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Fixed assets include not only dwellings, buildings, structures, machinery and equipment but also
cultivated assets such as livestock for breeding and vineyards. They also include intangible assets
such as computer software and entertainment, literary or artistic originals.
Fixed assets consist of produced assets (mostly machinery, equipment, buildings or other
structures) that are used repeatedly or continuously in production over periods of time of more than
one year.
The European system of national and regional accounts explicitly includes intangible assets (e.g.
mineral exploitation, computer software, copyright-protected entertainment, literary and artistics
originals) within the definition of fixed assets.
Current assets are expected to be consumed within one year, and commonly
include the following line items:
▪ Cash and cash equivalents
▪ Marketable securities
▪ Prepaid expenses
▪ Accounts receivable
▪ Inventory
Segmented Bar Graph - Segmented Bar charts are one of the most popular charts used
in Statistics. They are a type of stacked bar chart. It is used for grouping or categorizing
the parts of a whole. The bars in this chart are categorized into stacking order to
represent different values. One axis will show the discrete values and the other one
will provide the variable bars in a stacking order. Different colors will show distinctive
parts of the whole bar.
Column Graph - Microsoft Excel calls a bar graph with vertical bars a column graph
and a bar graph with horizontal bars a bar graph.
Box and Whiskers Graph (also called a Box Plot) - A box and whiskers chart, sometimes
called a boxplot, is a way to highlight the middle fifty percent of a data set, including
the median. The middle fifty is also called the interquartile range. It’s called a box and
“whiskers” chart because the graph looks (vaguely!) like a box with the whiskers of a
cat.
The box and whiskers chart shows you how your data is spread out. Five pieces of
information (the “five number summary“) are generally included in the chart:
• The minimum (the smallest number in the data set). The minimum is shown at
the far left of the chart, at the end of the left “whisker.”
• The first quartile, Q1, is the far left of the box (or the far right of the left
whisker).
• The median is shown as a line in the center of the box.
• The third quartile, Q3, shown at the far right of the box (at the far left of the
right whisker).
• The maximum (the largest number in the data set), shown at the far right of the
box.
—>
• Minimum: 20
• Q1: 160
• Median: 200
• Q3: 330
• Maximum: 590
Cumulative Frequency Table - The total of a frequency and all frequencies so far in a
frequency distribution. It is the 'running total' of frequencies.
Frequency Polygon - A frequency polygon is another way to show the information in a
frequency table. It looks a little bit like a
line graph. To make a frequency polygon,
you just need to plot a few points and
then join the points by straight lines.
Funnel Chart - Funnel charts can be used to illustrate stages in a process — usually
sales processes. However, they could be used to show anything that’s decreasing in
size. For example, you can use this type of chart to show:
• An order fulfillment process.
• A sales process from start to finish.
• Flow of information from top secret to unclassified.
• Knowledge areas from general knowledge to expert knowledge.
These charts are similar to pie charts, because the total area of the colored bars is
100%. For example, you might have:
• One bar with an area of 40%
• The next with 30%
• Then 22%
• Then 8%.
Essentially, a funnel chart is a differently-shaped pie chart.
Histogram - Histogram is a plot that lets you discover, and show, the underlying
frequency distribution (shape) of a set of continuous data. This allows the inspection of
the data for its underlying distribution (e.g., normal distribution), outliers, skewness,
etc. An example of a histogram, and the raw data it was constructed from, is shown
below:
To construct a histogram from a continuous variable you first need to split the data into
intervals, called bins. In the example above, age has been split into bins, with each bin
representing a 10-year period starting at 20 years. Each bin contains the number of
occurrences of scores in the data set that are contained within that bin. For the above data
set, the frequencies in each bin have been tabulated along with the scores that contributed
to the frequency in each bin (see below):
Line Graph - A line graph is used to show how values change. For example, you could
plot how your child grows over time. Line graphs can also be used to show how
functions change. A function is just an equation that gives you a unique output for
every input. For example, y=- 4/5x + 3 is a function because you’ll get a unique value
for y when you put in any number for x.
Timeplot - A timeplot
(sometimes called a time
series graph) displays values
against time. They are similar
to x-y graphs, but while an x-
y graph can plot a variety of
“x” variables (for example,
height, weight, age),
timeplots can only display
time on the x-axis. Unlike pie
charts and bar charts, these
plots do not have categories. Timeplots are good for showing how data changes over
time. For example, this type of chart would work well if you were sampling data at
random times.
