Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

Unit 1 Introduction to Computer Network

Structure:
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Definition and Uses of Computer Network
1.3 Criteria for a Data Communication Network
1.4 Classification of Computer network
Classification by network topologies
Classification by range
1.5 Network Architecture
1.6 OSI Reference Model
1.7 Summary
1.8 Terminal Questions
1.9 Answers

1.1 Introduction
We are familiar with computers and its uses, now we need to understand
how actually computer network works and also know its uses. A computer
network is the infrastructure that allows two or more computers to
communicate with each other. The network achieves this by providing a set
of rules for communication, called protocols, which should be observed by
all participating hosts. The need for a protocol should be obvious: it allows
different computers from different vendors and with different operating
characteristics to ‘speak the same language’. This unit introduces the
fundamental concepts of computer networks, various network types, and
then describes a reference model for network protocol architectures.

Objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 define computer network
 list the uses of computer networks
 discuss the criteria’s for data communication network
 classify computer network
 describe the ISO OSI reference model for computer network

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 1

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

1.2 Definition and Uses of Computer

A Computer Network, often simply referred to as a Network, is a collection
of computers and devices connected by communications channels that
facilitates communications among users and allows users to share
resources with other users. Networks may be classified according to a wide
variety of characteristics. Computers connected over a Network can make
the information exchange easier and faster. The information moves directly
from computer to computer rather than through a human intermediary. Due
to this, people can concentrate on getting their work done rather than on
moving information around the company. A group of computers and other
devices connected together is called a Network, and the concept of
connected computers sharing resources is called Networking.
Uses of Computer
Computer is an information tool. Networks enhance the computer’s ability to
exchange, preserve, and protect information. Networks make it easier to
share expensive hardware and software. The type of information changes
from business to business. The way that information is stored and worked
with also varies. The following is the List of uses of Computer Network
1) Resource sharing: Many organizations have large number of
substantial computers in operation often located far apart. Let us
consider an example, a company having many factories situated at
different locations. A computer at each location (that is in each factory)
keeps the track of inventories, monitor productivity and do the local pay
roll. Initially each of these computers may have worked in isolation from
each other, but at some point, the management may have decided to
connect these computers to be able to extract and correlate the
information of the entire company. The issue here is resource sharing.
Its goal is to make all the programs, equipment’s, especially data
available to anyone on the network irrespective of the location of the
resource and the user.
2) High reliability: The second goal or use of networking in companies is
to high reliability by having alternative sources of supply. For example all
the files can be replicated on two or more machines, so that in case one
of them is not available (due to hardware failure), other copies can be
used. This feature is used in financial institutions.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 2

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

3) Saving money: The third goal is to save money. Small computers often
have better price/performance ratio than the larger ones. Mainframe
(room-size) computers are roughly ten faster than the personal
computers, but are a thousand times costly. This imbalance caused the
system designers to design a system consisting of personal computers,
one per user, with data kept on one or more shared file server
machines. In this model the user are called the clients and this whole
arrangement is known as the client-server model. In client-server model,
the communication generally takes the form of a request message from
a client to the receiver asking for some work to be done. Server does the
work and sends back the reply.
4) Scalability: Another goal is scalability. Scalability is the ability to
increase the system performance gradually as the workload grows, by
just adding more processors.
5) Access to remote information: Access to remote information occurs in
many forms. One of the areas where it is happening is access to the
financial institutions. Many people pay their bills, manage bank accounts
and handle investments electronically. Home shopping is also becoming
popular these days.
Another application that falls under this category is the access to
information systems like World Wide Web which contains information
about art, business, history, government, geography, economics and
several other topics. All the above applications involve the interaction
between the user and a remote database.
6) Person to person communication: Electronic Mail popularly known as
email is widely used by millions of people to send text messages,
photographs audio as well as video to other people or group of people.
This application belongs to person to person communication category.
Videoconferencing is also becoming popular these days. This
technology makes it possible to have virtual meetings among far flung
people. It is also a type of person to person communication.
7) Interactive entertainment: These days we can see many live
programmes and shows. The best thing is that we can interact with them
by participating in the quizzes and the contests organized by them.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 3

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

Self Assessment Questions

1. Define Computer Networks.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. Networks make it easier to share expensive hardware and software.
(True/False).

