
b. Modern rapid approach, by serial survey taking the required
aerial photographs and by photogrammetric methods and photo-

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 interpretation techniques for obtaining the necessary
topographic and other maps including details of soil and geology.
This method is suitable when the distance and area to be covered
are vast.

The procedure of the conventional methods of preliminary survey is given in following steps:

i. Primary Traverse: The first step in the preliminary survey is to establish the primary
traverse, following the line recommended in the reconnaissance.
ii. Topographical Features: After establishing the centre lines of preliminary survey, the
topographical features are recorded.
iii. Levelling Work: Levelling work is also carried out side by side to give the centre line
profiles and typical cross-sections.
iv. Soil Survey: Soil Survey is an essential part of the preliminary survey as the suitability of
the proposed location is to be finally based on the soil survey data.
v. Material Survey: The surveys for naturally occurring materials like stone aggregates,
soft aggregates, etc. and identification of suitable quarries should be made.
vi. Traffic Survey: Traffic surveys are conducted in the regions form the basis for deciding
the number of traffic lanes and roadway width, pavement design and economic analysis
of highway project.
vii. Determination of final centre line: After completing the preliminary surveys and
conducting the comparative studies of alternative alignments the final centre line of the
road is to be decided in the office before the final location survey.

The procedure of the Modern approach i.e. aerial photographic survey is given in the following
steps:

i. Taking aerial photographs of the strips of land to be surveyed with the required
longitudinal and lateral overlaps. Vertical photographs are necessary for the preparation
of mosaics.
ii. The photographs are examined under stereoscopes and control points are selected for
establishing the traverse of the alternate approach. The control points are located on
the maps.
iii. Using stereo-pair observations, the spot levels and subsequently contour lines may be
obtained.
iv. Photo-interpretation methods are used to assess the geological features, soil conditions,
drainage requirements etc.

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d. Final Location and Detailed Survey

The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be
first located on the field by locating and establishing the centre line. Next
detailed survey should be carried out for collecting the information necessary for
the preparation of plans and construction details for the highway project.

Location
The centre line of the road finalized in the drawings is to be translated on the
ground during the location survey. This is done using a transit theodolite and
staking of the centre line. The centre line stakes are driven at suitable intervals;
say at 50 metre intervals in plain and rolling terrains and 20 metre in hilly terrain.

Detailed Survey
Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 metre and at all
drainage and under pass structures. Levels along the final centre line should be
taken at all staked points. All topographical details are noted down and also
plotted using conventional signs. Adequate hydrological details are also collected
and recorded. A detailed soil survey is carried out to enable drawing of the soil
profile. The depth upto which soil sampling is to be done may be 1.5 to 3.0
metre below the ground line or finished grade line of the road whichever is
lower. CBR values of soils along the alignment may be determined for designing
the pavement.

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