Relative Frequency Histogram - Relative frequency is how often something happens
divided by all the possible outcomes. The relative frequency formula is:
A relative frequency table shows how often something happens compared to other
things. For example, the following table shows the frequency that books are sold at a
particular book store. In other words, it shows you how many books were sold:
We use three different types of average in maths: the mean, the mode and the
median, each of which describes a different ‘normal’ value. The mean is what you
get if you share everything equally, the mode is the most common value, and the
median is the value in the middle of a set of data.
Here are some more in-depth definitions:
• Median: In a sense, the median is what you normally mean when you say
‘the average man in the street’. The median is the middle-of-the road number
– half of the people are above the median and half are below the median. (In
America, it’s literally the middle of the road: Americans call the central
reservation of a highway the ‘median’.)
Try remembering ‘medium’ clothes are neither large nor small, but
somewhere in between. Goldilocks was a median kind of girl.
• Mode: The mode is the most common result. ‘Mode’ is another word for
fashion, so think of it as the most fashionable answer – ‘Everyone’s learning
maths this year!’
• Mean: The mean is what you get by adding up all of the numbers and
dividing by how many numbers were in the list. Most people think of the
mean when they use the word ‘average’ in a mathematical sense.
In some ways the mean is the fairest average –you get the mean if the
numbers are all piled together and then distributed equally. But the mean is
also the hardest average to work out.
You use the different averages in different situations, depending on what you want
to communicate with your sums.
5. Describe different types of statistical means and properties of the
arithmetic mean
The common formula of different statistical averages :
!
Arithmetical mean is used in cases when the gap between max and min values of attribute is very
small. We often use it when work with interval. Everytime calculate midpoint of interval.
If the first and last intervals are open, they are conditionally closed taking the missing values of
intervals, so called adjacent interval.
The most widely used type of correlation coefficient is Pearson’s, r , simple linear
correlation. The value of r is determined with the formula below:
This formula uses the sums of deviations from the means in both the X values and Y
values. However for ease of calculation the following calculation formula is often used.
Properties of correlation :
r = ryx
1. The correlation coefficient is symmetrical with respect to X and Y, i.e xy
2. The correlation coefficient is the geometric mean of the two regression coefficients.
3. The correlation coefficient is independent of origin and unit of measurement, i.e
rxy=ruv
4. The correlation coefficient lies between -1 and +1
The linear deviation gives us or help us to calculate the average amount by which the values in the
population or sample vary from their mean.
Mean Deviation is the arithmetic mean of absolute values of the deviations from the arithmetic
mean.
8. Indexes and coefficients of natural movement of population
Population indexes
• Population statistics.
We have two groups of indexes:
1) consist of indexes of natural movement of population
First of all, we have such attributes as present population:
1) Present population = permanent population - temporary absent + temporary residing.
2) Permanent population = present population + temporary absent population - temporary
residing.
3) Temporary residing (проживающий) population = N
4) Temporary absent population = M
The coefficient of futility. We have amount of population in the end Coefficient of mortality - death
rate
Coefficient indicator of natural growth rate
Index of marriage or the rate of marriage
Index of divorce and the rate of divorce.
Number of births for a period and number of deaths for the period.
The average population Saver = (популяция в начале + в конце)/2 = (Sb-Se)/2
• Coefficient of fertility = Number or amount of birth /the average population of the year. = N/S
*100%
Coefficient of mortality = M/S * 100%
Coefficient of natural growth = Kf – Km
Sometimes, coefficient of growth rate = Kng/Saver *1000
2) consist of indicators of migration the population.
Coefficients of the second group of indexes are connected with the indexes of migration and
population. Number of arrivals - number of immigrants is so called the migration growth.
Coefficient of growth rate = number of migration growth / the average number of population for
the year.
Coefficient of total population growth = migration growth for a year / the average population for
a year.
Ratio of intensity of turnover is = (number of arrivals for a
period + number of emigrants) / average amount of population * 1000
Coefficient of migrations = natural growth for a period / ration of intensity of population.
9. Indexes and coefficients of labor resources and employment statistics
Statistics of labour resources
In this part we calculate the number of economically active population.