1.3 Criteria for a Data Communication Network

The major criteria that a Data Communication Network must meet are:
a. Performance
b. Consistency
c. Reliability
d. Recovery
e. Security
a) Performance: Performance is the defined as the rate of transferring error
free data. It is measured by the Response Time. Response Time is the
elapsed time between the end of an inquiry and the beginning of a
response. Request a file transfer and start the file transfer.
Factors that affect Response Time are:
 Number of Users: More users on a network - slower the network will run
 Transmission Speed: speed that data will be transmitted measured in
bits per second (bps)
 Media Type: Type of physical connection used to connect nodes
together
 Hardware Type: Slow computers such as XT or fast such as Pentiums
 Software Program: How well is the network operating system (NOS)
written
b) Consistency: Consistency is the predictability of response time and
accuracy of data. Users prefer to have consistent response times, they
develop a feel for normal operating conditions. For example: if the "normal"
response time is 3 sec. for printing to a Network Printer and a response time
of over 30 sec happens, we know that there is a problem in the system!.
Accuracy of Data determines if the network is reliable! If a system loses
data, then the users will not have confidence in the information and will often
not use the system.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 4

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

c) Reliability: Reliability is the measure of how often a network is useable.

MTBF (Mean Time between Failures) is a measure of the average time a
component is expected to operate between failures. Normally provided by
the manufacturer. A network failure can be: hardware, data carrying medium
and Network Operating System.
d) Recovery: Recovery is the Network's ability to return to a prescribed
level of operation after a network failure. This level is where the amount of
lost data is nonexistent or at a minimum. Recovery is based on having
Back-up Files.
e) Security: Security is the protection of Hardware, Software and Data from
unauthorized access. Restricted physical access to computers, password
protection, limiting user privileges and data encryption are common security
methods. Anti-Virus monitoring programs to defend against computer
viruses are a security measure.
Self Assessment Questions
3. Which of the following Factors that affects Response Time in Computer
Network. (Pick the right option)
a) Number of Users
b) Transmission Speed
c) Media Type
d) All the above
4. Which of the following is the major NOT the criteria that a Data
Communication Network must meet. (Pick the right option)
a) Performance
b) Consistency
c) Reliability
d) Speed

1.4 Classification of Computer network

Computer networks can be categorized by range, functional relationship,
and network topology
By network topology
 Bus network
 Star network

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 5

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

 Ring network
 Tree network
By range
 local area network (LAN)
 metropolitan area network (MAN)
 wide area network (WAN)

By functional relationship
 client-server
 multitier architecture
 Peer-to-peer

In this section we are going to discuss only Networks classified based on

topology and range
1.4.1 Classification by network topologies
Topology is a term used to describe the way in which computers are
connected in network. The physical topology of a network refers to the
configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology
should not be confused with logical topology which is the method used to
pass information between workstations. Each topology is suited to specific
tasks and has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Network Topologies are logical layouts of the network. The term "logical"
used here marks a great significant. That means network topology depends
not on the "physical" layout of the network.
The choice of topology is dependent upon
 Type and number of equipment being used
 Planned applications and rate of data transfers
 Required response times
 Cost

It is to find the most economical and efficient way to connect all the users to
the networks resources while providing adequate capacity to handle user
demands, maintain system reliability and minimize delay. Many topologies
do exist but most commonly there are 4 types of basic topologies used for
networking computers which are discussed below.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 6

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

1) Bus topology

Fig. 1.1: Bus topology

The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are
connected to a common transmission medium which has exactly two
endpoints is called the 'bus'. That is transmitted between nodes in the
network is transmitted over this common transmission medium and is able
to be received by all nodes in the network virtually simultaneously. It
consists a single main cable connects each node. The bus topology is as
shown in Figure 1.1.
The network OS keeps track of unique electronic address for each node,
and manages the flow of information A single cable is dedicated to all the
information traffic, performance can be slow at times. This topology is often
bound in client/server systems (example file server: dedicated solely to the
distribution of data files). This topology is most commonly used, as it can be
easily expandable as the network grows.
Advantages of a linear bus topology:
 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a linear bus topology:
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 7

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

2) Ring topology
The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is
connected to two other nodes in the network and with the first and last
nodes being connected to each other, forming a ring. Ring topology looks
something like shown in Figure 1.2. In this the nodes are connected in a
circle using cable segments. Each node is physically connected only to two
others.

