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NICK BARTON
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Preface XIII
Introduction XIX
The multi-disciplinary scope of seismic and rock quality XIX
Revealing hidden rock conditions XX
Some basic principles of P, S and Q XX
Q and Q XXI
Limitations of refraction seismic bring tomographic solutions XXII
Nomenclature XXIII
PART I
1 Shallow seismic refraction, some basic theory, and the importance of rock type 3
1.1 The challenge of the near-surface in civil engineering 3
1.2 Some basic aspects concerning elastic body waves 4
1.2.1 Some sources of reduced elastic moduli 5
1.3 Relationships between Vp and Vs and their meaning in field work 6
1.4 Some advantages of shear waves 7
1.5 Basic estimation of rock-type and rock mass condition, from shallow seismic P-wave velocity 9
1.6 Some preliminary conversions from velocity to rock quality 12
1.7 Some limitations of the refraction seismic velocity interpretations 13
1.8 Assumed limitations may hide the strengths of the method 16
1.9 Seismic quality Q and apparent similarities to Q-rock 17
2 Environmental effects on velocity 19
2.1 Density and Vp 19
2.2 Porosity and Vp 24
2.3 Uniaxial compressive strength and Vp 25
2.4 Weathering and moisture content 27
2.5 Combined effects of moisture and pressure 30
2.6 Combined effects of moisture and low temperature 32
3 Effects of anisotropy on Vp 35
3.1 An introduction to velocity anisotropy caused by micro-cracks and jointing 35
3.2 Velocity anisotropy caused by fabric 38
3.3 Velocity anisotropy caused by rock joints 40
3.4 Velocity anisotropy caused by interbedding 45
3.5 Velocity anisotropy caused by faults 47
4 Cross-hole velocity and cross-hole velocity tomography 49
4.1 Cross-hole seismic for extrapolation of properties 49
4.2 Cross-hole seismic tomography in tunnelling 52
4.3 Cross-hole tomography in mining 58
4.4 Using tomography to monitor blasting effects 61
4.5 Alternative tomograms 64
4.6 Cross-hole or cross-well reflection measurement and time-lapse tomography 66
VI Table of contents
9 Relationships between Vp, Lugeon value, permeability and grouting in jointed rock 159
9.1 Correlation between Vp and Lugeon value 159
9.2 Rock mass deformability and the Vp-L-Q correlation 162
9.3 Velocity and permeability measurements at in situ block tests 165
9.4 Detection of permeable zones using other geophysical methods 169
9.5 Monitoring the effects of grouting with seismic velocity 170
9.6 Interpreting grouting effects in relation to improved rock mass Q-parameters 172
PART II
11.6 Age effects summary for Atlantic Ridge and Pacific Rise 287
11.6.1 Decline of hydrothermal circulation with age and sediment cover 289
11.6.2 The analogy of pre-grouting as a form of mineralization 291
12 Rock stress, pore pressure, borehole stability and sonic logging 295
12.1 Pore pressure, over-pressure, and minimum stress 295
12.1.1 Pore pressure and over-pressure and cross-discipline terms 295
12.1.2 Minimum stress and mud-weight 296
12.2 Stress anisotropy and its intolerance by weak rock 297
12.2.1 Reversal of Ko trends nearer the surface 299
12.3 Relevance to logging of borehole disturbed zone 301
12.4 Borehole in continuum becomes borehole in local discontinuum 302
12.5 The EDZ caused by joints, fractures and bedding-planes 306
12.6 Loss of porosity due to extreme depth 311
12.7 Dipole shear-wave logging of boreholes 312
12.7.1 Some further development of logging tools 315
12.8 Mud filtrate invasion 316
12.9 Challenges from ultra HPHT 320
14.2 Anisotropy and heterogeneity caused by inter-bedded strata and jointing 372
14.2.1 Some basic anisotropy theory 373
14.3 Shallow cross-well seismic tomography 374
14.3.1 Shallow cross-well seismic in fractured rock 377
14.3.2 Cross-well seismic tomography with permeability measurement 377
14.3.3 Cross-well seismic in deeper reservoir characterization 378
14.4 Detecting finely inter-layered sequences 379
14.4.1 Larger scale differentiation of facies 380
14.5 Detecting anisotropy caused by fractures with multi-azimuth VSP 382
14.5.1 Fracture azimuth and stress azimuth from P-wave surveys 382
14.5.2 Sonic log and VSP dispersion effects and erratic seismic Q 386
14.6 Dispersion as an alternative method of characterization 386
14.7 AVO and AVOA using P-waves for fracture detection 388
14.7.1 Model dependence of AVOA fracture orientation 391
14.7.2 Conjugate joint or fracture sets also cause anisotropy 392
14.7.3 Vp anisotropy caused by faulting 394
14.7.4 Poisson’s ratio anisotropy caused by fracturing 394
14.8 4C four-component acquisition of seismic including C-waves 394
14.9 4D seismic monitoring of reservoirs 397
14.9.1 Possible limitations of some rock physics data 397
14.9.2 Oil saturation mapping with 4D seismic 397
14.10 4D monitoring of compaction and porosity at Ekofisk 398
14.10.1 Seismic detection of subsidence in the overburden 400
14.10.2 The periodically neglected joint behaviour at Ekofisk 401
14.11 Water flood causes joint opening and potential shearing 402
14.12 Low frequencies for sub-basalt imaging 403
14.13 Recent reservoir anisotropy investigations involving P-waves and attenuation 404
15 Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 407
15.1 Introduction 407
15.2 Shear wave splitting and its many implications 408
15.2.1 Some sources of shear-wave splitting 410
15.3 Crack density and EDA 411
15.3.1 A discussion of ‘criticality’ due to microcracks 412
15.3.2 Temporal changes in polarization in Cornwall HDR 413
15.3.3 A critique of Crampin’s microcrack model 415
15.3.4 90°-flips in polarization 415
15.4 Theory relating joint compliances with shear wave splitting 416
15.4.1 An unrealistic rock simulant suggests equality between ZN and ZT 417
15.4.2 Subsequent inequality of ZN and ZT 419
15.4.3 Off-vertical fracture dip or incidence angle, and normal compliance 419
15.4.4 Discussion of scale effects and stiffness 421
15.5 Dynamic and static stiffness tests on joints by Pyrak-Nolte 422
15.5.1 Discussion of stiffness data gaps and discipline bridging needs 424
15.5.2 Fracture stiffness and permeability 425
15.6 Normal and shear compliance theories for resolving fluid type 425
15.6.1 In situ compliances in a fault zone inferred from seismic Q 427
15.7 Shear wave splitting from earthquakes 428
15.7.1 Shear-wave splitting in the New Madrid seismic zone 428
15.7.2 Shear-wave splitting at Parkfield seismic monitoring array 429
X Table of contents
16 Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 483
16.1 Some important non-linear joint and fracture behaviour modes 483
16.2 Aspects of fluid flow in deforming rock joints 486
16.2.1 Coupled stress-flow behaviour under normal closure 487
16.2.2 Coupled stress-flow behaviour under shear deformation 488
16.3 Some important details concerning rock joint stiffnesses Kn and Ks 492
16.3.1 Initial normal stiffness measured at low stress 494
16.3.2 Normal stiffness at elevated normal stress levels 495
16.4 Ratios of Kn over Ks under static and dynamic conditions 497
16.4.1 Frequency dependence of fracture normal stiffness 497
16.4.2 Ratios of static Kn to static Ks for different block sizes 498
16.4.3 Field measurements of compliance ZN 499
16.4.4 Investigation of normal and shear compliances on artificial surfaces in limestones 501
16.4.5 The Worthington-Lubbe-Hudson range of compliances 503
16.4.6 Pseudo-static stiffness data for clay filled discontinuities
and major shear zones 505
16.4.7 Shear stress application may apparently affect compliance 506
16.5 Effect of dry or saturated conditions on shear and normal stiffnesses 507
16.5.1 Joint roughness coefficient (JRC) 508
16.5.2 Joint wall compression strength (JCS) 509
16.5.3 Basic friction angle b and residual friction angle r 509
16.5.4 Empirical equations for the shear behaviour of rock joints 511
16.6 Mechanical over-closure, thermal-closure, and joint stiffness modification 513
16.6.1 Normal stiffness estimation 515
Table of contents XI
17 Conclusions 559
References 627
Index 655
This book traces an accelerating path through an important part of the earth sciences, describing seismic behaviour
and rock mechanics interpretation at many scales, to illuminate what lies beneath the earth’s immediate surface.
Although geophysics, and the rock mechanics and engineering geology of discontinuous media share the same
medium, they have had a mostly separate development – with little cross-referencing in the multitude of journals.
Regrettably, we seldom see geophysics colleagues at our rock conferences. This book attempts to bridge this void in
strategic locations.
Seismic velocity, seismic quality (the inverse of attenuation), and anisotropy are some of the very basics of geo-
physics, and they depend absolutely on the rock and fluid properties, the rock mass structures, the jointing, the frac-
turing, the microcracks and the other pore space. These are some of the fundamentals of earth science. All
contribute to the resultant dynamic stiffnesses, and to the fluid pressure micro-flow reactions, whether at dam foun-
dation depths, tunnel depths, reservoir-well depths, or earthquake depths. All components of the anisotropic,
dynamic, stiffness-velocity-permeability half-space, respond together in a logical pattern. Attempting to understand
this pattern is a major objective of this book.
The assumed ‘shared earth’ response is revealing itself with increasing speed. Despite the very small strains and dis-
placements involved in seismic wave loading there are inevitable, encouraging parallels, to the rock mechanics of larger
strains and displacements. This makes seismic response more understandable and more logical for a wider group of pro-
fessionals, with contributing areas of expertise.
In synthetic modelling in geophysics, there is now much interest in the rock joint or rock fracture compliances that
may hold part of the secret of fractured reservoir description. These same properties, when inverted, are used over much
larger displacements, in rock stability and deformation modelling. Remarkably, the dynamic compliance and static
stiffness of fractures and joints have mostly had a compartmentalized development in the different disciplines. A
dynamic, micro-strain-based normal compliance of 1013 m/Pa1 derived from shear-wave anisotropy measurement in
the sub-surface, is of recognisable magnitude when inverted, to compare with the pseudo-static ‘macro-strain’ joint nor-
mal stiffness (i.e. 10,000 MPa/mm or 10 MPa/micron) obtained from incremental loading tests on similar rock joints
at similar high stress levels.
The level of rock stress, the joint wall roughness, and the joint wall compressive strength, which are also important
components of aperture and permeability, provide estimates of these physical properties, not just the diagonal mem-
bers of a stiffness matrix. Here we have a classic reason for a disconnect between part of the earth sciences, which can be
bridged with advantage.
Attenuation and rock quality, another area of disconnect, can also be linked, but not quite so simply as taking the
inverse of attenuation and calling it seismic quality. The universally used seismic quality Q of geophysics, that we
will often call Q seis, shows some qualitative and quantitative connections to rock mass quality, also called Q, and
widely used in rock engineering since the 1970’s. The rock mass quality (Q), which we will often call Q rock, is com-
posed of several attenuation-causing parameters, that are directly equivalent to block size, inter-block friction and a
rough measure of effective stress and permeability.
There are clear, broad links between Q rock and Q seis, due to the discovery of a mutual connection to the empir-
ically derived and stress-dependent deformation modulus of rock masses. This connection is despite the fact
that only micro-strains, micro-displacements, and micro-flows (squirt) occur with the passage of dynamic waves.
Rock mass behaviour is non-linear and scale-dependent. Load-deformation curves have different gradients at differ-
ent stress levels. Dynamic waves seem to sense this non-linearity, and they apparently sense some of the scale effect
too.
This book is dedicated to making some of these cross-discipline empirical connections, in a simple non-mathe-
matical way, so that the people who see a lot of rock in their daily endeavours (geologists, engineering geologists,
rock mechanics and rock engineers), and those who see, and interpret, and model complex seismic results, from
XIV Preface
earthquakes, from fractured petroleum reservoirs, and from laboratory rock physics reservoir simulations, can more
easily communicate in the common anisotropic stiffness-velocity-permeability half-space that is earth science.
Communication in words and diagrams, rather than through complex formulae and matrices. At least half of the
people working in the earth sciences are not as good at mathematics as the other half may have assumed.
Acknowledgements
First and foremost this book is an acknowledgement to the many thousands of earth scientists working with geo-
physical interpretation of the near-surface, the sub-ocean, and the seismic shallow crust. Their dedication and inter-
esting publications have made this book a possibility. This volume is a well-illustrated documentation of just some
of their excellent work. The journey through their contributions has been one of increasing excitement.
Efforts have been made to reproduce the physical essence of reviewed work with suitable choice of author’s fig-
ures. Ricardo and Marcelo Abrahão have excelled in the expert redrawing of such figures, and are sincerely thanked
for their painstaking work. The writer’s summaries of key aspects of reviewed work are interspersed with personal
and rock mechanics based interpretations with which authors need not be in full agreement.
Material contributions, in the form of inaccessible articles, figures and data, and some valuable discussions and
improved insight, have kindly been provided by Dr. Enru Liu, Dr. Eda Quadros, Dr. Baotang Shen, Dr. Axel
Makurat, Prof. Stavros Bandis, Dr. Karstein Monsen, Prof. Michael King, Dr. Stuart Crampin, Dr. Heloise Lynn,
Harald Westerdahl, Dr. Sonja Maultzsch, Dr. Paul Chapman, Dr. Rudi Lubbe, Dr. Tor Arne Johansen, Dr. Barry
New, Dr. Saul Denekamp and Dr. Tore Lasse By, who enthusiastically introduced the writer to cross-hole seismic
tomography in 1986.
Part I of this book was mostly completed while the writer was Visiting Professor in the University of São Paulo
Polytechnic (USP). The writer’s kind neighbour in the Mining Department, Prof. Lineu Ayres da Silva, was indir-
ectly responsible for the five years extension involved in starting and completing Part II of this book. A recently pur-
chased volume by Kearey and Vine, 1996 lay open on his desk. A plate tectonics section of a plunging sub-ducting
crust with labels ‘low Q’, ‘high Q’ caught the writer’s rock-engineering attention. What did this ‘Q’ mean? Some of
the complex answers, and a simple one showing promise, will be found in Part II.
My final acknowledgements are firstly to Pat Coughlin, who has ensured a smooth-running and expert manuscript
production over a long period of endeavour. This started with the deciphering of handwriting and ended with countless
explanations of Microsoft’s hidden logic. The enthusiastic team at Taylor & Francis, Germaine Seijger and Lukas Goosen
and the Charon Tec team have produced a work to be proud of. The reader can be the judge of this. Finally my thanks
and apologies to a tolerant and loving wife Eda, who also ensured some key insights into rock-fluid interactions.
The nature of this book, specifically a wide-reaching literature review, involving some 830 references from some
forty different journals and publishing houses, has made obtaining permissions to reproduce figures a daunting and
sometimes impossible task regarding author-permissions, due to the several hundreds of first authors, and thousands
of multiple authorships. There are instances where we have been unable to trace or contact the copyright holder. If
notified, the publisher will be pleased to rectify any errors or omissions at the earliest opportunity. Many key authors
are retired, regrettably some have died, including Bengt Sjögren, who’s published work from 1979, 1984 and 2000
was an important source for key figures in several chapters of Part I. The most prominent authors have kindly given
permission for multiple reproduction of figures from my limited selection from their important contributions. All
publishers as listed below, have kindly given their permission for multiple reproduction of the numerous figures
reproduced in this reference volume. Their joint permissions, and those of contacted authors, and the contribution
of all authors that could not be contacted for whatever reason, are gratefully acknowledged. Their excellent work,
reproduced in this book, is a sincere acknowledgement of their contributions to geophysics.
Preface XV
Acoustical Society of America (ASA): Journal of the Acoustical Society of America: Figure 13.42
American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG): Figure 15.36
American Geophysical Union (AGU): Journal of Geophysical Research: Figures 2.8, 3.1, 5.33, 5.34, 5.35, 10.14,
10.21, 10.25, 10.27, 10.28, 10.33, 10.37, 10.38, 10.41, 10.43, 10.44, 10.47, 10.48, 10.52, 10.53, 10.55,
10.58–10.60, 11.1, 11.6, 11.7, 11.8, 11.9ab, 11.10–11.21, 11.24–11.30, 11.31a, 11.32, 11.33, 11.35, 11.36,
11.38, 11.40–11.42, 11.48, 11.49, 11.52, 11.54–11.64, 11.66–11.71, 12.11, 12.22, 12.23, 13.2, 13.5a, 13.25,
13.29, 13.32, 13.33, 13.46, 14.16, 14.25, 14.26, 15.8, 15.11, 15.14, 15.18, 15.63. Figure Part II; Tables: 10.5,
10.6, 11.2, 15.2, 15.3, 16.5, 16.6
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers (AJME): 16.42, 16.68
American Institute of Physics (AIP): Figure 10.21
American Physical Society (APS): Physical Review E: Figure 10.64
American Society of Civil Engineering (ASCE): Journal of Geotechnical Engineering: Figure 2.15
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME): Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineering:
12.6; Journal of Applied Mechanics: 2.9
Blackwell Publishing: Geophysical Prospecting: Figures 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 1.8, 1.10, 1.11, 3.9, 4.3, 5.2–5.4, 5.10, 5.11,
6.11, 6.17, 8.12, 9.2, 10.65, 10.67, 13.24, 13.25, 13.36–13.41, 13.44, 13.48, 13.61, 14.15, 15.5, 15.6, 15.22, 15.28,
15.39, 15.40–15.42, 15.47, 15.48, 15.51–15.53, 15.55, 16.20–16.22; Geophysical Journal International (Geophys.
J. Int.): 10.22–10.24, 15.1a, 15.3, 15.4, 10.67; Other sources: Figures Part II, 11.1, 11.2, 11.18; Table 11.1
Cambridge University Press: Figures 11.3, 13.1, 13.2, 13.5 and 14.4
Centek Publishers, Luleå: Figure 16.13
Comité Francais de Géologie de l’Ingénieur et de l’Environnement (CFGI): Paris: Figures 5.6, 5.7, 8.5; Tables 8.1, 8.2
Coyne et Bellier: Figures 7.7, 6.19, 6.21
Elsevier: International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences and Geomechanics Abstracts: Figures 2.1,
3.2, 3.8, 4.7ab, 4.13, 4.14, 4.17, 4.20, 5.29, 5.30ab, 6.9, 6.20, 7.18, 7.20, 7.25, 7.26, 7.31, 7.32, 8.2–8.4, 9.6,
15.9, 13.53–13.55, 13.58, 15.17, 16.2, 16.4, 16.6, 16.7, 16.9, 16.12, 16.16, 16.17, 16.44, 16.46, 16.69, 16.73,
16.74; Table 4.1; Engineering Geology: Figures 5.17, 5.19, 15.26, 14.39; Journal of Applied Geophysics: 14.15,
15.5a, 15.56, 15.57; Table 16.8; Tectonophysics: Figures 11.31b, 11.53, 16.64, 16.65, 16.76. Other sources:
Figures 1.1, 1.6, 2.18, 4.12, 4.21, 5.13, 10.57, 11.5, 11.34, 15.23; Tables 2.2, 5.2, 11.1
European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers (AEGE): First Break: Figure 15.31; Other sources: Figures 10.2,
10.3, 10.10; 10.20, 10.21, 10.31, 10.36, 13.24, 14.37, 14.38, 15.27, 15.31, 15.37, 15.38, 15.43, 15.45, 15.46,
15.54; Table 13.2
Geophysical Research Letters: Figures: 4.9, 10.52, 11.51, 11.56, 15.44, 16.19; Other sources: Figures 9.7, 12.7,
12.8, 11.39, 11.46, 11.54, 13.11, Table 11.3
Geological Society of America (GSA): Geology: Figures 3.13, 10.6, 16.11, 16.56, 16.63; Figure 1.4
Geological Society: The Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology: Figures 3.7, 3.10, 5.15, 5.16; Other sources: 2.12,
11.47, 13.56, 13.57, 15.16, 16.23
Imperial College, London: Figure 16.6
Imprime Adosa, Madrid: Figure 3.3, 5.1, 5.8, 5.9, 8.16
Institut du Bâtiment et des Travaux Publics; Annales d’ITBTP: Figure 6.20
Institut Français du Pétrole (JFP): Oil & Gas Science and Technology: Figures 3.5, 14.32, 14.33
XVI Preface
International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment (IAEG): Figures 3.3, 5.1, 5.6–5.9, 8.5, 8.16;
Tables 8.1, 8.2, 16.7
International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), Paris: Various sources: Figures 3.6, 6.7, 7.4, 9.1, Table 6.3.
International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM): ISRM News Journal: Figures 7.2, 7.3, 6.18, 8.21–8.23, Table 12.1
Ishikawa Soil Incorporated Association: Figure 2.13
Japan Tunnelling Association (JTA); Tunnels and Underground: Figure 8.6
John Wiley & Sons: Figures 7.30, 6.23
Kansas Society of Petroleum Engineering: Figures 13.2, 13.5ab
Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil (LNEC), Lissabon: Figures 2.2, 6.1, 6.15, 6.22, 6.23
Nagra; Nagra Bulletin: Figure 9.1
National Academy Press, Washington: Figures 6.2, 6.3, 6.8, 7.1, 7.8, 9.11; Table 6.2
Norwegian Petroleum Society (NFP): Figures 14.29, 14.30, 15.36
Office of Nuclear Waste Isolation (ONWI), Columbus: 16.10, 16.14, 16.15, 16.29–16.33, 16.46, 16.67
Österreichischen Gesellschaft für Geomechanik (ÖGG), Felsbau: Figure 6.4
Oyo Corporation: Figure 2.12
Royal Astronomical Society (RAS): Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society: Figures 11.5, 11.37, 11.50
Schlumberger: Oilfield Reviews: Figures 12.24–12.26, 14.15, 15.1b, 15.19, 15.36, 15.1b; Other sources: 4.10
Seismological Society of America (SSA): Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America: Figures: 10.39, 10.40,
10.46, 10.52, 10.61, Table 10.7
SGE Editoriali, Padova: Figure 2.13
SKB, Stockholm: Figure 7.23
Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration (SME): Various sources: Figures 2.4–2.7, 5.1a, 6.12, 7.12–7.15, 7.28,
15.7, 15.25, 16.27, 16.75
Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG): Geophysics: Figures 2.11, 2.19, 2.21, 3.11, 3.16, 4.15, 7.27, 10.1,
10.4–10.11, 10.13, 10.15ab, 10.16–10.19, 10.29, 10.30, 10.34, 10.35, 10.52, 10.64, 10.66, 10.68–10.72, 11.22,
11.23ab, 11.43, 11.48, 12.27, 13.3, 13.4, 13.6–13.8, 13.11–13.13, 13.17–13.23, 13.26–13.31, 13.34, 13.35,
13.42–13.45, 13.50–13.52, 14.1–14.3, 14.6–14.15, 14.18–14.24, 14.28, 14.31, 15.11, 15.29, 15.30, 15.60,
16.64. Tables: 10.10, 14.1–14.3, 15.1; The Leading Edge: Figures: 12.1a–d, 12.2a–d, 13.10, 13.14a–b, 13.15,
13.16, 14.33–14.36, 14.38, 15.15, 15.24, 15.35, 15.60; Canadian Journal Exploration Geophysics: Figures 10.63,
15.12–15.14, 15.32; Other sources: Figures 12.3, 12.30, 14.1, 15.5c, 15.10, 15.29, 15.44, 15.54, 15.65abc,
15.66, 16.6
Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE): SPE Journal: Figures 13.2, 13.5ab, 14.32, 14.33; Other sources: Figures 12.12,
12.13, 12.29
Southern Africa Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (SIAMM): Figure 15.46
Springer Science and Business Media: Rock Mechanics: Figures 2.10, 16.10, 16.26, 16.41, 16.54ab, 16.57ab, 16.58;
Pure and Applied Geophysics – Pageophysik: 7.22ab, 10.12, 10.49ab, 10.50ab, 10.51, 10.52, 10.54; Other
Sources: Figures 10.42, 13.1, 16.60; Table 3.1
Stanford Rock Physics & Borehole Geophysics (SRB): Figures 13.2, 13.5ab
Preface XVII
PhD Theses:
S. Bandis, 1980, University of Leeds (Fig. 16.3?, 16.16, 16.18, 16.40, 16.47, 16.52, 16.66, Tbl. 16.2, 16.3);
T. Cadoret, 1993, University of Paris (Fig. 13.2, 13.5ab, 13.20);
D. Han, 1986, Stanford University (Fig. 13.2, 13.4, 13.5e);
K. Iwai, 1976, University of California Berkeley (Fig. 16.46);
D.L. Jizba, 1991, Stanford University (Fig. 13.5d);
Y.-Q. Liu, 2003, University of Edinburgh (Fig. 14.15b);
R. Lubbe, 2005, Oxford University (Fig. 16.20, 16.23);
N. Lucet, 1989, University of Paris (Fig. 13.2, 13.5ab);
E. Quadros, 1982 (Msc), University of São Pualo (Fig. 16.6);
A. Shakeel, 1995, Imperial College, Univ. London (Fig. 13.58);
J.C. Sharp, 1970, University of London (Fig. 16.6);
C. Slater, 1997, University of Edinburgh (Fig. 15.20, 15.34, 15.35);
S.R. Tod, 2002, University of Cambridge (Fig. 15.44);
J. Yan, 2003, University of Edinburgh (Fig. 13.14);
J. Yuan, 2001, University of Edinburgh (Fig. 14.27).
Introduction
Seismic, sonic and ultrasonic measurements are utilised by a large number of geo-science, geo-engineering and geo-
resource disciplines. Their use is so widespread in the earth-sciences, that it should be of no surprise to us that such
techniques are also used to register such diverse subjects as osteoporosis in cows, and the control of ‘crispiness in
breaded fried chicken nuggets’. The latter was a thesis in Biological Systems Engineering.
Since rock engineers tackle different problems from petroleum engineers and geophysicists, who in turn tackle
different problems from tectonophysicists, there has been an understandable yet regrettable compartmentalisation
between the disciplines. Both practitioners and researchers in each of these major fields, generally go to different
conferences and read and publish in different journals, as there are ‘too many’ choices of each in each discipline, even
in each speciality where we earn our living. The luxury of cross-discipline interaction, occasionally experienced with
great interest and resulting stimulation, is usually defeated by time, cost and also in part, by technical-language bar-
riers, and even mathematics.
An interesting example of partial ‘compartmentalization’ is stiffness and compliance. Each have followed almost
separate development since the late 1960s in rock mechanics, and since the early 1980s in geophysics. Each are
essential to each subject; for numerical modelling of stability and deformability in rock engineering; for improved
interpretation of attenuation, anisotropy and shear wave splitting in the geophysics of fractured petroleum reser-
voirs. Yet the dynamically measured, micro-deformation fracture compliances in geophysics (in the normal and
shear directions), are numerically close to the inverse of incrementally-loaded joint stiffnesses in rock mechanics, at
least when rock quality is high.
The frequently illustrated material in this book has been assembled as a result of an interest in a variety of civil,
mining, petroleum, geophysics and earth-science fields. The common denominator has been rock mass and rock
joint behaviour as presumably impacting the seismic interpretation. An interesting and very large selection of seis-
mic velocity and seismic quality related data, from practitioners working in widely varied disciplines, has been
assembled. Much has obviously been left out or not yet seen. Much is still under development.
The chapters of Part I are mostly civil engineering related with strong links to the interpretation of rock condi-
tions at both laboratory and field-scale, with their impact on engineering of tunnels and dams and planned nuclear
waste repositories. The chapters of Part II go deeper both figuratively and literally, and consider much larger scale
uses of seismic attributes, from hydrocarbon reservoirs and the use of multiple dynamic energy sources, to the inter-
pretation of mid-ocean spreading-ridges, to crustal conditions interpreted from natural earthquake hypocentres.
The phenomen of seismic anisotropy, known already in the nineteenth century to give lower stiffness perpen-
dicular to layering than parallel, is now in widespread use for investigating fractured rock at depth. Features of the
rock mass, though of sub-seismic-wave size, can be detected at many kilometers depth, due to shear wave splitting,
giving polarization parallel and perpendicular to dominant jointing. Different time delays for the fast and slow shear
wave components vary with fracture properties and with frequency, giving frequency-dependent anisotropy.
Efforts have been made to seek out and to reproduce in brief, with helpful figures, the seismic measurements and
interpretations which have a clear or potential rock quality content, at whatever scale. Clearly the term ‘rock quality’
conceals various techniques and scales of measurement, and varied interests in ‘rock quality’ per se. A rock mass with
high velocity and high rock quality (i.e., exhibiting low attenuation) would make life less profitable for machine bored
tunnellers due to slow progress and frequent cutter-changes. Aggregate producers would need more drilling and
explosives per ton, and would seek other quarries. The very existence of hydrocarbon reservoirs and their product-
ivity would be severely prejudiced if either ‘rock quality’ or ‘seismic quality’ was too high. Others would welcome
good ‘rock quality’ characteristics, for example producers of dimension stone and clients expecting cheap drill-and-
blasted tunnels requiring little rock support.
XX Introduction
At the beginning of most rock engineering projects we are operating ‘blind’, and any help to ‘see’ what may lie below
our dam foundation, or ahead of our tunnel, saves schedules, budgets and sometimes lives as well. The beauty of
seismic, sonic or ultra-sonic investigations is that they can be applied over a virtually unlimited range of scales, to
‘see’ micro-cracks closing under stress in the laboratory, or to ‘see’ fluctuations in effective stress across a regional fault
caused by changes of reservoir level, and to monitor the effects of water-flooding in a fractured petroleum reservoir.
Already in 1917, Fessenden had proposed (and patented) the use of a cross-hole seismic technique to locate ore
bodies. The scale of investigation can be increased by orders of magnitude to ‘earth-scale’, when illuminating the
seismic structure of the earth’s crust, and further again to depths of 5000 km or more, to the solid iron core of the
earth, as a result of global-station analyses following large earthquakes.
Sjøgren, 1984, gave the civil engineering (near-surface) profession a particularly useful guide in the use of shallow seis-
mic refraction techniques for those involved in shallow sub-surface projects. The fundamental principle is that seismic
waves propagate with significantly different velocities in different near-surface geotechnical and geological strata, due to
the seismic visibility of weathered, low-stressed materials in general. This also means that the velocities tend to increase
rapidly with depth, which must not be misinterpreted as meaning better quality per se. Intermediate high-speed layers,
or hidden low velocity layers obviously disturb this simplified picture, and velocity anomalies and incorrect depth inter-
pretations result unless separate analysis i.e., downhole vertical seismic profiling (VSP), or coring is performed.
Fundamental difficulties in the context of rock engineering (and in all other disciplines too) are that the means of
access, superficial or along boreholes, are often limited by the geometry of the problem, by the (urban or sub-sea)
location, and by the cost. The freedom to choose optimal experimental layouts is therefore limited. As pointed out
by Cosma, 1995, this may cause blind zones, even in the immediate vicinity of the observation points.
In the case of soil or weathered rock horizons, seismic velocity interpretation readily distinguishes the water table
from a lithological boundary by inspection of the shear or transverse wave velocity (Vs). If this remains constant
across the region of changing water content, while Vp changes, a groundwater surface is indicated, since the shear
waves do not respond to changing water content due to the lack of shear stiffness. If Vs also changes, a geotechnical
or geological layer will have been crossed. Typical ranges of Vp for a variety of near-surface sediments and rocks are
reviewed in Chapter 1.
One of the historic and important applications of refraction seismic in civil engineering, has been at dam sites,
which were investigated in great numbers, especially in the 1950s, 60s and 70s. Rock quality, permeability, and
deformation modulus were of fundamental importance. Associated hydropower tunnels such as headrace and tail-
race tunnels have been the subject of countless thousands of kilometres of seismic refraction spreads, not to men-
tion all the power house foundations and high pressure penstock locations.
The seismic spreads at the ground surface should if possible be set out in optimal directions to investigate sus-
pected sub-surface anomalies. Since the ray paths are essentially following sub-horizontal paths, steeply dipping or
vertical features such as faults or deeply weathered zones can be readily located and given a characteristic seismic sig-
nature. Localised P-wave velocities of 2 or 3 or 5 km/s have distinct engineering implications for near-surface tun-
nelling or foundation stripping. Their interpretation in relation to rock type (uniaxial strength and porosity) and in
relation to the depth of measurement, or to stress level and stress-induced anisotropy, will be reviewed in detail in
this book, with the help of a quantitative rock mass quality description.
The P-wave is a longitudinal wave, in which the direction of particle motion coincides with the wave propagation.
It is often termed the first arrival or compressional wave. By contrast, the lower velocity transverse S-wave has par-
ticle motion in the plane perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. An S-wave is of two possible basic
types: the SH-wave in which particle motion is parallel to a boundary, usually the ground surface, and the SV-wave
which has particle motion perpendicular to both the wave propagation direction, and to the particle motion of the
SH-wave.
Introduction XXI
When passing through anisotropically fractured petroleum reservoirs, a shear wave will likely split into fast (qS1) and
slower (qS2) polarized components, giving clues about the fracturing character and perhaps the principal stress direc-
tion. The latter coupling may be more complex than convention suggests however, due to adverse stress-closure-per-
meability behaviour in reservoir rocks, unless they are strong enough to tolerate tens of megapascals of effective
normal stress across their ‘open’ joints or fractures. Slight shearing and dilation may actually be needed on conju-
gate joint or fracture sets, to explain permeability and production from fractures in weaker reservoir rocks, and to
explain the ‘surprising’ maintenance of permeability deep into the crust.
There is a ‘problem’ of frequency dependence for all the component velocities of P- and S-waves, but in fact in the
problem lies the more accurate interpretation. There are exciting current developments in these dispersive, frequency-
dependent interpretations of velocities and attenuation, and in their relation to anisotropy, where rock mechanics
knowledge of ‘joint stiffnesses’, or their dynamic micro-strain-based near-inverses: the geophysicist’s ‘fracture com-
pliances’, are proving extremely important supplements to the earlier focus on the elliptic aspect ratios of micro-
cracks, and the larger-scale – and smaller magnitudes – of the aspect ratios of almost closed fractures.
Q and Q
Seismologists have had a long tradition of utilising a quality factor Q-seismic (with numerous sub-sets such as the
basic Qp, Qs, and Qc , the latter from the coda or tail-end of a dynamic wave sequence). Q-seismic was popularized
by a famous Knopoff, 1964 paper with the briefest possible title: ‘Q’. We will see the possibility of a Q-seismic rela-
tion with another quality descriptor called the ‘Q-value’, from rock engineering, not directly, but via a mutual
apparent relation to the stress-dependent pseudo-static deformation modulus: surprisingly not to the dynamic modu-
lus, at least not in the top kilometre or so.
Q-seismic is a dimensionless factor whose inverse (Q 1 seis) indicates, if simply stated, the percentage loss of energy
of a single wave length due to various (and sometimes disputed) mechanisms of attenuation in the rock mass at
many possible scales. Reduction in wave amplitude is the most obvious effect. The attenuation is caused by scatter-
ing from geo-structures of different scales, and by absorption in intrinsic micro-mechanisms like normal and shear
micro-displacements across microcracks and joints, therefore involving friction to some degree, and relative micro-
movement of fluids between the pore-space, the micro-cracks and the jointing or fracturing.
As a result of the passage of the very slightly deforming seismic waves there will be a lot of references to ‘squirt
flow’ losses in Part II of this book, in connection with anisotropic attenuation, which is one of several properties of
the fluid conducting structures of fractured or naturally jointed hydrocarbon reservoirs.
In parallel but previously almost unrelated endeavours, a prominent engineering geologist (Deere, 1964) developed
a simple empirical rock quality factor RQD, related with the degree of jointing or fracturing in drill-core. In the
1970s, with no knowledge of Qseis, the rock quality Q-value was developed, which includes RQD as one of the six
parameters. The rock engineering rock quality Q-value describes the degree of jointing (as relative block size) and
important ‘internal’ joint properties like roughness and clay-filling (giving the inter-block friction coefficient). It
also incorporates estimates of the permeability and the stress-to-strength ratio.
Frequent use will be made of the Barton et al., 1974 and Barton 2002 rock quality Q-value and Qc-value in vari-
ous parts of this book. It provides a simple link to seismic velocity, and it probably has the potential for explaining
some attenuation mechanisms as well. The rock quality Q-value has a six orders of magnitude scale of quality (from
0.001 to 1000), and it predicts a two to three orders of magnitude range of deformation modulus. Completely
unjointed, massive rock masses, with Q 1000, will clearly show almost no attenuation. At many kilometres
depth, Qseis values are of similar magnitude. Completely decomposed, near-surface, faulted rock with Q
0.01–0.001 will obviously give complete attenuation (i.e. effectively lower than the theoretically lowest possible
Qseis and highest possible Q 1 seis – each probably beyond measurement limits).
It is expected that future graphs of Q (seismic quality factor) versus Q (rock quality factor) in rock masses (as
opposed to lab-samples), can show strong correlations in the future, when geophysics data is reported in parallel
with rock quality data. Each of the ‘Q-factors’ will be described in greater detail later in this book. We will also see
the ‘problem’ of frequency-dependence, and the ‘problem’ of anisotropy, but both these problem areas are obviously
XXII Introduction
concealing the potential for improved interpretation of the structures beneath the earth’s surface, both shallow and
deep.
Refraction seismic methods have been used for at least fifty years, but have some fundamental limitations that include
masking of lower velocity layers under higher velocity materials, such as basalts above petroleum reservoirs, and dif-
ficulties with multiple velocity layers in close proximity. Some unexpectedly costly tunnelling has resulted from mis-
takes in interpretation, due to such features. However, as with most limitations, there are various solutions, and
geophysicists have been extremely creative, and also willing to modify and apply techniques from other well-funded
fields like medicine.
While P-wave and S-wave measurement between two points can be expressed as average wave velocities (or give
a rather unhelpful ‘average’ picture of a patients brain), there is the possibility of using more comprehensive mul-
tiple source and receiver positions in separate multiple-boreholes, thereby giving positional (2D or 3D) tomo-
graphic imaging. A tumour in an unfortunate patient, and real-time scanning of brain-wave activity, as illuminated
in medicine, have their engineering-scale equivalents. A fault zone delaying a tunnel, and four-dimensional fluid-
migration-imaging in a producing reservoir would be approximate, large-scale geophysics equivalents. The most
basic imaging analogy has been practiced for many years by geophysicists, who use earthquake sources and global
monitoring stations to deduce the structure of the whole earth. So perhaps geo-physicists actually helped to inspire
medical imaging of the human body?
In intermediate-scale, near-surface civil engineering, the strategic positioning of pairs of boreholes across complex
zones or faults can be used for optimal characterization of these features, if they appear to be a threat to progress of a
tunnel, or to dam foundation integrity. In special cases cross-hole tomography measurements may lead to the avoid-
ance of collapse, as more reliable decisions can be taken concerning the need for strengthening by pre-grouting, or the
need for special pre-installed ground support, or perhaps even ground-freezing. Tunnels with inadequate overburden
or severe water leakage potential such as inundation by rivers or lakes, or local inflows that would allow pore pressure
draw-down compaction in soft clays beneath important buildings, can also benefit greatly from seismic-based deci-
sions for special treatment of the ground.
Part I which occupies the first third of this book, will be found to contain mostly civil-engineering and tunnel engi-
neering treatments of the velocity-quality links that are helpful when interpreting near-surface conditions.The com-
plementary laboratory testing that has often accompanied geophysics investigations of the near-surface, will also
have emphasis on lower stress. Because of this, the effect of weathering and alteration and excavation on seismic
attributes, will each be emphasised. Despite the obvious challenges of seismic interpretation in fractured and faulted
petroleum reservoirs at many kilometers depth, or of mid-ocean ridge investigations beneath three kilometers of
ocean, many geophysicists insist that obtaining high resolution images from ground level to just 50 m depth, is still
one of the major challenges of modern geophysics. This happens to be the layer of the subsurface closest to most of
our civil engineering endeavours, from tunnels, to dams, to the foundations for high buildings.
Part II of this book tackles greater depths, greater scales, and more subtle geophysical detail, as benefits this rapidly
developing field. Geophysics has been in ‘rapidly developing’ phases many times in the past. The latest phase is due
to many parallel developments, not least an acceptance of the benefits of three-dimensional surveys, of monitoring
reservoir changes over time (4D), each requiring the ever-developing power of modern computers for the complex
processing of huge amounts of digital data. Investment in geophysics is growing further, due to the inestimable advan-
tages of improved information. The continued search for reliable earthquake precursors, and the pressures to find
more hydrocarbons in more heterogeneous reservoirs, and improve the recovery from those already being depleted,
are each driving the developments in this remarkable field. In the future, more geophysical investments may also be
used to aid in the search for potable water, which already far exceeds the price of gasoline in many locations.