• Number of economical efficiency of population, Number of employed.
The employment - to – population
The number of unemployed.
The employment rate and unemployment rate. Number of economically inactive population.
Using this attributes, we may calculate the next indexes:
Number of employed in economic = it is number of employed + number of self employed +
family business helping persons + members of producers cooperatives.
Number of unemployed in economy = persons engaged in home making and child care + first
time job siekers.
Economically active population = Number of employed in economic - Number of unemployed in
economy
Economically inactive population = persons less than 16 years + students of working age
without of any job + persons engage in home making and child care + non-working pensioners and
disables + non-working persons of working age.
Working age in RF: 55 women, 60 - men.
We have some coefficients which characterise the demography burden of the working age
population.
Child depending ratio = (number of children from 0 to 15 years) / (population of working age)
Median
In the data center, means and medians are often tracked over time to spot trends, which inform
capacity planning or power cost predictions.The statistical median is the middle number in a
sequence of numbers. To find the median, organize each number in order by size; the number in
the middle is the median. For the five servers in the rack, arrange the power consumption figures
from lowest to highest: 90 W, 98 W, 100 W, 102 W and 105 W. The median power consumption of
the rack is 100 W. If there is an even set of numbers, average the two middle numbers. For
example, if the rack had a sixth server that used 110 W, the new number set would be 90 W, 98 W,
100 W, 102 W, 105 W and 110 W. Find the median by averaging the two middle numbers: (100 +
102)/2 = 101 W.
11. Statistical indexes – definition, groups of different indexes, some
formulas and relationship between them
Aggregate index and index of physical volume of production shows how many times cost of
production is increased or decreased in current period, compared to basic period as a result of
change only the physical volume.
The difference between the numerator and dominator of the formula of the index of production
prices and physical volume will show the absolute change in the volume of production as a whole
and due to studied production.
Formulas 2 shows us how many times the cost and volume of production ( price and quantity of
production) changed in current period in comparison with basic period.
Formula 3 shows how many times the cost is changed, the price is changed.
Three different formulas which shows us the relationship between quantity of product and price of
product in current period is changed compared to the quantity and price in base period.
In 1 time we have the level of increasing or decreasing of quantity if our price remains on the level
of base period. 2 formula we have change of quantity and price in the current period comparing
quantity and price in base period. We move quantity and price.
12. How many kinds of forming the sample population you know?
Population sampling is the process of taking a subset of subjects that is representative of the entire
population. The sample must have sufficient size to warrant statistical analysis.
Stratified sampling – when sub-populations within our overall population ; its advantages to sample
each sub-population independently.
Stratification is a process of dividing members of the population into homogeneous sub-groups
before sampling. The strater should be mutually exclusive. Every element in the population must
be assigned to only one strata , this process often improves the representativeness of the sample
by reducing sampling error. It can produce wheighed mean or average that has lessvariability than
the arithmetic mean of a sample and a random sample of the population.
Clusters sampling is an example of two stage sample or multistage sampling. In the first stage a
sample error is chosen. In the second stage a sample of respondents
Sometimes it is easier and cheaper by selecting errors by selecting responds from certain areas
only or certain time series only.
Matched random sample- is a sample of assigning participants to group in which pairs of
participants are first match and then individually assigned randomly to groups.
The procedure for matched random sampling can be briefed with the following sampling:
A) Two sampling in which 2 samples are paired
B) Those samples in which the same attribute or variable is measured twice
Convenient sampling is a type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn
from the port of the population which is closed to hand.
This is sample population selected because readily available and convenient.
13. How many types of variable series you know?
Independent variable is a variable that is being manipulated in experiment in order to observe the
effect on dependent variable.
Nominal-variables that have 2 or more categories but don’t have an intrinsic order
Continuous (quantitive)variables:
Interval (THEIR CENTRAL CHARACTERISTIC IS THAT THEY can be measured along and they
have a numerical value)
Ratio (are interval but with added condition that 0 of the measurement indicates that there’s none
of that variable.
14. Structure of Non-financial Assets according SNA 2008 (System of
National Accounts)
In statistics, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a
statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Sampling is the process by
which inference is made to the whole by examining a part. The purpose of sampling is to provide
various types of statistical information of a qualitative or quantitative nature about the whole by
examining a few selected units.