Fig. 1.2: Ring topology

All data that is transmitted between nodes in the network travels from one
node to the next node in a circular manner and the data generally flows in a
single direction. Performance can be faster. Found in peer-to-peer networks.
Advantages
 Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and
the opportunity to transmit
 Performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load
 Does not require network server to manage the connectivity between the
computers
Disadvantages
 One malfunctioning workstation or bad port in the MAU can create
problems for the entire network
 Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network
 Much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 8

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

3) Star topology
A star topology is designed with each node connected directly to a central
network hub or concentrator as shown in Figure 1.3. Data on a star network
passes through the hub or concentrator before continuing to its destination.
The hub or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network.
It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common
with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or
fiber optic cable.

Fig. 1.3: Star topology

Advantages of a star topology:

 Easy to install and wire.
 No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and then remove faulty parts.
 Has the advantage of minimum data traffic along the cables (node to
server)
Disadvantages of a star topology:
 It requires more cable length than a linear topology.
 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 Star topology is more expensive than linear bus topology because of the
cost of concentrators.
 It Requires an extremely powerful (and expensive) file server, plus
additional cable.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 9

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

4) Tree topology
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It
consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable is as shown in Figure 1.4. Tree topologies allow for the
expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a network
to meet their needs.

Fig. 1.4: Tree topology

Advantages of a tree topology:

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a tree topology:
 The type of cabling used limits overall length of each segment.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
1.4.2 Classification by range
1) LAN (Local Area Network)
These are the networks that connect computers and resources together in a
building or buildings close together. The computers share resources such as
hard-drives, printers, data, CPU power, fax/modem, applications, etc. They

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 10

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

usually have distributed processing – means that there is many desktop

computers distributed around the network and that there is no central
processor machine (mainframe). Fig. 1.5 shows a typical Local area
network.

Fig. 1.5: Local area Network

Location: In a building or individual rooms or floors of buildings or

connecting nearby buildings together like a campus wide network like a
college or university.
Components of a LAN: The components used by LANs can be divided into
cabling standards, hardware and protocols.
Examples of cabling standards used on LANs are:
 Cat 3, 4 and 5 cables
 IBM Type 19 cabling standards
 EIA568A and 568B
 Ethernet cabling standards: IEEE 802.3 (10Base5), IEEE 802.3a
(10Base2), IEEE 802.3i (10BaseT)
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 Connectors: RJ45, RJ11, Hermaphroditic connectors, RS232, DB25,
BNC

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 11

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

Examples of hardware devices are:

 Network Interface Cards NICs
 Repeaters
 Ethernet Hubs or multiport repeaters
 Token Ring MultiStation Access Units (MSAUs), Control Access Units
(CAUs) and Lobe Access Modules (LAMs)
 Bridges
 Brouters
 Routers
 Gateways
 Print servers
 File servers
 Switches

Examples of LAN protocols are:

 Ethernet frame types: Ethernet_II, Ethernet_SNAP, Ethernet_802.2,
Ethernet_802.3
 Media Access Control layer (MAC layer)
 Token Ring: IBM and IEEE 802.5
 Logical Link Control Layer (LLC) IEEE 802.2
 TCP/IP
 SMB, NetBIOS and NetBeui
 IPX/SPX
 Fiber Distributed Data Interchange (FDDI)
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

2) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network

These types of networks connect LANs together within a city. In the fig. 1.6,
we see that telecommunication services provide the connection (storm
clouds) between networks. Local telecommunication services provide the
external connection for joining networks across cities. The main criteria for a
MAN are that the connection between the LANs is through a local exchange
carrier (the local phone company).

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 12

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

Fig. 1.6: Metropolitan Area Network

Location: Separate buildings distributed throughout a city.

Examples of companies that use MANs are universities, colleges, grocery
chains, gas stations, department stores and banks.
The protocols that are used for MANs are quite different from LANs except
for ATM which can be used for both under certain conditions.
Examples of MAN protocols are:
 RS-232, V.35
 X.25 (56kbps), PADs
 Frame Relay (up to 45 Mbps), FRADs
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) PRI and BRI
 Dedicated T-1 lines (1.544 Mbps) and Fractional T-1
 T-3 (45 Mbps) and OC-3 lines (155 Mbps)

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 13

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

 ADSL (Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line)

 xDSL (many different types of Digital Subscriber Lines)
3) WAN (Wide Area Networks)
This communication system links LANs between cities, countries and
continents. The main difference between a MAN and a WAN is that the
WAN uses Long Distance Carriers rather than Local Exchange carriers.
Otherwise the same protocols and equipment are used as a MAN. Fig. 1.7
shows this type of network.

