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doi:10.1093/ndt/gfh1092
Huub Schellekens
75
60
45
Mo Mf2
30
Ms
15
–15
–30
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Fraction
Fig. 1. Variability of IFN-a2a formulations demonstrated by (a) antigenicity (Ryff [28] with permission) and (b) reverse-phase
high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) analysis, showing contamination with an oxidized monomer (Mo) (Hochuli [29] with
permission).
administration is chosen, it does not confer immuno- (Figure 1b). The contents of this peak are more
genicity per se: a substance or a product is either immunogenic than normal IFN-a2a and react with
immunogenic or it is not. There have been no published HSA to form aggregates, which in turn induce an
cases whereby a change in administration route immune response. Changing to a liquid, HSA-free
completely negated immunogenicity [10]. formulation, and recommending storage at 4 C have
Appropriate formulation of a protein product reduced the immunogenicity of this product [28].
is highly important, particularly with respect to
stabilization, because if this is inadequate the protein
may aggregate or denature, which increases its immu- Consequences of antibody formation
nogenic potential [26]. Formulation becomes even
more crucial for products that may not be optimally Antibodies usually have no adverse clinical conse-
stored or handled [27]. For example, in a study of quences except a loss of product efficacy, an effect
IFN-a2a formulations, the most immunogenic (A) observed with many different products, e.g. insulin,
was a freeze-dried, human serum albumin (HSA)- streptokinase and IFN-a2a. In one study, patients
containing formulation, which was kept at room with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection were treated
temperature in accordance with the product’s handling with IFN-a2a. Sustained response rates could be
and storage instructions [28] (Figure 1a). Other correlated with antibody status; for example, patients
HSA-free formulations (B, C, D and E) were less with the highest antibody titres had the lowest
immunogenic. In another study [29], examination of response rates to IFN-a2a treatment (Figure 2 [28]).
the components of the IFN-a2a formulation showed In some cases, the immunogenicity can be overcome
that the molecule became oxidized at room temperature to a certain extent by increasing the dose to reverse the
vi6 H. Schellekens
loss of efficacy, while in a small number of instances, with epoetin-a [8,33], which led to an upsurge in cases
efficacy can be enhanced; e.g. it has been shown of PRCA.
that antibody development to growth hormone in
children results in enhanced hormone efficacy [30]. This
is because binding antibodies stabilize the growth Relationship between epoetin-a and
hormone. the epidemic of PRCA
Antibody formation can also have general immune
effects, such as allergy, anaphylaxis and serum sickness The reports of PRCA associated with epoetin treatment
[31], but these are becoming increasingly rare because [8] appeared to be primarily associated with the
of the purity of the proteins now in use. Neutralization epoetin- formulation available in Europe (Eprex/
of the native protein by antibodies can have more Erypo). Only a few sporadic cases have involved
serious consequences for the patient. This has been patients treated with other epoetin-a products
seen with megakaryocyte-derived growth factor (ProcritÕ ; Ortho Biotech, EpogenÕ ; Amgen) or
(MDGF [32]), where administration to volunteers and epoetin-b (NeoRecormonÕ ; Roche Pharmaceuticals),
patients with cancer produced MDGF antibodies, and the increased number of PRCA cases was only
which neutralized their own thromboepoetin. This observed in countries where Eprex was marketed.
resulted in severe thrombocytopenia and the patients Notably, the upsurge corresponded with the removal
Patients with 18
sustained
16
response (%)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Negative <2000 >2000
Neutralizing units/ml
Fig. 2. Relationship between sustained response and antibody level in IFN-a2a-treated patients with HCV infection.
Cumulative 240
number 220
of PRCA Eprex-associated cases (outside USA)
cases 200
Epogen-associated cases (within USA)
180 NeoRecormon
160
140
120
100 Modification of Eprex
formulation
80 outside USA
60
40
20
0
7
02
02
/9
1
9
0
8
02
98
00
01
99
/0
/9
/0
/9
12
ay
6/
6/
6/
6/
ec
12
12
12
12
ct
to
O
M
to
to
to
to
D
to
to
to
to
31
77
31
31
1
1
7
7
7
7
Fig. 3. Cumulative PRCA cases over a 5 year period (1997–2002) (adapted from Gershon et al. [33] with permission).
Immunogenicity of therapeutic proteins vi7
The main stabilizers used in currently available epoetin whether the micelles have a role in the breakdown
formulations are summarized in Table 2. of immune tolerance.
The Eprex formulation in Europe was changed in
1998 to comply with new European recommenda- The role of micelles
tions for the removal of human-derived products
(in this case HSA) from pharmaceutical products; this
An important determinant of protein immunogenicity
stabilizer was replaced by polysorbate 80 and glycine.
is the tendency of the protein to form aggregates or
There was no such recommendation in the USA so the
micelles. Micelles may simulate a viral structure, and the
epoetin-a formulation (Procrit, Epogen) still contains
human immune system has evolved to react vigorously
HSA. No increase in the annual number of PRCA to viruses. Unlike other epoetin formulations, the
cases in the USA has been observed since 1998
currently available European formulation of Eprex
(see Figure 3), in contrast to the situation in Europe.
may have a tendency to form micelles, possibly due to
NeoRecormon (epoetin-b) has retained an HSA-free its high concentration of polysorbate 80. During
formulation since its launch in 1990 and instead of
encapsulation of a protein in micelle formation, anti-
polysorbate 80, glycine and polysorbate 20 have been
genic hydrophilic sites may be left exposed in an array
used as stabilizers (Table 2).
form. Work is currently under way to investigate
Hermeling et al. [35] used size exclusion analysis
(a)
0.12 0.12
0.10 0.10
Optical density (220 nm)
Optical density (220 nm)
0.00 0.00
–0.02 –0.02
0 20 40 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min) Time (min)
Fig. 4. Formation of micelles (Hermeling et al. [35] with permission). (a) Size exclusion analysis (SEC) of Eprex (Erypo) and NeoRecormon
demonstrates an extra peak (peak 1) in Eprex, compared with NeoRecormon. (b) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and
western blotting (lower right) analyses of peak 1 demonstrate that the micelles contain epoetin-a.
vi8 H. Schellekens
Fig. 4. Continued. Downloaded from http://ndt.oxfordjournals.org/ at UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA on June 15, 2014
epoetin [40] because the route of administration with some human homologues may be related to the
cannot render a protein immunogenic, although it can way epitopes are presented, e.g. aggregates or micelles.
increase the likelihood of an immune reaction to a Appropriate formulation of a protein product is of
protein that is already immunogenic. great importance with respect to stabilization because,
if it is inadequate, the protein may aggregate or
denature, which increases its immunogenic potential.
Conclusions Biogenerics, as well as modified proteins, should
be carefully evaluated as therapeutic options and
Most biopharmaceutical products have immunogenic their benefits weighed against successful, time-tested
potential. The breakdown of immune tolerance seen formulations.
Immunogenicity of therapeutic proteins vi9
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