Simple random sampling
Systematic sampling
Stratified sampling
And others :
Cluster sampling
Quota sampling
Minimax sampling
Accidental sampling
17. Specify the difference between coverage error, systematic error and
random error in sampling
Coverage error – is an error that occurs in statistical estimates of a survey. It results from gaps between
the sampling frame and the total population. This can lead to biased results and can affect the variance of
results. Coverage error is a kind of nonsampling error.
Systematic error – Systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a fixed amount from the true
value of measurement.
As opposed to random errors, systematic errors are easier to correct. There are many types of systematic
errors and a researcher needs to be aware of these in order to offset their influence.
Systematic error in physical sciences commonly occurs with the measuring instrument having a zero error. A
zero error is when the initial value shown by the measuring instrument is a non-zero value when it should be
zero. EXAMPLE:
1. The cloth tape measure that you use to measure the length of an object had been stretched out from
years of use. (As a result, all of your length measurements were too small.)
2. The electronic scale you use reads 0.05 g too high for all your mass measurements (because it is
improperly tared throughout your experiment).
Systematic errors are difficult to detect and cannot be analyzed statistically, because all of the data is off in
the same direction (either to high or too low). Spotting and correcting for systematic error takes a lot of care.
Random error – A random error, as the name suggests, is random in nature and very difficult to
predict. It occurs because there are a very large number of parameters beyond the control of the
experimenter that may interfere with the results of the experiment. Random errors are caused by sources
that are not immediately obvious and it may take a long time trying to figure out the source. Random error is
also called as statistical error because it can be gotten rid of in a measurement by statistical means because
it is random in nature.
Unlike in the case of systematic errors, simple averaging out of various measurements of the same quantity
can help offset random errors. Random errors can seldom be understood and are never fixed in nature - like
being proportional to the measured quantity or being constant over many measurements.
The reason why random errors can be taken care of by averaging is that they have a zero expected value,
which means they are truly random and scattered around the mean value. This also means that
the arithmetic mean of the errors is expected to be zero.
For example, a biologist studying the reproduction of a particular strain of bacterium might encounter random
errors due to slight variation of temperature or light in the room. However, when the readings are spread over
a period of time, she may get rid of these random variations by averaging out her results.
18. Describe the relationship between the value of confidence level and the
coefficient of confidence
The confidence coefficient is the probability that a confidence interval will contain the true value of
the population parameter. For example if the confidence coefficient is 95% 95% of confidence
intervals so calculated for each of a large number of samples would contain the parameter.
The value of confidence level – In survey sampling, different samples can be randomly selected from the
same population; and each sample can often produce a different confidence interval. Some confidence
intervals include the true population parameter; others do not.
A confidence level refers to the percentage of all possible samples that can be expected to include the true
population parameter. For example, suppose all possible samples were selected from the same population,
and a confidence interval were computed for each sample. A 95% confidence level implies that 95% of the
confidence intervals would include the true population parameter.
числитель - the cost of production realized in the (previous) period at the prices of the reporting
period.
Fishers index
Represents average geometrical of works of two modular price indexes of Laspeyres and Paashe:
Ideality is that the index is reversible in time, that is at shift of the basic and reporting periods the
return index turns out (an inverse value to the size of an initial index). Price indices are used to
monitor changes in prices levels over time. This is useful when separating real income from
nominal income, as inflation is a drain on purchasing power. They work by dividing expense on a
specific basket in the current period (the sum of p*q for each product in the basket considered when
calculating the index) by how much the same basket would cost in the base period (period 0). The
main difference is the quantities used: the Laspeyres index uses q0 quantities, whereas the Paasche
index uses period n quantities.
GDP is commonly used as an indicator of the economic health of a country, as well as a gauge of a
country's standard of living. Since the mode of measuring GDP is uniform from country to country,
GDP can be used to compare the productivity of various countries with a high degree of accuracy.
Adjusting for inflation from year to year allows for the seamless comparison of current GDP
measurements with measurements from previous years or quarters. In this way, a nation’s GDP
from any period can be measured as a percentage relative to previous years or quarters. When
measured in this way, GDP can be tracked over long spans of time and used in measuring a
nation’s economic growth or decline, as well as in determining if an economy is in recession.
The absolute density of distribution is the frequency falling on interval width unit.