Nomenclature
shear modulus
c uniaxial compression strength (MPa)
h min minimum horizontal component of stress
H max maximum horizontal component of stress
r radial stress around an excavation in rock
v vertical component of principal stress
1 2 3 principal stresses
tangential stress around a (circular) opening
max maximum tangential stress
min minimum tangential stress
shear stress (in a direct shear test)
friction angle of joint, fracture, filled discontinuity, fault (geomechanics)
fractional porosity (rock physics)
b basic friction angle, flat unweathered surfaces, low stress
c critical state line defining s1 = 3s3
peak peak friction angle of a joint, fracture
r residual friction angle of a joint, fracture, fault
axial modulus
ANDRA Agence Nationale pour la gestion des Déchets Radioactifs
AR advance rate (TBM, actual weekly, monthly rate)
AVO amplitude variation with offset
AVOA amplitude variation with offset and azimuth
BB Barton-Bandis constitutive model for rock joints, used with UDEC as UDEC-BB
BEM boundary element method of numerical modelling
BGS British Geological Survey
BHA bottom hole assembly
BHC borehole compensated sonic logging tool
BHTV borehole televiwer
BISQ Biot and squirt flow model
BP British Petroleum
BWIP Basalt Waste Isolation Project, Hanford, Washington, USA
c cohesion of intact rock, joint, fracture, or rock mass
CBTF Conoco Borehole Test Facility
CC cohesive component of rock mass (from Q-value)
CDR compensated dual resistivity log
CSFT coupled stress/shear flow test/temperature, for HM, HTM testing of joints
XXIV Nomenclature
‘Nature has left us an incomplete and often well-concealed record of her activities, and no ‘as con-
structed’ drawings!’ (Stapledon and Rissler, 1983)
‘Tenders for the Tay pipeline crossing did not allow time for boreholes to locate bedrock. Seismic
refraction took one day to confirm that the trench would not encounter rock. The pipeline was laid
in sediments.’ (Gardener, 1992)
‘The time may come when the various relations between geophysical parameters and rock properties
can be usefully combined into a single classification system.’ (Darracott and Orr, 1976)
1.1 The challenge of the that are perpendicular to the major stress, and the more
near-surface in civil open state of those that are parallel will give the rock
engineering mass anisotropic stiffness. Consequently the rock mass
will frequently display anisotropic seismic velocities. By
Refraction seismics is by far the oldest method used in implications, hydraulic conductivities and deformation
exploration seismology, with its origin traced to R. Mallet moduli that show anisotropic distributions will be, at least
from 1848. Shallow refraction seismic measurements in part, detectable by seismic measurements. Anisotropy
using first arrival, compressional P-wave velocities close will also be caused by layered inter-beds, foliation and
to the surface often give a remarkable picture of near schistocity, and of course by a dominant joint set. Simple
surface conditions due to some fortuitous interactions of examples of (azimuthal) anisotropy, applicable in civil
physical phenomena. Firstly, weathering and the usual engineering, will be given in Chapter 3, while larger-
lack of significant stress near the surface has allowed joint scale examples of anisotropy detection will be described
systems, shear zones and faults to be exaggerated in both in much greater detail, and from various fields of the
their extent and severity. Secondly, stress levels are low earthsciences, in Chapters 13, 14 and 15 in Part II.
enough to allow joints and discontinuities to be seismic- Despite the obvious challenges of seismic interpret-
ally visible due to their measurable apertures. ation in fractured and faulted petroleum reservoirs at
So-called acoustic closure occurs at greater depths than many kilometers depth, or of mid-ocean ridge investi-
those usually penetrated by conventional hammer seis- gations beneath three kilometers of ocean, many geo-
mic, unless rock strengths are rather low (e.g., New and physicists insist that obtaining high resolution images
West, 1980; Hudson et al., 1980). (At this juncture, we from ground level to just 50 m depth, is still one of the
need to differentiate between two ‘J.A. Hudson’ authors, major challenges of modern geophysics. This happens to
one in geophysics, the other in rock engineering, and be the layer of the subsurface closest to most of our civil
both very prominent in their chosen fields. We will engineering endeavours, from tunnels, to dams, to the
occasionally refer to ‘rock’ Hudson in Part I, and later foundations for high buildings.
in Part II to ‘seismic’ Hudson). Undoubtedly, the ‘0 to 50 m’ challenge is mainly due
Since micro-fractures and rock joints are sensitive to to the extreme variability of the near-surface, resulting
stress levels, the more closed state of the discontinuities from the contrasting geological materials and weathering
4 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
grades that are often present. There is also a velocity Sjøgren, 2000 suggested the following list of essen-
gradient that is extreme compared to anything found at tial information expected from near-surface seismic
greater crustal depths, where consolidation effects smooth surveys, performed for civil engineering geotechnical
out some of the differences. The first 5 m of unconsoli- investigations:
dated dry beach sand may see velocity increase from
150 m/s to 300 m/s, (Bachrach et al., 2000), giving a gra- ● The velocities of the overburden layers, including
dient of 30 s-1, which may be an order of magnitude the upper, less consolidated rock layers.
higher than the gradient over the next 50 to 100 m, where ● The thickness of the various overburden velocity
weathered and jointed rock may typically be found. layers, and the total depth to the main refractor.
There are an infinite number of challenges in the near- ● A detailed determination of the velocity distribu-
surface. Some of the worse may be karst phenomena in tion in the main refractor.
limestones, or the ‘inverse’ problems of core-stone anom- ● An estimate of the uncertainty of the velocity and
alies in the case of sparsely jointed but deeply weathered depth determinations.
granites and gneisses. These features have caused tun- ● An analysis of the (velocity-) depth structure.
nelling surprises in numerous countries, with nearly as ● An assessment of velocities in vertical and lateral
numerous arbitrations as a result. Although completely directions in relation to the geology.
weathered Grade V is an expected feature beneath the ● Seismic results in relation to results from other
Grade VI soil in tropical terrains, Grade V saprolite investigations, if available.
sometimes confusingly swaps places with the usually ● Conclusions and recommendations resulting from
deeper, and almost unjointed Grade I or II. (Saprolite the investigation that are of importance to the
is a weak, water sensitive, weathered in-place, some- project.
times beautifully structured and coloured relic of the
rock). Although reflection methods have eventually dom-
If this reversal of weathering grades appears in a tunnel inated the field of exploration seismics due to the various
arch beneath massive, high velocity core-stones, or if needs involved with deeper exploration, there is ‘univer-
there is a generally very undulating rock surface, with fre- sal’ use of shallow refraction seismic in sub-surface inves-
quent tunnel penetrations into weathered materials, tigations for civil engineering projects around the world,
there can be major delays. A tunnel collapse is difficult to due to its apparent simplicity and low cost. Further-
avoid when water is present, unless preparations have more, refraction seismics can be used to remove (from
been made, as a result of the more frequent exploratory the more deeply focussed reflection data), the ‘adverse’
drilling demanded when seismic anomalies such as these effect of the first meters or tens of meters of the hetero-
are suspected. geneous weathered layer, where differences in the ori-
Pre-injection ahead of the tunnel face, and heavier ginal rock quality may cause tens of meters of sub-surface
tunnel support, would be the very basic requirements ‘topography’ in the case of on-land exploration.
in a drill-and-blasted tunnel. (This is one of the purposes
of the ‘Q-system’ of rock mass characterization and
tunnel support selection). In the case of a TBM (tunnel 1.2 Some basic aspects concerning
boring machine) excavation, a change to a closed mode elastic body waves
in the case of a hybrid machine with earth-pressure-
balance (EPB) would be needed, especially if the wea- It is usually assumed that the strains associated with the
thered depressions in the bedrock contained water, as is passage of a seismic wave are of minute, sub-micron mag-
usually the case. nitude, and except in the neighbourhood of the source,
Best advice of all, as a direct result of a seismic refrac- the strains are generally assumed to be elastic. Based on
tion survey, would be to drive a deeper tunnel from the this assumption, the velocities of propagation of seismic
start. It is easy to imagine subway station construction waves are determined by the appropriate elastic moduli
under such heterogeneous conditions. It could be and densities of the materials passed through. The general
extremely time-consuming, and even dangerous. The form of the classic equations linking these three quan-
cost of deeper access to the stations, via longer escal- tities is V (E/) ⁄ . Compressional bodywaves (primary
1
2
ators, would be a small price to pay for much reduced or P-waves) propagate by alternating compression and
tunnelling and station costs. dilation (Figure 1.1 a) in the direction of the waves.
Shallow seismic refraction, some basic theory, and the importance of rock type 5
1
K 4 /3
2
Vp (1.3)
From equation 1.5 one can derive the value of dynamic In the case of massive rocks of low porosity, the static
Poisson’s ratio as follows: and dynamic values of the elastic constants (e.g., the
elastic moduli Estat. and Edyn.) are quite close, while for
( Vp / Vs )2 2 heavily fractured and clay bearing zones, large differ-
(1.6) ences between Estat and Edyn are seen (e.g. Cosma, 1995).
2( Vp / Vs )2 1
Rock mass quality descriptions such as Q or RMR or
RQD, which are described in more detail later, correlate
–
The ratio Vp/Vs is about 3 for hard (zero-porosity) better with static moduli than with dynamic moduli.
rocks, for which 0.25. However, in the case of Numerous relations between these moduli will be given
unconsolidated sediments, the ratio Vp/Vs can even reach in Chapter 6.
values of 20 to 40 for near surface material, for which is
commonly greater than 0.45. Later in this chapter, high
values of (dynamic) Poisson’s ratio for a near-surface fault 1.4 Some advantages of shear
zone will also be seen, for similar reasons to the above. waves
A rock quality interpretation, linking these dynamic
parameters, can be added here, by taking Sjøgren’s (1984) In addressing the challenge of resolving the 0–50 m reso-
P- and S-wave results from 4.1 km of seismic profiles lution problem, Dasios et al., 1999 reported multi-
for hard but sometimes weathered metamorphic and component investigations at four shallow sites (thick
igneous rocks (Figure 1.2). The mean value of Vp/Vs clays, clay/sand sequences over chalk, mudstone overly-
1.89 in the more heavily jointed rocks (perhaps a rock ing granodiorite bedrock, and landfill), using a combin-
quality Q 1–10), and the mean value of Vp/Vs 1.80 ation of both compressional and shear wave seismic.
in sparsely jointed rocks (perhaps a rock quality Q The authors of course admit that there is a higher
10–100), can be used to calculate dynamic Poisson’s ratios level of effort required to conduct multi-component
of 0.30 and 0.28 respectively. seismic, requiring a three-component source configur-
As lower rock quality Q-values are approached in shear ation, and three-component geophones, but otherwise
zones and faulted zones (e.g. rock quality Q 0.1), the conventional multi-channel seismic recording systems,
ratio Vp/Vs increases to about 2.0, corresponding to a and PC-based processing software. Obviously the sur-
calculated value of dynamic Poisson’s ratio of about 0.33. veys are more difficult and more time consuming than
The corresponding Q-value (from equation 1.4, using compression-wave refraction or reflection, but the level
minimum Vp data from Figure 1.2) is indeed about 0.1. of geophysical information is that much more useful.
Extremely low Q-values, for example Q 0.01–0.001 They varied the acquisition geometry to optimize
(when Vp 1.5–2.5 km/s) will be needed before results. They found that under all the conditions, shear-
dynamic Poisson’s ratio values become as large as 0.45 waves penetrated with less attenuation than compres-
(as indicated for near-surface shear zones, in a later sional waves, also being unaffected by water saturation.
section of this chapter). Shear-wave reflections from shallow interfaces were in
Further basic equations linking Vp, Vs, dynamic some cases less affected by noise compared with the
Poisson’s ratio (), density () and dynamic Young’s modu- equivalent compressional-wave reflections.
lus Edyn. are as follows (Darracott and Orr, 1976): They offered the following simple explanation of
why shear-waves offer better vertical resolution than
Edyn.(1 )
1
2 compressional-waves, particularly in shallow, unconsoli-
Vp
(1.7) dated sediments. The dominant reason is that the
(1 )(1 2 ) shear-wave velocities in such cases, are only a fraction
(sometimes less than one fifth) of the compressional-wave
1 velocities. This results in very small wavelengths, despite
Edyn. 2
Vs
(1.8) the fact that the dominant frequency of shear wave data
2(1 ) is generally lower than is the case for compressional wave
data. In order to obtain the same level of resolution with
P-waves, energy of very high dominant frequency has to
3( Vp / Vs )2 4 (1.9) be generated, and this is correspondingly more attenuated
Edyn. Vs2
( Vp / Vs )2 1 in the low seismic Q sub-surface.
8 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.3 a) Shear-wave velocities (km/s) and Vp/Vs ratios versus depth. b) Shear-wave velocities (km/s) and dynamic Poisson’s ratio versus
depth for a clay-over-mudstone-above-basement sequence, with an interpreted water table at 4.7 m depth. Results of multi-
component seismic at one of four shallow sites described by Dasios et al., 1999.
Since shear-waves are not attenuated at the water table, of Vp, Vs and the dynamic Poisson’s ratio, in the presence
and are little affected by changes in fluid saturation, they of a water table, and also show the effect of increasing
can more easily detect lithological changes with corres- depth in a uniform sedimentary rock. At their site, thin
pondingly less ambiguous velocity contrasts. The authors clays overlayed mudstone, with a basement of granodi-
found that under conditions of full water saturation, orite at 70 m depth.
P-wave velocity contrasts between lithologies were small, Figure 1.3 shows multi-component plots of shear-wave
whereas the shear-wave velocities reflected the true litho- velocity versus the ratio of Vp/Vs, and of shear-wave
logical changes. velocity versus (dynamic) Poisson’s ratio, each as a func-
In this brief summary, the results from a site they inves- tion of depth to the basement rock at 70 m depth.
tigated in Crewekerne, Dorset will be reproduced. Their Analysis of the P-wave first arrivals gave velocities of
results give a good illustration of the subtle interaction 496 m/s and 1,766 m/s for the unsaturated and saturated
Shallow seismic refraction, some basic theory, and the importance of rock type 9
layers, and indicated a depth of 4.7 m for the top of the 1.5 Basic estimation of rock-type
saturated zone. The dynamic Poisson’s ratio showed a and rock mass condition, from
small decrease close to the surface as a result of the con- shallow seismic P-wave velocity
solidation, then a sharp increase as a result of the water
saturation, followed by a steady decrease with depth When first investigating the bedrock for suitability for
within the uniform water-saturated mudstones. near-surface tunnelling or other relatively shallow con-
As expected from the theoretical calculation of the struction in rock, the preliminary use of shallow refrac-
dynamic Poisson’s ratio, there is a certain accentuation tion seismic is very typical, where surface access (including
of the above trends for the case of the ratio Vp/Vs, except noise) do not present major problems. As a minimum,
that this ratio reduces faster at shallow depth (rather the information gives a Vp – depth profile of inestimable
than when deeper), due to the strong Vp gradient. The value for further planning of the sub-surface investiga-
authors point out that the P-wave velocity was not avail- tion, in particular the optimal siting of boreholes for
able at the greatest depths, due to attenuation, so the future core-logging and permeability testing.
data was extrapolated to 70 m. There were indications of Figure 1.4 reproduces four examples of shallow refrac-
shear-wave anisotropy in the uppermost meters of clay, tion results from Sjøgren 1984, demonstrating the help-
but whether due to desication fractures or some form of ful information about the location, width and depth of
layering is not certain. zones of lower velocity. Later in this chapter, and in sub-
Although outside the usual range of Vp/Vs (about 1.4 sequent chapters, we will be seeing the many ways of
to 2.0) for water saturated rocks, it is of interest to see interpreting such velocities in terms of rock quality and
details of the development of Vp/Vs ratios in unconsoli- degree of fracturing, each tempered by the effect of rock
dated (e.g., subsea) sediments, by noting the progres- type, density, porosity, depth (or stress level), and of
sion from soft soils through compacted soils, to rocks. course the possible anisotropy (or directional depend-
Hamilton, 1979 gave comprehensive Vp-depth, Vs-depth ence) of the result in relation to an anisotropic jointing
and Vp/Vs-depth data for silty clays, turbidites and mud- frequency, and horizontal stress anisotropy.
stones to 1 km depth. Vp values increased slowly from The seismic refraction survey provides numerous
about 1.5 to 2.3 km/s as porosity reduced with increased depth to bedrock and quality of bedrock assessments at
depth, while Vs increased rapidly from only .05 km/s a small fraction of the cost and time needed for drilling.
close to the surface, to 0.15 km/s at depth. Vp/Vs ratios Depths are given at the impact points (hammer or shal-
therefore reduced very rapidly from double figures down low explosive source) and at the detector points (geo-
to about 2.5 at 1000 metres depth. The dynamic values phones or 3D seismometers), so a close spacing of
of Poisson’s ratio decreased, as a result, from about 0.49 detectors gives the equivalent of a large number of sound-
near the surface to 0.41 at 1000 m depth. ings or borings.
In connection with these high values of Poisson’s Sjøgren, 1984, gives the example of 5 m detector and
ratio for sediments, it is significant to note the relatively 25 m source separations for a 10 m deep bedrock inves-
high values of (dynamic) Poisson’s ratio that tend to be tigation. A 100 m profile gives the equivalent of 250 m
recorded in shear zones and fault zones at much shal- of soundings, and a complete distribution of relative
lower rock engineering projects. Gardener, 1992, calcu- quality beneath the profile. With the 10 m source and
lated the values of Poisson’s ratio from Vp and Vs 50 m detector separations needed for a deeper survey to
measurements at the Transfynydd power station in Wales, 50 m depth, the equivalent of 650 m of soundings per
estimating 0.45 for the shear zones, where the Vp velocity 100 m profile is given.
range was 1.6–2.7 km/s. The knowledge and experience of the geophysical team
The higher values of Poisson’s ratio for shear zones is essential in setting out optimal profiles in relation to the
have pseudo-static parallels to the special feature of geology and structural geology, in particular in relation to
heavily jointed rock masses, which can show ‘expansion anisotropic, layered media, and in relation to fault and
ratios’ or pseudo-Poisson’s ratios far in excess of 0.5, and shear zones. ‘Correct’ interpretation of the calculated
even in excess of 1.0 as (shear) failure is approached information cannot be divorced from the geology, since a
(Barton and Bandis, 1982). Elastic continuum theory given velocity (Vp or Vs or dynamic Poisson’s ratio) is not
is of course ‘violated’ by the shear displacements tend- unique to any one material but part of a scale or gradation
ing to occur on the failing joint surfaces. in the specific geological profile at the site, and reflects
10 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 1.4 Seismic refraction results illustrating the wealth of potential information obtained concerning near surface conditions. Sjøgren, 1984.
Shallow seismic refraction, some basic theory, and the importance of rock type 11
Figure 1.5 Typical ranges of Vp for sediments and for little weathered, moderately fractured rocks. Sjøgren, 1984.
various ‘environmental’ factors acting on each rock A similar range of values from the SSDS Project
domain, as will be demonstrated in subsequent chapters. granites in Hong Kong (Gardener, 1992) gives a useful
The later geological and rock quality interpretation qualitative impression of variations caused by weather-
of core recovered from boreholes drilled close to the ing and jointing in the same rock type.
seismic profiles is the domain of engineering geologists,
who besides identifying rock type, will perform careful Table 1.2 Typical range of Vp (km/s) for granite (Gardener, 1992).
logging of RQD, joint or fracture spacing, joint rough- Decomposed granite (soil) 1.6–1.8
ness and discontinuity mineral filling identification (or Fracture zones 2.8–3.5
testing). The performance of rock quality characteriza- Jointed granite 3.5–4.5
tion of drillcore is also standard practice for civil engin- Intact granite 4.5–6.5
eering and many mining projects, using the Q-value
(Barton et al., 1974, Barton, 2002) and RMR
(Bieniawski, 1989) as a minimum. Although these two At the hazardous second Severn Estuary crossing
methods have similarities, and common goals, there are between England and Wales, tidal currents are so strong
differences, and care is needed in converting Q to RMR that 85% of the crossing had continuous rock outcrops
and visa versa, e.g. Barton, 1995. between low and high tide. Sonar buoys and bottom
Typical ranges of velocities for relatively competent (lit- drag cable gave the following relatively tight ranges of
tle weathered moderately fractured) rocks are given in velocities for five rock types that were confirmed with
Figure 1.5. Much lower velocities, covering most of the boreholes, enabling the rocks to be identified across
lower diagonal space between 1 km/s and 6 km/s are seen the site.
with extremes of weathering, jointing and fault related
fracturing. The following is an example of the effects of Table 1.3 P-wave velocities at the Second Severn Crossing
weathering for just one rock type, from Sjøgren, 1984: (Gardener, 1992).
Alluvium 500–2100
Clay 1100–2500
Sand 200–2000
Glacial Till 400–1700
Sandstone 1400–4500
Shale, Slate 2300–4700
Limestone
Soft 1700–4200
Hard 2800–6400
Crystalline 5700–6400
Dolomite 3500–6900
Granite, Granodiorite 4600–6000 2800–3200
Diabase 5800–6000
Gabbro 6400–6700 3400–3600
Basalt 5400–6400 2700–3200
Schist 4200–4900 2500–3200
Figure 1.6 Typical ranges of Vp for common rock types. Griffiths Gneiss 3500–7500 3300–3700
and King, 1987. Water 1450
Air 335
Griffiths and King, 1987, also give typical Vp ranges Table 1.5 P-wave velocities for different horizons in a river bank
for common rock types. These are reproduced in Figure terrace (Sen and Bandyoadhyay, 1990).
1.6, as a source of cross-referencing. Fractured, faulted 0.7–0.8 km/s Clayey and silty soil with pebbles
and heavily jointed zones extend the six major ranges 1.7–1.8 km/s Pebbles/cobbles in silty sand matrix
for these rocks far to the left on occasion. Note the 2.1–2.2 km/s Cobbles/boulders in silty sand matrix
extremely high velocities of the dense, ultramafic rocks,
which lie outside the common range of 1 to 6 km/s.
Table 1.6 P-wave velocities for phyllites at a Himalayan dam site
A comprehensive set of in situ seismic Vp values, and
(Dhawan et al., 1983).
some Vs values for common rock types, is also shown in
Table 1.4. The data are given by Press, 1966. Overburden/weathered phyllites 925–1200
The wide ranges of velocity for sandstone, shale, lime- Unweathered phyllites 2520–4500
stone and dolomite are mainly due to the wide ranges of
porosity (and density) for these materials. The surpris-
authors also give data for phyllites, which do not appear
ingly high range for gneiss is due to the wide range of
on the foregoing figures or tables of Vp data.
mineralogical composition (and density) for this rock.
The marked variation of velocities that are measured
in superficial deposits (0.5 to 2.0 km/s in Figure 1.5) 1.6 Some preliminary conversions
are partly caused by location either above or below the from velocity to rock quality
water table, as shown by Sjøgren’s 1984 data set. The
list given in Table 1.4 shows 0.2 to 2.0 km/s just for Due to the seismic ‘visibility’ of jointing in the upper 25
the case of sand, mostly for this reason. to 30 metres or so, Sjøgren et al., 1979 and Sjøgren, 1984
The following is perhaps a good example of the influ- and others, have been able to record significant correl-
ence of particle size in river born sediments. ations between Vp, RQD and joint frequency. These
The last line of Table 1.5 (for cobbles and boulders) authors compared the results from a total of 113 km of
differs significantly from the range 1.3 to 1.9 km/s for P-wave profiles from fifteen sites, with the results of
‘river boulders’ given by Dhawan et al., 1983, presum- 2.85 km of core-logging from seventy four drill holes at
ably due to differences in porosities. In the latter case, eight of the hard rock sites. (They also had 5 km of
the ‘silty sand matrix’ is presumably absent. These last S-wave surveys at five of the sites).
Shallow seismic refraction, some basic theory, and the importance of rock type 13
The range of rocks occurring at the measured locations, Figure 1.7 reproduces Sjøgren et al., 1979 data in the
mostly in Norway, were: amphibolite, granite, gneiss, readily absorbed format used by the authors. Mean values
meta-anorthosite, pegmatite, porphyry, quartzite and for all the parameters apply. The Edyn modulus is the
mylonite. The authors were careful to emphasise that same as the symbol () used to denote the uniaxial or
the correlations they derived between P-wave velocity axial modulus in equation 1.1.
and jointing descriptions such as mean RQD and mean Since their measurements were shallow, the effect of
frequency F(m1) were relevant only to unweathered stress-induced joint closure was minimised. They also
igneous and metamorphic rocks, and generally for the effectively removed other sets of variables by generally
upper 20 to 30 metres. recording correlations for hard and almost unweathered
igneous and metamorphic rocks. The usual variables of
depth, porosity, uniaxial compressive strength and dens-
ity were therefore largely removed.
A hard rock, near surface correlation of Vp and the
rock quality Q-value was derived by Barton, 1995, on
the basis of trial and error fitting to cases known to the
writer and also Q-logged. (These will be described in
Chapter 5). In Figure 1.8, the important effects of poros-
ity, uniaxial strength and depth are ignored, as for the
Sjøgren et al., 1979 data. Note that the RQD and F/m
mean data have been smoothly extrapolated beyond
both ends of the Sjøgren et al., ‘data-base’ represented
by Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.8 RQD and Fm1 trends from Sjøgren et al., 1979. Q-scale, (as also in Figure 1.7) added by Barton, 1995. These results and
approximate correlations to seismic-frequency Vp are relevant for hard, low porosity, unweathered, near-surface rock masses.
14 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a) (b)
Figure 1.10 Schematic cross-section through an overburden containing velocity anomalies of different geological age. The idealized vertical
section is shown on the left, and the contrasting, time-horizon distortions, post stacking, are shown on the right. Armstrong,
et al., 2001.
The authors indicated (as also seen earlier), that the Sjøgren, 2000 expressed concern about the useful-
P-wave velocity could increase by a factor of four or ness of the GRM method for near-surface geotechnical
more at this transition, in the case of unconsolidated investigations, where details of the various overburden
sediments changing from dry, through partial satur- layers are required since they may have important con-
ation, to full saturation – which may occur just above sequences for the subsequent geotechnical design.
the water table, due to the action of capillary forces. A A relatively more recent technique for modelling of
large velocity gradient (e.g. 400 m/s to 1600 m/s from 1 travel times and travel time inversion in refraction seis-
to 10 m depth) apparently violates many of the assump- mics is the so-called Eikonal solver. In principle, this
tions made in conventional reflection data processing involves the calculation of travel times on a regular
schemes. velocity grid. Early versions, originating from the late
In a recent paper, Sjøgren, 2000, evaluated several 1980s were restricted to a plane topography for the
standard methods for interpreting travel time curves. recording surface.
He utilised the ABC method (originating from 1931), Lecomte et al., 2000, describe a first order Eikonal
the ABEM correction method (early 1950s, detailed in solver that can incorporate the exact topography of the
Sjøgren, 1984), the mean-minus-T method (mid-fifties, surface terrain, and any arbitrary lateral variation of
also adopted in the ABEM method), and the Hales velocity. There is no restriction on the velocity contrast.
method (1958), in order to critically evaluate a more In effect, the model is built up layer by layer, with the
recent (1980) generalized reciprocal method (GRM) of refractor imaging, and the velocity mapping being per-
Palmer, in particular Palmer, 1991. formed for each identified refractor at a time, as seen
16 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1.11 An arbitrarily chosen model for demonstrating a new method of refraction seismic inversion. Lecomte et al., 2000 used this
synthetic model for demonstrating some basic elements of the Eikonal solver, which calculates the travel time of the fastest
wave at any point of a regular velocity grid, using the head waves generated in refraction seismics. The three stages of model-
ling shown here are: a) Wave-fronts and raypaths at receivers along the surface, when considering the whole model (but
minus the acoustic wave velocity in the air, which was omitted for clarity. b) Wave-fronts and raypaths at receivers along the sur-
face, when masking the deepest layer. c) Wave-fronts and raypaths at receivers along the surface, when masking the two deepest
layers.
schematically in one of their illustrative figures, repro- Consider for example the jointed chalk marl at the
duced here in Figure 1.11. Chinnor Tunnel in the UK, where jointing in this weak
material were seismically closing at about 15 metres depth,
to give a stable 1.6 km/s field velocity, despite changes in
1.8 Assumed limitations may the degree of jointing (‘rock’ Hudson et al., 1980). This
hide the strengths of the can be contrasted with the jointed gneiss at the Gjøvik
method cavern in Norway, which gave a continuous rise in vel-
ocity from 3.5 to 5.5 km/s in the first 50 metres depth due
In later chapters the numerous factors influencing seismic to increased stress, yet had almost unchanged rock qual-
velocities such as joint frequency, porosity, rock (and joint ity. The joint frequency, RQD and rock quality Q-values
wall) strength, density, depth, stress, stress anisotropy, did not show an improvement with depth (Barton et al.,
degree of saturation, type of saturating fluid, will each be 1994). Both the above observations could be interpreted
reviewed. This will be done in order to emphasise that as ‘limitations’ of the method. In fact they are demonstrat-
the seismic method has numerous complications, but also ing specific and quite logical physical laws of behaviour.
inestimable advantages, and that some of the assumed The latter is an example of the need to interpret seismic
shortcomings can be due to misinterpretations (often an velocity with knowledge of depth and/or stress level, since
over-simplification, or perhaps even a pre-conceived a rock quality Q-value increase from perhaps 1 to 100
opinion about ‘seismic’ limitations). might otherwise be assumed in these first 50 metres,
Shallow seismic refraction, some basic theory, and the importance of rock type 17
based on a ‘hard rock’, ‘stress-less’ interpretation (i.e. round of advance would also be demonstrating a
equation 1.4, and Figure 1.8). ‘reversed’ Vp-quality behaviour. However, the more dom-
The interpretation cannot be divorced from consider- inant effect of a reduced need for time consuming rock
ation of what is actually occurring in a rock mass as depth support would be consistent with the normal ‘high
increases, i.e. joint normal stiffness increases, joint aper- velocity high quality’ concept. Since it is more logical
ture reduces, joint frequency reduces (usually), and the that Vp increases should accompany rock quality or
clay content in the joints reduces (usually). The list can Q-value increases, such cases of ‘reversed’ quality must
be lengthened considerably by adding that the stress be treated as separate, method-specific cases.
increases, the deformation modulus increases, the permea-
bility reduces, the pore pressure increases. Since there
may be changes of lithology with depth increase, the 1.9 Seismic quality Q and apparent
provision ‘usually’ should really be added to each of similarities to Q-rock
the above.
When considering the possibility of relating seismic A fundamental feature of the propagation of stress waves
velocity to a rock quality descriptor such as the rock in all materials is the absorption of energy and the result-
quality Q-value, another quite basic problem must ing change in shape of the transient waves. Non-linear
also be considered. A velocity of 2.5 km/s for massive friction has traditionally been assumed to be one of the
chalk marl of high porosity, as in the better parts of dominant attenuation mechanisms (Kjartansson, 1979),
the UK-France Channel Tunnel, will have entirely dif- but as will be discussed in Part II, there are a large num-
ferent engineering consequences to that of a regional ber of mechanisms that can explain the different degrees
fault-zone of the same 2.5 km/s velocity, crossing a of attenuation in different rock masses, including scat-
Japanese high-speed rail tunnel excavation, and delay- tering due to structure, and squirt flow.
ing progress by months. In this best quality chalk marl, Geophysicists commonly characterise seismic attenu-
near-world record speeds of (TBM) tunnel boring were ation by the seismic quality factor Q, which of necessity
achieved. has been termed Q seis throughout this book, to distin-
The natural velocity of the unjointed rock under in guish it from the rock mass quality Q. Intuitively Q seis
situ conditions (Sjøgren et al., 1979), and the contrast is related to, but no relation of, the rock mass quality Q
seen in low velocity zones is the main index of difficulty, of Barton et al., 1974, which is a ‘quality number’ also
since an order of magnitude reduction in the rock quality widely used in civil and mining engineering in the last
Q-value will generally accompany each 1.0 km/s reduc- several decades.
tion in seismic velocity, according to the simplified The seismic quality Q seis is often defined as the max-
model shown in Figure 1.8. imum energy (Emax) stored during a cycle, divided by
Low velocity and potentially high permeability zones the energy lost (E) during a cycle:
will be the natural focus of attention in most sub-surface
civil engineering projects. However, in a TBM (machine- 2 (1.10)
Q seis E max
bored) tunnelling project, there will be serious delays if E
there is too much high velocity rock, due to the slow
progress made in hard, sparsely jointed rock. This would For dry rocks, Q seis has been claimed to be independ-
give a ‘reversed’ Vp–rock quality indication, due specif- ent of frequency over a reasonable frequency range
ically to poor borability and the need for frequent (McKenzie et al., 1982). However, as will be seen in
cutter changes. Part II, Q seis is a remarkably sensitive indicator of
A Q-value based ‘Qtbm’ rock-machine quality factor anisotropy, and is frequency dependent in the case of
has been developed for this specific problem (Barton, saturated or partly saturated conditions. When attenu-
2000), which also allows for the fact that more jointing ation (Q1seis) is high, Q seis obviously has a low value.
is good for progress – up to some limit, when other prob- Chapter 10 in Part II, will address Q seis in detail, and
lems may arise. (More tunnel support is needed, there also draw some tentative parallels between ‘Q and Q’,
could be gripper-setting problems, the cutter head could via a common link to deformation properties.
even be jammed). Intuitively, the rock mass quality Q (of Barton et al.,
In the case of drill-and-blasted tunnels, the drillability 1974) which has a high value in high-modulus, high-
and blastability components of the cycle time for one velocity rock masses (i.e., Q 100, Vp 5.5 km/s,
18 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Emass 45 GPa) would seem likely to have high energy Further discussion of Q seis is given in Chapter 4, based
storage and low energy loss under such conditions, and on recent seismic attenuation tomography (see alterna-
therefore qualify for a high value of Q seis and a low tive tomograms). However, a much fuller treatment of
value of attenuation (Q1 seis). Conversely, in a rock mass Q seis is given of both lab-scale and in situ scale attenuation
characterized by many joint sets with clay coatings and phenomena, in Part II, chapter 10, and in relevant parts
fillings on many joints (i.e., Q 0.1, Vp 2.5 km/s, of Chapters 13 and 15.
Emass 5 GPa), both low energy storage and high
energy loss per cycle would be expected. (Q seis is low
and attenuation Q1seis is correspondingly high.)
2 Environmental effects on
velocity
In this chapter, the effects of near-surface weathering on and density in gm/cm3. Seismic velocities ranged from
the seismic velocity Vp will be reviewed. This automat- 2.3 to 6.5 km/s, and densities from 2.1 to 3.0 gm/cm3.
ically introduces the separate, but closely integrated Early Bulgarian experiences with seismic registration
effects of density, porosity, uniaxial compressive strength, of weathering effects are provided by Iliev, 1966. Fresh
and the depth and degree of saturation. Depth and stress and weathered monzonite were shown to have the fol-
effects will only be superficially reviewed here; that dis- lowing ranges of properties, and linear relationships
cussion belongs in later chapters of Part I dealing with between Vp–n% and Vp– (gm/cm3). (See Figure 2.2)
anisotropy and rock-burst or stress-slabbing in deep
excavations, and is of course a fundamental aspect of
all the deep or high pressure seismic results reviewed Vp km/s E (GPa) (gm/cm3) n%
in Part II. The review will be loosely organised into sub- Fresh monzonite 5.0 50 2.61 2
sections, on density, porosity, uniaxial strength and Weathered monzonite 1.4 6 2.34 12
water content, but overlap will inevitably occur within
each sub-section. Weathering and depth effects are insep-
arable from the general presentation of reviewed data. The linear Vp–n% and Vp– relationships conceal a
The key result of the inter-relationships in this near- non-linear Vp–uniaxial compressive strength trend. When
surface environment, is a velocity-depth gradient even in a reduction in Vp due to c and due to n% are assumed,
one rock type, that can easily climb into two and three the strength of the porosity relationship as above, needs
figures, for example 2 km/s increase in the space of modification. Iliev, 1966, noted that a weathering coef-
20 m. The dual effects of rock mass strength and qual- ficient could usefully be defined as the ratio (Vpo–Vpw)/
ity improvement, and of vertical and horizontal stress Vpo where sub-scripts (o) and (w) signify fresh and
increase, are usually responsible. weathered. The coefficient approaches values of 0 and 1
at opposite ends of the weathering scale.
Many of the long span bridges in Japan have been
2.1 Density and VP constructed in soft rock such as Tertiary mudstones and
sandstones, or weathered Tertiary granites. The long
The strong influence of density on P-wave velocity, and span bridges of the Honshu - Shikoku Bridge system
the stabilisation of density below the weathered zone are described by Yamamoto et al., 1995, and Ishikawa et al.,
nicely demonstrated in Figure 2.1 (Ikeda, 1993). The 1995, had foundation sizes in the 50 to 100 m range but
marked fluctuations in velocity at depth were interpreted nevertheless had contact pressures as high as 1 to 2 MPa.
by the author as due to high shear stresses, which were For this reason, Japanese authorities devised compre-
interpreted from hydraulic fracturing conducted in the hensive routines for geological and geotechnical investi-
same holes. (Presumably the elastic isotropic estimate of gations. Seismic methods, in situ deformability, strength
H max, based on the ‘3P-Q’ model was several times the and classification schemes were used extensively, espe-
magnitude of the measured H min). Note the typical cially when trying to extrapolate the results of in situ
rapid increase in velocities in the 25 to 75 m depth zone, testing at more convenient onshore sites, to the actual
which partly mirror density increases and are partly undersea locations of the pier foundations.
related to joint closure and less frequent jointing. The data given in Figure 2.3 shows in situ seismic-
In the case of a range of rock types including marl and velocity-based rock classes, porosities, densities and
peridotite, Kujundzíc and Grujíc, 1966 found a linear degree of saturation, each intimately linked. This remark-
relation Vp 4.75 – 7.3 (r 0.88) for Vp in km/s, able, and useful diagram covers all the sub-titles of this
20 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
chapter, but has been included at the beginning, together seismic rock class versus shear strength, and deform-
with density, to indicate the integrated nature of these ation modulus versus RQD and uniaxial strength. Most
measures of rock mass quality (or lack of quality). Other of the data was obtained from measurements in
useful data sets include Vp versus deformation modulus, medium to lower quality, weathered granites.
Figure 2.1 Influences of weathering, depth of measurement and density on Vp and resistivity. Ikeda, 1993.
Environmental effects on velocity 21
The authors used an extended version of the Tanaka classes at the lowest end of the scale (DH, DM, DL) for
and Japan Highways classification (which involved the rock masses with velocities in the range 1.5 to 2.7 km/s.
six classes A, B, CH, CM, CL and D where subscripts Table 2.1 shows the scheme adopted, which cross-cor-
mean high, medium and low), and included three relates with deformation modulus, density, porosity
and resistivity.
A large collection of laboratory Vp– (gm/cm3), and
Vp–n% data is given by Kelsall et al., 1986, for the case
of basalts from California and dolerites from
S.W. England. Data that fall outside the general trend
for the intact rock are ascribed to fissured and persistently
microcracked rock, shown by the black data points in
Figures 2.4 and 2.5.
The lower seismic velocity of the fissured samples
is accentuated by the air-dried state of these samples.
When plotted on a log-linear scale, the uniaxial
Figure 2.2 Effects of weathering on Vp of monzonite are seen in strength is seen to broadly correlate with the air-dry
linear Vp-n% and Vp- relationships. Iliev, 1966. Vp value. The data set given in Figure 2.6 goes to
Figure 2.3 Inter-relationships between rock class, Vp, porosity, density and degree of saturation at the Honshu - Shikoku Bridge project in
Japan. Ishikawa et al., 1995.
Table 2.1 Extended (low velocity) Japanese classification scheme used at Honshu-Shikoku Bridges, showing cross-correlation of parameters.
Note extreme range of densities due to weathering. Yamamoto et al., 1995.
Rock class Vpr (km/s) Rt ( • m) Esb (GPa) c (103 kg/m3) R (103 kg/m3) nc (%) nR (%)
Note: Vpr: P-wave velocity of rock mass; Rt: resistivity of rock mass; Esb: deformation modulus from pressure meter; c: density of core; R:
density of rock mass; nc: porosity of core; nR: porosity of rock mass.
22 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 2.7 Air-dry and saturated Vp values for intact and fissured
samples of dolerite. Kelsall et al., 1986.
Figure 2.6 Vp–c relation for high strength and weathered rocks.
Kelsall et al., 1986.
At the shallowest depths of the earth’s crust, namely elasticity-based, Hertz contact theory predicted that Vp
the soil cover, specific depth-density-Vp relationships should be proportional to the 1/6 power of the effective
are also evident. Brandt, 1955, developed a theory for stress. He then compared (in Figure 2.9) this Vp-depth
the influence of pressure and porosity (and saturation) gradient with test data for soil, clay and gravel meas-
on the seismic velocity in porous granular media. His ured by Nasu, 1940. The slopes of the test data plotted
24 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 2.12 c–Vp trends from Ohkubo and Teresaki, 1977, with
data from a tunnel site in basalt, tuffs and agglomerates.