Fig. 1.7: Wide Area Network

Location: City to city, across a country or across a continent.

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect LANs together between cities or
across a country. The TransCanada Pipeline has a WAN that stretches from
Alberta in the Western Provinces of Canada to Boston on the Eastern
United States seaboard. The pipeline goes from Alberta to Ontario then
through the States and ends up in Boston. The maintenance and control of
the network resides in Calgary, Alberta.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 14

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

Self Assessment Questions

5. Which type of network connects computers and resources together in a
building or buildings close together?
_____________________________________________________
6. Which type of networks t connects LANs together within a city?
______________________________________________________

7. Which type of Networks connects LANs together between cities or

across a country?
_________________________________________________________
8. Star topology requires less cable length than a linear topology.
(True/False).
9. In bus topology it is difficult to identify the problem if the entire network
shuts down. (True/False).

1.5 Network Architecture

Modern computer networks are designed in a highly structured way. In the
following discussion, we examine some of the structuring techniques.
Protocol hierarchies
To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organized as a series
of layers or levels, each one built upon its predecessor. The number of
layers, name, content, and function of each layer differs from network to
network. In all networks, the purpose of each layer is to offer certain
services to the higher layers, shielding those layers from details of how the
offered services are actually implemented. Layer n on one machine carries
on a conversation with layer n on another machine. The rules and
conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the Layer n
protocol.
The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines are
called peer processes. It is the peer processes that communicate using the
protocol. In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer n on one
machine to layer n on another machine. Instead, each layer passes data
and control information to the layer immediately below it, until the lowest
layer is reached. Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the
actual communication occurs.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 15

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface. The interface

defines which primitive operations and services the lower layer offers to the
upper one. For the designers of a network one of the most important
considerations is defining clean interfaces between the layers. Doing so,
in turn, requires each layer perform a specific collection of well-understood
functions.
In addition to minimizing the amount of information that must be passed
between layers, clean-cut interfaces also make it simpler to replace the
implementation of one layer with a completely different implementation,
because all that is required in the new implementation is that it offer exactly
the same set of services as the to its upstairs neighbor as the old
implementation did.
The set of layers and protocols is called the Network Architecture. The
specification of the architecture must contain enough information to allow an
implementer to write the program or build the hardware for each layer so
that it correctly obeys the appropriate protocol.
Neither the details of the implementation nor the specification of the
interfaces are part of the architecture because these are hidden away inside
the machines and not visible from the outside. It is not even necessary that
the interfaces on all machines in a network be the same, provided that each
machine can correctly use all the protocols.
Design issues for layers
1) Every layer must have a mechanism for connection establishment. Since
a network normally has many computers, some of which have multiple
processes, a means is needed for a process on one machine to specify
with whom it wants to establish a connection. As a consequence of
having multiple destinations, some form of addressing is needed in order
to specify a specific destination.
2) Mechanisms for terminating the connections when they are no longer
needed.
3) Data transfer rules:
There are three methods of data transfer. These methods are discussed
below

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 16

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

 Simplex communication: In this type, data transfer occurs in only

one direction, i.e., either from source to destination or destination to
source machines.
 Half-duplex communication: In this type, data transfer occurs in
either directions, but not simultaneously.
 Full-duplex communication: In this type, data transfer occurs in
either direction simultaneously.
The protocol must also determine the number of logical channels per
connection along with their individual priorities. Many networks
provide at least two logical connections per channel, one for normal
data, and one for urgent data.
4) Error control mechanisms: It is one of the important issues since
physical communication circuits are not perfect. Many error-correcting
and detecting codes are known, but both ends of the connection must
agree on which one is being used. In addition, the receiver must have
some way of telling the senders which messages have been correctly
received and which have not.
5) Message ordering: Not all communication channels preserve the
ordering of messages sent on them. To deal with a possible loss of
sequencing, the protocol must make explicit provision for the receiver to
allow the pieces to be put back together properly. An obvious solution is
to number the pieces, but this leaves open the question of what should
be done with pieces that arrive out of order.
6) An issue that occurs at every level is how to keep a fast sender from
swamping a slow receiver with data. All the proposed solutions have
some kind of feedback mechanisms, wherein the receiver informs its
current situation to the sender.
7) Another problem that must be solved at several levels is the inability of
all processes to accept arbitrarily long messages. This property leads to
mechanisms for disassembling, transmitting and then reassembling
messages. A related issue is what to do when processes insist upon
transmitting data in units that are so small that sending each one
separately is inefficient. Here the solution is to gather together several
small messages heading towards a common destination into a single
large message and dismember the large message at the other site.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 17