The cumulative frequency — this number received by consecutive summation of frequencies in the
direction from the first interval to the last to that interval inclusive for which the cumulative
frequency is defined. It’s main aim to control data by showing , which share of sample units doesn't
exceed this value.
25. Describe on a statistical graph a less-than cumulative frequency and
more-than cumulative frequency
Less than are in ascending order. The cumul. Freq. Of each class is plotted against the upper limit
of the class interval.
More than are in descending order. The curr. Freq of each class is plotted against the lower limit of
the class interval.
The total frequency of all classes less than the upper class boundary of a given
class is called the cumulative frequency of that class. “A table showing the
cumulative frequencies is called a cumulative frequency distribution”. There are
two types of cumulative frequency distributions. The graph for the cumulative
frequency is called an ogive.
The less than cumulative frequencies are in ascending order. The cumulative
frequency of each class is plotted against the upper limit of the class interval in this
type of ogive and then various points are joined by straight line.
It is obtained by finding the cumulate total of frequencies starting from the highest
to the lowest class. The cumulative frequencies in this type are in the descending
order. The cumulative frequency of each class is plotted against the lower limit of
the class interval.
From the standpoint of graphic presentation, the ogive is especially used for the
following purposes:
• Weighted average is also an average with a slight difference that not all
observations carry equal weights. If different observations carry different
importance, or weights in this case, each observation is multiplied by its weight
and then added up. This is done to take into account importance of different
observations as they carry significance more than others
1. Unlike simple average, where all the observations carry same value, in weighted
average, every observation is assigned a different weightage and thus the average
is calculated keeping in mind the importance of each observation.
3. Simple Average is the main representation of a data set, while weighted average
needs to be evaluated first to arrive at a certain solution to a certain problem.
4. You can solve the simple average of a data set by using arithmetic formulas like
finding the median, while in weighted average, components are given weight of
value to arrive in a certain answer.
(Other variant)
- Weighted average on the other hand is used in many different fields, but it is used
most especially in the field of accounting. It is normally used in fields where
mathematical evaluations and analysis is needed. The main purpose of weighted
average is to put value or weight on certain components so that you will be able to
come up with the right solution with the problem that you are solvingWhen it
comes to the financial aspect, the weighted average is the average value of the
principal repayments of a certain bond or loan until the principal value is paid.
• Ordinary least squares - A statistical technique to determine the line of best fit for
a model. The least squares method is specified by an equation with certain
parameters to observed data. This method is extensively used in regression
analysis and estimation.
• In the most common application - linear or ordinary least squares - a straight line
is sought to be fitted through a number of points to minimize the sum of the
squares of the distances (hence the name "least squares") from the pointsto this
line of best fit.
!
We see that the numerators are the same which tell that both formulas
measure the same unique effect of x1.
Frequency is the number of times a specific value appears in a data set or list. To
find the frequency of these values, one constructs a frequency table and inputs all
the different values from the set. The frequency of a class divided by the total
frequency is called the relative frequency of that particular class. Frequency
distribution is a representation, either in a graphical or tabular format, that displays
the number of observations within a given interval. The intervals must be mutually
exclusive and exhaustive, and the interval size depends on the data being
analyzed and the goals of the analyst. Frequency distributions are typically used
within a statistical context. As a statistical tool, a frequency distribution provides a
visual representation for the distribution of a particular variable. Analysts often use
it to show or illustrate the data collected in a sample. The most important factors
are that the intervals used must be non-overlapping and must contain all of the
possible observations.
Cumulative Frequency is the total number of data values that are less than or equal
to a certain value. The cumulative frequency of a class divided by the total
frequency is called relative cumulative frequency. Cumulative frequencies can also
be represented by graphs. The most popular graph is known as a cumulative
frequency graph or ogive. The simple cumulative frequency, as in the case of
ogive, we take the ordinate as the percentage cumulative frequency, we shall get a
percentage cumulative frequency curve. Such a curve is useful for comparing
different frequency distributions as they are adjusted to a uniform standard. It is to
be noted that the ogive for a discrete series is drawn on the assumption that the
data is continuous. When the class frequencies run up to a maximum at one end of
the range, they form a J-shaped curve. A cumulative frequency plot also is a way
to display cumulative information graphically. It shows the number, percentage, or
proportion of observations in a data set that are less than or equal to particular
values. From economic essence, this concept is important for analysis of total
values, which are connected by specific criteria. For example, if you want to open
a shop, you can calculate how many people will buy something there according to
their willingness to pay.