Clearly the higher velocities given in the figure will not Won and Raper, 1997.
be so closely approached in the case of near-surface clay-
bearing sandstones, but the relative effects of clay-
content are illustrative. Evangelista and Pellegrino, 1990, referred to exten-
For a given porosity, say 20%, Vp was shown to range sive Japanese data assembled by Ogawa, 1986, in also
from 3.5 to 4.5 km/s due to clay content reducing from citing the potential link between porosity and uniaxial
15% to 5% (approx.). Figure 2.11 shows Vp–n% data compressive strength. Figure 2.13 shows the enormous
for dry sandstones, with the % of clay displayed next to influence that porosity has on uniaxial strength, indi-
the data. cating a bi-linear trend in a semi-log plot. The influence
of porosity on density, and the influence of uniaxial
strength on stiffness, means that several inter-related
physical properties play their role in increasing or decreas-
2.3 Uniaxial compressive strength ing seismic velocity. Microcracking, jointing, stress level
and VP and degree of saturation (including type of fluid) add to
the complexity, as will be extensively demonstrated in
Classification of uniaxial strength by means of seismic later chapters, both in Part I and Part II.
velocity alone is obviously suspect since porosity, density Several hundred uniaxial compression strength tests
and grain size will also be important to differing degrees. on flysch sandstones were conducted by Pininska, 1977,
However, if envelopes are used to separate the major rock in three orthogonal directions. The following general
groups, then c–Vp relationships become somewhat trend can be seen in their c–Vp plot:
clearer, as illustrated by Ohkubo and Teresaki, 1977,
and Won and Raper, 1997, in Figure 2.12. The open
circles are data for basalt, tuffs and agglomerates from Vp 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 5.5 (6.0) est. km/s
c 10 20 40 80 100 (160) est. (MPa)
investigations at a tunnel and highway cutting site in
Australia. Note the trend lines (c Vp3 and
c 0.25 Vp3) whose 4:1 range is still insufficient to However, the scatter of data was very large, and one
encompass the range of data produced in the Japanese could refer to ranges of the above velocities of as much
study (Ohkubo and Teresaki, 1977 Oyo Corporation. as 1.5 km/s in the enclosed region of the above tabula-
Technical Note RP-479). tion. The doubling of strength for each 1 km/s increase
26 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 2.13 The inter-relationship between porosity and uniaxial compressive strength. Ogawa, 1986 from Evangelista and Pellegrino,
1990.
Figure 2.14 Poor correlation of Vp, and c is evident for shale, due in part, to the similar densities of component minerals. Lashkaripour
and Passaris, 1995.
in Vp is a good mean trend. We can add this to another Index tests such as the point load test and Schmidt
general trend, namely that the rock mass quality Q-value hammer test (with density included in the interpretation)
increases 10-fold for each 1 km/s increase in Vp for the are known to correlate reasonable closely with uniaxial
case of hard, low porosity rocks at shallow depth. compressive strength. For this reason, Wei and Liu, 1990,
Environmental effects on velocity 27
(a)
(b) (c)
(d) (e)
Figure 2.16 (a to e) Effects of weathering at four sites in Japan cause huge ranges of porosity, strength and P-wave velocity. Saito, 1981.
Environmental effects on velocity 29
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 2.17 Top: a), b) effect of water saturation on Vp. Bottom: c) Dry Vs/Vp trend over a wide range of Vp. Saito, 1981.
The significant differences of behaviour caused by The Vp/Vs ratios that Saito derived from many hun-
porosity reappear when degree of water saturation and its dreds of data are shown in Figure 2.17c. These particular
effect on Vp are shown side-by-side in Figure 2.17a and data are for dry samples. Vp/Vs ratios are seen to reduce
2.17b. The higher porosities corresponding to higher from about 2.0 at low velocity to about 1.6 at high vel-
weathering grades show very strong (even 200–300%) ocity, broadly following the trends discussed in Chapter 1.
increases in Vp from initial low values, as saturation An example of the effect of saturation is given a sim-
exceeds about 85%. Much less sensitivity to saturation ple theoretical basis by Grainger et al., 1973. Their eval-
(just a weak linear effect) was seen for the fresher, low uation of chalk foundation qualities at the proposed site
porosity, high Vp samples, where Vp increased from just for a proton accelerator facility in Norfolk, England
5 km/s to 5.5 km/s with saturation, in the case of a low revealed one anomalous result, when low quality chalk
porosity sample. (grade V), which was normally sampled above the water
30 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
table (Vp 0.7 km/s) showed a velocity of 1.95 km/s at structureless melange of angular fragments set in a matrix
one location. The grade V chalk was described by the of deeply-weathered, remoulded chalk, analysed by Grainger
authors as a structureless melange of angular fragments et al., 1973.
set in a matrix of deeply-weathered, remoulded chalk.
A matrix version of the time average equation of
Wyllie et al., 1956, was used by the authors to explain 2.5 Combined effects of moisture
this anomaly as follows: and pressure
If velocity reductions appear to exceed what one would crystalline rocks (upper half of Table 2.2). A large-scale
expect in relation to reasonable modulus reductions in parallel would be the effect of ‘environment’ (stress and
an EDZ (from Chapter 7), then drying out seems to be a degree of saturation) on jointed rock which we will see
distinct possibility. The tabulations below, that also in other data sets in later chapters, in particular the data
belong with high stress data from Part II, show the connected with EDZ experiments (Chapter 7).
potential strength of such effects, in comparing dry and To conclude this section on the combined effects of mois-
saturated samples. (Data extracted from Nur and ture and pressure, some data sets will be ‘borrowed’ from
Simmons tabulations, and rounded). future topics in this book, namely the higher pressure
The very fine grain size in the Solenhofen limestone world of Part II, relevant to petroleum reservoirs and
(0.01 mm) compared to the millimetre-size, or several earthquake related tectonophysics.
millimetre-size grains of the other rocks, and its complete An idea of the eventual non-linear nature of Vp-stress
lack of crack porosity is the reason for the almost com- data, is given in some early King, 1966, experiments
plete lack of pressure sensitivity for this rock. Micro-cracks with hydrostatic loading of sandstones, shown in
are presumably the chief cause of the above sensitivities Figure 2.19 with classic psi and ft/sec units. The water-
to pressure and degree of saturation in the case of the saturated and dry states show classic ‘knee’ shapes, and
velocities that begin to converge at high stress, due to
closure of microcracks. The improved coupling with
water, still gives the highest velocity in the saturated
state. The maximum pressures in King’s experiments
were about 35 MPa.
The strong effect of extreme confining pressure, espe-
cially when these pressures go far beyond the uniaxial
strength of the rocks, is typically illustrated by classic
‘knee’ shaped Vp–3 curves. Figure 2.20 shows a variety
of behaviours from high pressure laboratory test results
on dry samples, given by Wepfer and Christensen, 1991.
A compressible shale (3.0 to 5.7 km/s) and a porous
sandstone (2.2 to 4.0 km/s) show strongest effects of con-
fining pressure, while low porosity sandstone, dolomite
and limestone show only 200 to 300 m/s increases. The
Figure 2.18 Slow air-drying of a saturated sample of granite reduces authors refer to velocity hysteresis; the effect of pressure in
Vp by 1.5 km/s. Nur and Simmons, 1969. closing cracks in the stress range 0–200 MPa (0–2 kb) is
Table 2.2 Confining pressure and dry/saturation effects on the Vp (km/s) of some hard rocks (Nur and Simmons, 1969).
Figure 2.20 High pressure effects on Vp (500 to 1000 MPa) for a variety of rock types. Wepfer and Christensen, 1991.
Environmental effects on velocity 33
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.21 Contrasting effects of low temperature on Vp for Berea sandstone in the dry and wet state, with 1 31.3 MPa in each case.
Timur, 1968.
degrees below 0°C, is nicely demonstrated in Figure of jointed rock, one would expect that the smaller,
2.21. This contrast is due to the different rates of freez- finer tips of cracks and joints would freeze first, due to
ing in pore volumes that have different area/volume the more stationary conditions, making ‘ice-wedging’
ratios. Surprisingly perhaps, the author explains that the such an effective mechanism of weathering in moun-
smallest pores actually freeze later due to less favourable tainous terrain, and in more northerly and southerly
area/ volume ratios. In the ‘macro-discontinuity’ world climates.
3 Effects of anisotropy on Vp
In this chapter the ‘simple’ approach to anisotropy caused and that change of properties are related to the behaviour
by micro-cracks or jointing will be taken, considering of the micro-cracks under load. In Chapter 2 it was seen
principally P-wave, azimuthal anisotropy, and anisotropy how micro-cracked and fissured samples were particu-
caused by stress difference. Besides micro-cracks that may larly sensitive to the degree of saturation, since they are
be aligned due to tectonic history or due to existing or seismically much more visible when dry and unloaded,
applied stress anisotropy, there will be fundamental rea- than when saturated and strongly loaded.
sons for velocity anisotropy in foliated, schistose, layered Nur and Simmons, 1969, reported important results of
or inter-bedded rocks with unequal layer stiffness. When stress-induced anisotropy, noting that the largest velocity
jointing and faulting are included, with the special effects change took place in the direction of the applied stress.
of stress anisotropy on these larger scale features, the Prior to loading, isotropic velocity was usually recorded.
potential causes of velocity anisotropy will be numerous. Nur, 1971, showed how the observed velocity anisotropy
Although velocity anisotropy complicates interpretation, caused by stress effects on crack closure could be mod-
at the same time it also provides important information elled, in fair to good agreement with experimental results.
for a rock engineering project, and of course for a frac- Figure 3.1 shows the relative effects of hydrostatic stress
tured petroleum reservoir, if correctly interpreted. It will (0 to 50 MPa), and uniaxial stress (0 to 40 MPa) on the
be seen that the classic alignment of a dominant joint set compressional wave velocity Vp. Here we are also looking
with the maximum horizontal stress direction is often a ahead into levels of stress appropriate to Part II. Under
cause of a double-anisotropy effect. Both the near-surface uniaxial stress, the velocity increase parallel to the stress
and high stress treatment of P-wave anisotropy, as intro- direction is much greater than the velocity increase per-
duced in this chapter, will be supplemented in Chapter pendicular to the stress, due to preferential closure of
14, by studies at considerably greater depth, principally those micro-cracks that are aligned more or less perpen-
in fractured reservoirs. In Chapter 15 the anisotropy dicular to the applied stress. The effect may be enhancing
information found in shear waves will finally be the focus in situ velocity anisotropy effects since Hmax often tends
of attention, as a lot more information is contained in to be parallel or sub-parallel to major jointing, and vel-
waves that polarize in parallel (fast qS1), and (slow qS2) ocity parallel to these joints is highest, independent of
perpendicular directions relative to the discontinuities. the above ‘intact’ rock effects. Similarly to these micro-
These shear wave components show dispersive, frequency cracks, minor joint sets in situ tend to be closed by the
dependent levels of anisotropy, caused, in principle, by major principal stress, giving a further reason for stress-
the dimensions, density and stiffnesses of the fracturing induced velocity anisotropy at larger scale.
and jointing. There are also those who attribute the shear- Holt et al., 1997, suggested that stress dependent vel-
wave anisotropy at depth mostly to micro-cracks. ocity (caused by micro-cracks) seen in cores taken from
great depth may be mainly a result of coring damage
caused by the release of anisotropic stresses. This stress
3.1 An introduction to velocity dependent behaviour is particularly pronounced at low
anisotropy caused by stresses compared to the virgin stress, such as in a triaxial
micro-cracks and jointing test performed below the original stress state. Above the
previous stress state, the sensitivity to stress change was
It is reported that Maurycy Rudzki, the first Professor of less. Holt et al., 1996 and 1997, observed that there was
Geophysics at a university in Cracow, stated his intention little or no stress dependence when no cracks were formed
to do research on the propagation of seismic waves in in the recovery process, nor was there stress dependence
anisotropic media, in 1896. (Helbig and Szaraniec, 2000). when the rock was loaded (or unloaded) near the original
It has also been recognised since early in the 1900s that stress state. In a limited stress regime around the original
compressive stress affects the elastic properties of rock, stress state, the rock behaved as a linear elastic substance.
36 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 3.2 a) P- and S-wave anisotropy as a function of confining pressure level for Berea sandstone samples. Note the effect on the veloci-
ties of the onset of dilatancy, and the fracturing event. b) As the ratio of differential stress to ultimate strength rises, the P-wave
anisotropy is seen to increase, but high confinement removes this anisotropy. Scott et al., 1993.
38 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
developed at lower confining pressure were only sur- micro-cracks. It is a slightly stronger effect when loading-
rounded by a limited zone of micro-cracks. unloading occurs perpendicular to the fabric, as one
Scott et al., show an interesting plot of P-wave velocity might expect.
anisotropy in relation to confining pressure and differ- A extensive collection of laboratory data that show the
ential stress level (Figure 3.2b) that nicely demonstrates clear effect of the measurement direction in relation to
the increasing anisotropy of Vp (axial) and Vp (lateral) the foliation (0°, 45° or 90°) was given by Tsidzi, 1997.
close to failure (at least 30% drop in Vp lateral) and the He used the ultrasonic pulse transmission technique to
reduction of this anisotropy at high stress levels. derive Vp data for intact samples of amphibolite, gneiss,
hornfels, phyllite, schist, slate and quartzite (the latter
only weakly or very weakly foliated). Both dry and unsat-
3.2 Velocity anisotropy caused by urated conditions were tested. The effects of loading were
fabric not reported. Tsidzi, 1997, suggested that ‘strongly’,
‘moderately’ and ‘weakly’ foliated rocks could be expected
Intact specimens of rock that exhibit strongly anisotropic to show velocity anisotropies of 40–20%, 20–6% and
or orthotropic tendencies such as slate, show significant 6–2% respectively. In Table 3.1, some results have been
velocity differences when measured parallel to foliation selected from the much larger set of data given by the
(e.g., 5.2 km/s) and perpendicular to foliation (e.g., author.
4.2 km/s). Duellmann and Heitfeld, 1978, show that this Strongly foliated gneiss from the Nagra project in
anisotropy varies smoothly as the angle of incidence to the Switzerland showed even stronger anisotropy, giving,
foliation is varied from 0° to 90°, as shown for loading in the dry state, a parallel-to-schistocity Vp value of
and unloading cases in Figure 3.3. The minor velocity 4.4 km/s, and only 3.1 km/s perpendicular to this direc-
hysteresis seen on unloading is presumably due to load- tion (Hesler et al., 1996). Figure 3.4 shows that both
deformation hysteresis of the fabric, or of eventual these extremes were achieved at the lowest axial stress of
about 2 MPa, while the application of more than 25 MPa
appeared to largely remove the velocity anisotropy; the
slow perpendicular direction converging to the fast parallel
direction above this stress level.
This convergence is in direct contrast to the micro-
crack related divergent (increasing anisotropy) behav-
iour shown by Nur’s (1971) results, in Figure 3.1. As
noted in Chapter 2, the effect of saturation is to remove
much of the effect of load increase on velocity, and the
same appears to be the case for anisotropy caused by
fabric. Figure 3.4 shows only slight velocity anisotropy
in the case of saturated samples of gneiss, though the
data set is limited.
An important contribution to the understanding of the
three-dimensional anisotropy of dense shales was reported
Figure 3.3 Velocity anisotropy of intact samples of slate due to cleav- by Zinszner et al., 2002. They used ultrasonic techniques
age. Duellmann and Heitfeld, 1978. in the laboratory, to measure the multi-directional P-wave
Table 3.1 A selection of Vp anisotropy data, showing the effect of foliation, schistocity and cleavage, and the dry or saturated state, when
the velocity measurement direction is parallel, at 45°, or perpendicular to the particular planar fabric. Tsidzi, 1997.
velocity across a 666 cm, 18-sided truncated cube The authors also gave the results of velocity measure-
of the Tournemire shale, whose format is illustrated in ments under uniaxial stress levels from 0 to 20 MPa,
Figure 3.5a, using a slate example. Their interpretation which show a remarkable lack of stress sensitivity: the
of qP velocities is shown in the form of a Wulff ’s stere- Vp – stress curves giving almost horizontal straight lines
ogram, in Figure 3.5b. As may be noted, the minimum between the seven different stress levels applied. However,
velocity of approx. 3,200 m/s is recorded perpendicular the directional effect was marked, possibly accentuated by
to the bedding (Z-axis), while the maximum of approx. a tendency for slight shear in ‘diagonal’ directions of load-
4,250 m/s is parallel to the bedding (X, Y, etc.) ing relative to the bedding. The lowest velocities were in
the ZXX, YZY, ZXZ, YZZ and ZYZ (sub-perpendicular
to bedding) directions giving velocities of only 1,700 to
1,800 m/s, while in the XXX, YYX, YYY, XXZ, YYX and
YYZ (sub-parallel to bedding) directions, velocities were
as high as 4,200 to 4,300 m/s.
Under the level of compression applied, and with
presumed careful preservation of the samples, the ZZZ
(a)
(b)
direction gave intermediate velocities in this case, with this jointing and minimum values of 5.1 km/s more
roughly 3,200 to 3,300 m/s. These were similar to in situ or less perpendicular to the jointing (New, 1985). The
P-wave velocities calculated from seismic tomography, velocity rosette shown in Figure 3.7 is a convenient
where in the vertical direction they recorded 3,125 m/s, way of representing the anisotropy, but the possible rea-
with some reduction to 2,950 m/s in a tectonically dis- sons for some of the other features on the rosette, for
turbed area near a sub-vertical fault. example the marked reduction between 30° and 40° (not
exactly perpendicular to the 120–130° joint orientations)
was not given. Perhaps the principal stress had rotated
3.3 Velocity anisotropy caused by some 20° to 30° to 140–150°, giving a low velocity per-
rock joints pendicular to h (minimum), or shear stress effects were
involved.
Masuda, 1964, gave a simple but illustrative example of Noting the complexity of describing jointed rock
the effect of jointing and joint direction on the masses and their physical anisotropy in relation to
anisotropic velocity of blocks of granite at the Kurobe deformability and seismic velocity, Oda et al., 1986,
IV dam site in Japan. Figure 3.6 shows P-wave veloci- developed a crack tensor technique which they compared
ties in the dry and saturated state, for three orthogonal with laboratory tests on artificially jointed samples, and
measurement directions. Velocity anisotropy was signifi- with in situ tests on jointed granite. The artificial samples
cant and sometimes amounted to 20% or even 25% dif- of gypsum plaster were cast with artificial, deformable
ference in velocity. The slowest direction was of course cracks made of deformable greased paper. In Figure
when crossing the joints, the fastest when parallel. The 3.8a, it will be noted that the cracks have either a ran-
loading state of the blocks was not referred to, but judg- dom distribution or an ordered ‘N-S’ distribution. The
ing by the extreme effect of the dry or wet state, possi- squared velocity ratio (V/Vo)2 which is the measured
bly the blocks were under low or zero load when these ultrasonic velocity normalised by that of the intact sam-
velocity measurements were made. ple (Vo), showed corresponding isotropic or anisotropic
A massive granitic site in Cornwall, England, with distributions.
one set of predominant jointing striking ESE–WNW,
(note rotated axis), caused seismic velocities to be quite
anisotropic, with maximum velocities of 5.5 km/s parallel
Figure 3.6 Effects of measurement direction (and saturation) on Figure 3.7 Vp anisotropy at a massive granite site in Cornwall,
Vp values across jointed blocks of rock, at Kurobe IV England. Vp(max) was parallel to the single set of joints.
dam site in Japan. Masuda, 1964. New, 1985.
Effects of anisotropy on Vp 41
(i)
(ii)
Figure 3.8 Velocity anisotropy of gypsum samples with flaws, and of two jointed granite sites in Japan. Oda et al., 1986.
42 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 3.9 Azimuthal Vp anisotropy in jointed limestones at a ‘dry’ (left) and saturated site (right). Bamford and Nunn, 1979.
The graphic results of these authors’ in situ tests are They used radial (20° interval) geophone spreads at
shown in Figure 3.8b. Both granite sites were anisotropic a total of four sites in chalk in Lincolnshire, England. The
and the intensity of jointing differed, as clearly shown chalk was not exposed at the seismic measurement loca-
by the magnitude of the squared velocity ratio (Vo for tions, but two quarries in the area were mapped to obtain
granite samples was 4.5 km/s). The authors’ crack-tensor joint orientation data. Strong velocity anisotropy was
calculation showed remarkably good agreement with measured at three of the four sites (Figure 3.10), and max-
the seismic anisotropy measurements. The orientations ima at between 5° and 25° were found to correspond
of the velocity distributions are clearly dominated by the with dominant near-vertical joints which were perpen-
two ‘fast’ velocity directions sub-parallel to the relevant dicular to the axis of a major monocline, which had a
joint set directions. predominant direction of 15° 7°.
As seen in Figure 3.8a, small uniformly distributed ran- The velocity anisotropy of all four sites is compared
dom cracks cause seismic velocities to be isotropically in Figure 3.10a, and a comparison of velocity anisotropy
reduced in relation to an uncracked matrix. Attenuation and resistivity anisotropy for site CFR is given in Figure
is increased isotropically, and Vp/Vs ratios are also 3.10b. For the case of site RGQ, Vmax. and Vmin. were
changed. In contrast, most jointing shows some overall 2.85 and 1.75 km/s, giving a total velocity anisotropy
alignment, and ensures anisotropic seismic response. (Vmax. Vmin.)/Vmax. 0.38, i.e., approximately 20%
An analysis of the seismic refraction tests at regularly around the mean of 2.25 km/s. Resistivity anisotropy
jointed sites in limestones (Bamford and Nunn, 1979) (Figure 3.10b) was greater than seismic anisotropy for
given by Crampin et al., 1980, indicated that the vel- the case compared, possibly due to the strong contribu-
ocity anisotropy (shown in Figures 3.9a and 3.9b) was tion of a fluid bearing joint set.
also very sensitive to the degree of saturation of the joints. An in-depth investigation of anisotropy caused by per-
The two maxima (at about 40° and 120°) were clearly sistent sub-vertical jointing at a geothermal site in the
related to two sets of joints that intersected at about 80°. USA (Beaver County, Utah) was described by Leary and
Details of similar seismic refraction tests to those Henyey, 1985. The authors analysed in detail why, if
referred to in Figure 3.9 are given by Nunn et al., 1983. a significant number of vertical joints remained open (due
Effects of anisotropy on Vp 43
Figure 3.10 a) Azimuthal Vp anisotropy at jointed limestone sites in Lincolnshire, England. b) A comparison of Vp and resistivity anisotropy
at one of the four sites (see diamond symbols), is also given. Nunn et al., 1983.
to horizontal stress anisotropy), the elastic properties and incidence relative to the crack plane normals, where
hence the seismic velocities would be anisotropic. 1. Vpo is the velocity without cracks.
Compressional waves travelling perpendicular to the At the geothermal site in question, the authors used
joints would obviously be slowed more than those trav- 22 clusters of shots (sources) each located within 1 km of
elling parallel to the joints. However, the authors cau- the wellhead, and used geophones downhole at depths
tioned that minor geologic structure and mineral fabric ranging from 30 m to about 700 m. The source clusters
could also influence the measured velocity anisotropy. were at about 160 m, 280 m and 370 m from the well-
Following earlier work by Garbin and Knopoff, head along six radial lines. The close-in shots were far
Crampin, and McGonigle and Bamford, Leary and enough from the wellhead that casing or tube waves did
Henyey, 1985, gave simplified equations for the effect not obscure first arrivals.
of cracks (or joints) on seismic velocity, and the effect of The results of these tests are shown in Figure 3.11.
the dominant direction of the cracks (or joints). The They demonstrate both azimuthal velocity anisotropy
following two equations are given for the dry and sat- and velocity-depth effects. The two sets of data shown in
urated states. Ignoring higher order terms: the figure, represent average P-wave velocity for seismic
1) For dry cracks: waves originating 370 m from the wellhead, which were
received at two depth ranges in the well (0–300 m,
VP2 VP20 (1 71/21e 8/3e cos 2 shown as triangles and 460–520 m, shown as squares).
e/21 cos 4) (3.1) The 1.5 to 2.0 km/s increase in velocity is surpris-
ingly large for an average depth increase of only about
2) For saturated cracks: 350 m. However, Barton et al., 1994, showed a similar
velocity increase even in the first 50 m at the Gjøvik
cavern site in Norway, due to several MPa increase in
VP2 VP20 (1 8/21e 8/21e cos 4) (3.2) stress in rock that had more or less unchanged fre-
quency of jointing and RQD and rock quality Q, in
where: Nr3/V is the crack (or joint) density of N these first 50 metres. In other words, the increased
cracks of radius r in a volume V, and is the angle of stress acting on the joints (3 to 5 MPa in this case),
44 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 3.14 Seismic cross-hole and downhole investigations of marl-sandstone interbedded strata, at a dam site in Italy. Oberti et al., 1979.
Figure 3.15 Correlated anisotropy for the velocity and ‘static’ deformation moduli, as recorded in the interbedded marl-sandstone sequences
shown in the previous figure. Oberti et al., 1979.
The rhythmically layered sandstone and marl, with a anisotropy in this orthotropic rock mass was 4.3 km/s
dip of 27°, formed the foundation for an arch-gravity (perpendicular to the layers) and 5.0 km/s (parallel to the
dam in the Apennines in Italy. layers). Differences can be noted between the higher
Figure 3.14 illustrates the geological sequence and velocities in the sandstones and the lower velocities in
location of boreholes. The exploratory tunnel used for the marl.
the plate loading tests, shown in Figure 3.15, was at Figure 3.15 shows a comparison of the sonic measure-
30 to 35 m depth, and ran parallel to the strike of the ments performed in central boreholes beneath each plate
inter-bedded strata. loading location, where deformations were also recorded
The three boreholes (A1 to A3) were parallel and with extensometers, so that ‘static’ deformation moduli
spaced at 3 m centres. Sonic and cross-hole logs are could be calculated at different depths. The lower static
shown sequentially in Figure 3.14. The mean velocity moduli and lower velocities of the disturbed near-surface
Effects of anisotropy on Vp 47
Figure 3.17 Seismic investigations of fault zones at Japanese rail tunnels. Ikeda et al., 1981. a) Plan view of fault zone crossing the tunnels.
b) False high velocity (V) caused by too acute angle of the seismic investigation line relative to the fault zone. Width of frac-
tured zone has small effect. c) Integrated results from 100 rail tunnels giving a velocity ratio expression for the low fault zone
velocity (V) in relation to the surrounding competent rock (Vc).
velocity represented a fault zone. But in the chalk marl in and a high porosity (i.e. n 27%) will be described in
question, Q-values were in the range 10 to 20 where Chapter 5. They are essential for integrating rock quality
these record tunnelling speeds were achieved. The missing Q and Vp – in softer rocks.
corrections for a low uniaxial strength (i.e. c 5 MPa)
4 Cross-hole velocity and
cross-hole velocity tomography
Cross-hole and between-gallery seismic work has been Mratinje Dam in Yugoslavia, as reported by Kujundzíc,
performed for many years at major dam projects, particu- 1979. This figure shows the separate sites of the deform-
larly at the sites of arch dams, where the deformation ation tests for determining E (the dynamic elastic modu-
moduli of the rock foundation and valley walls are of lus), D (the deformation modulus) and Vp (the local
most concern. Unfortunately, the large number of dams value of Vp at the deformability test site).
constructed from the 1960s to the early 1980s did not Some of the cross-hole, between gallery and borehole-
have the benefit of tomographic imaging, in which not to-gallery velocity measurements are shown in more
just the average velocity between source and receiver, but detail in Figure 4.2 (from Ivanovíc et al., 1970), where
also the approximate location and velocity could be dis- the ‘fans’ of velocity can be readily observed. By relating
played, following inversion of the multi-source-multi- the velocity at each test site to the moduli, the larger
receiver-position data. The use of pairs of boreholes (or scale cross-hole results could be used to extrapolate the
multiple holes), for direct access to a ‘hidden plane’ (or expensive and time-consuming tests to other parts of
planes), on which representative velocities and their loca- the foundation. In Chapter 6 we will see some of the
tion could be calculated has many advantages for assess- inter-relationships that have been developed between
ing the severity of fault zones, the need for treatment Vp, Eintact and D, for comparison with Edynamic which
of the ground, or even in some cases the avoidance of can be derived from Vp, Vs and density, as indicated in
bad ground. In this chapter, a wide variety of cross-hole Chapter 1.
seismic tomographic imaging of the sub-surface will be Possible pitfalls when performing cross-hole seismic
reviewed, from tunnels and caverns, to mining pillars, measurements in low velocity layered media such as
blasting-effect analysis, excavation disturbed zone map- clays, which presumably will also affect cross-hole seismic
ping, and analysis of grouting efficiency. tomography in similar media are illustrated in Figure 4.3.
McCann et al., 1975, indicate that there is an apparent
decrease in the velocity of the high velocity layers with
4.1 Cross-hole seismic for increasing separation of the boreholes. First arrivals at
extrapolation of properties the common depth of 7.4 m showed velocities of 2.18,
1.97, 1.83, 1.81 and 1.78 km/s with borehole separ-
In the initial stages of site description for a civil engineer- ations increasing successively from 2.9 m to 15.1 m. The
ing project, geological mapping of major structures may high frequency direct first arrival received at small bore-
be followed by imaging of these features, using large scale hole separations was replaced by a long dispersed wave-
reflection techniques. As emphasised by Cosma et al., form at the largest separations. Attenuation of the higher
2001, subsequent access in a very limited number of holes frequency, higher velocity part of the wave at increasing
will normally suggest VSP measurements, with sources distance was apparently occurring. The authors used a
at the ground surface. When the construction phase is high voltage ‘sparker’ source in their measurements. The
begun, access via a larger number of boreholes, even those strongly attenuating properties of the clay were presum-
drilled from shafts or tunnel walls will allow a combin- ably the cause of this result.
ation of smaller scale VSP, and direct cross-hole tomog- Various seismic wave characterisation methods were
raphy, giving velocity and location. Later in this chapter we compared at a rock anchor foundation site by Ebisu et al.,
will see some exceptional applications of ‘close-in’ seismic 1992. Figure 4.4 shows P-wave data interpreted from
tomography. seismic refraction, downhole logging, cross-hole and sur-
A classic example of cross-hole and between-gallery face exploration. The discrepancies between the systems
seismic is that shown in Figure 4.1 from the 220 m high should serve as a warning that many factors need to be
50 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 4.1 Cross-hole and gallery-to-gallery seismic tests at the Mratinje Dam in Yugoslavia, for extrapolating deformability tests.
Kujundzíc, 1979.
Cross-hole velocity and cross-hole velocity tomography 51
Figure 4.2 Classic example of the use of gallery and cross-hole seismics for extrapolating quality and deformation modulus values at the
Mratinje Dam, Yugoslavia. Ivanovíc et al., 1970.
may be present. The seismic tomography method can be and widening of the pilot tunnel had been performed, to
used remotely and safely in hostile environments, to create a cylindrical oil storage cavern. The initial refrac-
image highly stressed regions of a mine or overstressed tion seismic survey from the pilot tunnel had indicated
rock around a deep tunnel. (The interesting use of a range of velocities of approximately 2.3 to 2.6 km/s,
‘passive’ sources such as acoustic emission (AE) will be representing generally uniform conditions. Laboratory
illustrated briefly in Chapter 7, where average velocities samples of the 10 MPa chalk had indicated a mean
can be calculated.) P-wave velocity of 2.4 km/s at natural water content
Figure 4.6 show some potential layouts for the borehole (13 to 14%), and 2.5 km/s when fully saturated.
arrays. A moving source, for example mining equipment, An example of the potential benefits obtained from
can also be used to obtain a tomographic image, if a suit- cross-hole seismic tomography at a near-surface cavern
able array of receivers is in place, and if measurements are site is shown in Figure 4.7a and b. The measurements
repeated at regular intervals over a suitable length of time. were performed for the Gjøvik Olympic cavern site
Westman et al., 1996, utilised a long wall shearer in an investigation in Norway in 1990. The position of the
Appalachian coal mine in the USA, and sampled this planned, 62 m span, 140,000 m3 cavern was adjusted in
source at 1⁄2 to 1 minute intervals during mining shifts, order to penetrate as little as possible of the lower
while the shearer was moving. Their receivers were geo- velocity, near-surface zone (Vp 4.1 to 4.3 km/s).
phones fixed to rock bolts in the mine entry roofs, close to This was proved in later cavern logging to have rock
the mining face. They produced attenuation tomograms quality Q-values as low as 2 to 5 at the shallow end of the
that changed with time as mining advanced in response to cavern. This quality results from a low to moderate RQD
high stress anomalies, stress release phenomena, changed (frequent smaller pieces of core 10 cm long), up to four
degrees of jointing and stress induced fracturing. joint sets (Jn 12–15), and with some alteration of the
The assumption is often made that P-waves have trav- joint walls (Ja 2). Positive aspects were considerable
elled directly from source to receiver, and a straight line joint roughness (Jr 2 to 3), and surprisingly high hori-
tomography program is used. Curved ray path tomog- zontal stresses. (See Appendix A for Q-parameter ratings.)
raphy is preferred to allow for velocity anisotropy and for These moderate velocities fit the hard rock, near-surface
refraction (McDowell, 1993). relation Vp 3.5 log10 Q presented in Chapter 1 quite
By, 1987, described a comprehensive layout of vertical closely, for the relevant shallow conditions (approx.
boreholes for cross-hole seismic tomography, which was 25 m depth). At the other, deeper end of the cavern, Q-
performed in Oslo for a difficult, faulted section of the values also fell to 2 or 3. Significantly, this rock quality
twin tube, 13 m span Fjellinjen road tunnels (Figure 4.6a). Q was lower than the Vp values would have indicated,
Some 20 m of soft clay underlying downtown Oslo had to with this shallow seismic relationship. The fundamen-
be protected from groundwater pressure drawdown. At tal need for depth or stress adjustments in a Q–Vp–M
one location, the rock cover over the arch consisted of only (static modulus of deformation) relationship, are dis-
3 to 5 m of crushed alum shale (damaging to concrete), cussed in Chapter 5.
beneath 20 to 30 m of soft clay, in a major regional fault The details of NGI’s cross-hole tomography, analysed
zone. Selection of freezing for one of the tunnel tubes was in more detail in Chapter 5, indicate a continuous rise in
made on the basis of the seismic results, which were based velocity down the 60 m deep boreholes (approximately
on cross-hole measurements from five boreholes of 60 m from 3.5 km/s to 5.5 km/s), despite more or less constant
depth and a total of eight cross-hole sections. joint frequency, RQD and rock quality Q-values down
In contrast to this layout of vertical holes, Hope et al., the lengths of the recovered rock cores.
1996, working in chalk, used single holes drilled radially This is a good example of stress effects on in situ Vp val-
into the wall of a pilot tunnel, and the upper and lower ues, since hydraulic fracturing stress measurements had
walls of a tunnel, to give two triangular shaped spreads shown h min (and the elastic theory estimate of H max),
(see Figure 4.6b). They obtained a distribution of veloci- to be about 3 and 5 MPa respectively, at cavern depth, i.e.
ties ranging from 1.8 to 2.5 km/s between the crown equivalent to depths of 100–200 metres, if vertical
positions (2 m intervals) and the borehole, and 1.9 to stress alone had been responsible for the rise in Vp.
2.3 km/s between the invert positions (2 m intervals) and Shifting to another category of seismic tomography
the borehole. Lower velocity zones were consistent with applications for tunnelling, it is interesting to note
additional jointing associated with a listric fault cutting that deviated boreholes are quite frequently used in
through the chalk. This was verified after benching down combination with sea-bottom hydrophones to obtain
54 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a) (b)
Figure 4.6 a) Cross-hole tomography arrays to characterise a fault zone at the Oslo Tunnel. By, 1987. b) Some examples of seismic arrays, and
a triangular Vp tomogram for chalk at a storage cavern site in Israel. Hope et al., 1996.
Cross-hole velocity and cross-hole velocity tomography 55
Figure 4.7 Cross-hole velocity tomography performed by NGI for the Gjøvik cavern site investigation, Norway. Note the use of different
velocity scales, to improve the velocity information a) above the cavern, b) at cavern depth. Barton et al., 1994.
56 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 4.8 Sub-fjord borehole to seabed seismic tomography, using differently inclined and deviated 250 to 300 m holes drilled from the
land and from an intervening island, and seabed geophones. (Westerdahl and Cosma, priv. comm.1998.)
information about major faults known to be sub-paral- seismic hard to use, as long geophone arrays may receive
lel to these deep fjord depressions. There are numerous shortest path direct waves earlier than the refracted head
sub-fjord and sub-sea tunnel sites in Norway, that have waves. There is also gradational, progressive weathering,
utilised seismic tomography for the near-land part of rather than distinct layering, with less clear development
their routes, with sub-sea refraction measurements for of head waves.
the less accessible kilometres of these tunnels. Consequently, the authors report widespread use of
A typical case is shown in Figure 4.8, for planning tomographic inversion techniques for their tunnels
the 1997–1999 tunnelling under the Oslo Fjord, near through steep terrain, and use not only of hole-to-hole,
Drøbak in southern Norway (pers. comm. Westerdahl, but also hole-to-surface and surface-to-surface configur-
NGI and Cosma, Vibrometric, 1998). In this particu- ations of sources and receiver strings. The authors also
lar case the 50 to 70 m thick, fjord-bottom sediments, show the parallel use of downhole logging, with Vp and
caused some reduction in resolution. The fault zones Vs based interpretation of the three elastic moduli and
were correctly predicted and later encountered in the velocity-depth gradients. The additional use of rock qual-
tunnel, but some details of their structure could not be ity RMR and Q-value core logging, and the extrapolation
detected as well as expected. and intrapolation of properties afforded by the geophysics,
Because of uncertainties about the likely quality of provides a quite reliable basis for tunnel support strat-
difficult pre-grouting into a boulder and clay filled egies, with key attention to fault zones and portal areas.
depression in the bedrock, against a back-pressure from Other near-surface uses of cross-hole seismic tomog-
more than 100 m of seawater, a deeper by-pass tunnel raphy that can be mentioned in this section are of course
was excavated to maintain schedule. Penetration of the the possibilities of using geotomography at dam sites. It
major zone was prepared with more extensive (but is easy to imagine the benefits of correctly located low and
partly unsuccessful) pre-grouting, followed by a time- high velocity zones in a dam foundation such as that
consuming freezing, when the full scope of the situ- illustrated in Figures 4.1 and 4.2, where at that time, (in
ation was understood. The quality of pre-grouting (or the 1960s and 1970s), only average velocities between
that of the freezing process) could probably have been holes could be determined to extrapolate deformation
detected by means of seismic tomography monitoring. moduli across the foundations.
Excellent examples of the use of cross-hole seismic At dam sites that are located in limestones and mar-
tomography, (‘geotomography’) in mountain tunnelling, bles, solution cavities can prove extremely difficult to
are given by Chang and Lee, 2001, who refer to several find and treat with conventional drilling and injection.
tunnels in South Korea, surveyed by these and other Deep, sediment-filled scour-holes in dam site canyons,
methods. The authors point out that severe topographic extending foundation depths many tens of metres could
changes and gradational weathering in mountainous ter- also be mapped more successfully with cross-hole seismic
rain, make the use of conventional travel-time refraction tomography.
Cross-hole velocity and cross-hole velocity tomography 57
Figure 4.10 Deep (1000–1200 m) cross-hole tomography at the UK Nirex Ltd Sellafield site. (Schlumberger GeoQuest, Nirex Report
S/94/007, by kind permission.) (See Color Plate 1)
frequently occurring velocities of about 5.2 to 6.2 km/s 4.3 Cross-hole tomography in mining
relate quite poorly with the mean weighted Q-value of
about 3 (range 1 to 10) which were logged by the NGI Phenomenological results of stress change causing velocity
team of engineering geologists. (Barton et al., 1992a). change will be presented in this section, prior to the in
This discrepancy is most likely due to stress effects on depth review of stress effects on velocities in jointed media
Vp in the jointed (ignimbrite and welded tuff ) rock to be given in Chapter 5. Although the cases reviewed
mass (Barton, 1995). This will be discussed further in are from mining, it may be useful to start with an inter-
the next chapter, where effects of depth and stress in esting high pressure tomography experiment from the
jointed media are reviewed in more detail. Correlations laboratory, described by Scott et al., 1994.
are finally developed between depth and velocity for a The effects of their high pressure loading of an intact
given rock quality Q, also incorporating uniaxial com- cylinder of Berea sandstone with a steel indentor, was
pressive strength and matrix porosity. monitored by 20 acoustic sensors arranged in a ring
Cross-hole velocity and cross-hole velocity tomography 59
Figure 4.11 Ultrasonic tomography to monitor the loading on an indentor on Berea sandstone. a) Experimental set-up, showing acoustic
sensors, load application, and data acquisition. b) Cross-section, showing tomographic plane. c) Acoustic tomograms for dif-
ferent indentor stress levels a to h. Scott et al., 1994.
around the sample. The sample had a porosity of 18%. the indentor at 20.6 MPa applied stress, and finally to
One hundred and thirty ray-paths were analysed to 3.55 km/s at 110 MPa applied stress. The rate of velocity
calculate the velocity in 97 individual elements. The increase declined at higher stresses, presumably due to
experimental set-up is shown in Figure 4.11a,b and the the already reduced pore space. However, the sample
tomographic images for eight load increments (includ- appeared to have remained nearly in the elastic state, and
ing final unloading) are shown in Figure 4.11c. the velocity after final unloading was very similar to that
It was found that the mean velocity of 2.3 km/s for the before loading, except for some increase in the area show-
sample increased to 3.0 km/s a short distance under ing the lowest velocity. Slight damage was assumed.