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

8) When it is inconvenient to set up a separate connection for each pair of

communicating processes, the underlying layer may decide to use the
same connection for multiple, unrelated conversations. As long as this
multiplexing and de-multiplexing is done transparently, it can be used by
any layer.
9) When there are multiple paths between source and destination, a route
must be chosen. Sometimes this decision must be split over two or more
layers.
Self Assessment Questions
10. The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines
are called _____________.
11. In _________________ communication type, data transfer occurs in
only one direction.
12. ____________________communication type, data transfer occurs in
either directions, but not simultaneously.

1.6 OSI Reference Model

The layered model that dominated data communications and networking
literature before 1990 was the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. Everyone believed that the OSI model would become the ultimate
standard for data communications, but this did not happen. The TCP / IP
protocol suite became the dominant commercial architecture because it was
used and tested extensively in the Internet; the OSI model was never fully
implemented.
Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on International
standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the OSI model, which was first introduced in 1970s.
Open system: A set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
Purpose of OSI model: It shows how to facilitate communication between
different systems without requiring changes to the logic of underlying
hardware and software.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 18

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and

designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
The OSI Model is a layered framework for the design of network systems
that allows communication between all types of computer systems. It
consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part
of the process of moving information across a network.
Layered Architecture:
The OSI Model is composed of seven ordered layers:
 Layer 1 – The Physical Layer
 Layer 2 – The Data Link Layer
 Layer 3 – The Network Layer
 Layer 4 – The Transport Layer
 Layer 5 – The Session Layer
 Layer 6 – The Presentation Layer
 Layer 7 – The Application Layer
Figure 1.8 below shows the layers involved when a message is sent from
device A to device B. As the message travels from one device to another, it
may pass through several intermediate nodes or devices. These
intermediate nodes or devices usually involve only the first three layers of
the OSI model.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 19

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

Fig. 1.8: The ISO OSI Model

In modeling the OSI model, the designers distilled the process of

transmitting data to its most fundamental elements. They identified which
networking functions had related uses and collected those functions into
discrete groups that became the layers. Each layer defines a family of
functions distinct from those of the other layers. By defining and localizing
the functionality in this fashion, the designers created an architecture that is
both comprehensive and flexible.
Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer
below it. Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates with
layer x on another machine. This communication is governed by an agreed-
upon series of rules and conventions called protocols. The processes on

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 20

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

each machine that communicates at a given layer are called peer-to-peer

processes. Communication between machines is therefore a peer-to-peer
process using the protocols appropriate to a given layer.
Peer-to-peer processes
At the physical layer, the communication is direct. In the figure above,
device A sends a stream of bits to device B (through intermediate nodes). At
the higher layers, communication must move down through the higher
layers on device A, over to device B, and then back up through the layers.
Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it
receives from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the
layer just below it.
At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form that can be transmitted
to the receiving device. At the receiving machine, the message is
unwrapped layer by layer, with each process receiving and removing the
data meant for it.
Interfaces between layers
The passing of the data and the information down through the layers of the
sending device and back up through the layers of the receiving device and
back up through the layers of the receiving device is made possible by an
interface between each pair of adjacent layers. Each interface defines the
information and services a layer must provide for the layers above it. Well-
defined interfaces and layer functions provide modularity to a network. As
long as a layer provides the expected services to the layer above it, the
specific implementation of its functions can be modified or replaced without
requiring changes to the surrounding layers.
Layer organization
The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroups. Layers
1, 2, and 3 are the network support layers; they deal with the physical
aspects of moving data from one device to another. Layers 5, 6, and 7 can
be thought of as user support layers; they allow interoperability among
unrelated software systems.
Layer 4 links two subgroups and ensures that what the lower layers have
transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can use. The upper OSI layers
are almost always implemented in software, except for the physical layer
which is mostly implemented in hardware.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 21