Coefficients of population regression is the parameters of the population regression line. In the
linear regression model with a single regressor, coefficients of population regression are the
intercept b0 and the slope b1 of this line.
Coefficient of elasticity of Y with respect to X is the percentage change in the Y resulting from a 1%
increase in X. The most common elasticity used in econometrics is the price elasticity of demand,
which is the percentage change in the quantity demanded caused by a 1% increase in price.
When the regression model is log-log function form, the slope b1 of this line is equal to the
elasticity of Y with respect to X, it means that b1 is the percentage change in Y caused by a 1%
change in X.
Price elasticity is important in business to determine in a given market whether an increase (or
decrease) in prices will generate an increase (or decrease) in revenues.
1. Financial wealth - is fixed and working capital society, and working capital.
The structure of this wealth are all social wealth, universities and schools, hospitals
and health centers, cultural facilities and sports, housing, public property, state
reserves, natural resources are involved in the production process. In fact, the real
wealth is accumulated labor society, expressed in material goods for a certain long
historical period. The content structure of the material wealth is constantly
changing under the influence of the STR and socio-economic changes. With the
development of society proprietary wealth of the nation increases.
2. intangible wealth. It includes the value of cash in the form of cash, securities and
all human abilities and achievements in science, culture, sport, art, society
accumulated production experience, expressed in common human knowledge.
3. The natural wealth - is made known (disclosed) natural resources: land, water,
air, forest, minerals explored climate. Diverse elements of nature is a natural gift
from the nature of man and to the point - the potential wealth of the nation. Nature
- the material conditions of production and environment of life of the nation. Most
elements of the natural wealth is not increased, but decreased as a result of
human impact. Therefore, there is the problem of saving and austerity elements of
the natural wealth.
With the instability of the economy, restructuring the existence of conditions for the
development of market relations should create an optimal relationship between all
elements of the structure of national wealth. It is necessary to develop and
implement the most rational structure of the reproduction process using elements
of national wealth. This will increase the wealth of the nation.
Y is the value of the Dep. var ehat is being predicted or explained α a constant;Y is the value of thr
Indep.variables ;ε- error regression equation is often used to estimate economic statistics such as
inflation and GDP growth.In statistics it helps to estimate the strength and the direction of the
relation between 2 or more variables.
46. Describe the difference between linear and square standard deviation
Linear (mean) deviation (MD, L ̅, d ̅) this indicator is the arithmetic
mean of absolute values of the deviations from the arithmetic mean.
The linear deviation helps us to calculate the average amount by
which the values in the population or sample vary from their mean.
If the data set is not grouped, we use simple mean
MD = L ̅ = d ̅ = (∑_(x=1)^n▒〖(xi- (x)) ̅ 〗)/n
xi = [(x1;xn) ̅] – value of each observation arithmetic mean of the
values
n – number of observations
If we have a data set consisting of variables with not equal
frequencies, we use weighted frequency of this mean deviation
MDW = L ̅ w= d ̅ w= (∑_(x=1)^n▒〖(xi- (x)) ̅ 〗 "fi" )/(∑_(i=1)^n▒fi)
fi – frequency of every variable
Sometimes it is necessary also to calculate relative linear deviation
VL = L ̅/x ̅ × 100%
Square standard deviation / variance (σ2) is a measure of the
difference between the observed value of the variable and some other
value often that variables mean. It is a square of standard deviation.
The sign of positive or negative deviation reports the direction of that
difference. If the deviation is positive, the observed value exceeds the
reference value. If negative, it is less than observed value. The
magnitude of the value indicates the size of this difference (deviation
= observed value – estimated true value).
Simple variance
σ2= (∑_(i=1)^n▒〖(x-x ̅ ) 〖^2〗〗)/n
Weighted variance
σ2= (∑_(i=1)^n▒〖(x-x ̅ ) 〖^2〗fi〗)/(∑▒fi)
Properties of SD:
measure of variation of all values from the mean
the value is positive, is 0 only when all of data values are same
number.
larger values of SD indicate great amount of variation
value of SD can increase dramatically with the inclusion of 1/ more
outliers.
units of SD (pounds ex) are same as the units of original data values
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