60 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
high seismic velocities in the same area correlated with Several investigators have used seismic velocity tom-
increased volumes of coal ejection and degassing from ography to follow the effects of loosening and void
blast holes drilled for shooting the longwall face. The formation caused by blasting. Cumerlato et al., 1988,
link between high stress and high velocity – prior to performed seismic tomographic analysis of pre-blast and
failure, is clear. post-blast quarrying effects in dolomite, in a lime quarry
Friedel et al., 1995, reported monitoring between two in the USA, using a modified refraction seismic tech-
levels of the deep Homestake gold mine in the USA. nique. Figure 4.16 shows pre-blast and post-blast velocity
Their results indicated a sensible correspondence between distributions, and clear advantages of a modified blast
low velocity zones and back-filled areas, ore chutes, and hole loading factor for controlling fracturing. High
so on. High velocity gradients were interpreted as loca- velocity zones (Vp 4.5–6.0 km/s) were reduced to low
tions of potential rock burst. We shall see more examples velocity (0 to 3.5 km/s) when blasting performance was
of the effects of high stress on velocities, when reviewing unfavourable, due to all the crushing and void formation.
the work that has been done in excavation disturbed Maxwell and Young, 1993, used a velocity difference
zones (e.g. Cosma et al., 2001) in Chapter 7, and also image technique for analysing the effect of an explosive
see the possibilities of using acoustic emission (AE) as a detonation in a borehole in granite. The experimental
remote method of monitoring high stress gradient prob- set-up is shown in Figure 4.17a and b. The velocity dif-
lem areas. ference images, examples of which are shown in Figure
Cross-hole seismic tomography has also been in use 4.17c and d, are computed from before-and-after-blasting
to delineate the detailed structure of orebodies, beyond time-delays, along common ray paths. The authors
what can be achieved by intermittent core drilling. A observed extension of the lower velocity zone away
good example was described by Wong, 2000, from the from the blast hole, sub-parallel to the trace of assumed
62 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 4.15 a) Sulphide orebody delineated by boreholes. b) Schematic of equipment and acquisition geometry (shown vertical). c) One-
fifth of the total 4,200 raypaths for one pair of holes. d) Approximate velocity tomogram, showing the lower velocity of the sul-
phide orebody (Vp 4.0–4.5 km/s), compared to the host rock (Vp 5.9–6.5 km/s). Wong, 2000.
Cross-hole velocity and cross-hole velocity tomography 63
Figure 4.16 Pre-blast (left) and post blast velocity tomograms. Cumerlato et al., 1988.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 4.17 a,b) Cross-hole tomography set-up, for monitoring blasting effects in a borehole in granite. c,d) Velocity difference tomograms
showing reduced velocity caused by blasting. Error tomogram on right. Maxwell and Young, 1993.
64 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
joint planes. Secondary changes may have been associated blast induced fracturing had occurred. These low velocity
with changes in the water table. zones (for example Figure 4.19) showed increases in
Seismic tomography for controlling blast fragmenta- velocity when fluid was injected. These were also the
tion results for mine areas where in situ leaching was areas where lost circulation occurred when drilling
planned, were described by Thill et al., 1992. The results was performed. The joint aperture changes and new
shown in Figures 4.18 and 4.19 were obtained from cross- fractures presumably created poor acoustic coupling so
hole measurements by the US Bureau of Mines at the were readily detected as velocity reductions, later to be
experimental Edgar Mine in Idaho Springs, Colorado. partly recovered when there was resaturation in the area.
They found good correlation between pre-blast and
post-blast velocities that corresponded to areas where
4.5 Alternative tomograms
Figure 4.19 Post-blast tomograms at the stope leaching site, Edgar Mine, Colorado, USA. Thill et al., 1992.
Cross-hole velocity and cross-hole velocity tomography 65
Another factor also seen in Chapter 1, is the basic, mining site (the Kamioka Mine in Japan). The geolog-
and theoretically determined correspondence between ical setting and source and receiver locations are shown
high Vp/Vs ratios and high dynamic Poisson’s ratios. in Figure 4.20a and b. The P-wave velocity tomogram
The general form of both these tomograms is seen from shown in Figure 4.20c indicates high velocities, even in
Figure 4.19 to be similar, following the theoretical basis locations where ‘fractures’, ‘basic dike’ and ‘fault’ are
given in Chapter 1. shown, suggesting high stresses and reduced sensitivity
In a nice example of the capabilities of alternative to jointing and faulting. The authors therefore utilised
tomographic descriptions of a site, using different seis- amplitude attenuation tomography (Figure 4.20d) and
mic wave form analyses, Watanabe and Sassa, 1996, pulse broadening tomography (Figure 4.20e), which
give three tomographic plots of the same experimental correlated better with the geologic structures.
(c)
(a)
(d)
(b)
(e)
Figure 4.20 a) to e). Three tomograms comparing P-wave velocity, amplitude attenuation and pulse broadening methods of analysis at the
Kamioka Mine in Japan. Watanabe and Sassa, 1996.
66 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Amplitude attenuation was calculated for the first rise time or pulse width of the first arrival P-wave
arrival P-wave, and was based on the fact that amplitude is used.
decreases by geometrical spreading, and is a function of
the distance between the source and receiver. The attenu-
ation coefficient (␣) is given by: 4.6 Cross-hole or cross-well
reflection measurement and
f time-lapse tomography
(4.2)
QV
Although strictly outside the scope of Part I of this book,
which deals mostly with civil and mining engineering
where (Q) is the seismic quality factor, (f ) is the fre- topics, an exception will be made here, concerning
quency and (V) is the velocity. a description of the obvious benefits of using cross-well
Watanabe and Sassa, 1996, suggested that the seis- seismology in the petroleum industry. Paulsson et al.,
mic Q-value was an inherent parameter of the medium 1993, recommended not only cross-hole tomography
that was independent of frequency in the seismic wave but also well-to-well reflection measurements, as shown
frequency range. At the same mine site they listed the diagrammatically in Figure 4.21, to obtain a better
following Vp and Q-seismic values for cores. understanding of the (increasing-as-time-goes-by ?) het-
erogeneity of reservoirs.
Table 4.1 Seismic velocity and Q-seismic of rock cores measured They demonstrated how repeated (time-lapsed) sur-
in the laboratory (Watanabe and Sassa, 1996). veys could be used to follow the progress of enhanced oil
recovery (EOR) programmes, such as steam injection,
Velocity (m/s) Q-seismic
and also pointed out the advantages of the downhole
Gneiss 5700 79 location of both source and receivers, since the attenuat-
Limestone 5470 22 ing weathered (or soft-sediment) layer is no longer limit-
Skarn 4900 28 ing the high frequencies that can be recorded.
Basic dyke 5170 36
Efforts to relate rock quality and seismic velocity have the field are being compared with the higher frequency,
been made at intervals, during the development and typically ultrasonic measurements of the laboratory.)
integration of rock engineering and engineering geology.
Included in this review will be RQD, joint or fracture V 2
frequency (Fm1), and the Q-value (the ‘static’ rock mass RQD% 100 field (5.1)
Vlab
quality rating). Their various relationships to P-wave
velocities obtained from shallow refraction seismic, and
Table 5.1 Relationship between rock quality, RQD and velocity
also from down-hole sonic logging, will be explored.
index, Deere et al., 1967. (VF field value of Vp,
The correlations obtained have had emphasis on hard VL laboratory value of Vp).
rocks, with or without weathering, without the compli-
cation of matrix porosity variations, or large ranges of Quality description RQD (%) Velocity index (VF/VL)2
strength and density. These preliminary empirical cor- Very poor Less than 25 0–0.25
relations between RQD and velocity ratio, and between Poor 25–50 0.25–0.5
Fm1 or the Q-value and Vp, must necessarily include Fair 50–75 0.5–0.75
the effect of depth or stress level on Vp, for them to be Good 75–90 0.75–0.9
more widely applied. On the basis of numerous reviews Excellent Over 90 Over 0.9
of deeper seismic measurements, a method is developed
in this chapter, that includes matrix porosity and rock
Other authors, reviewed by McDowell, 1993, have
strength besides all the rock mass attributes of jointing,
suggested the following evaluation of rock quality, as
faulting, weathering and clay. To these are added the
expressed by RQD.
all important influence of depth or stress level, causing
gradual or rapid closure of many or all of the joint sets. Table 5.2 Seismic evaluation of Rock Mass Quality (see McDowell,
1993). The ratios are field-seismic/lab-ultrasonic.
Relationships between Vp (lab, therefore intact) and Vp Very poor 0–25 18 0–0.4 0–0.2
(field, therefore jointed) have been suggested as a seismic Poor 25–50 15–18 0.4–0.6 0.2–0.4
measure of degree of jointing for many decades. Deere Fair 50–75 8–5 0.6–0.8 0.4–0.6
et al., 1967, found that the ratio Vfield/Vlab. when squared, Good 75–90 5–1 0.8–0.9 0.6–0.8
was numerically very close to the value of RQD (expressed Excellent 90–100 1 0.9–1.0 0.8–1.0
as a ratio rather than a percentage), at least for near-
surface measurements. (RQD is defined as the % of The above sets of relationships are only approximate,
core that has core sticks 10 cm long, for selected as too few factors that obviously affect Vp values for the
structural domains, or for specific lengths of core). The rock mass are actually ‘captured’ in the RQD value
following simple table shows the central trend of this alone. RQD on its own is an insufficient descriptor of
relationship, which however shows considerable scatter. the rock mass quality. However, as a single parameter
(It should be noted that seismic refraction velocities in it is very effective in heavily jointed rock masses, where
70 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
V /2 Vmass,dry
K (5.2)
Vmass,dry (b)
They showed that K was sensitive to increased porosity Figure 5.1 Fissuration index K in relation to in situ velocity for dry
rock masses. Turk and Dearman, 1986, with andesite
caused by weathering (e.g., for fresh or weathered andes-
data from above the water table, from King et al., 1978.
ites: n 1.9%, K 0.21, and for n 9.1%, K 0.68
respectively). When they analysed data from King et al.,
1978, concerning Vp and joint frequency measurements
from above the water table in andesite, K was shown to One of the most thorough analyses of seismic refrac-
vary from about 0.1 to 0.3 with increased joint frequency, tion measurements in mostly hard, jointed rock envi-
while the in situ velocity (for unsaturated conditions) var- ronments was that given by Sjøgren et al., 1979 and
ied from about 6 km/s to 5 km/s. This data and King Sjøgren, 1984. The authors’ experience from some
et al., 1978, source data are shown in Figure 5.1a and b. 113 km of P-wave surveys (15 sites) and 5 km of S-wave
Karmis et al., 1984, also investigated the effect of surveys (5 sites) were compared with the results of
fractures (saw-cut or tensile) on the seismic velocity. 2.85 km of core from 74 drill holes at 8 of the hard rock
When F(m1) was plotted against the velocity ratio sites. The range of rocks occurring at the measured
(V/V0), a linear relationship was given. In approximate locations, mostly in Norway, were: amphibolite, gran-
terms, the following was found: ite, gneiss, meta-anorthosite, pegmatite, porphyry,
quartzite and mylonite.
Fm1 V/V0% The authors were careful to emphasise that the cor-
relations they derived between P-wave velocity and joint-
18 50
ing descriptions such as mean RQD and mean frequency
9 75
F(m1) were relevant only to unweathered igneous and
4.5 90
metamorphic rocks, and generally for the upper 20 to
Relationships between rock quality, depth and seismic velocity 71
Figure 5.3 Mean values of physical and dynamic properties for hard,
unweathered igneous and metamorphic rocks, based
on shallow refraction seismics. Sjøgren et al., 1979.
Figure 5.5 Data from Sjøgren and co-workers for Fm1 versus
Vp for various rock conditions, with increased weather-
ing effect and/or reduced strength, from right (#1) to
left (#4). Palmström, 1996.
Figure 5.4 Mean RQD and Fm1 as a function of Vp for the pre- the Andes and in Tanzania. In relation to empirical cor-
vious hard rock sites (curve 1 Fm1, curve 2 relation possibilities, corrections for weathering, poros-
RQD), and for Permian and Triassic sandstones. ity and rock strength (or density) are probably needed
Sjøgren, 1984.
to explain the range of data.
Extensive fracture frequency and velocity data were
presented by Niini and Manunen, 1970. The data in
The large reductions in velocity (1.5–2 km/s) are Figure 5.6 were derived from 55 vertical or steeply
clearly a function of increased porosity (and density) inclined holes drilled into the upper 15 metres of
and uniaxial strength (or deformation modulus E). bedrock, along 100 km of seismic traces made for the
When there is a tendency for weathering, or for matrix 120 km long Helsinki water supply tunnel.
porosities higher than normal for hard rocks, then the The possible complication of increased stress, from
same joint frequency will be recorded at lower seismic veloc- tectonic causes or from 15 to 30 m of additional soil
ities. The four curves from Sjøgren and co-workers, cover, has apparently meant that high fracture frequen-
shown in Figure 5.5 represent at the one extreme (curve cies were recorded even when velocities were as high as
No. 1) the same data as given in Figure 5.2 for hard, 4.5 km/s. Possibly all fractures in the core, and the natu-
unweathered rocks at shallow depth. The degree of ral joints, were each included in ‘fractures/m’, since
weathering increases, rock strength eventually reduces, these numbers for Fm1 are significantly larger than the
and the matrix porosity increases while progressing from Sjøgren data sets. Fracture frequencies were unusually
curve No. 1 to curve No. 4 in Figure 5.5. high (F 26/m for 0–5 m rock depth, F 21/m for
The data were assembled from Sjøgren and co-workers, 5–10 m rock depth) and seismic velocities were strongly
and are derived from measurements in Scandinavia, in affected as a result.
Relationships between rock quality, depth and seismic velocity 73
Figure 5.10 a) Mean RQD and Fm1 trends for hard, near-surface, low porosity rock masses, from Figure 5.2 Sjøgren et al., 1979, with an esti-
mated extrapolation of the ‘extremes’ (dashed-lines), by the writer. The lower rock quality Q-scale, added by the writer, is also only
relevant for hard, unweathered, low porosity, near-surface rock masses. b) Note rearrangement of Q-Vp relationship, with appended
RQD and Fm1 data from Sjøgren et al., 1979, after Barton, 1995.
Figure 5.11 Mean RQD, Fm1, Vp and Edyn. data for hard, near-surface, low porosity rock masses, from Sjøgren et al., 1979. The rock qual-
ity Q-value scale was added by the writer. Note the need for a shift of the Q-scale to the right, with increasing depth.
‘normal soil’ etc. that was given by Chen, 1982, using the Comparison of rock quality Q-values logged in bore-
seismic velocity ranges as a reference. Approximate simi- holes (or mapped at the surface) and seismic velocity
larity to the empirical model (Vp 3.5 log Q) that measurements are not yet very common in the rock
was developed ten years later is indicated in Figure 5.12. mechanics literature, though data is available at numerous
76 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 5.12 Inter-relationships between various rock mass classification schemes, Vp, RQD, and the rock quality Q-value. Chen, 1982.
5.3 Effects of depth or stress on velocity in a weak porous rock. This was due to some for-
acoustic joint closure, velocities tuitous circumstances at a test tunnel in chalk. Their stud-
and amplitudes ies were performed in an experimental machine-bored
tunnel in the Lower Chalk at Chinnor in Oxfordshire,
Bertracchi et al., 1966, gave some early Italian experi- England, and also in the laboratory. All the studies were
ences of cross-hole and downhole sonic logging, and performed in chalk from above the water table, but with
noted a consistent tendency for increased velocity with a natural water content of about 17 to 20% and a density
depth (usually 30 to 60 m/s increase per metre) in the of 2.2 gm/cm3. Firstly, Figure 5.15a shows the influence
depth range 5 to 25 m. However, related core logging of intact strength on Vp values, using penetration tests at
results were not given. This increase in velocity gives an ch. 79 m in the tunnel. A similarly strong effect of joint or
extreme gradient of 30 to 60 s1, which is about an discontinuity spacing on Vp, from the same location in
order of magnitude greater than in the subsequent few the tunnel is shown in Figure 5.15b.
hundred meters. The most interesting result was the effect of stress
Depth effects on seismic velocity were also reported level (or tunnel depth) on seismic velocity. Velocity
by Cecil, 1971, from a survey of Swedish tunnels. Velo- increased from typical values of 1.1–1.3 km/s in the
cities at 50 to 60 m depth in high quality rock were up first 30 metres of tunnel, up to 1.5–1.6 km/s between
to 17% higher, while for low quality, heavily jointed 40 and 60 m inside the tunnel, where overburden had
rock they were up to 38% higher. By comparison Sjøgren increased to some 15–20 m. This increase in Vp might
et al., 1979, reported 5 to 15% increase at 30 to 50 m appear to be as expected, but it actually occurred
depth compared to that at the surface. In both the above despite an increase in the frequency of joints and dis-
cases the comparative rock qualities at the different depths continuities in the chalk, as one progressed further into
are a factor of uncertainty. the tunnel (Figure 5.16). Often, Vp-depth data can be
There are also cases in the literature where depth ambiguous because velocity increases occur at depth,
effects are, apparently, absent. Bertacchi and Sampaola, due also to less frequent jointing. Here the two effects
1970, conducted repeated measurements of seismic were, by unusually good fortune, separated.
velocity at four Italian dam sites, using a combination of New and West, 1980 working on the same problems,
downhole sonic logging and cross-hole measurements. also performed loading tests on artificially fractured or
The deepest measurements (to 100 m depth) were con- sawn interfaces for various rocks, and found that for sev-
ducted at the 160 m high Alpe Gera dam, founded in eral different surface roughnesses in the case of the chalk
serpentine with marked foliation. Measurements were from the Chinnor Tunnel, a stress of about 0.4 MPa was
repeated over a four-year period and showed invariance required for ‘acoustic closure’ (Figure 5.17). Signifi-
with time, and independence of reservoir storage level. cantly, this stress also corresponded to the overburden
In view of the dependence of Vp on effective stress, it is stress where in situ Vp values had shown a certain flat-
tempting to assume that the measurements were con- tening out. The maximum in situ Vp values of about
centrated downstream of a successful grout curtain and 1.6 km/s (influenced by a fracture frequency as high as
effective drainage. Entirely different experiences are seen ten per meter), may be compared with Vp values for
at other dam sites, as we shall see in a later chapter. intact blocks of 1.95 km/s (range 1.6 to 2.2 km/s).
An illustrative set of depth-related data, which never- Before leaving the Chinnor Tunnel, it may be of inter-
theless is inconclusive, is that given by Mouraz Miranda est that Hudson, Jones and New, 1980, also mentioned
and Mello Mendes, 1987, in Figure 5.14. The objective very low P-wave velocities (0.6–1.0 km/s) for badly frac-
was to explain the reducing rates of penetration and tured areas of the chalk, and quoted permeability values
increased specific energy used when diamond core drilling of 106 to 104 m/s, or approximately 10–1000 Lugeons.
and downhole hammer drilling in a 22 metre deep profile According to a rule-of-thumb (L 1/Qc developed in
of weathered granites. Since all the indices of quality used Chapter 9), strength-normalized rock quality Qc -values
were increasing with depth (i.e. hardness, RQD, density), might then be expected to range from about 0.1 to 0.001,
it is inevitable that a very large increase in Vp (1.0 to in the absence of complications caused by clay sealing.
4.5 km/s) should have been registered. This range of qualities (where Qc Q c/100) is
Hudson et al., 1980 (‘rock’ Hudson), demonstrated broadly what might be expected from rock quality
some fundamental effects concerning the influence of Q-logging in badly fractured areas of this weak rock,
rock strength, joint spacing and depth (or stress) on seismic since if one assumes values of uniaxial compressive
78 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 5.14 Simultaneous increases in hardness, RQD, and density give a cumulative effect on Vp (450%) and drilling rate (75%).
Mouraz Miranda and Mello Mendes, 1987.
strength (c) for the chalk from about 10 MPa down to of this chapter), since they argued that stress could
1 MPa (when weathered), the implied rock quality ‘acoustically close’ joints, and joint frequency as expressed
Q-values would be respectively 1 and 0.1, closely by RQD would then prove to have little effect on the
resembling ‘well-jointed’, and ‘heavily jointed and velocity. Their experiments on artificial flat surfaces in
weathered’ rock, respectively. contact, to simulate smooth joints in various rocks, show
New and West, 1980, also discussed the question of the approach of ‘acoustic closure’ at about 2 to 4 (?) MPa
stress level (or tunnel depth) on joint closure. They normal stress in Figure 5.17. However, these artificial
questioned the applicability of the Deere et al., 1967 rela- surfaces were probably not responding quite in the usual
tion (i.e., (Vp field/Vp lab)2 RQD/100: see beginning non-linear manner, in terms of stress-closure, such as
Relationships between rock quality, depth and seismic velocity 79
Figure 5.17 Vp increases for flat, dry artificial rock surfaces under
normal stress. New and West, 1980.
1
5 2
near-surface stresses, various rock-to-rock contact areas, Fratta and Santamarina, 2002, also used columns of
and various ranges of weathering, mineral coatings and blocks under stress to demonstrate velocity-stress sensitiv-
fillings. The contact area ratio A0/A1 referred to earlier ity. They studied the effects of varying thicknesses of kao-
in this chapter will obviously change completely in the linite gouge materials, finding that shear wave velocity
presence of clay filling under high compressive stresses. gave a very sensitive indication of the effect of gouge thick-
As in the case of Stacey, 1977, Tanimoto and Ikeda, ness at even lower stress levels, equivalent to about 1 to
1983 found that compressive wave amplitude gave a very 10 m, typical of the weathered zone. For example at
sensitive measurement of the number of ‘joints’. The 0.25 MPa normal stress, equivalent to about 10 m depth,
amplitude ratio A/A0 (A0 for intact rock) is shown in the conditions a) no gouge, b) 0.5–1 mm of gouge, c)
Figure 5.23 (open circles), and shows excellent sensitivity 2.0 mm of gouge, d) 2.5 mm of gouge, gave S-wave veloc-
to number of ‘joints’. These authors also found that aper- ities of about 850 m/s, 750 m/s, 600 m/s and 450 m/s
tures less than 0.01 mm (10 m) did not have influence on respectively. The strongly non-linear (convex) Vs – normal
the wave propagation, even when the normal stress was as stress curves, showed velocities ranging, respectively, as low
low as 1–2 MPa. Physical apertures (E) of this size (in as 450 to 250 m/s at an equivalent depth of only 1 meter.
contrast to hydraulic apertures (e) which are smaller due In hard rocks, such as the numerous cases reported by
to roughness effects), are probably rare in the upper Sjøgren et al., 1979 and Sjøgren, 1984, there is a signifi-
20–30 metres of rock masses where refraction seismic is cant in situ correlation between Vp and joint frequency
carried out, so this result is probably consistent with (and RQD), due presumably to the fact that this ‘cut-off
experience in the field. aperture’ (whatever it may be in different rocks) has not
(One may speculate whether such a finding could been reached at the moderate (20–30 metres) penetra-
have application in the interpretation of so-called ‘open’ tion of shallow refraction seismic surveys. Tanimoto and
fractures in petroleum reservoirs: would these need to be Ikeda, 1983, found that Vp was proportional to n in
of greater aperture than this order-of-magnitude, before the stress range 3–20 MPa, but dropped sharply for
they could cause shear wave splitting?) n 3 MPa. By chance, or similar physics, in the field
A combination of permeability testing and index case records used to design the empirical Vp–Q–M chart
testing of the relevant joints (i.e. roughness JRC, and to be shown later (Barton, 1995), Vp and depth are also
wall strength JCS) using the methods described by found to be linearly related from about 200 m to
Barton et al., 1985, for converting between hydraulic 1000 m depth (5 to 25 MPa), with Vp falling rapidly for
and physical joint apertures would indicate the rough depths in the range 25 m to 100 m, i.e., for n or v
order of magnitude of the ‘necessary’ hydraulic aper- (or h) 2.5 MPa.
tures to satisfy this possible ‘rule-of-thumb’ that E must
be 10
m, for having influence on wave propagation.
A look ahead to Chapters 15 and 16 where joint 5.3.1 Compression wave amplitude
properties are discussed in detail, would suggest that sensitivities to jointing
hydraulic apertures of about 10, 1.8 and 0.3
m might
be operating with E 10
m, if joint roughnesses One of the most thorough studies of the effect of joint
were respectively 2.5 (quite smooth and nearly planar), parameters on seismic signatures was reported in a sub-
5 (near-planar but some small undulations) and 10 sequent study by Tanimoto and Kishida, 1994 and
(non-planar with marked inclined asperities). These lat- Kishida, 1999, which was built on these earlier investi-
ter would hardly be considered as ‘open’ joints, and in gations of Tanimoto and Ikeda, 1983. The advantages of
a reservoir situation are perhaps (as suggested by the compressive wave amplitude compared to Vp for sensing
Tanimoto and Ikeda, 1983 results) not capable of influ- joint frequencies at the higher stress levels was empha-
encing seismic waves, nor, by implication, shear wave sised again, and convincingly demonstrated experimen-
splitting. tally. The authors also compared (conventional) seismic
Tanimoto and Ikeda, 1983, also investigated the velocity tomography (SVT) with seismic amplitude
effect of larger apertures (or thicknesses of discontinu- tomography (SAT). The latter reportedly corresponded
ity fillings) using more sheets of filter paper to give a more closely to jointing observed with a borehole scan-
range of 1 to 3.4 mm thickness. There was strong sensi- ner, as compared to the more frequently used (SVT).
tivity of Vp to stress level (0.3 to 3 MPa) and to the total The studies were made in boreholes at a dam site, using
cumulative joint aperture and moisture condition. an exploratory adit for further confirmation.
84 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 5.25 Parallel comparison (see a and b pairs) of Vp-monitoring, and amplitude ratio monitoring, of loading effects (0 to 3 MPa) with:
top) varied ‘joint’ frequency, centre) varied ‘joint’ filling thickness, bottom) varied joint roughness for the natural joints.
Tanimoto and Kishida, 1994.
These rough fractures were loaded to 24 MPa in mated The velocity-stress behaviour shown in Figure 5.28
and unmated conditions. As a result they produced indicated a consistent pattern of behaviour, with
widely different levels of acoustic emission (Figure 5.27), increased contact area at higher stress causing marked
especially on the first cycle of loading. increases in both the P-wave and S-wave velocities. The
86 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 5.26 Parallel comparison (see a and b pairs) of Vp-monitoring, and amplitude ratio monitoring of a) shear displacement along a nat-
ural joint, b) dilation during shear, c) aperture changes with three joints of different roughness. Tanimoto and Kishida, 1994.
mated fracture more closely approached the intact but at velocities of about 0.2 km/s slower, both for P-
sample in terms of velocity, showing rapid increases in waves and S-waves.
Vp from about 2.8 km/s (at 2.5 MPa) to 3.4 km/s (at It is apparent that rough-walled rock joints with
10 MPa), and thereafter a slower increase of velocity. their typically high JRC values (often 15 to 20) are
The unmated fracture showed nearly parallel behaviour, more difficult to close acoustically, so rough joints in
Relationships between rock quality, depth and seismic velocity 87
hard rocks could be seismically ‘visible’ to significant In massive granite at the Underground Research
depths (e.g., 10 MPa or more, corresponding to Laboratory (URL) in Manitoba, Canada, micro-seismic
several hundreds of metres overburden). There are EDZ and stress-induced failure sensing reported by
however other factors involved, such as mechanical Talebi and Young, 1992, showed P-wave velocities ran-
over-closure, and thermal over-closure, (Barton, 2004), ging from 5.6 to 5.9 km/s, and S-wave velocities ranging
which would give tighter apertures than ‘expected’ from 3.3 to 3.4 km/s for the depth range 310 to 400
from the present depth of burial or exposure. (See metres (approximately) down the 4.6 m diameter shaft.
Chapter 16). (The ratio of Vp(mean)/Vs(mean) was exactly 1.70 in this
The above closure aspects would contrast with the massive granite.)
evidence from some of the experimental work on flat Velocities increased by about 0.1 km/s for every
surfaces in weak rock reviewed earlier, for example that 30 m increase in depth, (gradient 3.3 s1), based on
of New and West, 1980, which would suggest much the 1 m deep measurements using numerous shallow
lower levels of stress sensitivity in the case of smoother boreholes drilled into the walls of the shaft. If stress-
rock joints, except when closer to the surface. induced fracturing had been involved, a linkage
88 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Figure 5.36 Integration of rock quality Q-Vp-Emass in a model that incorporates depth, porosity and rock strength adjustments. Note that
Emass (or M) represents the static modulus of deformation, from plate loading tests and from back-analysis of measured defor-
mations. Vp is the seismic velocity measured from refraction seismic, and from cross-hole seismic tomography, in the case of
greater depths. Barton, 1995.
Relationships between rock quality, depth and seismic velocity 93
correlations developed will be based on this assumption, This correction is necessary because the rock quality
and systematic errors will of course arise if drainage Q-value was originally developed in 1974, for correl-
causes drying out of the matrix and/or joint water. ation with tunnel and cavern rock reinforcement and
Since velocity–rock quality correlation is a complex support needs (i.e. rock bolts and sprayed concrete,
task, no hesitation must be made in adding some degrees respectively). The rock quality Q-value only uses the
of sophistication to the simple model Vp 3.5 ratio strength/stress (c/1 in the SRF factor – see
log10Q proposed earlier (Figure 5.10). Avoidance of Appendix A), when major principal stress levels (and
mathematics suggests the use of a graphic method for their concentration as maximum tangential stress
converting the formulation for hard, unweathered, low- 31 – 3) are causing stress-related fracturing.
porosity, near-surface rock masses (i.e. typical Sjøgren It is probable that in a tunnel excavation disturbed
et al., 1979, data) to conditions towards the other end of zone (EDZ), the potentially large values of SRF (that
the seismic and rock quality scale, e.g., low strength, reduce the Q-value directly) can also be used in princi-
weathered, high porosity, highly stressed (or unstressed) pal to predict the measured reductions in velocity and
rock masses. deformation modulus that are typically recorded in the
The development shown in Figure 5.36 which was walls of deep shafts and tunnels (e.g. Barton and
introduced by Barton 1995 and 1996a, has opposing Bakhtar, 1983 who back-calculated moduli of 3.5 GPa
corrections for porosity and depth (i.e. stress) since in the outer 3 m, or one radius, of a 1,600 m deep shaft
these cause opposing influences on velocity. In addi- in steeply bedded, highly stressed, jointed quartzites,
tion, an adjustment for uniaxial compression strengths compared to 65 GPa at a depth of two shaft diame-
different from a typical hard rock 100 MPa (or more) is ters, using multiple position borehole extensometers, or
made by the following simple normalisation of the rock MPBX).
quality Q-value: In highly stressed cases, c will tend to be high for
hard massive rocks subject to dynamic and sometimes
explosive stress-slabbing, and c will be low for soft
c (5.6) rocks that are subject to a slower, ‘plastic-deformation’
Qc Q (c expressed in MPa)
100 type of squeezing. In equation 5.6, c/100 corrects the
Figure 5.37 Conversion of the Barton, 1995 rock quality Qc-Vp model of Fig. 5.36, into a more familiar velocity-depth format. Note that
there will be a tendency for ‘curve-jumping’ (i.e. ‘Q-jumping’), as a near-surface rock quality improves at greater depth. This
will be due to the reduced effects of weathering, and due to a tendency for reduced jointing frequency. Note the contrasting
directions of the ‘N’ and ‘J’ arrows shown in the figure, together with the s1 (km/s/km or m/s/m) gradients.
94 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Q-value to an approximately suitable value of Q c to (Figure 5.36, right-hand column) become closer to seis-
correlate more closely with the rock mass static deform- mically derived dynamic E moduli (from Vp, Vs and
ation modulus (M, or Emass) and with the seismic veloc- density, see Chapter 1). If truly undisturbed static mod-
ity Vp, particularly for the case of softer rocks. ulus testing could be achieved, the normal discrepancy
The ‘opposed corrections’ given by the two sets of between static deformation modulus and dynamic E
diagonal lines in Figure 5.36 are designed to do the modulus might be lessened, despite the fundamentally
following: different levels of strain involved in each case.
An illustration of application of the Q–Vp–M
1. A strongly non-linear initial correction for depth
method to very soft rocks can be given here, based on
gives greater sensitivity to ‘acoustic joint closure’
Q-logging of tunnels in chalk marl (Terlingham Tunnel,
for weaker and lower quality rock masses.
Beaumont Tunnel, and UK sector Channel Tunnels,
2. A weakly non-linear porosity correction also gives
and selected marine drill core: PB1 to PB8). Details of
larger changes of velocity for the weakest rocks.
the rock quality Q-logging are given by Barton and
The chart, which should be considered as an approxi- Warren, 1996c.
mate engineering guideline, was developed with the A weighted mean value of Q 8 was obtained from
hard rock (Vp 3.5 log10Q) relationship (Figure the so-called ‘precedent study’ of nearby tunnels in
5.10) as a ‘core’ (see diagonally-aligned black discs in chalk marl, and from marine drillcore. This Q-value
Figure 5.36). Development for soft rocks occurred by a was found to compare closely with the overall mean
process of trial-and-error fitting of Q, Vp, c, n and Q-value recorded in the contractor-owner (Trans
depth data from known sites in jointed chalks, (Saul Manche Link – EuroTunnel) TBM face logs from the
Denekamp, personal communication), jointed chalk 20–24 km subsea chainage near the English south
marl from the UK end of the Channel Tunnel, sand- coast, where an overall mean value of Q 9 was
stones, mudstones, shales, welded tuff and ignimbrite. obtained from the three machine bored tunnels. In this
Data from Israel, England, Japan and China were zone, significant tunnelling problems were caused by
included. Depths ranged from about 25 meters to more the (salt) water leakage and overbreak, hindering
than 1000 metres in the case of tuff/ignimbrite from PC-element ring-building, and causing problems with
UK Nirex’s Sellafield site, where cross-hole tomography electrical equipment on the TBM.
and laboratory tests could be compared with NGI’s The mean c value for the chalk marl was 6 MPa.
detailed rock quality Q-logging (and joint index test- Thus from equation 5.6 we have:
ing) of 9 km of drill core (see Chapter 4).
The first two empirical relationships listed in the top
6
of Figure 5.36 were derived from extensive field test data Q 8, c 6 MPa, Q c 8 0.48
for hard rocks (Barton, 1996). Testing with soft rocks has 100
shown that the modified Qc term gives satisfactory fit,
which is improved when the porosity and depth correc- This Qc value intersects the central diagonal line (equa-
tions are also made. Thus we have the following approx- tion 5.7) in Figure 5.36 at Vp 3.2 km/s. Correction for
imations for general use. Note that both Vp and average porosity (n 27.7%) results in a reduction of
deformation modulus (M or Emass) are predicted to 1.6 km/s giving 3.2–1.6 1.6 km/s. Tunnel depths of,
increase with depth (see detailed discussion in Barton, for example 40 m, bring this value up to about 2.0 or
2002a). 2.1 km/s. Offshore geophysics carried out during several
campaigns indicated P-wave velocities generally in the
Vp log10 Q c 3.5 (km/s) (5.7) range 2.0 to 2.6 km/s for the UK chalk marl. A Q-value
of about 20 is needed to explain the upper velocity of
2.6 km/s using the above method. This is in line with the
M(mean) 10Q c1 3 (GPa) (5.8) otherwise generally good rock mass Q-values, registered
outside the 4 km zone with much overbreak.
The predicted moduli of M 0.5 GPa (minimum)
Although there is little data for deformation modulus and 3 GPa (mean) compare with (disturbed) but
measurement at ‘undisturbed’ depths of hundreds of unjointed laboratory scale moduli of 0.64 GPa (mean) and
metres, it will be noted that the predicted static moduli a range of 0.15 to 4.2 GPa. Deformation measurements
Relationships between rock quality, depth and seismic velocity 95
in the tunnels were interpreted as indicating an million cubic meter post-glacial landslide, at Koefels in
in situ modulus of about 1 to 2.5 GPa for a range of Austria, which covers a valley over an area of some
rock qualities, quite consistent with the above. 10 km2. Brueckl and Parotidis, 2001, found that the
The correction Q c Q c/100 can also be landslide mass could be approximated by a Vp-depth
applied in the direction of very hard rock, to adjust the model which we can simplify to Vp 400D0.32 m/s. So
value of Q c above that of the logged Q-value. As we at 50 m, 100 m, 200 m and 300 m (the average depth),
shall see in Chapter 7 on EDZ phenomena, this gives a the velocities would, in round figures be approximately
useful hard rock correlation between measured veloci- as low as 1,400, 1,750, 2,300 and 2,500 m/s, compared
ties and observed Q-values from greater depths. We will to a bedrock of 5.2 km/s.
examine predicted and measured velocities and moduli As a first approximation one might view the Qc -Vp –
from greater depths in Chapter 7. depth model of Figure 5.37 and consider a faulted-
The sloping lines for depth adjustments that are crushed-rock Q-value of 0.01, which would reduce to a
shown in Figure 5.36 can be converted to velocity-depth Q c – estimate of 0.001 if weakened rock of say, 10 MPa
gradients, with a format more familiar to geophysicists, uniaxial strength was involved. The relevant Vp – depth
as shown in Figure 5.37. Here one may note the marked curve gives a certain geometric similarity to the above
linearity at depths beyond the first 250 m, and the velocity increases down to 300 m depth, but needs a
marked non-linearity in the upper 100 m in particular. minor ‘parallel shift’ to somewhat lower values.
With awareness of the different velocity scales, we Such could be ‘achieved’ by a) a minor downwards
can compare the velocity-depth trends of the XTLR adjustment of velocity, due to a porosity correction
well near the San Andreas fault (Figure 5.34) with the (Vp) for slightly altered rock, or b) by a larger down-
overall gradients of a rock mass quality of Qc 0.1 in wards adjustment due to the larger mass porosity of the
Figure 5.37. This suggests a well tectonised rock mass failed materials, e.g. 20%, but then necessarily from a
with several joint sets, and possibly with clay coatings higher Q c value as a starting point. Detective work,
and smooth or slickensided joints. Unfortunately, the preferably aided by local knowledge of the site, may
detailed condition of core seems seldom to be described result in improved insight, where a hint concerning the
in published articles, so whether this ‘picture’ is realistic deformation modulus of the slide masses (about 5 GPa)
is uncertain. might also need to be used.
At the extreme end of the rock mass quality spec-
trum, one may refer to the seismic studies of a several
6 Deformation moduli and
seismic velocities
Although it was not the original intention in this book to the foundation using larger scale cross-hole, between-
explore in detail the ‘static’ deformability of rock masses, gallery, or VSP (hole to surface or tunnel perimeter)
a superficial treatment is necessary, in view of the com- velocity measurements. Classic examples of this were
mon use of seismic measurements to extrapolate near- shown in Figure 4.1 and 4.2.
surface deformation or elastic modulus measurements. A useful basic comparison between the ‘static’ modu-
We saw in the last chapter how the loading of individ- lus of deformation Ed (or M in Figure 5.36) and the
ual joints, or of multiple jointed columns of rock in the so-called modulus of elasticity (Ee) is shown in Figure 6.1.
laboratory created changes in the P-wave and S-wave The modulus of elasticity (Ee) is traditionally obtained
velocities and amplitudes. Detailed monitoring of from the gradient of the unloading curves, which are
in situ loading tests using sonic logging in boreholes often similar, and supposedly have elastic character due
beneath plate loading tests, such as shown in Chapter 3 to the frequent closed state of the stress-deformation
(Figure 3.15), also shows correlation with the moduli loops. These results were given in the 1st ISRM Congress
obtained. However, due to the inevitable damage in the by Kujundzíc and Grujíc, 1966. Three of their figures
unloaded zone around the sites of the tests, the lowest are reproduced in Figure 6.1.
moduli (and lowest velocities) are usually registered clos- The total deformation measured at the highest load
est to the loading plates, flatjacks or pressure chambers, level, after several loading cycles, is the usual basis for the
while higher velocities and moduli are registered at greater calculation of Ed (Figure 6.1a). Thus defined, Ed may
depth. This is probably due to the more uniform stresses change with stress level, while Ee is considered a con-
outside the excavation disturbed zone, or EDZ, where stant. Partly for this reason, the inequality Ee Ed can
shear stresses are less due to the radial stress (r) being be quite large, as it depends also on the stress level, which
higher. There is increasing discrepancy between dynamic in turn is usually based on the size and type of dam (or
and ‘static’ deformation moduli in the near-surface, low other structure) to be located on the particular rock
quality, weathered zone, that may unfortunately need foundation.
to be used as a dam or large building foundation. The basic inequality of Ed and Ee is clearly shown in
In this chapter there will be detailed treatment and Figure 6.1b and c. Kujundzíc and Grujíc, 1966, assem-
examples of the multitude of ‘moduli’ that have prolif- bled most of their data from tests on limestone founda-
erated with the combined use of loading (and unload- tions at Yugoslavian dam sites carried out in the 1950s
ing) ‘static’ moduli, and the attempts to extrapolate or and 1960s. As can be seen from the data, the largest
compare these with the ‘dynamic’ moduli, both from inequalities (ratios of 1.5 to 2.5) are seen at the lowest
laboratory samples and in situ measurement. moduli values (5 GPa). The values of Ee and Ed
followed approximately the following trend:
Figure 6.2 Example of Vp measurements in exploration galleries at a dam site in Yugoslavia. These are used to economically extrapolate
deformation modulus test results to other parts of the dam foundation. Grujíc, 1974.