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

Layers in the OSI model

Let’s discuss the functions of all the 7 layers of OSI model.
1) Physical layer: This layer coordinates the functions required to carry a
bit stream over a physical medium. It deals with the electrical and
mechanical specifications of the interface and transmission medium. It
defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.
2) Data link layer: This layer transforms the physical layer, a raw
transmission facility, to a reliable link. It makes the physical layer appear
error-free to the upper layer (to the Network layer). It is also responsible
for other functions such as framing, error control, flow control, physical
addressing, and access control mechanisms.
3) Network layer: This layer is responsible for the source-to-destination
delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks (links). The Data
Link Layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on
the same network (links), the network layer ensures that each packet
gets from its point of origin to its final destination. If two systems are
attached to the same link, there is no need for the network layer.
However, if the two systems are attached to different networks (links)
with connecting devices between the networks (links), there is often a
need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
Other responsibilities of the Network layer include logical addressing,
and routing.
4) Transport layer: This layer is responsible for process-to-process
delivery of the entire message. A process is an application program
running on the host. The Network layer oversees the source-to-
destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize the
relationship between those packets. It treats each packet independently,
as though each piece belonged to a separate message, whether or not it
does, The Transport layer, also ensures that the whole message arrives
intact and in order, overseeing both error and flow control at the source-
to-destination level.
5) Session layer: This layer acts as the network dialog controller. It
establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 22

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

6) Presentation layer: This layer is concerned with the syntax and

semantics of the information exchanged between two systems. The
specific responsibilities of this layer include Translation, Encryption, and
Compression.
7) Application layer: This layer enables the user, whether human or
software to access the network. It provides user interfaces and support
for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer,
shared database management, and other types of distributed
information services. Specific services offered by the Application layer
include: Provision of Network Virtual terminals, File transfer, access, and
management, mail services, and Directory Services.

Reliable process-to-
process message
delivery and error
recovery

Fig. 1.9: Summary of Layers in OSI Model

Data transmission in OSI model

The sending process has some data it wants to send to the receiving
process. It gives the data to the application layer, which then attaches the
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 23
Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

application header, AH (which may be null), to the front of it and give the
resulting item to the presentation layer.
The presentation layer may transform this item in various ways, where they
are actually transmitted to the receiving machine. On the machine various
headers are stripped off one by one as the message propagates up the
layers until it finally arrives at the receiving process.
The key idea throughout is although actual data transmission is vertical,
each layer is programmed as though it were really horizontal.
Network models
Computer networks are created by different entities. Standards are needed
so that these heterogeneous networks can communicate with one another.
The two best known standards are the OSI model and the Internet model.
The OSI model defines a seven-layer network; the Internet model defines a
five-layer network.
Self Assessment Questions
13. ______________ layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit
stream over a physical medium.
14. ______________ layer is responsible for the source-to-destination
delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks.
15. _____________ layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of
the entire message.

1.7 Summary
This unit started with introduction to computer networks and their
applications in the real world scenario. The types of networks along with
their structures were discussed. The basic network architecture is
presented. The base model of entire networking, the ISO OSI model was
discussed in detail. The services offered by various types of networks are
also discussed.

1.8 Terminal Questions

1. Explain LAN, MAN and WAN.
2. Write a note about the ISO OSI Model.
3. Explain different Network topologies.
4. Explain in what way computer networks is useful for the people.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 24

Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

1.9 Answers
Self Assessment Questions
1. A group of computers and other devices connected together s sharing
resources is called Computer Network.
2. True
3. d. All the above WAN
4. Speed
5. LAN
6. MAN
7. WAN
8. False
9. True
10. Peer processes
11. Simplex
12. Half-duplex
13. Physical Layer
14. Network Layer
15. Transport Layer
Terminal Questions
1. LAN: (Local Area Network) are networks that connect computers and
resources together in a building or buildings close together
MAN: Metropolitan Area Network is networks that connect LANs
together within a city.
WAN: Wide Area Networks are a communication system linking LANs
between cities, countries and continents. (Refer section 1.4)
2. The OSI Model is a layered framework for the design of network
systems that allows communication between all types of computer
systems. It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which
defines a part of the process of moving information across a network.
(Refer section 1.6)
3. Computer networks can be categorized based on by network
topology as
 Bus network
 Star network
 Ring network
 Tree network (Refer section 1.4)
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 25
Data Communication and Networking Unit 1

4. The following is the List of uses of Computer Network

 Resource Sharing
 High Reliability
 Saving Money
 Scalability
 Access to Remote Information
 Person to Person Communication
 Interactive Entertainment (Refer section 1.2)

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 26