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 6.3 Flatjack deformation tests for determining the moduli D(or Ed), and E (or Ee), and correlation with velocity in the Triassic lime-
stones. Grujíc, 1974.
D-moduli obtained from plate loading tests in Italy was anisotropy, which the author nevertheless concluded,
given by Ribacchi, 1988. These are shown in Figure 6.4. was greatest with samples that had been recovered for
The particular emphasis of this review article was laboratory tests. The results of in situ investigations at
rock mass deformability, and complexities caused by eleven sites were given. These involved several varieties
100 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Ee GPa Ee GPa
(a) (c)
Ed GPa
Ed GPa
(b) (d)
Figure 6.4 a,b) Results of in situ deformation tests at eleven sites, showing Ee and Ed correlated with Vp2. c,d) Mean data from each site shows
reduced scatter. Note dynamic Poisson’s ratio gradients Ribacchi, 1988.
of limestones, schists, gneisses, granodiorites, mylonites, conducted perpendicular and parallel to layering, bed-
dolomite, a high porosity (n 30%) calcarenite, and ding, or schistocity, as appropriate.
inter-bedded sandstones and mudstones. Both the plate The author cited examples of sites that showed
loading tests and the seismic velocity measurements were good correlation between modulus and typical indices
Deformation moduli and seismic velocities 101
D or M 10Q
1
3 GPa (6.4)
Table 6.1 Deformation moduli and velocities from numerous plate load tests. Navalón et al., 1987.
Decompression zones 0.7–2.0 0.4–3.9 Intermediate zones 1.8–2.2 3.4–4.9 Deep zones 3.3–3.6 17.6–19.7
0.9–2.3 0.7–5.9 2.6–2.7 7.4–8.3 3.5 14.2–16.2
1.0–2.4 0.9–6.4 2.6 7.3 3.5 16.2
1.5–2.5 2.0–6.4 2.6 7.4
Deformation moduli and seismic velocities 103
(b)
(a)
(c)
Figure 6.7 Correlations of refraction seismic velocities with weathering grade, deformation modulus and elastic modulus from Japanese dam
sites. Kikuchi et al., 1982.
deformation. Consistent relationships between deform- with stress increase (uniaxial or triaxial), but Shea and
ation modulus, velocity and the ultimate strengths of Hanson, 1988, identified two other phases of behaviour
the rock masses are shown by the following tabulation: as well which resemble those we have just seen in
Savitch et al., 1974 plate load tests.
Table 6.2 Plate load tests taken to ultimate failure. Savitch et al., Phase I represented the rapid rise in P-wave velocities
1974. due to ‘closing of layer cavities’ at quite low levels of load-
ing (MPa assumed). Attenuation also decreased in this
Test No. D (GPa) Vp (km/s) c (mass) MPa
phase as shown in Figure 6.9a Phase III marked the
3 0.9 1.3–2.2 2–3 decline of these two trends, while Phase II represented the
6 1.0 2.2–2.4 3–5 increase in attenuation that probably signified the creation
4 2.8 3.6–3.9 19–24 of micro-cracks. There was hardly any increase in P-wave
1 3.4 3.6–3.8 22–23 velocity in this phase, although the S-wave velocity con-
7 15.4 3.9–4.2 42–78 tinued to increase.
Figure 6.9b shows that triaxial conditions (1.7 MPa
confinement) caused consistently reducing attenuation
Coal, which in some ways resembles jointed rock at in Phase I and II, then a sudden increase in attenu-
reduced scale, also shows the expected increases in velocity ation and reduction in velocity as failure approached in
104 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 6.8 Effect of stress on Vp values beneath plate load tests at the Inguri arch dam in Russia. Savich et al., 1974.
3( VP / Vs )2 4 (6.5)
E dyn Vs2
( VP / Vs )2 1
1 ( VP / Vs )2 2 (6.7)
d
2 ( VP / Vs )2 1
(b)
In this section, which principally concerns dynamic K bulk ( Vp2 4/3 Vs2 ) (6.9)
moduli and dynamic Poisson’s ratio, the use of Vp and
Vs measurements to derive the four standard dynamic
E dyn
elastic properties of rock masses will be discussed. The (6.10)
validity or otherwise of these dynamic, small-strain, 3 6d
Deformation moduli and seismic velocities 105
Figure 6.14 High values of static deformation modulus Emass (or M) for the rock mass (also referred to as D, or Ed by some authors), are pre-
dicted where stresses and rock quality are high. Here Emass approaches EF dyn.. Barton, 1995.
Table 6.3 Ranges of moduli and ratios of moduli at three complex sites (after Lane, 1964).
of the two static unloading/loading moduli: Ee/Ed Yugoslavian dam site tests. A general trend was noted as
(or Ee/D), shown, for example by Kujundzíc and follows:
Grujíc, 1966.
Link, 1964, made special reference to an extremely Edyn
Ee (6.11)
high value of EF dyn measured (interpreted) under the (5.3 0.05Edyn )
lower slopes of the Vajon limestones. The value of
140 GPa was considered the result of high overburden, where Ee and Edyn are expressed in GPa.
and/or residual stresses. The lower the dynamic modulus the larger the ratio
Graphic presentation of the inequalities between of the dynamic/static moduli. When the inequality of
EF dyn and Ee were given by Kujundzíc and Grujíc, 1966. Ee and Ed is also considered, the very large ratios of
Figure 6.15a and b show the significant inequality of Edyn/Ed of 10 to 20 given by Lane, 1964, and Link,
Edyn and Ee for the case of the limestones tested in their 1964, are more readily understood.
Deformation moduli and seismic velocities 109
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.15 Inequality between Ee (static unloading) and Edyn. (or Figure 6.16 Average curves for the field-scale dynamic elastic (E:
EF dyn), for limestones tested at Yugoslavian dam sites. curve 1), bulk (k: curve 2), and shear (
: curve 3)
Kujundzíc and Grujíc, 1966. moduli, in relation to refraction seismic Vp, based on
80 examples from igneous and metamorphic areas.
6.3 Some examples of the three Sjøgren, 1984.
dynamic moduli
The authors found that the dispersion of the dynamic
Sjøgren et al., 1979, gave average curves for the three Poisson’s ratio values always increased at lower velocities
dynamic moduli (Young’s, bulk and shear), reproduced in (e.g., dispersion 0.02 at 5.5 km/s, and 0.065 at
Figure 6.16. These were based on 80 examples from three 3.5 km/s). In Figure 6.17, their calculated values of
igneous and metamorphic rock areas (1 dynamic E dynamic Poisson’s ratios (from equation 6.7) are shown
modulus, 2 bulk modulus K, and 3 shear modulus integrated with Vp magnitudes, with calculation of
G). Each are shown in relation to measured values of Vp equivalent values of Edyn and k bulk. The reduced mod-
from refraction seismic, which ranged from 3 to 5.5 km/s. uli where even higher values of dynamic Poisson’s ratio
Deviations from the curves occur with changes in the are calculated, can be readily imagined.
dynamic Poisson’s ratio (d). This is because of the fun- In this connection it is of interest to refer to the results
damental linkage between Vp and Vs: of Vp and Vs logging of shallow boreholes. Results given
by Chang and Lee, 2001 from a Korean tunnelling pro-
1 ject, show the elastic ‘constants’ for a 30 m deep borehole.
Vp 1 2
d
(6.12) (Figure 6.18a). The Edyn moduli of 0.07 and 0.23 GPa
Vs 1 2 d are less than the bulk moduli (k) of 0.15 and 0.38 GPa
in the residual soils in the top 10 m of the hole, where
and because of the elastic equations (6.5 to 6.10) linking the dynamic Poisson’s ratios are as high as 0.43 and
Vp and Vs with the dynamic elastic (Edyn), bulk (k bulk) 0.40 respectively, and Vp only 0.5 km/s.
and shear (
) moduli. Concerning Edyn and
, high It is not until the soft rock is reached at 24 m depth,
Poisson’s ratios give values below the curves in Figure that Edyn of 5.92 GPa becomes greater than k of 5.20 GPa,
6.16 and low Poisson’s ratios give values above the curves. with Vp increased to 1.85 km/s, and dynamic Poisson’s
110 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.18 The dynamic elastic moduli compared from down-hole Vp, Vs and density logging, a) for a shallow 30 m deep hole, b) for a
300 m deep mountain tunnel borehole. Chang and Lee, 2001. Note GPa, and symbol conversion, G to
.
(b)
(Seraphim and Pereira, 1983) equation and the Q-system The Q-system based equation for deformation modu-
equation for ‘static’ deformation modulus prediction, are lus prediction gives a similar trend:
each shown.
1
It can be seen from Figure 6.23, that the Seraphim E d M 10Q c 3 (6.14)
and Pereira, 1983, relation is as follows:
where Q c Q c/100, so Q c Q in a typical
Ed M 10((RMR 10)/40) (6.13) hard rock situation. This equation is the source of the
Deformation moduli and seismic velocities 113
RMR 5 20 35 50 65 80 95
Q 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
relation.
velocities (mostly 0.5 to 2.5 km/s).
Figure 6.23 A comparison of the old and the new RMR – deformation modulus relations (Seraphim and Pereira, 1983, and Bieniawski,
1989), and the more recent formulation involving Q or Qc. Barton, 1995.
114 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
flatjack or occasionally pressure chamber) is nearly from core logging and refraction seismic, and from
always testing an excavation disturbed zone (EDZ), in deeper cross-hole tomography data. The second equa-
a loading direction parallel to the radial stress (r), while tion was developed from large scale modulus of deform-
the velocity measurement may be averaging velocities ation data where either the Q-value was known from
over a larger volume, and may tend to be recording independent logging or from approximate conversion
velocities parallel to the (tangential stress) direction, from logged RMR values, using equation 6.15. The
which is a much higher, maximum local principal stress, implied connection between M and Vp (elimination of
compared to the minimum radial stress. The latter obvi- Q c between the above equations) to give equation 6.16,
ously approaches zero, due to the effect of excavating a is a ‘pure’ link, which ignores the potential complica-
test adit. tion that anisotropic stresses ( r) may cause
The stress anisotropy ( r) around an excav- anisotropic velocities in the EDZ test zones.
ation, which can explain higher values of Vp parallel to
than parallel to r, could therefore explain the higher-
than-expected Vp values, and the higher-velocity-than-
expected Ed–Vp trend lines seen in Figure 6.24b.
In this connection, it is significant that the empirical
equations that were introduced in Chapter 5:
1
Vp 3.5 log10 Q c and M 10Q c 3
The existing surface of exposed rock that may be found 7.1 Some effects of the free-surface
where soil cover is absent can be considered as nature’s on velocities and attenuation
disturbed zone. Steep mountainsides in rocky terrain,
steep gorges or valley sides where dams may be founded The problem with the EDZ is that many of the geome-
or glaciated terrain are typical examples. As we have seen chanical properties we are most interested in investigat-
earlier the special coincidence of low stress, weathering ing at large scale are themselves affected by the process
effects and possibly more frequent jointing (with joint of obtaining access. Only a borehole-size intrusion may
apertures above the limits of ‘acoustic closure’) make such be considered nearly free of damage, but it will cause local
zones extremely ‘visible’ in seismic refraction or sonic disturbance to the stresses, that may influence permeabil-
logging of shallow boreholes. Velocities may be up to sev- ity measurements and may also influence preliminary
eral km/s lower in the near-surface zone than at greater load cycles from borehole dilatometers. The ‘skin-effect’
depth, in some cases even when joint frequencies remain around an excavation adit is far from ‘skin-deep’, and
unchanged. In an attempt to get away from the wea- may extend many metres or to one or several radii from
thered zone, investigators of dam sites and deep founda- the excavation wall, especially in the case of softer rock
tions may often construct adits or shafts for conducting that is highly stressed.
deformability and other geomechanical tests. Unfortu- We must assume both a damaged zone and a disturbed
nately, however much care is taken, even to the extent zone that together have been given the nomenclature
of non-blasting methods, a disturbed zone results. The EDZ (excavation damage and disturbed stress zone).
removal of stressed rock and its usual replacement by air ED1D2Z would be more specific, as with e.g. line drilling
at atmospheric pressure (a convenient ‘definition’ of tun- of an experimental tunnel, as at URL in Canada, we have
nelling), results in a radial stress (r) that approaches only ED2Z.
zero at the excavation walls. The tangential stress () An unusual and instructive geophysical monitoring of
may assume many values (including negative) depending the Dneiper ship lock excavation, which reached a depth
upon the existing stress anisotropy, joint orientation, rock of more than 20 metres, is shown in Figure 7.1. The effect
strength and the disturbance caused by the excavation of loosening caused by blasting, stress relief (and pre-
method. sumably inadequate slope reinforcement) is shown very
Figure 7.1 Free-surface effect, and slope excavation (and degradation) effects on P-wave velocities. There is a 1 year delay between measure-
ments c) and d). Savich et al., 1983.
118 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
clearly. There is a one-year delay between diagrams (c) seismic probe for easier access to inaccessible locations
and (d). Savich et al., 1983, refer to a 200–300% reduc- behind steep slopes. Cross-hole measurements clearly
tion in velocity, a 75 to 85% reduction in deformation indicated the presence of stress-relieved joints behind
modulus, and a 1 to 20 times increase in ‘joint voids’. the slope faces.
This can be considered an excavation disturbed zone The excavation efficiency of large dragline excavators in
(EDZ) study related to slopes, in which velocity open cast coal mines as a function of efficient blasting
changes were related both to loosening and presumably practice was investigated by Young et al., 1985, using
to water drawdown. The same basic mechanisms may be what they called ‘seismic spectroscopy’ to quantify the
at work around tunnels, in which EDZ effects are import- degree of brokenness of the rock before and after blasting.
ant for may reasons, including increased support needs, They utilised seismic attenuation and anisotropy dia-
reduced deformation modulus, and frequently increased grams to evaluate the efficiency of the blasting process.
leakage (or permeability) in the case of larger or less sta- Certain frequencies were found to be attenuated due to
ble tunnels. These effects may be remedied by high pres- the effect of fracture size and porosity (and void space).
sure pre-grouting with micro or ultra-fine cements. This The principle of the method is shown in Figure 7.2.
will be discussed later. In the case of very stable rock, and The attenuation spectrum of the broken rock mass
small tunnels, inflow may reduce in relation to expect- differed fundamentally from that of the unbroken, more
ation. (Olsson, 1992). homogeneous rock. As shown in this most interesting
Price et al., 1970, reported the results of seismic refrac- Figure 7.3, attenuation was larger and more irregular for
tion measurements at three sites in the UK where bolt-
ing, anchoring and grouting of rock slopes was being
designed. Their measurements at Edinburgh Castle in
complexly jointed basalt foundations, suggested a 16%
increase in Vp as a result of bolting and anchoring (6 to
12 m deep) followed by grouting.
At Cheddar Gorge, which cuts through massive, but
bedded limestones, an outer layer of about 5 m thickness
showed a velocity of 2.9 km/s, while deeper into the walls
of the gorge, the velocity was 5.5 km/s.
The vertical, pseudo columnar jointing in dolerite at
Stirling Castle showed ratios of Vfield/Vlab as low as 0.1
due to stress relieved joints and weathering near the sur-
face. Slope ‘EDZ’ can clearly exceed the EDZ associated
with tunnelling, due to the added influence of weathering.
The authors also described early trials with a downhole
Figure 7.3 Effect of blasting and depth below surface on the seis-
Figure 7.2 Seismic attenuation compared in broken rock, and in mic attenuation. Attenuation is greatest near-surface,
compact rock masses. Young et al., 1985. and at intermediate frequencies. Young et al., 1985.
Excavation disturbed zones and their seismic properties 119
shallow depths (where fractures open more easily) and authors cited the same reasons for the velocity reduc-
more regular and limited at greater depths, where con- tion that we hear in more recent times at nuclear waste
finement limits fracture or joint opening. Associated investigation sites such as Hanford (King et al., 1984),
compressional wave velocities typically changed from URL (Maxwell and Young, 1996), Äspö (Emsley et al.,
1.1 and 1.8 km/s (at the surface/at greater depth) prior 1996) and Stripa (Olsson, 1992). Fracture formation,
to blasting, down to 0.6 and 1.1 km/s respectively, after joint disturbance, stress redistribution and possible des-
blasting. iccation of the existing joint system were all listed by
These excavation disturbance effects were accom- Hasselstrøm et al., in 1964, and are equally relevant (and
panied by rotations of both attenuation anisotropy axes complicated) today.
and velocity anisotropy axes, presumably as a result A classic EDZ investigation in relation to pressure tun-
both of disturbance to pre-existing joint patterns and nel design was reported by Kujundzíc et al., 1970. They
blast-induced fracturing in the proximity of a high wall. performed a trial chamber test for investigating post-
stressing effects on the concrete liner of their 5 m diam-
eter, circular tunnel. In the course of this study, they
7.2 EDZ phenomena around utilised numerous grouting boreholes (32 in all) for
tunnels based on seismic conducting cross-hole seismic along the tunnel axis at
monitoring eight different radial positions. Their results are shown
in Figure 7.5.
In the years before the 1980s, reports of EDZ investi- They visualised the existence of three zones around
gations in the rock mechanics literature were usually in the tunnel: 1) the loosened zone (with lowest velocities);
connection with hydropower projects. An impressively 2) the stress bearing ring (with highest tangential stresses
early model for subsequent investigations was provided and velocities); 3) the uninfluenced zone (with declining
by Hasselstrøm et al., 1964, at a dam site in Sweden, who velocities and background stresses). Their mean results
compared cross-hole and downhole sonic logging results (Vp 3.5 km/s at the tunnel wall, Vp 5.5 km/s at 1 m
in an investigation gallery, as shown in Figure 7.4. radius, and Vp 4.5 km/s in the undisturbed zone)
Velocities were seen to fall from about 5.5 to 3.5 km/s shown in the centre of Figure 7.5 can be interpreted by
in the outer 1 metre of their 1.5 2 m gallery. The means of the Vp-stress effect model as discussed in
Chapter 5 (Figure 5.36).
Significant sophistication was added to the analysis
of disturbed zone phenomena by Russian engineers,
who analysed a variety of effects, including anisotropic
velocities using ultrasonic and seismic methods. They
emphasised the need to consider the use of different
wave lengths (see Chapter 3, Lykoshin et al., 1971,
Figure 3.12).
In relation to the EDZ logging of a shaft in diabase,
these same authors used a time-average equation to esti-
mate the joint void ratio (e) as a function of depth, as
shown in Figure 7.6:
Va ( Vr Vm ) (7.1)
e
Vm ( Vr Va )
Figure 7.5 Pressure tunnel investigations of seismic velocity as a function of radius, and therefore as a function of tangential stress, using
cross-hole measurements. Kujundzíc et al., 1970.
joint void ratio of 0.03 (or 3%) at an imagined shallow stress) cause Vm eventually to equal Vr, then clearly the
depth into the wall of an excavation. void space will theoretically vanish. Lykoshin et al.,
At greater depth when Vm has increased, for example, 1971, recommended the use of ultrasonic logging with
to 4.5 km/s, the calculated joint void ratio will have the minimum transmitter-receiver distance (e.g., 0.1 m)
reduced to 0.008 (or 0.8%). If we suppose that greater to obtain the relevant velocity distributions in such
depth into the excavation wall (or the results of high studies.
Excavation disturbed zones and their seismic properties 121
Figure 7.6 Calculations of joint void ratio (%) in the EDZ sur-
rounding a shaft in diabase, using a time average equa-
tion. Lykoshin et al., 1971.
Dhawan et al., 1983, described seismic refraction the location of minimum tangential stress, if horizontal
measurements at a dam site in the Himalayas and slots, rather than vertical slots were cut in the wall, and
attempts to correlate results with 1100 metres of core log- if horizontal along-the-valley stresses were maximum
ging and in situ testing in the same quartzitic and slaty principal stresses in the location of the tests.
phyllites. The in situ testing was performed in boreholes The disturbed zone surrounding the drift showed a
and in an investigation drift in the dam foundations, thick low velocity zone (1.4 km/s) of about 3 m
shown in Figure 7.9. thickness in the first 10 metres of the drift. This
The values of deformation modulus, ranging from exceeded the diameter of the drift (2 metres). Further
about 0.5 to 3 GPa from plate jacking and flat jack tests, inside the drift, in less weathered material, the higher
seemed to correlate poorly with the wider range of seismic velocity material (Vp 2.85 km/s) came closer to the
velocities (1.5 to 4.0 km/s), possibly due to the discrep- walls of the drift, as shown in Figure 7.9.
ancy of the plate jacking loading direction (radial) in rela- In the same year, Bonapace, 1983 described rock
tion to the perpendicular-to-tangential-stress direction mechanics testing for the design of an extremely high
followed by most of the seismic refraction ray-paths. The head (1260 m) inclined pressure shaft. Deformation
flat-jack loading could possibly have been performed in modulus testing at different scales culminated in a radial
Figure 7.8 Seismic refraction profiles along tunnels in gneiss and granite give a crude indication of EDZ. Berabini and Borelli, 1974.
Excavation disturbed zones and their seismic properties 123
jacking test chamber (diameter 3 metres) which gave Downhole logging by Stead et al., 1990, in a potash
the lowest modulus of 11.5 GPa. In order to extrapolate mine in Saskatoon, Canada also showed distinct EDZ
this result along the shaft alignment, 4 m deep boreholes effects as shown in Figure 7.11a and b. Holes in the
were drilled at 10 m intervals, in order to measure seismic roof showed velocity anomalies connected with the
velocities and correlate these with the measurements at opening of clay seams (or the presence of clay seams),
the radial jacking location. while anomalies and reductions in velocity in the walls
These EDZ-style measurements in the 4.8 m diameter of mine entries were reportedly associated with stress-
shaft wall, shown in Figure 7.10, gave velocities as low as 1 induced fracturing of the potash. Freshly mined open-
to 1.5 km/s in the outer 1.0 metre of the drill-and-blasted ings showed only slight reduction in velocity in the
shaft, but velocities no lower than 2 km/s in the outer 0.5 future EDZ zone, as fracturing took time to develop.
metre of the TBM excavated section. In general, velocities The P-wave velocity clearly appeared to be more sensi-
were 1 km/s higher in the case of the TBM excavation, tive to these anomalies than the S-wave velocity, judg-
over the depth range of 1 to 4 metres from the shaft wall. ing by the two figures.
Holcomb, 1988, found that mining of excavations in
the bedded salt of the WIPP site in New Mexico had
greatest effect on the attenuation of compressional waves.
The EDZ could be detected to a depth of some 3 metres
(about 1/2 D). The mining induced radial stress relief and
increased tangential stress would tend to cause under-
saturation due to dilation of the salt. The reduction in
compression wave amplitude, which increased with time
after excavation, was a stronger indicator of EDZ than the
minor reduction in P-wave velocity (0.5 km/s).
In softer rocks such as chalk the EDZ effect can be even
more marked in terms of percentage change in velocity.
At a storage cavern site in Eocene chalk with one pre-
dominant set of vertical joints of about 1 m spacing and
a second, less well developed set, McDowell et al., 1992,
showed mean background velocities of 2.34 km/s redu-
cing to 1.47 to 1.56 km/s in the outer 1 to 2 metres of the
Figure 7.9 EDZ effect accentuated by the initial weathered zone wall of the pilot tunnel.
at an investigation adit at a dam site in the Himalayas. Borehole investigations at the same site had shown
Dhawan et al., 1983. significant increases with depth; Vp was 1.25 km/s from
Figure 7.10 Contrasting EDZ effects on Vp from drill-and-blast and TBM excavated shaft. Note the travel time-distance-velocity plotting
format. Bonapace, 1983.
124 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 7.12 Experiment for measuring EDZ effects in a tunnel wall (or ‘face’), at the Basalt Waste Isolation Project (BWIP). a) Test set-up,
b) test principle, c) and d) four of the selected ray paths and the effect of the EDZ on the P-wave velocities. King et al., 1984.
126 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a) (b)
Figure 7.18 A unique line-drilled and hand-mined test tunnel at URL, showed classic break-out related to the sub-horizontal 1 orientation.
Maxwell and Young, 1996. Note location of AE sensors.
Excavation disturbed zones and their seismic properties 129
(b)
Figure 7.20 Principal stress-orientated velocity anisotropy (lower hemisphere plot) and EDZ effects on Vp at the same URL test tunnel, Canada.
Carlson and Young, 1993.
130 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
referred maximum tangential stresses to a tolerable and Vs. When constant density was assumed, these
105 MPa. increases suggested a theoretical 3.5% per year increase
The microseismic instrumentation available to moni- in Edyn for the concrete.
tor this tunnel sealing experiment (TSX) was extensive, The focus on microseismic and acoustic emission
consisting of 16 grouted-in-borehole triaxial acceler- monitoring when excavating variously shaped tunnels
ometers, operating in the 0.1–10 kHz band, and pro- in these highly stressed, massive granites has naturally
viding 3D coverage of an outer 100 m 100 m 50 m aroused curiosity about both the exact location of fail-
volume surrounding the tunnel. Two higher resolution ure around an opening (how close to the wall is initi-
AE arrays for recording in a 10 m 10 m 10 m vol- ation?), and curiosity concerning the type of fracturing
ume around the collars, consisted of 24 ultrasonic responsible for the microseismic events.
transducers operating in the 50–250 kHz band. Each of Cai et al., 1998, together with mining-rock-mechanics
these arrays had 16 receivers and 8 transmitters. colleagues Kaiser, and Martin, who had most responsi-
Young and Collins, 2001 described the way their AE- bility for URL rock mechanics experiments, collectively
based monitoring of temporal changes in Vp and Vs was address the dominance of tensile fracturing in brittle
used to estimate the theoretical change in crack density rocks, and the apparently unrealistic source sizes provided
(c) and saturation (s) along any particular ray path. They by shear-failure based models.
also refer to Maxwell et al., 1998 who used these tech- Contrary to failure around tunnels or boreholes in
niques to monitor (c) and (s) along radial boreholes at weaker, less brittle materials, which seems to be dom-
the line-drilled mine-by test tunnel shown in Figure 7.18. inated by log-spiral-type single-set or conjugate-set shear
The theoretical assumption was that the saturation (s) failure (e.g. Addis et al., 1991, Barton, 2004), the rock
did not affect the dynamic shear modulus (
), but that mass fracture process near underground openings in
the dynamic bulk modulus (k) increased linearly with hard brittle rocks appears to be dominated by extension
(s), even equalling that of uncracked rock when s 1. cracking, as extensively reviewed by Cai et al., 1998.
Concerning the crack density (c), defined as the num- The authors therefore argue that the focal mechanism
ber of cracks per unit volume multiplied by the cube of will differ from that of natural earthquakes, where slip
the mean crack radius, they assumed that the dynamic on pre-existing faults may dominate.
Young’s modulus Edyn and the dynamic Poisson’s ratio in Out of the 3,500 events recorded when excavating
the damaged material, when normalized by the undam- the line-drilled test tunnel depicted in Figure 7.18, some
aged material, decreased exponentially with (c). Young and 800 events were located within the volume of a subse-
Collins, 2001 showed a small reduction in (s) from 0.485 quently excavated 3.5 m thick slice, that was line-drilled
to 0.455, and a small increase in crack density (c) from from the floor of the tunnel. These events mostly clus-
0.198 to 0.206, during a 16 months monitoring period, tered in the region, shown in Figure 7.22a, where 2D
for a ray-path from the tunnel perimeter to 3.5 m into deviatoric stress (actually a shear stress) was larger than
the wall of the tunnel. the crack initiation threshold, which the authors sug-
The development of a rock fracture adjacent to the gested was about 70 MPa, or (0.4 0.1)c. This was
heat-producing curing of the concrete part of the bulk- also where the ‘notch’ failures occurred.
head, and its effect on AE monitoring of velocities, is also When the authors estimated the crack sizes using trad-
described by Young and Collins, 2001 and Young and itional shear models, they appear to have obtained unre-
Baker, 2001. This fracture caused a temporary loss of AE alistically large crack radii. They argue that the ratio of
signal, both for average P-wave velocity and P-wave the S-wave energy to the P-wave energy is an important
amplitude monitoring. There was subsequent recovery indicator of the type of focal mechanism. The S-wave
of both signals caused by remedial grouting. The energy usually dominates, as the energy radiated in
approximate 90% drop in P-wave amplitude caused by P-waves is only a small fraction of that of S-waves. It
the fracture was about 30% recovered by the effect of appears from their review that when Es/EP 10, the
grouting. cracking process involves a dominant tensile failure com-
A steady, slow rise in Vp (40 to 50 m/s increase was ponent, whereas if Es/EP 20 to 30 the cracking process
noted during one of the monitoring periods), was associ- is dominated by shear failure. Reportedly, many mining-
ated with the slow hardening of the concrete. All ray- induced seismic events of large moment magnitude also
paths through the concrete bulkhead, when averaged, have high Es/EP ratios, and can be analysed realistically
suggested 0.18 m/s and 0.13 m/s per day increases in Vp by shear models.
Excavation disturbed zones and their seismic properties 131
Figure 7.25 Rock quality Q-value observations from 800 m of core logging, corrected to Qc by the high value of c 200 MPa, gives a real-
istic prediction of Vp and deformation modulus at 450 m depth, when compared with ZEDEX data.
A drift in the Stripa mine in Sweden, used for bore- in velocity at the end of the test (M7–M9). However, it
hole heater tests, showed some interesting effects of might be related to the improved closure of joints at
thermally induced strains. These caused increased seis- elevated temperature, even under constant normal stress,
mic velocities between drained monitoring holes in the as measured by Hardin et al., 1981, and discussed in
jointed quartz monzonite. A schematic of the experi- more detail by Barton et al., 1985.
mental set-up shown in Figure 7.26a, indicates the rela- Upon cooling, the less rough, interlocked joints may
tive locations of the ultrasonic monitoring holes, which ‘spring-open’ more than their closed neighbours, to avoid
were drilled to 10 metres depth, twice as deep as the tensile stress development. This could then cause a
heater borehole. marked reduction in seismic velocity if the open joint or
Paulsson and King, 1980, showed the increases of seis- joints, happened to cross the path of the seismic array.
mic velocity for cross-hole measurements (M8–M6), as a Related local increases in joint conductivity, and
function of time after heater turn-on and turn-off. Pre- reduced shear strength, of any ‘open’ and more planar
and post-heater velocities were generally similar, as shown joints, could be an added uncertainty in nuclear waste
in Figure 7.26b, and a velocity anomaly at about 3 m related disposal scenarios, as emphasised by Barton and
depth was ‘smoothed-out’ by the heating but ‘returned’ Makurat, 2006.
when the rock was cooled. Further details of this Stripa heater experiment
Across the mid-plane of the heater, at 4.2 m depth, the (Paulsson and King, 1980) were subsequently reported in
four sets of cross-hole velocities (Figure 7.26c) showed a comprehensive analysis by Paulsson et al., 1985. The
more or less parallel behaviour, except for an extra strong full duration of the test was 750 days with 398 days of
reduction in velocity for M7–M9 after heater turn-off. heating. The long period of cooling generally returned
The authors give interesting similar-trending curves for seismic velocities to values lower than before the heating,
monitored displacement and stress change about 1 m suggesting permanent changes (such as local excessive
from the heater (Figure 7.26d). They do not have a joint opening as hypothesised above). A significant quan-
confirmed explanation for the anomalous net reduction tity of water expelled during the heating signified a
Excavation disturbed zones and their seismic properties 135
(a) (b)
Figure 7.26 Heater experiments at Stripa, with velocity changes matched by stress and displacement records. Paulsson and King, 1980.
general closing of the joints. Temperatures were over The full record of P-wave and S-wave velocities over
100°C in a small region around the heater and water the 750 days duration of the test is shown in Figure 7.27a
was expelled also from distant boreholes where perhaps and b. The largest velocity changes caused by the heating,
the low initial permeability was less reduced. amounting to 0.2–0.3 km/s were interpreted as occurring
The initial increase in velocity with temperature was in the direction of the minimum horizontal stress, which
linear and varied from 2 to 4 m/s/°C. The average joint is logical since the calculated thermal stress was as much
frequency in the test area, analysed from 224 m of core, as 55 MPa in, presumably, the direction of maximum
was 8.3/m, and an elastic continuum analysis conducted horizontal stress.
prior to the test had indicated larger stresses and local The effect of the heating in an in situ experiment
displacements than were actually measured, presumably such as that described by Paulsson and King, 1980, and
due to the compliance of all these joints. This effect was Paulsson et al., 1985, is to change both the stresses in
also presumably experienced in a ‘heated-mine-by’ the rock and the degree of saturation, particularly close
experiment in the Climax Mine, in the USA. to the source of heat. In an effort to understand and
136 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
Figure 7.27 Complete P- and S-wave velocity record for one of
the Stripa heater tests. Maximum Vp increase was par-
allel to minimum stress. Paulsson et al., 1985.
velocity are seen in a ‘simple’ unjointed sandstone, with anisotropy, plus structure in the form of vertical or sub-
admittedly, an extreme induced tangential stress vertical jointing that would be variously opened or
anisotropy of 30 MPa for max, and (-) 10 MPa for closed by the respective effects of min and max. Is it
min (based on the isotropic elastic tangental stress possible that the sonic logging ‘misses’ such effects of
‘rule-of-thumb’ 3A-B, 3B-A). Significant azimuthal velocity anisotropy around the horizontal plane, due to
velocity anisotropy effects would seem to be possible principally vertically and steeply inclined ray paths?
in wells where there was significant horizontal stress
8 Seismic measurements for
tunnelling
Tunnel face seismic tomography using a pair of bore- meters ahead of an advancing tunnel face. Here, both
holes that was performed by NGI at the Oslo Fjellinjen sources and receivers are placed within the tunnel. By
Tunnel, in the late 1980’s, was used to help the con- the nature of the reflection result, it is difficult to deter-
tractor plan for ground freezing in one tube, while careful mine if the quality will be better or worse. Others have
multiple drift excavation was performed in the other proposed, and demonstrated, the advantages of combin-
tube. The 2 13 m span motorway tunnel beneath the ing this with in-tunnel seismic refraction, with an in-
Oslo downtown harbour district, passed through a wide tunnel source and both internal and external (mountain
regional fault zone with 2 to 4 m of crushed alum shale side) receivers. One can then obtain reliable velocity and
over the arch, underlying 20–30 m of soft, sensitive rock quality predictions ahead of the face, both in front
marine clays. The advantages of the ahead-of-the-event of, and behind the reflectors, which will thereby correl-
data far outweighed the relatively short stoppages and ate better with possible pending tunnelling difficulties.
modest cost involved.
There are now several companies around the world
who are offering the use of reflection techniques for
8.1 Examples of seismic
mapping marked reflectors out to many hundreds of
applications in tunnels
Figure 8.2 Cross-section of Straight Creek pilot bore showing geophysical test locations. Scott et al., 1968.
excavation-disturbed low-velocity layer (caused by stress is itself partially correlated with the deep layer velocity
redistribution and gravity induced loosening in the arch) (Figure 8.4b).
was correlated to a number of key construction parame- Already at this early date (the mid 1960s), the authors
ters by the authors, and good correlation was indicated in envisaged a time when geophysical probing ahead of
many cases. The following deep layer velocities were meas- tunnels would have enough correlations to conditions in
ured at the five seismic spreads shown on Figure 8.2: #1 tunnels of different size, and ‘in all environments’, that a
5.2 km/s, #2 5.1 km/s, #3 4.8–6.1 km/s, #4 4.2 km/s and full diameter bore could be driven directly, without the
#5 6.0 km/s. Later, the much lower shallow layer velocities need for time-consuming pilot bores.
will be introduced into the discussion. It is of interest to speculate that the great difficulties
Figure 8.3a and b compare the thickness of the low- encountered when driving the full-scale, twin bore
velocity layer and the so-called ‘tension arch’, defined Straight Creek tunnel were caused by, among other fac-
by the authors as the depth where no further measured tors, an unexpectedly large scale effect caused by the 4 m
dilation of the rock in the arch could be detected. The to 12 m tunnel size difference, and perhaps insufficient
range of seismic velocities shown (14000 ft/s 4.3 km/s, appreciation of the effect of stress on the seismic velocities
20,000 ft/s 6.1 km/s) correspond to the range of rock at that time. There is also the possibility of adverse inter-
classes 5 to 1, and obviously reflect the confinement effect action between the twin tubes, with ‘plastic zone’ overlap,
from the mostly 200–500 m of overburden. a problem of relevance when assessing risk in twin-bore
The worst quality (class 5) corresponded to seismic TBM tunnelling, where conditions are very unfavourable
spread #4 in Figure 8.2 (Vp 4.2 km/s), which had a for any type of tunnelling. (Barton, 2004c).
local overburden of about 300 metres, and obviously The attempted use of steel sets in fault zones at Straight
was strongly affected by the depth or stress level. Our Creek, probably allowed too much (scale dependent)
earlier hard rock relation Vp 3.5 log10 Q with depth loosening of the ground, with the low velocity layers
correction, (Figure 5.36), suggests a possible Qc – value even more affected than in the pilot bore of 4 m span.
of about 0.1 assuming low porosity, hard rock is involved. The seismic velocities of the shallow layers at the five
At the surface a Vp value of 2.5 km/s is implied for this seismic spreads listed above (#1 to #5, Figure 8.2)
rock mass quality i.e. severely faulted ground which were respectively: 3.0 km/s, 2.3–2.7 km/s, 2.3–3.1 km/s,
appears to correspond to the authors’ description of class 1.3–1.6 km/s (worst case, class 5) and 2.3 km/s.
5 rock. (A disturbed zone of at least one diameter was Perhaps more attention should have been paid to these
indicated for such rock.) extremely low EDZ velocities (and to the thicknesses of
Scott et al., 1968, showed good correlations between such zones in the worst rock) which caused almost insur-
Vp and construction data such as steel set spacing mountable problems in the main bore, which took sev-
(Figure 8.3b), and rate of construction (Figure 8.3d). eral year to complete. The Q-system support pressure
They also showed a significant correlation of tunnel sup- database (Barton et al., 1974) includes Straight Creek
port type with electrical resistivity (Figure 8.4a) which main bore as almost the highest recorded tunnel support
Seismic measurements for tunnelling 141
Figure 8.3 Disturbed zone thickness and some support and construction rate details based on Vp measurement at the Straight Creek pilot
bore. Scott et al., 1968.
capacity of at least 300 tnf/m2, and an estimated rock A/3 4.0 to 4.6 km/s, E/3 2.6 km/s. Based on the
mass ‘quality’ Q-value as low as 0.001. Multiple perim- classification of rock conditions (Classes 1 to 6), he gave
eter drifts filled with concrete of some 2 to 3 m thickness tunnel support loads in the range 0.01 to 0.3 MPa (1 to
were needed in some zones. 30 tons/m2 range for Classes 1 to 6), and spacing of the
Ikeda, 1970, assembled a comprehensive set of tech- steel arch support in the range 1.5 to 0.75 m, and con-
nical data from some 70 rail tunnels in Japan. He first crete thickness in the range 0.3 to 0.9 m, for 30 m2 and
classified rock types into classes A to F, as reproduced in 60 m2 tunnel sections from his 70 case records. These
Table 8.1. Examples of Class A rocks were metamorphic data are reproduced in Figure 8.5 a, b, c and d. This is
rocks such as gneiss, quartzite, etc., while examples of a valuable set of early case records and their technical
Class E were Pleistocene rocks such as mudstone and description, using seismic velocities.
volcanic ejecta. A somewhat finer division of rock types than the
He then listed typical ranges of seismic velocities (Vp) original Japanese Railways classification of Ikeda, 1970
under rock conditions (Classes 1 to 7), shown in Table 8.2 has been used in more recent years by the Japanese
for each of the previous rock type classes A to F. The Highway Authority. This is reproduced in Figure 8.6
two examples under Class 3 rock condition would be (from Barton and Itoh, 1995), showing the addition of
142 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 8.4 Some cross-correlation between support type, resistivity and undisturbed (deep layer) velocity. Straight Creek pilot bore. Scott
et al., 1968.
Table 8.1 Rock type classes (A to F) of Ikeda, 1970 based on lithology and geology.
a) Paleozoic rocks Mesozoic rocks clayslate, sandstone, greywacke, conglomerate, chert, limestone, ‘schalestein’, etc.
b) Plutonic rocks granite, granodiorite, diorite, gabbro, peridotite, etc.
a) Mesozoic rocks (some part) shale, clayslate, sandstone, tuff breccia, ‘schalestein’, etc.
C b) Palaeogene rocks (some part) silicified shale and sandstone, tuff breccia, welded tuff, etc.
c) Volcanic rocks (greater part) rhyolite, dacite, andesite, basalt, dolerite, etc.
a) Tertiary rocks mudstone, shale, sandstone, conglomerate, tuff, tuff breccia, welded tuff,
D agglomerate, etc.
a) Pleistocene rocks Neogene rocks mudstone, siltstone, sandstone, sand and gravel rock, tuff, terrace, talus, fan,
E volcanic ejecta, agglomerates, etc.
F a) Alluvium rocks Diluvium rocks clay, silt, sand, sand and gravel, loam, volcanic ejecta, fan, talus, terrace, etc.
Seismic measurements for tunnelling 143
Table 8.2 Rock condition classification using seismic P-wave velocities based on 70 Japanese rail tunnel case
records analysed by Ikeda, 1970. (Note writer’s interpretation of some of author’s words under
‘Remarks’ and ‘Notes’).
Rock qualities
Classification of
rock conditions A B C D E F
good
3 4.6–4.0 4.8–4.2 4.4–3.8 3.8–3.2 2.6
medium
4 4.2–3.6 4.4–3.8 4.0–3.4 3.4–2.8 2.6–2.0
5 3.8–3.2 4.0–3.4 3.6–3.0 3.0–2.4 2.2–1.6 1.8–1.2
6 3.4 3.6 3.2 2.6 1.8 1.4–0.8
bad
7 1.4 1.0
Remarks:
1) Always go to a poorer class when ground water will inflow into tunnel.
2) Rocks with expansive nature have no relation to this classification.
3) Raise 1 or 2 classes when the Poisson’s ratio of the weathered rock is better than 0.3.
Notes:
1) The numbers 1–7 are the rock condition ratings.
2) The numerals show the velocities of elastic wave in the rock (km/s).
3) See Table 8.1 for the rock qualities A through F.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 8.5 Relationships between support intervals (steel sets), concrete lining thickness and support pressure, each as a function of rock
condition classes 1 to 7, which were defined by Vp ranges. Ikeda, 1970.
144 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 8.7 Norway’s first sub-sea tunnel to Vardø, showing assumed and encountered weakness zones. Palmström, 1982.
40
35
30
Distribution
25
20
15
10
0.14
3000 4000 5000 6000
(a) Seismic rock mass velocity
(b)
Figure 8.8 P-wave velocity statistics for Vardø sub-sea tunnel. Lower velocity zones and corresponding support methods. Palmström, 1982.
146 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 8.9 Vp-Qc-M correlations with depth and porosity correction. Barton, 1995.
Figure 8.13 Geological profile and rock classification details for Tunnel A. Mitani et al., 1987.
the above velocity ranges for good rock and fault or frac- less than the nominal 100 MPa for hard rocks. We can
ture zones can be approximately converted as follows: therefore use the porosity (n%) and Qc Q c/100
corrections in the Qc–Vp chart, which then help to
1) Vp 4.8 to 6.2 km/s (Q 20–500)
explain the somewhat higher Q-values.
2) Vp 2.5 to 3.5 km/s (Q 0.1–1)
Cecil, 1971, warned of another source for the possible
As can be seen from Figure 8.9, a velocity as high as lack of correlation between seismic velocity and rock
6.2 km/s may for reasons of depth of measurement (or quality, when considering the presence of thin clay coat-
unusually high rock strength) only imply a Q-value of say ings in otherwise widely spaced jointing. The latter cause
25, so conversions using this equation must always be potential stability problems but may hardly change
related to the more comprehensive Q–Vp–depth–porosity RQD or Vp values. On the other hand, the Jr/Ja terms in
model reproduced in Figure 8.9. the Q-system may capture the correct stability problems
At the Veas sewage treatment plant near Oslo, Norway, by reducing the Q-value, but Q will then not correlate so
where seismic surveys were performed by Geoteam well with the velocities. These potential pitfalls in the
(Sjøgren, 1984), and logging of excavations in the nodu- general, near-surface correlation for hard rocks (equation
lar limestone were performed by NGI colleagues, the 8.1) need to be carefully evaluated from case to case.
reported correlations between Vp and rock quality Q were
as follows:
8.2 Examples of the use of seismic
Vp (km/s) Rock quality Q data in TBM excavations
3.0 1 to 5 (with support)
4.4 20 (no support needed) A good example of the application of seismic velocity
measurement to interpret TBM penetration rates is given
For hard rock at shallow depth, with negligible poros- by Mitani et al., 1987. They investigated the rate of
ity (central trend, Figure 8.9), the above velocities would advance of two small diameter TBM tunnels ( 2.6 m)
have suggested somewhat lower Q-values than the above by measuring Vp and Schmidt hammer rebound values
(0.3 and 8 respectively). However, the nodular limestone, for the wide variety of rocks encountered. Tunnel A
consisting of inter-bedded and well cemented shale and (shown in Figure 8.13) was mostly driven in sandstones,
limestone layers, has some porosity (5 to 10% could be slates, porphyry and weathered conglomerates, with
estimated) and its uniaxial compressive strength (c) is generally strongly developed jointing and poor stability.
Seismic measurements for tunnelling 149
(a)
(a)
(b)
appropriate to consider in more detail the inverse cor- of the figure. Faster boring will correlate with lower Vp
relations seen in the two previous case records. We have values up until some limit, as suggested by the two
seen from Figure 8.15 the strong correlation between descending portions of the drilling rate trends.
support needs and seismic velocities, which follow the Until the above support/stability limit is reached, the
normal trend of increased support with lower Vp-values, net penetration rates (PR) seen in the comprehensive data
and with lower assumed Q-values. of Mitani et al., 1987, may be considered to have the
However, it will be noted that net penetration rates approximate upper and lower bound values given in Table
(PR), correlate inversely with Vp values, in other words, 8.4, in relation to Vp and assumed, shallow depth (nomi-
the increased degrees of jointing and reduced strength nal 25 m), hard rock Q-values.
(also seen in the Schmidt hammer results) help to increase
the penetration rate. The same trend is seen in Table 8.3
for a larger TBM ( 6.4 m) boring in granites.
The documented trends of degree of jointing and
rock strength on drilling or boring rate seen in the
above examples are summarised in diagrammatic form
in Figure 8.17. The same type of inverse correlation
with Vp values can be envisaged by converting the rock
mass quality Q-class to a Vp-class in the upper portion
Table 8.3 Correlations between advance rates and seismic velocities (Sampaola et al., 1978), with last column added by writer, using central
trend for 100 m depth, or 50 m depth, from Figure 8.9.
Upper-bound Lower-bound
Figure 8.19 Conceptual use of sonic probe for rock mass Q-value estimation, with displacement monitoring for confirmation of support
needs. Barton, 1996b.
tunnel and the drill-and-blast tunnel, unless the measure- conditions, appear to have taken a lead in the use
ment was made too close to the face of the tunnel. of seismic for ‘probing ahead’ of their tunnels, in par-
ticular TBM tunnels, where the consequences of
8.5 In-tunnel seismic measurements delays are more critical, due to both the investment
for looking ahead of the face level and the normal expectation of fast tunnelling.
Following on from Mitani et al., 1987 analyses of
The Japanese, with an extremely active tunnelling the relation between TBM progress and seismic veloc-
industry, in combination with far from ideal geological ity, reviewed earlier, we will briefly refer to some
Seismic measurements for tunnelling 153
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 8.22 a) A velocity model with ideal number of in-tunnel sources and limited surface sources. b) Two sources within the tunnel por-
tals, and limited surface sources, improves the reconstructed velocity model, with improved definition and location of the low
velocity zones. c) A series of mostly systematic tunnel sources, but with a central gap, gives greatly improved match to the
‘actual’ case. Hayashi and Saito, 2001.
(a)
(b)
Figure 8.23 a) Pre-construction surface seismic result, showing the in-tunnel sources for in-tunnel and surface receivers. b) An in-tunnel
reflector method had indicated a reflector ahead of the face and a small reduction in velocity was assumed. The in-tunnel source
refraction method subsequently predicted a sharply declining velocity ahead of the face, and a face collapse occurred about
105 m ahead of this location. Hayashi and Saito, 2001.
Figure 8.24 Original seismic refraction profiles and inadequate borehole depths, are compared with the geologist’s later re-assessment of the
actual valley-parallel fault swarm, that had a dramatic effect on the fate of the TBM, and the final decision ‘to drill-and-blast’
from the other end of the tunnel. Pont Ventoux, Italy.
156 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 8.25 Plan and elevation views of the ‘2750’ fault at Pont Ventoux, based on a super-position of the site geologists sketches of the
developing situation. This was a case of an unexpected combination of high stress, high permeability, and high fault frequency,
and the eroding power of high pressure water. Barton, 2004c. Attempts to ‘probe ahead’ using seismic tomography between two
diverging boreholes, proved not to be as successful as expected, due to the relative ‘invisibility’ of the assumed extension of the fault.
depth, that makes them nearly ‘invisible’. But in fact 2.3–2.7 km/s, 2.3–3.1 km/s, 1.3–1.6 km/s (worst case,
there is hope that they will still show a recognisable class 5) and 2.3 km/s.
contrast to the even higher velocities of surrounding The worst quality (class 5) corresponded to seismic
rock, as suggested in the labels in this figure. spread #4 in Figure 8.2 (deep layer Vp 4.2 km/s),
There is an interesting support for the above logic which had a local overburden of about 300 metres, and
from the first case record referred to in this chapter, obviously was strongly affected by the depth or stress
namely the continental divide Straight Creek pilot tun- level. At the surface a Vp value of 2.5 km/s is implied for
nel in Colorado, described by Scott et al., 1964. It may this rock mass quality i.e. severely faulted ground which
be recalled that the in-tunnel seismic refraction had appears to correspond to the authors’ description of
been differentiated into ‘deep layer’ and ‘shallow layer’ class 5 rock. (A disturbed zone of at least one diameter
velocities. was indicated for such rock.).
The following deep layer velocities were measured at the So in fact one may conclude that the deep layer veloc-
five seismic spreads shown on Figure 8.2: #1 5.2 km/s, ities bore no resemblance to the eventual major tun-
#2 5.1 km/s, #3 4.8–6.1 km/s, #4 4.2 km/s and #5 nelling difficulties experienced when excavating the 12 m
6.0 km/s. The seismic velocities of the shallow layers (i.e. span twin tunnels. The deep layer velocities were either
the loosened, near-surface-of-the-tunnel layers) at the five undisturbed (but highly stressed), or were perhaps sub-
seismic spreads listed above, were respectively: 3.0 km/s, ject to additional tangential stress compaction effects.
Seismic measurements for tunnelling 157
Figure 8.26 Rock mass quality Qc – Vp – depth model, showing the potentially elevated P-wave velocities of nevertheless seriously-delaying
fault zones, if encountered at great depth, as at the Pont Ventoux head-race tunnel. Contrast to the even more elevated velocity
of the surrounding ‘country rock’ can nevertheless be expected. Barton, 2004c.
The more relevant, extremely low EDZ velocities depth or stress effect that masks, in velocity terms, the
from the pilot bore investigations, truly representing true low quality. The 300 m overburden at this collapse
the poorer rock classes, , were actually what caused the location, would from Figure 8.26, suggest a near-surface
almost insurmountable problems in the main bore, Vp of about 2.5 km/s – i.e. relevant to a serious fault
which took several year to complete. Multiple perim- zone, or extremely poor rock.
eter drifts filled with concrete, making some 2 to 3 m Finally, one may note the adverse effects of low
effective wall thickness were needed in some zones. Q-values on TBM progress, shown in Figure 8.27,
One may also note from the Hayashi and Saito, 2001 specifically because of fault-zones. Velocity measure-
case record, reproduced in Figure 8.23, that the face ments at depth may not suggest such low values of Q.
collapse at 544 m chainage, actually occurred in a The TBM may nevertheless be delayed.
Vp 4.1 km/s rock mass. This is ‘illogical’, without the
158 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 8.27 The typical performance trends derived from analysis of 140 TBM tunnels, with ‘unexpected events’ strongly tied to low rock
mass quality Q-values. Barton, 2000. It is probable that extremely low actual Q-values might show a deceivingly ‘high’ range of
P-wave velocities, in the case of imaging ahead of deep tunnels.
9 Relationships between Vp,
Lugeon value, permeability and
grouting in jointed rock
Since matrix porosity, and in particular joint porosity, each data of Saito, 1981 (Figure 2.17) and by the use of
affect the permeability of a rock mass it is perhaps logical the time average equation for dry and saturated chalk
that the seismic P-wave velocity should show some degrees (Grainger et al., 1973). The approximate ‘porosity’ which
of correlation with the permeability. When the joint void appears in the time average equation may contain air or
space is artificially increased by a particular type of ‘per- water, and this porosity obviously affects the overall veloc-
meability’ testing (i.e., high pressure Lugeon injection ity, i.e., whether Vair 0.33 km/s or Vwater 1.44 km/s
tests), stronger correlation with velocity can be expected, is involved. So we have a theoretical starting point for a
due to the lowering of effective stress. This may apply most saturated velocity. The key question is whether this helps
strongly in the case of rock masses of poor quality that in predicting possible permeabilities. Does the saturated
are easily deformed around the injection boreholes, during velocity give any indication of actual flow resistance?
the Lugeon tests, but the possible presence of clay is a com- Extensive sets of in situ measurements of rock foun-
plicating factor. The unit Lugeon is defined as the number dation moduli, permeability and seismic velocity were
of litres per minute flowing from each metre of a double- assembled by the Comité National Français, 1964,
packered section of borehole, under an excess injection from numerous dam site investigations. For the special
pressure, above the groundwater pressure, of 1 MPa. case of two sites in jointed granite (from France’s Massif
Since a rock mass generally contains joints and micro- Central), a strong correlation was evident between Vp
cracks, which are both a source of water and compliant, and the Lugeon test results.
the application or existence of an anisotropic (effective) Figure 9.1 shows an approximately linear distribution
stress distribution may preferentially have closed those of data on a semi-log plot of Vp versus the Lugeon value.
oriented at an obtuse angle to the major stress, while
keeping those at acute angles or sub-parallel to the major
stress, ‘open’. There are then grounds for expecting both
anisotropic permeability tensors, and a corresponding
anisotropic velocity, with both maxima tending to be
parallel or sub-parallel to the major stress. Since sub-
vertical jointing may dominate in the same way that hor-
izontal stress anisotropy may dominate, the anisotropy
will tend to be related to azimuth. However, there is a
potential source of error here. The permeability test holes
must intersect the ‘open’ structure to register their higher
permeability. The test holes needs to be drilled in the
‘slow’ direction, parallel to the minimum stress. The
lower Q-value given by crossing all the ‘open’ joints,
should correspond to the higher permeability.
Table 9.1 Approximate correlations between measured transmissivities and seismic parameters based on measurements
in five boreholes in marl. Albert, 2000.
unexpectedly high values (e.g., 10 to 20 Lugeons) seen scales) with the logarithmic transmissivity scale. (The
in rock with velocities from 3.5 to 4.5 km/s. However, transmissivity is the product of the permeability and
in general their results showed the expected lower the thickness of the measured aquifer or ‘aquiclude’.)
Lugeon results at higher velocities, as in the French data. Most of the measurements reported by Albert, 2000,
The rule of thumb 1/Q number of Lugeons was were in the transmissivity range 105 to 1012 m2/s. A
tested against the Sjøgren et al., 1979, data using the 1 m long test section assumption would convert these
assumed, near-surface, hard rock relationship Vp to the more familiar engineer’s m/s units.The borehole
3.5 log10 Q (Barton, 1995). It appears from Figure depths ranged from about 400 m to 1800 m, and
9.2 that the ‘1/Q’ curve is a suitable lower bound to included faulted and brecciated rock.
some of the velocity-Lugeon data. Accuracy could poten- One must assume that the ‘hydraulic tests and fluid
tially be improved if Lugeon values were correlated with logging’ were of the non-deforming type, unlike the
depth zones, and if these depth zones had been given, a civil engineering Lugeon testing (often for evaluating
more correct Vp–Q relationship could have been groutablity), discussed elsewhere in this chapter. Com-
selected from Figure 8.9 (see Chapter 8). paction effects on this relatively weak rock at borehole
Curiously, some of the points plotted by Sjøgren et al., depths up to 1800 m presumably have affected perme-
1979, exactly fit the dotted line (Q 1/L) relationship, abilities more than the seismic velocities. The smaller
as also experienced in Figure 9.1, possibly indicating steps in velocity at the lower transmissivities resemble
conforming or non-conforming data, as the case may be. the effect of depth in the Qc-M-Vp engineering model
In poorer quality rock masses, a Lugeon test is a form (Figure 8.9). The successive reductions in dynamic
of rock mass deformability test, with unusually sensi- E-modulus with increased transmissivities (and Qc-
tive (‘aperture cubed’) registration of joint deformation, values?) have a certain similarity to this rock engineering
due to the tendency, under laminar flow conditions, for model, bearing in mind the Edyn M inequality.
flow rates to be proportional to e3, where e is the Examples of correlations between seismic refraction
hydraulic aperture. However, in very stiff rock masses surveys and drilling and tunnelling results are given by
this may not apply, especially if channel flow dominates Sjøgren, 1984. This example is given in this chapter
due to outwash channels in filled joints, or if joint jack- due to permeability links. Figure 9.3 shows successive
ing (slight opening) occurs due to low Ko (v/h) val- stages of an investigation, and confirmation during con-
ues, or if jacking occurs due to over-dimensioned water struction, for a water supply tunnel beneath the Skien
pressures close to the surface. river in Norway. Four seismic refraction profiles are shown
From extensive work in marl formations in in the top figure. Three low velocity zones were indicated
Switzerland, Albert, 2000, indicated quite strong rela- beneath the river, the largest of which (Vp 2.5 km/s)
tions between selected seismic parameters and transmis- was proved by an inclined borehole to be a partly con-
sivity measurements in five deep boreholes at Wellenberg, solidated breccia and loose alum shale (core loss aver-
a potential nuclear waste repository site. Good correla- aged 75% in this zone).
tions with transmissivity were obtained with Vs, dynamic The Lugeon value in this zone was 14, which might
shear (
) and E-moduli, Vp, Vp/Vs and dynamic correspond to a Q c value of about 1/14 (0.07). This
Poisson’s ratio. is close to the value of Q that could be predicted from
Table 9.1 shows the author’s approximate correl- Figure 8.9, using a nominal porosity for the zone of
ations between the seismic parameters (using linear 5%, and the 50 m depth shown in Figure 9.3c. At this
162 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Therefore we have the following possible inter-rela- the chalk marl and quoted permeabilities from Lugeon
tionships between maximum apertures, Lugeon values, type tests of 104 to 106 m/s in these areas. If we
deformation moduli and Q-values, which in turn are assume for simplicity that 1 Lugeon 107 m/s then
linked to seismic velocities: the very high Lugeon values obtained of 1000 to 10
imply Q c values of 0.001 to 0.1 according to equation
L E3max 9.1 (where Q has been replaced by Q c).
Emax M1 These low Q c values can be converted to ‘tunnel sup-
M Q1/3
c port’ Q values of 0.02 to 2 if we assume a mean c value
Therefore L Q1
c of 5 MPa for the chalk marl. This range is in line with
expectations for the heavily jointed rock mass at
(Note ‘’ implies ‘approximately proportional to’ in the Chinnor. (The term ‘tunnel support Q-value’ is used to
above proportionalities). remind of the original development of the Q-system for
These simple proportionalities therefore suggest that selecting tunnel support: Barton et al., 1974.)
the number of Lugeons may indeed be proportional to Although one should in general resist the temptation to
1/Q c, unless other mechanisms than local joint defor- convert 1 Lugeon to 107 m/s (approx.) as if ‘rock mass
mation are responsible for the flows, for example out- permeability’, because deformability of the medium is
washed chlorite fillings, severely canalised flow due to very likely in the case of Lugeon testing in weaker rocks,
basalt flow-top weathering, uncontrolled hydraulic joint it is nevertheless of interest to note that the 1000 to 0.001
jacking, and so on. The data that follow the lower-bound Lugeon scale shown in Figures 9.4 and 9.5, would con-
trend L 1/Q in Figures 9.1 and 9.2 are therefore con- vert to 104 m/s to 1010 m/s. This resembles the wide
sistent with this theoretical model, and explain why Vp range of permeability often encountered where thousands
and L (Lugeon) can show a degree of correlation. of well tests are assembled in one plot.
In Figure 9.4, the above inter-relationships have been However, channelled flows in weathered basalt flow
expressed in the form of a nomogram, using the basic tops may exceed 102 m/s, and some massive igneous
structure derived in Chapter 5 (Figure 5.36). Five illus- rock may have permeabilities as low as 1012 m/s, due to
trative ‘type curves’ have also been added, to show what lack of joint connectivity and lack of micro-cracks. (The
might be typical Vp-Q-M-L data for fault zones, weak latter may appear only after sampling from strongly
porous rock, hard jointed rock and hard massive rock. anisotropic virgin stress states, as discussed in Chapter 3).
For simplicity (and continuity of the curves), it has been A further example of Q-Vp-L correlation can be
assumed that porosity only develops in the shallow, developed from the columnar basalt foundations of the
near-surface weathered zone in each case (H 25 m). Segunda Angostura dam site in Argentina. Classification
In the case of a hard porous rock, there will be a velocity of the site together with preliminary testing were reported
correction caused by porosity at all depths, and this will by Di Salvo, 1982.
mean that the central curve shown in Figure 9.5 will
give the correct velocity, roughly midway between the mean RMR 63
‘hard rock’ reference curve (top) and the porosity cor- mean Q 8.5
rection curve (bottom).
The steepening gradient of the type curve is in this (These are close to the Barton, 1995 suggested inter-
case affected by the assumed Q-value increase at greater relationship RMR 15 log10 Q 50)
depth. If, for some reason, this does not occur, then the Vp (downhole) 4.5 km/s below ‘decompressed zone’
‘type curve’ could be a straight vertical line, as for the Vp (downhole) 2.0 km/s in the ‘decompressed zone’
‘hard massive’ rock shown in Figure 9.4. Any porosity
correction would merely reduce the ‘height’ (i.e., The higher velocity suggests Q c 10, based on the
reduce the maximum velocity) of such a line. The Qc relation Vp 3.5 log10 Q for hard rock. A uniaxial
correction factor is the same as that developed in strength for the basalt of e.g. 125 MPa, would mean
Chapter 5 (Figure 5.36). The nomogram can be illus- Q 8.
trated by the following ‘coupled’ example. L (Lugeon) in decompressed zone 16, suggesting
At the Chinnor Tunnel in chalk marl, Hudson et al., Q c 0.06 based on L 1/Q c.
1980, (‘seismic’ Hudson) referred to very low velocities A Q c-value of 0.06 suggests a Vp value of 2.3 km/s,
(0.6 to 1.0 km/s) for badly fractured/jointed areas of i.e., very close to the measured velocity.
164 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 9.4 Potential inter-relationships between Vp, Q, M and L, with corrections for depth, porosity and compression strength. Barton, 1999.
Figure 9.5 Hard porous rock of 10–20% porosity. Example type curve for estimating Vp-Q-M-L data.
Relationships between Vp, Lugeon value, permeability and grouting in jointed rock 165
9.3 Velocity and permeability Another in situ block test, this time in jointed sand-
measurements at in situ block stone in Colorado, USA was reported by Swolfs et al.,
tests 1981. The block was 2 m3 in volume and contained a
near-vertical joint. The joint was calcite filled, and
During the 1970s and 1980s, a series of large scale, in appeared to be about 1.5 mm wide at the surface. The
situ block tests were performed by Pratt and co-workers P-wave velocity of the surrounding jointed rock of
in the USA, in order to evaluate test methods and about 1.5 km/s appeared to be independent of joint fre-
instrumentation suitable for nuclear waste disposal quency and orientation. This is surprising in view of
projects which were being planned at that time. The the presumably drained state of the test site (Figure
block tests were designed to give large-scale properties 9.7a). However, ‘moist’ laboratory samples had about
(1 to 3 metres scale) under controlled loading condi- the same value of Vp.
tions (using flatjacks), and some were at elevated tem- In situ stresses of about 1 MPa were relieved by line
peratures (using borehole heaters). drilling of three sides of the block. The long side of 2.3
The effects of stress application on velocity and per- metres and 1.2 m depth was parallel to the joint. This
meability in jointed granite were first investigated on a resulted in Vp and Vs changing from 1.5 and 0.8 km/s
large scale by Pratt et al., 1977, who used a flat-jack to 0.9 and 0.5 km/s respectively. Calculated values of
loaded block measuring 3 3 3 m, which con- Edynamic thereby changed from 3.3 to 1.2 GPa, assum-
tained three sub-parallel, vertical joints. The rock was ing a rock density of 1.97 gm/cm3 , because the sand-
an anisotropic, but quite massive granite, and the site stone has a high porosity of 25%. The uniaxial strength
was in Wyoming, USA. The authors investigated vel- was about 11 MPa, and static Young’s modulus was
ocity changes as a function of applied stress (0 to 9 MPa) 2.3 GPa, based on laboratory samples. The block was
applied either parallel or perpendicular to the jointing loaded uniaxially (normal to the joint) and biaxially,
(so-called E-W or N-S velocities, respectively). using multiple flatjacks in each of the three slots.
Results for different measurement lengths, including The effect on P-wave and S-wave velocities is shown in
0.15 m long laboratory samples, are shown in Figure 9.6. Figures 9.7c and d. Pre-excavation velocities (shaded
The lab samples, which may have experienced micro- lines) were reached at about 1 MPa. This is exactly the
cracking on release by drilling, show the strongest Vp stress acting when undisturbed velocities were measured.
response to stress increase. Although the 3 m cubed block An anomalous increase in joint deformation was also
was released on all four vertical sides, the ‘contact’ with recorded above this same stress level of about 1 MPa.
‘virgin’ rock stresses along its intact base may presumably The authors also applied shear stresses to the joint by
be the reason for less response of Vp to stress along these activating the flatjacks at the end of the block, while
in situ measurement lengths of 1.0 and 2.85 metres. The holding a constant normal stress across the joint (0.7 or
block also remained nearly saturated, compared to the 1.4 MPa). Since the block was attached at its base, joint
lab sample ‘0.15 m, D’ (D dry, S saturated). shearing was limited (even at the top surface of the
More details of the in situ response of rock mass block) to about 0.7 mm, which represents pre-peak
velocity to increasing stress are given in Figure 9.6c. strength. Dilation was negligible (10
m), and is per-
Increased wetting of the surface of the block caused the haps the reason why Vp and Vs slightly increased during
small (0.1 km/s) increases in velocity seen between the application of shear stress to 3.0 MPa, probably mostly
pairs of curves 4 and 9, 1 and 8 respectively. The authors in response to the simultaneous application of normal
finally presented a composite plot (fully coupled behav- stress of 0.7 or 1.4 MPa (Figure 9.7a). If significant
iour) of joint displacement (mm), flow rate along joint dilation had occurred during increased shearing, a
J1 (cm3/s) and velocity, each as a function of stress. reduced velocity would presumably have resulted. The
Figure 9.6d shows that increased closure of the joint small velocity response to moderate stress change seems
after about 2 to 3 MPa normal loading, caused a plateau to be a feature of relatively unjointed, porous rock.
on the permeability-stress curve, and a sharp reduction The authors also performed a permeability test using
in the sensitivity of Vp to further stress increase, espe- injection in a central hole that intersected the joint.
cially beyond 5 MPa loading. This is consistent with They calculated a permeability of 3.7 107 m/s.
stress-Vp data reviewed in Chapter 5, and broadly in There are several interesting coincidental values of
line with the non-linear effect of depth on velocity the reported tests that we can compare with the Qc -Vp-
shown in Figures 5.36, 9.4 and 9.5. M-L model (Figure 9.4). If we follow the ambient
Figure 9.6 Vp changes caused by loading a 3 3 3 m block of granite containing vertical joints, and laboratory tests of the same rock.
a,b) Velocity-stress behaviour for three types of loading conditions, and for three measurement sizes. c) Nomogram linking effects
of uniaxial joint closure stresses with joint J1 deformation D4, velocity across jointed block, and flow rate along part of joint J1.
Pratt et al., 1977. Note tendency for acoustic closure beyond 5 MPa.
Relationships between Vp, Lugeon value, permeability and grouting in jointed rock 167
( Vp 0.5 )/ 3
M 10 (9.3)
M 10 Q 1/3
c (9.4)
Figure 9.7 a,b) Loaded block test in (drained) unit of in situ sand-
stone containing a vertical joint, loaded on three sides
by flat-jacks. c,d) Vp – and Vs – stress trends for uniax-
ial and biaxial loading, compared with pre-slot veloci-
ties – shaded. e) Effect of joint shearing on Vp at two
different normal stress levels. Swolfs et al., 1981.
168 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
stress levels (and lowest velocities), just as found in rock minute (10 to 50 microns) shear displacements on a set
masses, due to improved acoustic coupling across joints. of near-vertical joints that were not aligned to H(max).
The joint roughness was assumed to create some increase
in permeability despite the assumed small shear dis-
9.4 Detection of permeable placements.
zones using other geophysical During a stimulation experiment in which the reser-
methods voir was kept ‘inflated’ by a well-head pressure of
6 MPa and a flow rate of 9 litres/s, the velocity showed
Since the mid-eighties, researchers working at nuclear small reductions in the depth zone between 2100 to
waste related rock laboratories such as Stripa, Äspö, and 2500 metres. The seismic data suggested that the per-
Grimsel have utilised both seismic and radar tomogra- manently stimulated cracks and joints were dilating as
phy to characterize major fault zones. Their studies the pore pressure increased, even though the pore pres-
have generally helped to explain why these relatively sure was only 20% of that required for jacking (30 MPa).
small volumes of fractured (or heavily jointed) rock are A certain degree of joint aperture increase can be expected
responsible for such large percentages of the total flow from the elevated pore pressure, whether or not signifi-
of water. At the Grimsel site, Martel and Peterson, cant shearing was occurring.
1991, found that seismic velocity tomography delin- Aoki et al., 1991, describe the use of cross-hole seismic
eated major geologic structures better than radar atten- measurements to compare with (and verify) the direc-
uation or radar slowness tomography. However, they tional distributions of hydraulic diffusivity. In the case of
point out that anomalies on tomograms can reflect a tests in a heavily jointed rhyolite, the lower velocity zones
wide range of features (rock types, alteration, changed (3–4 km/s) between two of the boreholes corresponded
porosity) besides different degrees of jointing or frac- quite closely to the location of highly permeable zones
turing. Knowledge of geological background data is between these boreholes at 6 and 13 metres depth, as
therefore helpful in making better interpretations. seen in tomographic plots of cross-hole test data.
Injection of brine for tracing flow paths has been suc- It is well known that low resistivity measurements
cessful in many projects. Martel and Peterson, 1991, correlate with zones of increased water content and fre-
found that radar attenuation difference tomograms quently with higher permeability. At a site in South
were more reliable in locating brine than slowness Korea, where the writer logged a series of boreholes in
tomograms, at the Grimsel US/BK site. Radar and seis- weathered granites, the opportunity arose to compare
mic signals are sensitive to different physical parameters these independently derived Q-parameter statistics
(mechanical stiffness and electro-magnetic wave con- with resistivity tomograms that were given to the writer
ductivity, respectively). For this reason, the respective after his draft report was delivered.
tomograms highlight different features of the rock It was found that sections of the boreholes with
mass. Radar may delineate permeable zones (porosity increased joint frequency (low RQD, high Jn) did not
caused by pore space or by joint apertures) in slightly always correlate with low resistivity and vice versa, as
different locations to the low seismic velocity zones was reasonably to have been expected. The parameters
associated with clay filled discontinuities. The one will that did show a consistent correlation with low resistiv-
usually lie parallel to the other, since higher permeabil- ity were the low values of Jw (estimated, for example,
ity may be associated with the heavily jointed zones from iron staining or apparent aperture) and the high
that are often found adjacent to faults. This was a phe- values of Ja (for example from sand or silt fillings and
nomenon that at first made geophysics teams question due to clay fillings).
each other’s coordinates at the Stripa SCV (Site The latter gives low resistivity due to the ionic effects
Characterisation and Validation) site (Olsson., 1992). of the clay, since water content (and permeability) are
Green et al., 1989, described the use of vertical seis- clearly lower in such discontinuities than in those that
mic profiles and cross-hole seismic surveys at the are sand or silt filled. There is therefore in fact a poten-
Camborne School of mines 2 km deep hot dry rock geot- tial source of error in judging the meaning of low resist-
hermal project. The objective was to show that the micro- ivity zones.
seismicity generated during stimulation experiments This end of the rock mass quality spectrum is also
corresponded to regions of enhanced permeability. The unfortunately the region where the usual link of low Vp,
majority of micro-seismic events were interpreted as low rock mass quality Q-value and high permeability
170 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
e (6LS 108 )
1/ 3
(9.8)
Figure 9.15 Permeability testing at a dam abutment in Brazil, using before-and-after testing of the effect of grouting, and both single-hole
and 3D measurements. Note the rotation of permeability tensors, and their reduced magnitude, suggesting progressive sealing
of joint sets. This suggests a possible scenario for individual Q-parameter improvements. Quadros and Correa Filho, 1995.
Relationships between Vp, Lugeon value, permeability and grouting in jointed rock 175
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 9.16 Alternative nomograms for estimating typical interactions between c, Q, M, Vp and L. Note that porosity and depth (or stress)
effects have been ignored for simplicity of presentation. (All predictions for nominal n 1% porosity, and typical refraction
seismic depth 25 m.)
Relationships between Vp, Lugeon value, permeability and grouting in jointed rock 177
can make c one of the principal variables as shown in GPa and Vp are km/s respectively. The common x-axis
the nomograms for M, L and Vp shown in Figure 9.16. in each diagram is the Q-value of the rock mass, i.e., the
The numbers distributed within Figure 9.16a are rock mass quality and not the seismic quality, although
estimates of the static deformation modulus (M), while as discussed in more detail in the next chapter, these
the numbers distributed within Figure 9.16b and c, are numbers, each having the same Q symbol, are
the estimates for P-wave velocity. The units of M are inevitably related quite closely.
II Introduction to Part II
The subduction zone diagram showing ‘extremely low called ‘Q’ (range 0.001 to 1000) and seismic quality Q
Q’, ‘low Q’ and ‘high Q’ reproduced on the back cover (range 1 to 5,000), where attenuation Q1, could in
of this book, the ‘familiar’ Vp-depth trends of mid- some way be related, proved to be one of the incentives
ocean ridge seismic investigations, and the continent- for deeper research into seismic phenomena, and are
wide seismic velocities also showing ‘familiar’ increase the reasons for developing Part II material.
with depth were each strong reasons for delving deeper Part II contains a wide sampling of interesting large
into the subject of ‘seismic velocity and rock quality’, scale continental and sub-ocean seismic behaviour, also
which was the original title planned for this book. high pressure laboratory rock physics tests designed to
Possible parallels with engineering scale phenomena improve understanding of both crustal and reservoir
were evident, in something resembling a ‘fractal’ earth. variation-with-depth phenomena. A broad sampling of
Of course the subduction zone ‘Q’ values proved to in situ reservoir related topics is given in later chapters,
be attenuation related. However the possibility that a such as borehole stability and their seismic effects, and
commonly used rock mass quality parameter, also fractured reservoir investigations, involving P-wave
anisotropy, S-wave splitting and polarization, and poro-
elastic modelling of the dispersive and anisotropic
nature of fractured reservoir simulations. An attempt
has been made to bridge between engineering, geologi-
cal and geophysical scales of depth and time, in this con-
tinued investigation of ‘seismic velocity and rock quality’.
The last chapter addresses geomechanics understand-
ing of joint and fracture behaviour, in particular perme-
ability-stress performance, with a view to suggesting
alternative interpretations of aligned fracture orienta-
tions that actually involves multiple sets. Deep well
behaviour in which impermeable and permeable fracture
sets are separated by the determination of either domi-
nance of normal stress or dominance of shear stress, rep-
resents a more correct understanding for maintenance of
Fig. PART II Schematic section, after Barazangi and Isacks 1971 permeability in the face of high effective reservoir
and Kearey and Vine 1996, of the Tonga arc, with stresses. The ‘parallel to H max’ assumption for aligned
inferred seismic Q variations. A possible relationship single sets of conducting fractures from shear-wave
between seismic Q and rock mass quality Q is one of anisotropy may be an over-simplification, and is often in
the first objectives of Part II. conflict with geomechanics test data and theory.
10 Seismic quality Q and
attenuation at many scales
In this chapter the term ‘Q’ used in the title in the clas- in the same volume. Common sense would suggest that
sic paper of Knopoff, 1964 will be distinguished from Qseis can never be less than 2; however values below
the engineering rock mass quality Q-value of Barton this magnitude are quite frequently recorded near the
et al., 1974, by reference to the seismic quality as ‘seis- surface, including negative values which presumably
mic Q’, Qseis, or Qp or Qs if the compressional wave or may reflect interpretation difficulties of some sort.
shear wave components have been distinguished. In At the time of Knopoff’s review it was customary to
fact, as we shall see, there are obvious connections assume that Qseis was substantially independent of fre-
between Qseis and the rock quality Q-value; a heavily quency. His assumptions of ‘a homogeneous sample’ and
jointed clay-bearing rock mass with low Q-value (prob- ‘at low frequencies’ are clearly important in view of what
ably less than 0.1) will inevitably cause great attenuation is now understood about potential dissipation mechan-
and have a correspondingly low Qseis (perhaps less than isms in microcracked rock samples or in rock masses with
5), while an almost unjointed massive rock mass with sets of bedding planes and/or joints. Laboratory experi-
very high Q-value (e.g. 100–500) will inevitably cause ments on many homogeneous solids had shown that up
little attenuation and have correspondingly high Qseis, to moderately high frequencies, the dimensionless quan-
depending on whether shallow or at great depth. tity Qseis was virtually independent of frequency. This
Knopoff, 1964, introduced his review of seismic Q (or preliminary conclusion indicated that the mechanism by
Qseis) by stating ‘Were it not for the intrinsic attenuation which energy was removed from elastic waves in solids
of sound in the earth’s interior, the energy of earthquakes was not the same as the mechanism for attenuation in liq-
of the past would still reverberate through the interior of uids, where attenuation is frequency dependent.
the earth today. The chaos resulting from this awesome Some typical values of Qseis for longitudinal excita-
prospect is a speculation which lies outside the scope of tion of various solids, selected from Knopoff, 1964, are
this paper.’ We can conclude that Qseis and any of the reproduced below.
physical reasons for Qseis that are captured in the Q-value In this very selective list, the attempt is made to link
rating (Appendix A) are fundamental to our well-being, Qseis to the relative stiffnesses of these materials. In reality
even though low values of both may cause problems when the satisfactory-looking ‘order’ seen here is more scat-
tunnelling or when preparing a large dam foundation. tered. One may comment already that the sandstone,
Material Qseis
Using the definition of Qseis given by Knopoff, 1964, as
a starting point, we may refer to the familiar electrical Steel 5000
circuit theory for energy loss: Copper 2140
Silica 1250
Glass 490
2 E Diorite 125
(10.1)
Q seis E Limestone 110
Lead 36
Sandstone 21
In this definition, E is the amount of energy dissi-
Shale 10
pated per cycle of a harmonic excitation in a certain
Celluloid 7
volume, and E is the peak elastic energy in the system
182 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
since presumably not jointed, was likely to have been frequency dependent, due to the inertial forces of the
very weak and porous, in view of later values for sand- fluid in the microcracks and joints, and due to scattering.
stones that we will review. Walsh, 1966, proposed a frictional-dissipation-at-
Interestingly, and as a less serious aside, the 2003 crack-surfaces model to explain the simpler attenuation
Paramont film ‘The Core’, about an improbable voyage in dry rock. There were parallels with his observation of
towards the centre of the earth to ‘fix’ an electro- hysteresis when loading and unloading rock in uniaxial
magnetic hazard, contains an opening sequence where compression.
the soon-to-be-seconded professor (Dr. Joshua Keys, Concerning attenuation in intact rock, Walsh envis-
played by Aaron Eckhart) has written the following aged the following. Among the large number of cracks
Q-quality factors on the blackboard of the University of all orientations and lengths, some are open and some
of Chicago lecture room: are closed at any given pressure. As a compressional
wave traverses the rock, (micro-scale) sliding on one
Shale 20 to 70 crack-face past the other will occur on cracks which are
Limestone 45 to 90 barely closed and which have favourable orientation
Granite 40 to 230 with respect to the wave propagation. This crack-face
Also: Q : ": no attenuation motion is opposed by friction, and some of the elastic
energy of the wave is dissipated.
The writer was informed about this sequence by a As the wave traverses the material, the normal stress
lawyer who wondered if it was ‘my’ Q. These Qseis mag- between the crack-faces increases, and thus the fric-
nitudes are of course entirely feasible extensions of the tional shear stress also increases. As the wave passes, the
above list of Qseis magnitudes selected from Knopoff. direction of the frictional shear stress is reversed, and
As we will see, the numbers for any rock will change again work must be done against friction as the crack
with degree of microcracking, with pressure, with the returns to its equilibrium position. Clearly, micro-scale
dry or saturated state, with weathering, and with the deformations are implied here.
degree of jointing and faulting when at larger scale. Numerous mechanisms have been proposed to
Due to each of the above, the frequency band of the explain attenuation of seismic waves in rock and in rock
dynamic loading will also affect the result, due to fac- masses. Johnston et al., 1979 listed the following in
tors to be explored in this chapter. their landmark paper:
It is now known that higher frequencies are attenuated
at a higher rate than lower frequencies. Thus in a con- ● Matrix anelasticity
stant seismic Q (or rock quality Q) region of the rock ● Frictional dissipation due to relative motions at
mass, the amplitude of high frequency waves will grain boundaries and across crack surfaces (cf.
decrease faster than that of the low frequency waves. Walsh, 1966)
Although most of the early evidence suggested that the ● Fluid flow causing relaxation due to shear motions
seismic quality factor Q was frequency-independent over at pore-fluid boundaries
a wide range of frequencies (e.g. 102 to 107 Hz for the ● Relative motion of the matrix frame with respect to
case of shales, MacDonal et al., 1958), this is now gener- the fluid inclusions in the case of fully saturated
ally rejected, as a result of laboratory tests conducted rock (cf. Biot, 1956a)
under different frequencies, under smaller more realistic ● Squirt phenomena (cf. Mavko and Nur, 1975 and
strain levels and over wider ranges of confining pressures. O’Connel and Budianski, 1977)
More recent data from in situ well tests conducted ● Gas pockets squeezing when only partial saturation
over wide ranges of frequency show the fundamental ● Geometrical effects due to small pores, larger irregu-
frequency dependence of seismic Q, due to the range of larities, thin beds (this category obviously extends
scales of the various attenuation mechanisms. Some of to major discontinuities, faults, rock boundaries,
these newer sets of data will be reviewed in this chapter. dykes etc.)
Although Knopoff, 1964 assumed that the attenu-
ation of elastic waves in dry (intact) rock was inde- Attempts to illustrate some of the smaller scale
pendent of frequency, it is a different matter when mechanisms of intrinsic attenuation are reproduced
microcracks and joints and water saturation (or partial from Johnston et al., 1979, in Figure 10.1. The fluid
saturation) are added. Attenuation increases and becomes flow attenuation mechanisms really fall into two
Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales 183
reason for this opinion is that dynamic joint compli- point for the similarly steep, or much increased gradients
ances derived from the registration of seismic of 1/Z. It is surely logical to assume that the four ellipses
anisotropy, reviewed in later chapters, have inverted depicted in Figure 10.2 stretch more into higher strain
magnitudes that are, perhaps surprisingly, partly within territory, the lower the rock quality, with the likelihood
experimental ranges of pseudo-static joint stiffness data, of some slight, irreversible deformation in the case of seis-
from rock mechanics ‘macro-deformation’ testing. mic, low frequency motion, especially near the rock sur-
It is difficult to believe, on this basis, that joint micro- face, where stresses and deformation resistance are low.
displacements involved in developing the characteristic According to the dispersion relation of Kjartansson,
deformation-load units of compliance (m.Pa1) from 1977, cited by Mavko and Nur, 1979, the attenuation
in situ seismic inversion, could be as small as ‘sub- Q1, or inverse seismic quality Q can actually be used
atomic’, as a prominent physicist has suggested. Such an to explain the difference between the static and
opinion probably stems from consideration of the effect dynamic moduli of intact rock (See Chapter 6 for gen-
of microstrain on microcracks (in intact samples), giving eral results for rock masses). It is well known that the
‘too small’ influence to mobilize conventional concepts dynamic modulus can be at least double that of the
of friction, as we shall see shortly. static modulus even in intact rock, if flat pores or
In the in situ reality, a rock mass consists of joints and microcracks are present. Part of the difference in mod-
discontinuities with both length dimensions, and spa- uli may be due to fluid stiffening, in addition to the
cings, many, many orders of magnitude larger than the above dynamic-compliance/static-stiffness differences
rock physicists microcracked ‘intact’ samples. The nano- required when going up to in situ scale.
strains to sub-microstrains presumably experienced in a According to Kjartansson, 1977, the ratio of moduli
rock mass during the passage of seismic waves (depend- (M) at different frequencies (f ) can be expressed as:
ing on distance from source and its magnitude) may 2
then, through discrete micro-displacement in the rock M1 f pQ
factor Qseis, was given by Remy et al., 1994. We will bedding planes (during the 8th cycle). Physical evidence
utilise this in this introductory section, before review- for the cracking was seen from hydrostatic loading tests
ing intact laboratory data concerning seismic Q. The on the cubic samples, where definition of the total volu-
authors’ laboratory investigations involved sixteen metric crack porosity (the sum of the components of each
freeze-thaw cycles (20°C to 20°C) over a period of axis) was recorded. This parameter increased successively,
sixteen days, in order to simulate part of the first appear- and uniformly, during sixteen cycles of freezing and thaw-
ance of weathering effects. The rock investigated was a ing, and clearly intimately affected the reduction in Qseis.
thin-bedded (1 cm), Jurassic limestone from Lorraine The reduced values of Vp and Qseis with successive
in France. Cylinders (5 cm diameter, 10 cm length) and accumulation of crack-related damage have direct par-
cubes (5 cm sides) were used, having a bulk density of allels in rock mass quality changes (i.e. reduced rock
2.1 gm/cm3 and porosity of 22%. The bedding planes mass Q-value due to the fact that RQD reduces, Jn may
were perpendicular to the axes of the cylinders, and par- increase, Jw reduces and, subsequently Ja increases as a
allel to the top surface of the cubes. The repeated cycles result of weathering. See Appendix A for descriptions of
of freezing (5 hrs), frozen (6 hrs), thawing (5 hrs), the Q-parameters of rock quality (Barton et al., 1974).
thawed (8 hrs) and corresponding changes of P-wave
velocity are shown in Figure 10.4.
P-wave velocities were higher when frozen (e.g.
4.7 km/s) than when thawed (e.g. 3.4 km/s) due to the
higher wave velocity in ice (3.8 km/s). Maximum veloc-
ities were reached at the end of the freezing. As shown
in Figure 10.5a and b, Vp (frozen state) fell with each
cycle, while Vp (thawed) fell most rapidly on the first
two cycles. It is important to note that the creation of
new cracks caused under-saturation of the initi-
ally water-saturated samples, which were jacketed, and
immersed in a solution of methanol. Figure 10.4 A unit freeze-thaw-time cycle of 24 hours applied to
The two marked drops in Qseis values signify cracking thin-bedded limestones, and its basic effect on Vp.
episodes, the second of which was perpendicular to the Remy et al., 1994.
Figure 10.5 a) Velocity Vp versus number of freezing and thawing cycles. b) Seismic Q versus number of freezing and thawing cycles. (Remy
et al., 1994).
186 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
In the literature there are numerous references to the when considering both the P-wave and S-wave related
relatively low values of Qp (and Qs), in near-surface attenuations, the ratio of Qs/Qp proves to be an even
jointed or altered rock (e.g. 50 or less) and the higher better indicator of the degree of saturation.
values for intact samples of rock (e.g. 10 to 250) and In each case, pressure, with its microcrack-closing abil-
the higher still values for deep igneous and metamor- ity, causes a rise in velocity and a reduction in attenuation.
phic basement rocks (e.g. 100 to several 1000s), sills Qseis therefore rises. According to the model of attenu-
(e.g. 2000) and salt (e.g. 1000). ation developed by Johnston et al., 1979, the relative
contributions of friction and fluid flow on the overall
attenuation are as shown in Figure 10.8.
10.2 Attenuation and seismic Q from
laboratory measurement
As pointed out by Johnston et al., 1979, since the The question of whether friction is a viable source of
porosity and permeability (of these intact specimens) is seismic attenuation; along microcracks, across crack-
relatively unchanged by the range of pressures applied, tips, (and also along joints and filled discontinuities,
there is limited effect on the fluid-flow contribution to and within the multiple surfaces of faults), will now be
attenuation. Such would presumably not be the case if addressed again, with the benefit of more understand-
a jointed specimen or a jointed rock mass was involved, ing of the effects of strain levels, provided by Winkler
where pressure sensitivity of the permeability and sec- and Nur, 1982. With its title: ‘Seismic attenuation:
ondary porosity would be marked, and non-linear, effects of pore fluids and frictional sliding’, one would
thereby giving a strong rise in Qseis with the reduced certainly expect that both mechanisms were still to be
attenuation and velocity increase. emphasised as potential sources of attenuation.
In their conclusions the authors however, state the
following: ‘Since the conditions required for sliding
10.2.1 A more detailed discussion of friction to be observed (large strains and small confin-
friction as an attenuation ing pressures) generally do not apply to seismic wave
mechanism propagation in the earth, we conclude that simple fric-
tional sliding is not a significant attenuation mech-
According to the models of Johnston et al., 1979, the anism in situ.’
relative effects of frequency and pressure can be com- Their conclusion was drawn, at least partly, on the
bined to elevate the total Qseis (specifically Qp) of the basis of extensional resonance tests, conducted on long,
Berea sandstone. At low pressures, the friction mech- thin (intact) bars of homogeneous rock, such as sand-
anism dominates and is almost independent of fre- stone, which were contained inside a long pressure vessel,
quency. With increasing pressure and low frequencies and made to oscillate with an electro-magnet, while sup-
Qp climbs beyond 100, but as frequency increases there ported rigidly at their mid-point. Figure 10.10 shows the
is a reduction of Qp due to the contribution of squirt results of resonance decay measurements, giving both
flow and so-called shear relaxation. Eventually, at very
high frequencies, Qp declines sharply again due to scat-
tering. This general scheme of predicted behaviour is
illustrated in Figure 10.9.
Vp (km/s)
3
2
Dry
Partially (~90%) saturated
Fully saturated
1
Dry
2.0
Figure 10.12 Seismic Q as a function of angular frequency and Partially (~90%) saturated
Fully saturated
shear strain level, measured on cylinders of near-surface
clay, in a resonant column apparatus. Marmureanu 1.5
et al., 2000.
Qs /Qp
1.0
continuum-based shear strain of 106 generated close to
a given seismic source, might well imply maximum
0.5
(close to the source) displacement discontinuity events of
the order of 0.1, 1.0 and 10
m for these three joint/dis-
continuity types, if the continuum strain was converted 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
to intermittent discontinuous shearing events with the (b) Vp / Vs
same frequency as their length scale. Figure 10.13 Cross-plots of Vp versus Vp/Vs, and Qs/Qp versus
Can such events be the source of dynamic joint com- Vp/Vs, showing the distinctive effects of the dry,
pliances in geophysics, that have recognisable (nearly partly saturated, or fully saturated states, when using
same order) magnitudes and units, as the MPa/mm these parameter ratios. Winkler and Nur, 1982.
pseudo-static stiffnesses of rock joints that are familiar
to rock mechanics engineers? Shear strains decaying to
one or two orders of magnitude less than 106, further 10.2.2 Effects of partial saturation
from seismic sources, are surely still capable of providing on seismic Q
displacement discontinuities of sufficient magnitude for
frictional attenuation to be a valid mechanism in rock Figures 10.13 a and b, show a useful summary of some
masses, as opposed to intact bars of homogeneous rock. of Winkler and Nur, 1982 work on the effects of the
While on the subject of the importance of strain level dry, partly saturated, or fully saturated state on the
and frequency on Qseis, it is of interest to look at soils, P-wave velocity and its variation with Vp /Vs. A ‘com-
nicely illustrated by the results of Marmureanu et al., panion’ set of data for the moisture-detecting ratio
2000, using resonant column equipment. They tested Qs/Qp versus Vp/Vs is also shown.
cylindrical samples from surface soil layers, applying tor- The S-wave attenuation increases with saturation (Qs
sional and longitudinal vibrations, in studies connected reduces), thus making the ratio Qs/Qp a particularly
with seismic risk mitigation. Figure 10.12 shows seismic sensitive indicator of the degree of saturation, since
Q as a function of shear strain level (%) and frequency, P-wave attenuation, though increasing with initial sat-
almost showing independence from frequency over a uration levels, eventually reduces to less than the S-wave
typical engineering seismology range of interest, i.e. attenuation: thus the ratio Qs/Qp reduces to low levels,
about 5 to 100 Hz. The angular and shear strain depend- since Qp has increased. The separation of data into
ence of soil, giving non-linear behaviour, was emphasised ‘environmental compartments’ is very interesting, and
in their focus on earthquake hazard estimation. also useful for in situ interpretation.
190 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Pe Pc nPp (10.3)
(b)
Figure 10.15 Sonic (resonant bar extensional mode), and ultrasonic where n is the effective stress coefficient (Biot, 1962,
measurements, a) on a saturated sandstone, and b) on Todd and Simmons, 1972), the authors found that
a saturated crinoidal limestone, as a function of con- both the Berea sandstone and the Michigan sandstone
finement. Lucet and Zinszner, 1992. had values of n that reduced from about 0.78 and 0.62
respectively, when the confining pressure was high.
values down the right-hand axes at convenient arith- These results applied to experiences in interpreting Vp.
metic intervals, giving Qseis values of 5, 10, 20, 50 and In the case of Qp, equivalent results were 1.10 and 0.86,
100. To one with a rock mechanics background, a reducing to 0.81 and 0.71, respectively. In other words,
resemblance to E-modulus increases with confinement Vp and Qp measured at elevated pore pressures and
is seen in both sets of sonic data, with units of GPa. elevated confining pressures are governed by effective
More of this will be seen later. stress coefficients significantly less than the classic n 1
In the case of a crinoidal limestone shown in Figure obtained for more permeable media. The authors
10.15 b, there is clear separation of the attenuation Prasad and Manghnani cited differences in the type of
192 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Figure 10.16 Schematic diagram of the ultrasonic pulse transmis- Figure 10.17 Vp and Qp as a function of effective confining pres-
sion experiments of Prasad and Manghnani, 1997. sure for two sandstones, in this case at a pore pres-
sure of 1 atmosphere. Prasad and Manghnani, 1997.
contact areas between the grains in the two sandstones likeness to seismic Qp was noticed. This can be seen in
as the reason for the differences in the pore pressure broad terms in Figures 10.15, 10.17, 10.18 and 10.19.
dependencies of the two sandstones. The likeness of Emass in GPa and in situ Qp has contin-
Before leaving the above results of confining pressure ued to be seen in field data reviewed.
on Qp (there will be more data in some other chapters), Almost all rock mechanics modulus data, from labora-
it may be of interest to mention a finding, now a con- tory testing representing near-surface to kilometre depths,
viction, first noted when writing the chapter dedicated and from in situ testing at dam sites and deep tunnel
to rock physics results (Chapter 13). It was finally recog- deformation back-analysis, show moduli within the
nised that the variation of Qp with confining pressure extreme range of 1 to 150 GPa, most commonly 5 to
resembled the well known rock mechanics effect of 75 GPa. In exceptionally weathered, weak, or clay-bearing
triaxial confinement on the E-modulus of rock samples. conditions, moduli can reduce to 0.1 GPa, where ‘total’
When the latter is expressed in GPa, quite remarkable attenuation in less than a wave length no doubt occurs.
Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales 193
(a) (a)
(b)
(b)
Figure 10.19 Changes in Vp and Qp in Berea sandstone: in both
Figure 10.18 Changes in Vp and Qp in Berea sandstone: in both cases with differential (or effective) pressure Pd con-
cases with pore pressure PP constant. Prasad and stant. Prasad and Manghnani, 1997.
Manghnani, 1997.
their experimental results are reproduced in Figure across the boundary was absent at high frequencies, due
10.20. The authors noted with the open boundary, that to the lack of time to reach (pressure) equilibrium.
low frequencies caused the rock-fluid conjunct to Beyond 100 Hz, saturated samples (with open bound-
behave as if partially saturated. The fluid movement aries) showed a low cumulative elastic attenuation.
Batzle et al., 2005 cited the fundamental coupling of
attenuation, velocity and frequency, from the illustra-
tive Cole and Cole, 1941 developments in dielectrics,
which were applied to attenuation measurements by
Spencer, 1981. The authors added the effect of fluid
mobility and partial saturation, and indicated the typ-
ical measurement window, in Figure 10.21
The authors also addressed the more complex question
(a) of attenuation and frequency dependence, or dispersion,
in samples of shale, finding that dispersion had strong
directional dependence. Because of the low permeability
and inhibited fluid motion, yet observed dispersive results
because of strong attenuation, they suggested that inter-
actions among clay particles and between the clays and
bound water may be responsible.
They also showed that viscous fluids like heavy oil
had their own internal viscous losses, which could con-
(b) tribute to overall rock attenuations. The conclusion
from their studies of the multiple components of (elas-
Figure 10.20 The relation between the four different modes of
elastic attenuation with a) partial brine saturation,
tic) attenuation was that attenuation-related attributes
where attenuation due to the bulk modulus dom- extracted from seismic data have to take such control-
inates, and b) 100% brine saturation and an open ling parameters into account.
boundary, where at low frequencies 1/QK and 1/Qp Problematic here is that the fracturing or joint set
dominate, as fluid can flow in and out of the developments in a rock mass will often be concentrated in
samples. Batzle et al., 2005. the higher modulus layers, whose internal attenuation
Figure 10.21 The Cole-Cole relation coupling velocity, attenuation and frequency from the field of dielectrics. Cole and Cole, 1941. This
was applied to attenuation in rock by Spencer, 1981. Batzle et al., 2005 also indicated the approximate dispersive effect of low
or high fluid mobility, and of partial saturation.
Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales 195
components have thereby changed, or are different, agreement of observations with the intrinsic attenuation
from surrounding rock. Fluids of different viscosity in mechanism of frictional sliding, developed by Walsh,
the differently fractured layers will add to the challenge 1966, and good agreement with the semi-empirical
of inverting data. pressure-dependent theory of Johnston et al., 1979, that
is also based on Walsh, 1966. They also cited studies of
10.3.2 Effect on QP and QS of loading scattering attenuation in micro-fractured marble where
rock samples towards failure the scattering attenuation theories of Hudson, 1981 and
1990 (the first-order scattering model), did not predict
An important contribution was made to our under- sufficient attenuation in relation to test results. Wulff
standing of the influence of fracturing on attenuation, et al., 1999 found that crack density squared was needed
with simultaneous velocity effects, by Wulff et al., in the Hudson, 1981 model, rather than a linear relation
1999. The authors made a careful study of the seismic to crack density, to explain their own results.
effects of microfracturing during constant, low strain The authors’ tests on blocks of tuffaceous sandstone
rate uniaxial compression testing, up to and beyond the and granite, measuring 100 100 250 mm, were
point of microfracturing. They tested tuffaceous sand- conducted under ‘room-dry’ conditions, following four
stone and granite samples, both related with Hot Dry weeks of drying at room temperature. New cracks were
Rock projects in Japan. assumed to be dry ‘or at least not to have absorbed
As the authors pointed out, attenuation was not enough water molecules to permit fluid flow during the
directly related to the strength and elastic moduli, but to time of the experiment’.
mechanisms such as fluid flow, friction and scattering Several of their very interesting results are repro-
due to microcrack and crack density effects. Testing duced here. Figure 10.22 shows the separate effects of
only dry specimens, they concentrated on interpreting axial strain (with associated development of microc-
the relative roles of scattering and friction. racking) on P- and S-wave velocities, and on Qp and
They reviewed several studies of attenuation in dry Qs, for two samples of tuffaceous sandstone (t2-l, and
rock, (slate, sandstone, gabbro), that indicated good t1-f ). The wave propagation was perpendicular to the
(a)
(b)
Figure 10.22 Effects of uniaxial stress-strain: symbol (o), and the associated microcracking, on Vp, Vs, Qp and Qs for two tuffaceous sandstone
samples (100 100 250 mm, n 18.6%, 2.05 gm/cm3) from Japan. Note sample failures at 25 and 39 MPa. a) The
upper pair of results (sample t2-l), have wave propagation (400 kHz) perpendicular to the loading direction, and therefore perpen-
dicular to dominant microcracking. b) The lower pair (sample t1-f), have wave propagation (also 400 kHz), parallel to the loading
direction, causing increased velocity and less attenuation with increased load. (solid symbols: Vp and Qp). Wulff et al., 1999.
196 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 10.25 Basic test set-up, for conducting normal loading and
dynamic testing of joint samples, with add-on facil-
(a) ities for hydraulic testing and contact area estima-
tion using Woods Metal. Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1990.
Qp Qs
Specimen type
and test condition 2.9 MPa 20 MPa 2.9 MPa 20 MPa
A fx A
ln ln 0 (10.5)
A1 Qc A 01
where f %/2
The authors gave a comparison of seismic Q calcu-
lated from this equation, for both the dry and saturated
states. A selection of their interesting results is repro-
duced in Table 10.3.
The marked reduction in attenuation when loading
the jointed specimen at 20 MPa instead of 2.9 MPa is
typical of in situ response. Qp increases by a factor of
2 when dry, and by a factor of 3 when wet. It is inter-
esting to note however, that the less attenuating intact
specimen shows Qp increasing by a factor of at least 3,
both when dry and when wet. The seismic waves are of
course transmitted perpendicular to the microcracks
most likely to be closed by the axial stress.
Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1990 made an alternative seismic
Q calculation, because of the non-linearity of the spec-
tral ratio data. By assuming that A0/A01 1 in equation
10.5, they were able to re-arrange the equation and
Figure 10.27 Comparison of intact and jointed sample response express seismic Q as a function of frequency. Figure
to ultrasonic P-waves up to 1.5 MHz frequency. 10.28a shows the result of applying equation 10.6 to
The magnitude spectra show the positive, magnitude- the data from the dynamic tests on jointed sample E
increasing, effect of higher normal stress. Sample 30. This joint had an intermediate level of normal stiff-
E 35 has least normal stiffness, due to its 25
m of
ness in relation to E 35, and to the least deformable,
closure under normal stress to 85 MPa. It demon-
stiffest joint E 32 (Figure 10.26).
strates the maximum filtering of higher frequencies,
compared to the high stiffness sample E 32, which
only closed some 5
m under 85 MPa stress. Pyrak- fx
Q (10.6)
Nolte et al., 1990. clnA/A1
200 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
by partial closure of the fine cubic structure of cracks the dynamic Poisson’s ratio (e.g. about 0.4) in relation
and cleats. Vp (dry) and Qp (dry) approached the values to typical intact rocks. The effect of higher stress in the
of Vp (saturated) and Qp (saturated) as confining pres- coal reducing the difference in seismic Q between dry
sure was increased. The seismic Q values were lowest and saturated conditions was assumed to be because of
for the four dry specimens, while there was much less both increased frictional resistance along the cracks,
attenuation for the four saturated samples. The authors and due to the reduced water content caused by the
emphasised the fact that the decrease in attenuation for closing cracks. Again we see the general trend of seismic
fully-saturated specimens of coal, with its low aspect Q increasing with stress in a similar manner to defor-
ratio cracks, differed diametrically from the usual result mation modulus.
for sandstones. This could be questioned based on ear- Thanks to these excellent laboratory Q-studies, the
lier results, but the point is made that cracks close eas- scene is now set for going into the field, to see fractures
ier than equant pore space. and rock joints (not forgetting the ‘ever-present’ micro-
Yu et al., 1993, also emphasised the relatively low cracks), in their in situ seismic Q environment. First we
values of dynamic E-moduli for the coal (e.g. about will look at some near-surface seismic Q, including
8 GPa: at low stress?) and the relatively high values of some quite shallow studies in reservoir-type sediments.
202 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
This will be followed by seismic Q at great depth con- When moving to in situ scale, joint spacing (captured
nected with earthquakes and continental-scale studies. in RQD) and the number of joint sets (Jn) are clearly
Finally we will return to ‘medium’ petroleum reservoir going to have an influence on scattering losses, just as
depths at the end of this chapter on seismic Q, where microcracks and induced rock sample cracking and
the potential economic rewards of understanding Qseis individual joints are seen to influence scattering and
are pressing further developments. Understanding intrinsic losses in laboratory samples, as shown by
petroleum reservoir behaviour, first from more rock Wulff et al., 1999, and Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1990.
physics (laboratory) contributions, then from in situ It is also intuitively reasonable to suspect that the con-
anisotropy effects, (i.e. shear wave splitting), forms dition of joints – their degree of interlock as determined
much of the material in Chapters 13 to 15. both by stress level and by roughness (Jr), and the pres-
ence or absence of mineral coatings or clay fillings (Ja) –
will have potential influence on (micro) permeability
10.5 Attenuation and seismic Q from and therefore on potential squirt losses, when there is a
near-surface measurements variable degree of saturation, as is frequently the case in
the near-surface.
Seismic reflection and refraction techniques used to illu- Joint characteristics are also expected to influence
minate major features beneath the earth’s surface obvi- eventual frictional losses, if magnitudes of continuum-
ously depend on the existence of seismic wavelets. based shear strain (actually discrete micro-displacement
There may not always exist sufficient seismic imped- discontinuities), are of sufficient magnitude. The fact
ance contrasts between rock boundaries to cause reflec- that seismically determined in situ dynamic rock joint
tion or refraction. But absorption is continuous, and compliances, the inverse of stiffnesses, have immediately
significant information can accumulate on the pro- recognisable (i.e. expected) magnitudes, and are
gressing wavelets. Ecevitoglu and Bingol, 1999 pointed expressed in the same (but inverted) units as in the rock
out that the absorption information may be crucial as mechanics of discontinua (e.g. Bandis et al., 1981,
far as the rock’s consolidation, porosity, fractures, and 1983, Pyrak Nolte et al., 1990), is further justification
fluid contents are concerned. Near surface measure- for looking also beyond microcrack-scale, for the contri-
ments of seismic Q are however complicated by the butions of the jointing of the rock mass, to both scatter-
presence of near-surface weathering layers, and of ing and intrinsic losses.
course by faulting. The seismic energy will be strongly In the last section on laboratory testing of the
attenuated, and waveforms may also be distorted. dynamic response of joints under load, the results of
Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1987a and 1990, showed ‘static’ nor-
mal stiffnesses for the most deformable joint (E35, Figure
10.5.1 Potential links to rock mass 10.26b) that varied from 5,000 MPa/mm at 5 MPa nor-
quality parameters in mal stress, to about 30,000 MPa/mm at 70 MPa normal
jointed rock stress, each in the dry state. These authors’ ultrasonic
joint measurements, showed for the same sample E35,
With our progression from laboratory to field scale, a dynamic normal stiffness varying from ‘only’ 4,000 to
implicit links between Qseis and rock mass quality Q 7,600 MPa/mm (dry), and from 9,500 to 15,000
(Barton et al., 1974, see Appendix A), can apparently MPa/mm (saturated), at comparable low normal
be seen, due to the logical results of near-surface, seis- stresses of 2.9 and 6.0 MPa respectively. At normal
mic Q that rapidly increase with depth. This also mir- stress levels of 70 MPa, the authors showed dynamic
rors the way that rock mass deformation modulus, normal stiffnesses of 32,000 MPa/mm when dry, and
calculated from the rock mass Q-value, also increases 59,000 MPa/mm when saturated.
with depth, to match in situ measurements of this fun- Only the latter is higher than the ‘static’ stiffness,
damental rock mass parameter. This seems to be showing similar relative increases as the Edynamic to
because the features of a rock mass that are described by Estatic inequality that reduces strongly with high quality
a rock mass characterization method, such as rock mass rock joints and rock masses.
quality Q, contains elements of the in situ medium Of importance for in situ uses of seismic Q, the
deemed potentially important for both the intrinsic authors Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1987b noted that velocities
and scattering attenuation mechanisms. soon reached the level of the intact rock, when using
Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales 203
high frequencies. They showed that this ‘seismic clo- quality value for a good quality but jointed crystalline
sure’ could occur at lower stress levels when the joints bedrock with two to three joint sets. It might have
were less stiff (as for their sample E 35, Figure 10.26b), Q-parameters as follows (see Appendix A).
and at higher stress when the joints were stiffer. Most
importantly, even when the effect of a joint on velocity 100 2 0.66
was almost ‘erased’ by stress and high frequencies, the Q 20
6 1 1
change of amplitude of the transmitted wave, i.e. the
spectral amplitude basis for seismic Q-estimation,
remained very strong. Greater frequency of jointing in a fracture zone
Kang and McMechan, 1994 showed near surface data would probably reduce this value to 1 or less. This is
from N. Texas where the smallest Qp value of 36, and consistent with independent Q-logging results at SKB’s
the smallest Qs of 23, were relevant to the highly vari- Swedish nuclear waste investigation sites, performed on
able surface weathered zone. According to these authors, 4,000 m of core by the writer in 2003.
very few in situ measurements of scattering in the upper Shaw et al., 2004, reported near-zero offset VSP
few metres to tens of metres were available at that time. investigation of Qseis in a 50 to 600 m deep section of a
‘The near surface velocity/density structure may be well through a Faroe Islands Upper and Middle basalt
more variable than previously thought: some of this series, typical of other North Atlantic basalt forma-
variability may have been hidden in previous measure- tions. The source used was a 150 cubic inch air gun
ment that did not explicitly separate intrinsic and scat- fired in a pit under 2 m of water. The receiver was a
tering effects.’ This of course is supported, implicitly, clamped, three-component geophone, with spatial
by engineering experiences: see for example Chapter 1 intervals of 10 m. The authors were able to assess the
and the rapidly changing (laterally and with shallow errors in the Qseis assessment, by testing with slightly
depth) refraction seismic velocities of Sjøgren et al., different receiver separations of 280, 290, 300, 310 and
1979. Such would also imply rapidly changing rock 320 m. Their results, expressed as Qseis versus mid-
mass qualities, deformation moduli, and by implica- point depths from 200 to 450 m, showed Qseis increas-
tion, seismic Q, since in the near-surface, Vp ing rapidly from about 10 to 50 in the upper third of
3.5 log Q km/s, where Q is in this case the rock mass the well, and levelling off at about 60 at greater depths.
quality of Barton et al. 1974. (See Chapter 5 for rock The effect on seismic Q of lower stress in the upper
quality and velocity variation at shallow depth). levels of the basalts is implied in these and other stud-
A hydraulically conductive, gently dipping fracture ies. The results are also typical of rock mass deforma-
zone at SKB’s study site at Finnsjön, north of tion modulus variation with depth, where rock quality
Stockholm, was imaged using the seismic reflection Q might typically vary from about 2 to 20, based on
method. Amplitude decay curves as a function of dis- Q-logging of numerous basalts.
tance, given by Juhlin, 1995, showed that a seismic Payne et al., 2005 described a seismic (sparker
quality Qseis of 10 fitted the data, assuming an average P-wave) experiment at a shallow borehole test site in
frequency content of 150 Hz and a P-wave velocity of N.E. England in variously jointed Cretaceous chalk.
5.5 km/s. The value of Qseis 10 was assumed to be Cross-well seismic was performed between three wells,
relevant to the upper 100 metres of this granodioritic at a frequency band width of 500 to 3,000 Hz. Spectral
rock. Juhlin, 1995, considered the result to be consist- modelling was performed to provide Qseis estimates for
ent with higher Qseis values of 30 and 50 at depths of a shallow 30–36 m deep highly jointed zone, with per-
between 200–1100 m in crystalline rocks of compara- meability of about 1 darcy (105m/s), and for a deeper
ble character. Again note the similarity to rock mass (36–50 m), less jointed interval, which had an implied
deformation modulus expectations, when the latter is permeability close to that of the matrix of about 1 mil-
expressed in GPa. lidarcy, or 108m/s. The respective Qp values were
In relation to the Q-value of rock quality, a P-wave 20 and 60.
velocity of 5.5 km/s at 100 m depth in a crystalline, To help assess whether the higher attenuation in the
hard, low porosity rock (Figure 5.36, Part I) suggests a highly jointed zone was mostly caused by scattering
Qc value of about 40, and when compression strength rather than by intrinsic mechanisms, the authors used a
of say 200 MPa are allowed for, the rock mass quality discrete particle numerical model, as described by
Q-value would be about 20. This is a very typical rock Toomey and Bean, 2000. (Although several numerical
204 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 10.32 Seismic Q imaging of an anomaly at 45 m depth with correspondence to a Vp of 4.26 km/s from independent refraction seismic
imaging of this second layer of higher velocity. Ecevitoglu and Bingol, 1999.
10.5.2 Effects of unconsolidated is less easy to accelerate the pore fluid along the pores
sediments on seismic Q (due to inertial forces) than to compress the pore fluid,
as in the flat-pores model of Mavko and Nur, 1979.
Extremely low values of Qp in unconsolidated sedi- Jeng et al., 1999 used artificial source and receiver
ments such as a value of 4 between 60 and 100 m depth pairs, and a frequency-dependent Q estimation, in con-
in sands and gravels (Gibbs and Roth, 1989), and values trast to the conventional spectral ratios with constant
between 2 and 6 for the case of artificial, glycerol- Q assumption. When examining the triaxial-geophone
saturated, random packs of glass beads and coarse sands data with varied (2 m interval) offsets, the frequency-
(Molyneux and Schmitt, 2000), emphasise the character dependent and frequency-independent assumptions
of these unconsolidated and unlithified low Qseis media. reportedly gave ‘dramatic variation’ of Q.
If energy dissipation is small, the seismic quality Qseis The authors carried out experiments at three differ-
(also called the internal friction or dissipation factor) ent sites in Taiwan, but concentrated their attention at
was previously defined as: the Yuan-Lin site in the foothills of central Taiwan,
where two different sources were available. The surface
2 E of the site had a 2 to 3 m thick layer of alluvium and
(10.7)
Q seis E unconsolidated sediments, overlying a 200 m thick
gravel formation. Their data showed Qp values linearly
where E is the elastic energy stored at maximum stress increasing from between 1 and 3, to between 10 and
and strain and E is the energy loss per harmonic exci- 16, as frequency was increased from 50 to 300 Hz.
tation cycle. Qseis can however apparently be smaller There was marked instability, and therefore lack of lin-
than 2 (i.e. E E), but alternative definitions of earity, at frequencies beyond 300 Hz. The frequency
Qseis seem to be needed if larger dissipation (i.e. excep- components for the power law Q kf n were 1.11 and
tionally low Qseis) is measured or assumed. 0.93 for the P and S waves, respectively.
In the case of shallow seismic investigations in sedi- Their investigation using the conventional frequency-
ments, it is likely that Qseis has a frequency-dependent independent assumption for Q, and geophone intervals
component because near-surface layers of sediment tend of 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15 and 17.5 m gave average Q tend-
to be unconsolidated and may contain fluid. This was ing to increase from about 10 to 13 over this range of
verified by Jeng et al., 1999, who measured Qs values as geophone intervals. The modified frequency-dependent
low as 2 to 5 using different sources of energy, and approach at the same location, gave Q values varying
found these lowest values corresponded to the lowest approximately linearly from about 2 to about 18,
frequencies used of about 50 Hz. A roughly 5 times as frequency was increased from 57.5 to 575 Hz.
higher frequency (250 Hz) resulted in about 6 to 8 times The authors conclude that for weathered loose layers
higher Qs-values (16 to 30 approx.). Less attenuation Qseis smaller than 2 is obviously possible, despite the
(higher Qseis) is observed at higher frequencies because it classic formulation of energy loss per harmonic cycle,
206 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 10.33 Downhole logs of Vp, density and Qp for ooze and transition to increasing layers of chalk, in sub-ocean studies made during
the Ocean Drilling Program, at the Ontong Java Platform, in the western Pacific. Frazer et al., 1997.
compared to the elastic energy stored at maximum almost linearly from 1.8 km/s at 200 m below sea level,
stress and strain. to 2.6 km/s at 700 mbsl. The reduced density appeared
The authors Frazer et al., 1997, working in the Ocean to be at the base of the ooze-to-chalk transition, where
Drilling Program at the sub-ocean Ontong-Java Platform more chalk was present. In the transition zone the chalk
carbonate sections in the western Pacific, emphasised first appeared in distinct, several centimetre thick
that attenuation measurements made at ultrasonic layers, separated by ooze layers. The thickness and pro-
frequencies in the laboratory, often on disturbed sedi- portion of the chalk increased towards the base, where
ment samples, or estimated from seismic experiments there was more calcium carbonate cement.
over long wave lengths, may reveal little about the The seismic quality Qp for the same hole is also shown
geologic/depth evolution of sediment attenuation. Com- in Figure 10.33. In the loose, high-porosity sediments
paction of loose grains, through diagenesis, to sedimen- the attenuation was assumed to be mostly due to fluid
tary rocks at depth, can be a fragile environment to motion relative to the framework of loosely packed
sample, especially when the shear-wave velocity is lower grains. With greater depth of burial, the number of
than the borehole fluid velocity. points of contacts and their load increases, and friction
The authors used the Schlumberger long-spaced sonic was assumed to become a more important mechanism of
(LSS) tool which has two sources and two receivers in a attenuation. The authors showed porosities as high as
special arrangement. Every 6 inches (0.15 m), four 60 to 70% in the ooze, from 60 to 75% in the transition,
microseismograms were recorded, with three source- and thereafter reducing in the chalk from 60 to 45%.
receiver spacings. The frequencies involved were about Presumably the effects of layering/bedding and perhaps
5 to 25 kHz, lying between laboratory and seismic jointing through the thin chalk beds (?), and related fluid
measurements. flows, contributed to the higher attenuation at the base of
The actual Vp-density log for one of the holes inves- the transition, where Qp was as low as 20. An increase in
tigated is shown in Figure 10.33. The velocity increased Qp was seen where harder chert occurred at greater depth.
Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales 207
Figure 10.34 Laboratory tests, shown by stars, and sonic borehole logs of Vp and Qp showing the marked effect of frequency on Qp. Sams
et al., 1997. The sonic logging gave the lowest estimates of seismic Q of all the methods investigated.
numeric similarities between seismic Qp at shallow depth or almost absent. On the other hand there is no possi-
(i.e. 1 km), and the estimated deformation modulus bility of ever acquiring a reliable measure of deform-
(Emass, or symbol M), when expressed in GPa. ation modulus at extreme depth, without compressing
It may be of interest to observe that the inverse of ultra-small, unjointed laboratory samples, as done by
rock mass quality (Qc1) is roughly proportional to the tectonophysicists in the past. Perhaps, unknown to the
rock mass permeability or Lugeon value for central writer, the E moduli at 20 km depth or 300 (to 500)
ranges of rock quality, when without the complication MPa effective (to total) confining stress, could reach
of clay-sealing of joints that is common near the sur- much higher values than the most typical 50 to 75 GPa
face. (The Lugeon value L 1/Qc, where 1 Lugeon seen at an order of magnitude smaller depths, for the
107 m/s, Barton, 1999, 2002). By implication, less case of hard crystalline rocks. As we shall see in Chapter
attenuation (high coda Qc) would correspond not only 16, the differential stress (1 3) tolerated by small
to high rock qualities Qc, but also to lower permeabil- rock samples can be increased by a factor of 5 to 10, by
ity, and higher deformation modulus. similar magnitudes of confining stress to the above.
(See Figures 16.57a and b).
Aki’s and Chouet’s observations were interpreted as
10.6.2 Frequency dependence of showing the combined effect of variation of coda Qc with
coda QC due to depth effects depth and the frequency-dependent composition of coda
waves. The average coda Qc over the depth range 0 to
The coda Qc was found to increase with frequency, 12 km was 300 in the case of the Stone Canyon site,
though according to Aki and Chouet, 1975, this did some 15 km to the north of the San Andreas Fault, where
not necessarily mean that the coda Qc of crustal mater- average magnitude 1 earthquakes were analysed by these
ial was frequency dependent. The above frequency authors.
effect was thought to be due to the dependence of coda Figure 10.37 shows the regional variations of the
Qc on depth, since waves were scattered from different coda attenuation Qc1 in the range of frequencies from
parts of the earth’s crust. As the primary waves from an 1 to 20 Hz derived from the California Stone Canyon
earthquake spread out, they leave behind a pool of scat- earthquake events, and from the Japanese Tsukuba
tered energy which quickly becomes homogeneous inside Oishiyama earthquake events. Attenuation Qc1 reduces
the pool because of high diffusivity. and coda Qc increases with increasing frequency. At
Since a large volume surrounding the earthquake Tsukuba, where earthquakes are deeper, attenuation
source is ‘sampled’, the seismic coda Qc has been con- Qc1 was lower and coda Qc therefore higher, especially
sidered as a potential measure of the assumed changing at the highest frequency of 24 Hz. (Qc1 0.001,
rock properties, due to accumulation of stress and strain Qc 1000).
in the hypocentral zone (e.g. Chen and Long, 2000). Carpenter and Sanford, 1985, used spectra from 130
Temporal variations of coda Qc before or following digitally recorded micro-earthquakes (M 0.9 to 0.3)
earthquakes have been reported in some cases, while to compute the apparent seismic Q for upper crustal
unfortunately in other cases, no changes have been rocks near Socorro, in the Rio Grande Rift, New Mexico.
noted. Several of these case records will be reviewed in Most of the seismic wave attenuation due to intrinsic
this section of Chapter 10. The apparent frequency absorption and scattering was computed over the fre-
dependence of coda Qc waves can be explained if the quency range of 3 to 30 Hz. Their apparent seismic
coda waves at 1 Hz are primarily composed of surface Q values were found to increase with event distance, for
waves scattered from shallow heterogeneities, while the eight recording stations used in the study. This
coda waves at 20 Hz are primarily back scattering body increase was modelled with a varying thickness, low
waves from deeper heterogeneities in the high Qseis litho- seismic Q, low-velocity layer, lying above a relatively
sphere. At the two sites investigated by Aki and Chouet high seismic Q, high-velocity half space.
(western California and Japan), the coda Qc ranged As illustrated in Figure 10.38, the waves from the
from 50 to 200 at 1 Hz in the shallowest crust (resem- more distant earthquakes would have a greater fraction
bling possible deformation moduli in GPa), to about of their total ray path in the deeper rocks, therefore
1000 to 2000 at 20 Hz in the deeper crust. indicating that seismic Q was greater at depth. The
The latter, by chance, resembles the rock mass Qc seismic Qp and Qs values were found to be less than 50
value itself, assuming that jointing is effectively closed directly beneath the sites at 0.3 to 2 km. This again
Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales 211
4 V 2
Qs s Q (10.8)
Figure 10.38 The two-layer model used to interpret event-distance
3 V p
effects on seismic Q. Carpenter and Sandford, 1985. p
212 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Qc Qof m (10.10)
Figure 10.40 Qp-Qs relations determined for each station, from
spectral ratio slopes and travel times. Black circles
are laboratory and in situ data from other authors.
where 0 m 1. For the coda Qc to change by a fac-
Clouser and Langston, 1991. tor of 2 to 3 the frequency must change significantly
also. However, their analyses showed mean variations of
frequency of only 20%. They therefore concluded that
Vp the observed coda Qc change was due to a ‘change in
Qs Qp (10.9) the property of the earth medium’, namely the opening
Vs of cracks or dilation. For the case of the referenced
Tangsham earthquake, the actual low coda Qc value
Using their average Vs/Vp and Vp/Vs ratios of 0.534 was 71 (in the period 1973 to 1976) and 200 (in the
and 1.87 respectively, the above equations gave the lower period 1969 to 1972). The P-wave velocity was report-
and upper limit curves shown in Figure 10.40, namely edly also anomalously low in the period 1973–1975 just
Qs 0.38 Qp and Qs 1.87 Qp. Their measurements preceding the earthquake. However, Jin and Aki, 1986,
using spectral ratios, and accounting for differences in preferred using coda Qc, since it covered an entire ellip-
basin thickness between each station, showed Qs vary- soidal region determined by the lapse time, whereas
ing from 10 to 70. monitoring of the Vp/Vs anomaly requires that locations
Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales 213
of source and receiver make the wave path go directly 10.6.4 Possible separation of
through the anomalous source region. attenuation into scattering
Peng et al., 1987, used several thousand seismograms and intrinsic mechanisms
of small earthquakes in the Mammouth Lakes area in
the USA to measure values of Qc from the decay of the Based on their own Mammouth Lakes data and on other
earthquake coda. They added a certain degree of sophis- case records, Peng et al., 1987 proposed that coda Qc
tication to the interpretation, by observing two opposite reduced within the aftershock zone but increased outside
trends at different distances from the source: this zone, when the main shock occurred. The observed
temporal changes to coda Qc suggested that hetero-
a) in the region near the main epicentre, measure- geneities were responsible for the scattering component.
ments of coda attenuation (Qc1) were higher for Presumably such features as lithological boundaries,
earthquakes that occurred after the main shock, clay-filled discontinuities and branch faults, could cause
than coda attenuation Qc1 of those that occurred scattering while the intrinsic component of attenuation
prior to the main shock (i.e. Qc was lower after the might be microcrack and joint related (i.e. thin cracks
main shock, due to greater attenuation). that were bearing high fluid pressures, that were there-
b) further away from the main epicentre, measure- fore sensitive to small stress changes. Peng et al., 1987
ments of coda attenuation Qc1 were lower after emphasised that separation of the intrinsic and scatter-
the main shock than before it (i.e. Qc was higher ing components of coda Qc introduced a severe non-
after the main shock, due to reduced attenuation. uniqueness in determining these parameters. However,
Could this perhaps be due to the reduced shear stress they suggest that probably a small number of strong scat-
at distance, and more ‘damage’ closer to the source? terers dominated the coda in a seismically active zone.
Such would also give lower rock qualities: quite logically Concerns about the relative magnitudes of intrinsic
closer to the source following the main shock. attenuation (Q1 intrinsic) and scattering (Q1 scat-
Peng et al., 1987, reviewed numerous cases of tempo- tering) has led to methods for separating these effects
ral changes of coda attenuation (Qc1) before and after by integrating the S-wave energy for successive time
large earthquakes. For brevity we will make a list without windows, as a function of earthquake hypocentral dis-
individual references, and refer the reader to the above tance. The method is described by Hoshiba et al., 1991.
authors. To aid interpretation with respect to coda quality Figure 10.23 shows how it was applied to Central
Qc as opposed to attenuation Qc1, we will list changes to California, Long Valley and Hawaiian earthquakes, giv-
coda Qc in the list that follows. The changes are therefore ing a separation of Qs1 scattering and Qs1 intrinsic,
inverted compared to the Peng et al., 1987 list: whose sum is equal to Qs1 total. Interestingly, when
adding two larger Qs intrinsic and Qs scattering compo-
1. 30% reduction in coda Qc before Hawaii earth- nents, the sum Qs total is less than either of the above,
quake, 1975 (M 7.2) since attenuation is being accumulated, not Qseis.
2. 20% reduction in coda Qc before 3 large Kuril- In general, for frequencies 6.0 Hz, scattering Qs1 was
Kamchatka earthquakes, (M 8.0) greater than intrinsic Qs1, whereas above 6.0 Hz the
3. 30% reduction in coda Qc (at 6 Hz) before Petatlan opposite applied. In all three regions, scattering Qs1 was
earthquake (M 7.6) strongly frequency dependent, decreasing proportionally
4. anomalous, low coda Qc before E. Vamanashi to frequency increase, or even faster. Intrinsic Qs1 was
earthquake, 1983 (M 6.0) considerably less frequency dependent. A concurrent
5. 300% reduction in coda Qc for 3 years before suggestion of a depth-dependent intrinsic Qs1, which
Tangsham earthquake, 1976 (M 7.8) increases with depth, apparently can reduce the dis-
6. 200% reduction in coda Qc for period before crepancy between theoretical predictions and observa-
Haicheng earthquake, 1975 (M 7.3) tions (Zeng et al., 1991).
Sato and Fehler, 1998, (Seismic wave propagation and
Following this list an increase in coda Qc is men- scattering in the Heterogeneous Earth, Springer Verlag &
tioned for a 2 to 3 year period before the Misasa earth- AIP Press), who collected regional seismic data from
quake in Japan, 1983 (M 6.2), and the authors also around the world, also showed the separation of the scat-
record the possibility that coda Qc changes without an tering and intrinsic attenuation. Clearly, and in almost all
obvious relation to a major earthquake. cases, the lower frequencies give the greatest attenuation
214 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
both from scattering and from intrinsic mechanisms. 10.6.5 Changed coda Q during
This seems to suggest the extreme importance of the seismic events
structural geology (joint sets, faulting), and of the con-
ducting properties of these larger scale, nearer the surface As we have seen, and perhaps confusingly for earthquake
features. Figure 10.42 shows the relative magnitudes of precursor analysis, some investigators have recorded
Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales 215
that occur as a result of earthquakes (i.e. often just frac- January 1994. Despite magnitude (M 4.7 and M 4.6)
tions of, or a few MPa). events in 1992 and 1993, they found that Qc had not sys-
Following rock quality Qc values a little further, one tematically changed. Figure 10.44 however, shows various
can see from Figure 5.36 (Part I, Chapter 5), that higher interesting trends of the data, including a certain
rock quality Qc values imply higher P-wave velocities anisotropy regarding azimuth (graph c), and a clear dis-
and higher deformation moduli. Such areas would likely tance dependence (graph d) which may be related, as
be under highest stress, and have least permeability, so a observed earlier, with deeper sampling of the earth’s crust
spatial migration of hypocentres to lower seismic coda as distance increases, and therefore higher coda Qc values.
Qc areas, with lower rock mass quality Qc and lower Concerning the coda Qc magnitude and time period,
moduli and higher permeabilities, is entirely logical. Hellweg et al., 1995, suggest that there had been no sys-
Perhaps the ‘complicating’ factor of frequency depend- tematic change in the coda Qc. One may however observe
ence of seismic Q reviewed earlier, is another way of that if allowed to plot a least-squares (or other) best fit to
recognising a scale effect. Certainly the evaluation of the time/date data in graph (e), a certain reduction of
rock mass quality Qc could also be considered scale- Qc with time would be observed. However this would
dependent, since the inclusion of larger volumes of the apparently be invalid as the events cannot actually be
rock mass (including faults) will inevitably adversely compared with each other directly, as they are deter-
affect all the six Q parameters, resulting in lower over- mined from different length windows regarding each
all rock mass quality and the strong likelihood of seismogram. The authors proposed that Qc should always
greater attenuation. be measured from the same length window starting at
Hellweg et al., 1995, also used the Parkfield Dense the same lapse time regardless of the source location.
Seismograph Array (of the US Geological Survey) to esti- As a contrast to the coda Qc obtained from seismic-
mate coda Qc from up to 42 recordings for each earth- ally active areas, Kvamme and Havskov, 1989, deter-
quake that occurred. Coda Qc was determined in two mined the coda Qc in Southern Norway, finding values
frequency bands (4 to 8 Hz, and 8 to 16 Hz), from a tight at 10 Hz frequency to vary from 780 to 1530, for
cluster of 26 seismic events between December 1989 and source-to-station distances varying from 15 to 300 km.
Figure 10.44 Coda Qc from the 4–8 Hz band: a) coda Qc dependence on depth, b) coda Qc dependence of earthquake magnitude, c) coda
Qc dependence on azimuth, d) coda Qc dependence on epicentral distance (km assumed), and e) coda Qc as a function of
time. Dotted lines show the average of all coda Qc values, f ) coda Qc calculated for selected events with epicentres less than
30 km. Filled diamonds are measured from a 30 s window which starts at 2ts. Hollow diamonds are measured from a 30 s win-
dow which starts at a lapse time of 20 s. Hellweg et al., 1995.
Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales 217
A certain increase in coda Qc with window length was The authors used local earthquakes recorded from 1987
interpreted as increased Qc with depth, as in other stud- through 1996, and concentrated their analyses on high-
ies reviewed here. They considered the Norwegian quality data from the depth range 45 to 15 km. Values
measurements of coda Qc to be similar to values found of coda Qc1 were averaged over three recording sta-
in another shield area (Canada), but observed stronger tions for each earthquake. They divided the data into
frequency dependence as possible evidence of stronger two periods: 8 years before and 2 years after the major
scatterers in Southern Norway. Some of the paths shown (M 7.2) 1995 earthquake.
in Figure 10.45, certainly cross some major regional zones The average value of coda Qc1 increased after the
of weakness (i.e. the Oslo fjord), and regional faulting. major earthquake, especially for the lower frequency
They used window lengths of 5, 20, 30 and 40 s and bands between 1.5 and 4 Hz, as illustrated in Figure
observed variations of coda Qc with frequency: 10.47, and in Table 10.5. The authors emphasised that no
change in focal mechanism was reported, citing the fact
Qc Qof m (10.11) that changes in epicentres, focal depths, or focal mecha-
nism can cause false temporal changes in coda Qc1. Even
and found (m) to be 1.15 for most of the Norwegian in a small 1 1 1 km volume, the value of Qc1
data. Comparison of their own and other frequency increased after the main shock at frequencies below 5 Hz,
dependent coda Qc are reproduced in Figure 10.46. suggesting that changed epicentres were not the cause of
Hiramatsu et al., 2000, reported temporal changes in the increased attenuation (and reduced seismic quality).
coda Qc1 in the Tamba region of Japan, to the north- The average depth remained in the 9 to 10 km range.
east of the main rupture zone of the 1995 M 7.2 The authors considered that a numerically estimated
Hyogoken Nanbu earthquake. This region has the change of shear stress at 10 km depth of only 0.02 MPa
densest distribution of Quarternary active faults in due to the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake, was the
Japan, with very high seismic activity for several decades. cause of the increased attenuation. The sensitivity of
Qc1 to shear stress change was estimated to be 10
(MPa)1 at around 3 and 4 Hz frequency, which the
Figure 10.47 Distinct increases in attenuation (coda Qc1) following the January 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu (M 7.2) earthquake.
Hiramatsu et al., 2000.
Table 10.5 Increase of average Qc1 and decrease of average Qc (n) for the activity periods I to V (shown in Figure 10.48).
following the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake. All ten frequency bands (from 1.5 to 24 Hz) were
(Hiramatsu et al., 2000). analysed. As clearly shown in this figure, there was a clear
Frequency (Hz) Qc1 before Qc1 after Qc before Qc after reduction in the n-value in the years leading up to the
event, followed by a marked increase in the n-value, espe-
1.5 0.012 0.015 81.3 67.6 cially after the major event. As suggested by Kvamme and
2.0 0.011 0.013 91.2 77.6
Havskov, 1989, (and others), a greater density of scatter-
3.0 0.0076 0.0093 131.8 107.2
ers could be the logical cause of this greater sensitivity to
4.0 0.0054 0.0062 186.2 162.2
frequency, following the major earthquake.
authors suggested was much larger than the stress sensi- 10.6.6 Attenuation of damage due to
tivity of seismic velocity. However they also referred to acceleration
the fault or fracture dimensions of micro-earthquakes
(M 3) as about 400 m, consistent with the character- Mandal et al., 2001 interpreted 110 aftershocks following
istic length of scatterers of 300–600 m estimated from the Mw 6.4 Chamoli earthquake in the Garhwal
the wavelengths of 3 to 4 Hz which had the greatest Himalaya as propagating up-dip along a thrust plane from
influence on Qc1 increases. 20 to 2 km depth, the main shock having occurred at
They found in addition, that the frequency depend- 15 km depth. The region had five earthquakes exceeding
ence of coda Q1 varied with time. Using the propor- magnitude 6, and twelve exceeding magnitude 5 in just
tional to power of frequency expression: the 20th century, which was presumed to have caused a
high level of shallow crustal heterogeneity. They analysed
Q1 1 n
c Qo f (10.12) 48 of the local earthquakes with magnitudes varying from
2.5 to 4.8, with recordings at nine digital stations, with
where Qo1 is the Qc1 value at 1 Hz and n is a constant, three-component seismometers, covering an area with a
they used the least squares method to determine values of 150 km radius. Sub-surface recording is not mentioned.
Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales 219
0–298 7–10 20
298–938 31 30
572–938 53–94 55
0–938 18, 33–45 33
Table 10.8 Three progressively worsening rock mass qualities and their predicted (near-surface, hypothetical recording station) properties.
Consult tables in Appendix A for explanation of the selected ratings.
Note: Near-surface: Vp 3.5 log Q km/s, M(Emass) 10 Q1/3 GPa, K 1/Qc 107 km/s (Barton, 2002). A significant degree of
anisotropy can be provided if desirable or relevant, by using oriented RQDo and values of Jr and Ja perpendicular to the loading or (dynamic)
testing direction. The effects of anisotropic stresses or the effects of increased depth, and the effects of matrix porosity on Vp and M can be
handled using the equivalent depth and porosity corrections in Figure 10.54.
1992), and the Q-histogram logging performed at four Further insight into the meaning of these Q-parame-
1000 m deep SKB wells in Sweden at Forsmark and ters and their link to engineering parameters may be
Simpevarp in 2003. given by recording the fact that the first two terms
One cannot help but wonder whether the low seis- RQD/Jn, describing joint structure (the potential scat-
mic Q, also recorded elsewhere at crystalline sites, such tering component), has a maximum range from 100/
as the hundreds of Qp values lying between 4 and 40, 0.5 200 (massive rock without joints), through
recorded at the NAFZ (Figure 10.49a) from 5 to 30 km 45/9 5 (closely spaced joints in three sets), to 10/20
distant events, are also a typical reflection of a strongly 0.5 (‘earth-like’, crushed rock). This pair of parameters
jointed, tectonically disturbed rock mass, also present alone, has by chance, a certain ‘familiarity’ in relation to
beneath the recording sites, and sampled by the lower relevant seismic Q magnitudes reviewed earlier.
frequency wave lengths. Sophistication, related to shear strength, is added by the
It is very easy to imagine a potential range of next two Q-value terms Jr/Ja, describing, with some level
rock quality Q, composed of the following typical Q- of accuracy, the friction coefficient (a potential intrinsic
parameter ratings, in such site locations (see Appendix attenuation component). (see Appendix A for rating
A for description of the ratings used to quantify the six descriptions, and for a graphic presentation of Jr/Ja
).
parameters): Table 10.8 shows some hypothetical constructions of
typical near-surface Q-parameter ratings for potential
recording-site qualities. Such Q-parameter ratings have
RQD J J been applied on thousands of engineering sites world-
Q r w
Jn Ja SRF wide, and the rock engineering profession is as familiar
45 90 0.5 2 0.66 1 (10.13) with ‘Q 1’ as the geophysics profession is familiar
9 15 24 1 2.5 with ‘Qp 10’. Interestingly, and frustratingly, both
numbers can remain constant when actually composed
of different contributions from the various components.
(i.e. three or four sets of joints, spacing typically In rock engineering it is therefore good practice to
15–50 cm, one or more sets possibly slickensided or quote all six assumed parameter values. In geophysics it
smooth-undulating, with weathered or clay-smeared would be excellent if at least the near-surface scattering
joint walls, dry or partly saturated with water, with typ- (caused by RQD/Jn) and intrinsic components (caused by
ical shallow (25 m, or 100 m) near-surface, low- Jr/Ja and Jw) could be separated, as increasingly seen with
stress characteristics.) more deeply-acquired data. The hidden ubiquitous
From the above example, we obtain Q 0.1 10 microcracks have a ‘multiple role’ in increasing both the
(quality described as ‘very poor’ – ‘poor’ – ‘fair’). This attenuation components to varying degrees, but this is
calculated range shows, obviously, that Q rock quality possibly masked by significant near-surface jointing, since
Q seismic, but when Q rock quality is used to estimate the of potentially stronger effect. Microcracks also have a role
rock mass deformation modulus Emass, values of from in increasing the effect of weathering, thereby reducing
about 2 to 30 GPa would be obtained with an appro- RQD and Jw, and increasing Ja, and possibly SRF – due
priate 10 to 100 MPa range of UCS, and the specified to loosening, all of which , it is suggested, cause a reduc-
25 to 100 m depth. tion in both of these Q values (Qseis and Qrock).
226 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 10.54 Rock engineering parallels to seismic Q. (See Chapters 5 and 9). The rock mass quality Q, with normalization to Qc to
account for weak or strong rock, appears to follow the trends of seismic Q values (with rock quality Qc Qseis), Deformation
modulus M (Emass) expressed in GPa appears to match seismic Qp quite closely. Strongly attenuating fault zones, almost
‘invisible’ to seismic velocity, are seen to ‘maintain’ an apparently attenuating level of rock quality Qc at 1 km depth. It has been
observed that shallow Californian earthquakes are never found in regions with Vp 6.3 km/s. With appropriate stress
correction, this implies some degree of jointing in the neighbourhood of causative faults.
While microcracks are vitally important for attenu- 10.7 Attenuation across continents
ation in laboratory samples, they should be less so in the
near-surface rock mass, where jointing and weathering- As introduction to this section, concerning attenuation
induced porosity may readily dominate attenuation. across continents, it is appropriate to reproduce a well-
Some microcracks have also become macro-cracks in known diagram of plate tectonics. That reproduced in
this zone. Joint sets in petroleum reservoirs at 2 to 5 Figure 10.55 is from Isacks et al., 1968, as presented in
kilometres depth remain a major source of attenuation Kearey and Vine, 1996. It shows the classic subduction
(also polarizing shear waves), but microcracks presum- of the lithosphere into the asthenosphere at opposite
ably still contribute to the local attenuation caused by edges of plates.
the fluids. Any remaining pressure-resistant pore space
and higher aspect-ratio microcracks at 5 to 10 km
depth, may contribute to the strongly declined attenua- 10.7.1 Plate tectonics, sub-duction
tion, but there will still be scattering from major faults zones and seismic Q
and eventual rock boundaries. Jointing, usually assumed
to have ceased to exist at great depth, may in fact be The two-dimensional cross-section of the main features
present in the form of minor faulting, thereby explain- of an oceanic subduction zone, shown in Figure 10.56,
ing the maintained (but low) permeability. See the last is reproduced from Kearey and Vine, 1996. The
sections of Chapter 16 for discussion of these aspects. Benioff zone shown in this figure is the source of deep
Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales 227
Figure 10.59 Deep seismic refraction results showing depth variation of a) Vp and seismic Qp, b) Vs (and Vp/Vs) and seismic Qs. Iwasaki
et al., 1994.
with depth, are shown in Figure 10.59a and b, from from 3.1 to 5.4 km/s. The velocity structure below this
Iwasaki et al., 1994, from an extensive seismic refrac- showed lateral variation (as must surely be expected
tion experiment conducted on a 194 km N-S line over a 190 km profile), with successive increases in Vp
across the Kitakami massif of E. Northern Honshu in and seismic Qp as depth increased to 35 km. The Moho
Japan. A Jurassic accretionary complex lies to the north, occurs at about 32 to 34 km depth at the base of the
and pre-Silurian and Silurian-lower Cretaceous marine selected profile.
sediments lie to the south. Inspection of the variation of Vp and seismic Qp as
In these studies, the uppermost crust was covered depth increases was typically as in the simplified table
with a thin (0.5 to 1.0 km) ‘surface layer’ with Vp ranging shown on the next page.
230 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 10.60 Simplified tectonic map of Eurasia. A tomographic plot of Qc at 1 Hz was given for each 3° by 3° cell. Mitchell et al., 1997.
Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales 231
at 1 Hz) for South America (DeSouza and Mitchell, Several of the above (1998) Qo ranges for regions of
1998), and North America (Baquer and Mitchell, the United States showed some differences to the earlier
1998). These authors used 389 seismic recordings in the study of Singh and Herrmann, 1983, where a broad
case of S. America, and 218 in the case of N. America, belt in the eastern region below the Great Lakes, had
to produce back-projection tomography, by inversion, values varying from 1000 to a maximum of 1300. The
giving regionalized maps of Qo and of its frequency lowest belt of Lg coda Q along the western coast
dependence (') at 1 Hz. (Oregon, Washington, California) was given as 200 in
The Lg phase was explained by Mitchell and Hwang, these earlier studies.
1987, as being prominent on regional short-period seis-
mograms, where in stable (high Q) continental regions,
it can be observed to distances as great as 4000 km, and 10.7.5 Effect of thick sediments on
forms the basis of magnitude scales for small earth- continental Lg coda
quakes, as recorded over regional (i.e. large) distances.
The main Lg phase is followed by a coda, the main Baquer and Mitchell, 1998 emphasised the role of thick
duration of which can also be used to determine the deposits of Mesozoic and younger e.g. Cretaceous sedi-
magnitude of regional events. However, the later part of ments, typically sandstones and shales, in significantly
the coda may reportedly not be coherent across arrays reducing Qo in various regions of North America, while
of seismograph stations, indicating that part of the coda older sedimentary rocks did not. They also cited the
is due to scattering. ‘positive’ effect of dolomites and limestones in main-
According to these most recent 1998 studies, the taining high Qo, and of fluids that had been lost with
seismically active South American Andean Belt was time. Earlier work by Mitchell, 1995, had suggested
typified by low Qo (250–450), in a similar manner to that seismic Q was influenced in a ‘positive’ (less atten-
the low Qo (250–300) region west of the Rocky uating) direction by the time elapsed since the most
Mountains (the Basin and Range province and active recent major episode of tectonic activity. This seemed
Californian coastal regions). In South America there to be supported by these most recent measurements,
were broad regions of very high Qo (700–1100) span- and by the Eurasian studies.
ning the central Brazilian shield, and the Amazonian In earlier studies, Mitchell and Hwang, 1987 had
and Paraná Basins, whereas in North America the high- investigated in some detail, whether the lateral vari-
est Qo region was the Northern Appalachians and some ations in Lg attenuation across the United States, could
of the central lowlands (650–750). The Gulf Coastal be explained by known variations in the thicknesses of
Plain and the southern portion of the Atlantic Coastal shallow sedimentary layers. They stated that many of
Plain had intermediate values (400–500), while the the features of the coda at frequencies near 1 Hz could
Atlantic Shield in South America also had intermediate be approximately duplicated in synthetic seismograms
values (450–700), these last possibly related to the tec- produced by plane-layer models, which included layers
tonic and igneous activity that occurred during the of low-velocity surface sediments.
break-up of Gondwanaland. As they pointed out, soft and unconsolidated sedi-
The authors of these continental studies suggested ments could be characterized by very low velocity and low
that the low Qo in the Andes, particularly in two belts Q values. However, deep sedimentary basins bounded
across the southern and northern Andes, was probably by sharp discontinuities could influence Lg by scatter-
related with higher upper mantle temperatures, or that ing (or even wave blockage, as described by Baumgardt,
there were more, deep hydrothermal fluids in these 1985), and thick sediments of low Q could cause
belts. Fluids in the upper crust, and the energy loss they rapid attenuation due to intrinsic absorption. Their
represent, were also cited as the likely reason for low Qo assumption, based on earlier studies, was that Lg Q
in the region west of the Rocky Mountains, with varia- and coda Q were approximately equal, and could
tions in that region caused by variable amounts of flu- show regional variations of greater than 1:6 across the
ids in faults, joints and rocks of variable permeability. United States.
They cited recent studies that showed that a shear veloc- Two aspects to be investigated were how far regional
ity transition from high to low velocity, lay further west variations could be explained by sediment of different
at ‘intermediate’ depths between 25 and 100 km, than age (as we have seen in the latest studies), and why there
at greater depths than this. could be low and laterally varying values of Q in the
232 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 10.62 Rock quality Qc-Vp depth model for comparison to previous data set. Making a gross approximation of rock quality Qc 1/10th
of Q, an approximate velocity scale of 3.5 km/s to 5.8 km/s (less, due to sediment porosities) is suggested in Figure 10.61b.
central log, is given by the relation Qseis f/ V, employed, as emphasised by the important set of
where V is the wave speed, and f is the frequency. It is attenuation data from the Imperial College test site in
apparent from the figure that there were certain simi- NE England, reproduced earlier, in Figures 10.34 and
larities, in this case, between the cross-well velocity 10.35, from Sams et al., 1997. The differences in attenu-
structure and the seismic quality Q. The 8 to 17 K ation between sonic, cross-well, VSP and ultrasonic
ft/sec velocity scale converts to 2410 m/s – 5120 m/s. measurements in the same formation were significant
Each of these values (Vp and Qseis) showed a clear differ- The four boreholes utilised by Sams et al., 1997,
entiation between shale, limestone and clay, and there were drilled to about half the depth of the above, to just
was a certain indication of a less jointed (or less porous) a few hundred metres depth in a layered sequence of
area in the overlying chalk. limestones, sandstones, siltstones and mudstones. The
The cross-well Q seismic data shown in Figure 10.64 variability of 1/Q for each type of seismic survey was
are unfortunately specific only to the frequency range due both to rock heterogeneity (i.e. implicit rock qual-
ity Q-value variations) and frequency variations.
The authors Hustedt and Clark, 1999, drew atten-
tion to the fact that the seismic attenuation factor Q is
an important parameter in the processing and interpret-
ation of seismic data, both because of the detrimental
effect it has on the data, and because it can itself be an
indicator of rock properties.
Hustedt and Clark referred to the QVO (Q versus off-
set) technique that had recently been introduced by
Dasgupta and Clark, 1998. This could be used for extract-
ing Q from routine marine surface seismic reflection
data. As they explained, in exploration analyst jargon:
‘The QVO method applies the well-known spectral-
ratio method to a true-relative-spectrum-processed,
Figure 10.64 Sonic log, cross-well Vp, and cross-well attenuation NMO-corrected, CMP gather.’
and seismic Q from roughly 600–900 m depth, in They compiled QVO-derived seismic Q-values in rela-
the BP Devine Test Site (Quan and Harris, 1997), tion to interval velocities, from a variety of hydrocarbon
reviewed by Pride et al., 2003. Centre frequency was exploration settings, as shown in Figure 10.65. Q-values
1750 Hz. ranged from 50 to 700–800, suggesting that some of
Figure 10.65 A compilation of QVO (Q versus offset) data for seismic quality Q versus interval velocity. Hustedt and Clark, 1999.
Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales 235
(b)
Figure 10.66 Qp values interpreted in a North Sea UK sector anti- Figure 10.67 Anomalously low seismic Q related with fault zones
clinal crest, with further reduced values in a gas bear- in a North Sea reservoir. Worthington and Hudson,
ing pay zone. (Dasgupta and Clark, 1998). 2000, from Harris et al., 1997 data.
236 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
fault zone caused an abrupt increase in attenuation, rela- due to the fracturing, which indicated permeabilities of
tive to the Triassic and Lower Jurassic age sandstones, 2.5 to 5 milli-darcies.
siltstones and claystones that were predominantly The en echelon vertical fractures were very short 0.4
encountered in the well. to 8 cm, frequently occurring features, perpendicular to
Worthington and Hudson described their modelling the bedding in the Brown Shale. The joint-like features
of the effects of a down-going P-wave between 1000 and that were more dominating in the Antelope Shale, were
2000 m depth, by assuming that a fault or several faults, nearly vertical, and also had modest heights averaging
intersected the transmission path. By using a compli- only 13 cm, due to the bedding thickness limits. Joint
ance model of a major discontinuity with not com- densities were from 0 to 2 per meter. There were also
pletely conforming opposite faces, they showed the need less frequent larger fractures and micro-faults, also per-
for a remarkable, but actually very realistic, inequality of pendicular to the bedding.
the normal and shear compliances. The cross-well tomography, with sources and
We will examine these important parameters (whose receivers at 1.5 m (5 feet) intervals over 457 m (1500
inverse is dynamic stiffness), in detail in Chapters 15 feet) of the reservoir formation, showed expected, dis-
and 16, seeing the similarity of their inverted magni- tinctly layered velocity trends in the range of about 2.4
tudes, to the normal stiffnesses of joints, clay-filled dis- to 3.4 km/s over a selected depth range of 3,900 ft
continuities, or faults that are more familiar in the (1,190 m) to 4,600 ft (1,400 m).
macro-displacement world of rock mechanics. This Figure 10.68 indicates the P-wave velocity and com-
subject was also addressed earlier in this chapter, con- puted Qseis for an interval in the Antelope Shale. Also
cerning the important work of Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1990 shown is the core-plug permeability. It is particularly
related to dynamic and static loading tests on joints. interesting to note the good ‘geometric correlation’ of
Vp and Qseis in the fractured part of the formation with
lower core-plug permeability. This was the Brown
10.8.2 Evidence for fracturing Shale, which contained both styles of fracturing. In the
effects in reservoirs on lower parts of the formation with more sand, there was
seismic Q a marked increase in core-plug permeability, but Qseis
remained low, even below 20, probably due to intrinsic
Evidence for the subtle effects on seismic Q, of fractur- squirt-flow attenuation in the sand and carbonate beds,
ing in petroleum reservoirs, was given by Parra et al., where the P-wave velocity was markedly higher. The Q
2002, who described field characterization at the Buena seismic data is reproduced at more exaggerated scale in
Vista Hills reservoir, in California. They described the Figure 10.69. This shows the strong influence of the
use of seismic Q derived from high-resolution cross- two styles of jointing that were described.
well seismic data, to detect vertical, joint-like tectonic The authors also conducted poro-elastic numerical
fracturing dominating in the Antelope Shale and en modelling, based on a Biot squirt flow attenuation
echelon, sigmoidal, vein fracturing that was restricted mechanism. They demonstrate in Figure 10.70 the effect
to the Brown Shale, where the joint-like fractures also of frequency and azimuth angles on computed attenua-
occurred, but with less frequency. The Brown Shale dis- tions, referring to the actual vertical fracture azimuths of
played both low Qseis, and low P-wave velocity. 0° to 30°.
The sand-shale sequences were too finely layered to It is interesting to note from their modelling of the
be detected by sonic logging, with layer thicknesses and Brown Shale, that there was little attenuation of seismic
bed thicknesses ranging from fractions of centimetres waves propagating from sources at the surface, where Qseis
to tens of centimetres to meters. The Antelope Shale was a surprising 1000. In contrast, they found that the en
formation, containing the highest densities of jointing, echelon and joint-like features in this shale were strongly
consisted of thin, siliceous, clay-free shale beds, with attenuating to seismic waves propagating parallel to strat-
intercalated thin laminae of clayey sand and carbonates. ification, and perpendicular to the fractures (Qseis of 20),
A 290 m core interval contained nearly 750 sand lam- in the frequency range of sonic and cross-well seismic.
inæ. The cores averaged 28% porosity, but had only The lower Antelope Shale with its frequent sand
70 micro-darcies permeability due to the dominance of beds, indicated a higher attenuation of seismic waves
siliceous shale. Since only 5% of the rock consisted of propagating from the surface, with Qseis typically 100,
the sands, hydrocarbon production was assumed to be while waves propagating parallel to stratification and
Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales 237
(a)
seismic Q, using (almost) zero-offset VSP for three sep- was 427 m of mainly shales, with some limestone and
arate zones, obtained from a well off the Norwegian marls; 3335–3650 m was 315 m of marl/limestone,
coast. The source was deployed at 4 m depth at 40 m of with some shale; 3650–3907 m was 257 m of sand-
horizontal offset from the well. Depths analysed ranged stone, siltstone and shale).
from 2907–3907 m, using 10 m intervals. A minimum The results for the second layer (marl/limestone with
frequency close to zero up to 90 Hz was indicated. some shale) gave considerably higher Q and more vari-
The authors evaluated eight different attenuation ation. This zone had the highest content of limestone and
models, using a least squares model-fitting approach. marl, which perhaps explains both the higher values
They used the geometric ray approximation approach (Q 90–160), and the large range. The apparent good
of Ursin and Arntsen, 1985, for point source, vertical wave correspondence of the models for layers 1 and 3 was a
propagation in a 1D viscoelastic medium, with plane- function of the use of the minimum (normalized) misfit in
wave reflection coefficients. A formula for the complex Table 10.10. An example of their normalized misfit analy-
velocity was assumed, with inversion of the attenuation sis, for the Kolsky-Futterman model, is shown in Figure
parameters at three different depth intervals, to obtain the 10.71. They considered that this performed slightly better
parameters in three homogeneous layers: (2907–3335 m than the other models, except in the middle layer.
In reality, and in Figure 10.72, the authors show that
Table 10.10 Comparison of eight methods for estimating seismic there is actually a lot of difference between the models
Q. Toverud and Ursin, 2005. Minimum normalized concerning their frequency-dependence. As may be
misfits are shown. (For brevity, results for two of the noted, the Kolsky-Futterman and Kjartansson models
three layers are selected here. Velocities have been assume almost negligible frequency dependence.
rounded to the nearest 10 m/s. Variations were less
than 5 m/s).
Kolsky-Futterman 1 32 3.14
3 36 2.98
Power law 1 35 3.14
3 39 2.98
Kjartansson 1 31 3.14
3 37 2.98
Müller 1 34 3.15
3 40 2.98
Azimi’s second law 1 36 3.15
3 44 2.98
Azimi’s third law 1 34 3.14
3 40 2.98
Cole-Cole 1 22 3.14
3 25.5 2.99 Figure 10.72 A comparison of the eight models for interpreting
Standard linear solid 1 27.5 3.14 seismic Q, for the case of layer 1. Large differences
(SLS) 3 32 2.99 between models are indicated concerning frequency
dependence. Toverud and Ursin, 2005.
Figure 10.71 An example of Toverud and Ursin, 2005, normalized misfit analysis, using the Kolsky-Futterman model, for the three layers
of VSP data analysed for seismic Q.
11 Velocity structure of the
earth’s crust
This chapter summarises the velocity structure of the Figure 11.1, reproduced from Kearey and Vine,
continental crust, the continental margins, and the sub- 1996, shows a ‘familiar’ increase in Vp and Vs through
ocean spreading ridges, where zero-age crust is forming. the crust and upper and lower mantle. However, due to
The velocity-depth models of large scale (100 m to 1 km the great pressure and much higher densities of the rocks
to 50 km) naturally represent an extension of near-surface involved, the magnitude scale for Vs (4 to 7 km/s) now
experiences from Part I. However there are some impor- looks more ‘familiar’ than the exceptional 8 to 13 km/s
tant parallels and points of basic similarity, especially range of the P-wave velocities. The depths of nearly
beneath 3 km of ocean. Although mainly concerned with 3000 km of course exceed by up to five orders of magni-
velocity-depth trends and their reasons, there are also tude, the near-surface phenomena reviewed in Part I.
some parallel seismic Q results, where separation into When reaching the outer core and assumed fluid con-
Chapter 10 would have been undesirable. ditions beyond 3000 km, the S-wave is shown as falling
to zero due to the loss of shear strength, and the P-wave
also shows a dramatic fall of some 5 km/s to ‘only’ 8 km/s,
11.1 An introduction to crustal increasing thereafter to about 10 km/s, before reaching
velocity structures the inner core with its increased density, where the S-wave
makes a return, albeit to less than 4 km/s.
The text of Part I of this book was dominated by civil In 1909, Mohorovicic interpreted a first arrival P-wave
engineering scale velocity-depth and rock quality trends. of magnitude 5.7 km/s within 200 km of an earthquake
In Part II, Chapter 11 we will now concentrate on the epicentre, and another first arrival P-wave of 7.9 km/s
velocity-depth trends of the continental and oceanic at greater distance from the epicentre, as evidence for a
crusts. However, when contemplating assembling a velocity discontinuity. This is now termed the Moho.
review of the velocity structure of the crust, a complete Figures 11.2a, b show travel time-distance gradients
section to the inner core of the earth, as summarised in consistent with the Moho velocity discontinuity both for
Figure 11.1, is clearly an important starting point for the case of the thicker sub-continental crust (shown here
delineating the outer boundaries of behaviour. as 54 km) and for the case of the much thinner sub-ocean
crust (shown here as about 12 km). The direct wave (Pg)
and the refracted wave (Pn) show different gradients.
At first, there was suspicion of another velocity dis-
continuity at intermediate (sub-ocean) depth, based on
Conrad, 1925. A velocity increase from 5.6 to 6.3 km/s
is shown in Figure 11.2b. It is now known that the
Conrad discontinuity is not always present and a grad-
ational increase with depth is generally seen. We shall
see much evidence of these gradational increases in
velocity in this chapter.
Information about the uppermost parts of the earth’s
crust is now available from direct sampling in ultra-
deep boreholes, and indirectly from experimental data
Figure 11.1 A simplified velocity structure through the crust and on velocities measured over ranges of temperature and
mantle down to the inner core. Kearey and Vine, 1996, pressure consistent with crustal conditions. Pressure
from Hart et al., 1977. (total stress) increases at a rate of about 30 MPa per
242 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 11.3 Simplified models, dating from 1965 and 1978, of supposed layering in the oceanic crust. On the left, with the benefit of
improved inversion techniques, is a Spudich and Orcutt, 1980, and Harrison and Bonatti, 1981, interpretation of a more gra-
dational increase in velocity with depth.
Figure 11.5 Refraction lines from Argentina and 1000 km eastwards into the Atlantic Ocean. From Ewing, 1965, reproduced in Bott, 1982.
Figure 11.6 Typical ray diagram (for shotpoint 52) for the East Central Alaska crust (Beaudoin et al., 1992a).
Hasagawa et al., 1994, horizontal compressive stress the depths of 100 km and 1200 km. These extreme
caused by the convergence between the subduction plate depth trends for Vp and Q p are shown in Figure 11.9.
and the overlying continental plate is supported mostly Strong variations in the upper 20 km of solid crust are
by the upper 15 km of the crust. This is a strong seismic suggested in this large-scale data, within the Q p range
zone, resulting in shallow, thrust-fault earthquakes. Stress of about 130 to 1000. There is an inferred fall of Q p
concentration will also arise beneath the volcanic regions from about 1000 to 150 through the Moho, between
where the seismogenic zone is locally thin. depths of about 40 and 80 km, followed by a rapid
P-wave velocities plotted on a depth scale of 0 to increase of Q p to 200 km depth, and a slower increase
1200 km for the western USA, determined from spectral of Q p values to about 8000 at 1200 km depth.
amplitudes of seismic body waves, given by Archambeau
et al., 1969, appear to ‘start’ at about 6 km/s rapidly
reaching about 8 km/s through the crust with intermit- 11.2 The continental velocity
tent increases to almost 12 km/s at 1200 km depth. Their structures
studies also suggested a frequency-dependent value of
seismic Q, with magnitude increasing with frequency. A definitive, updated summary of the seismic velocity
Seismic Q values inferred from the ‘anelastic dissipa- structure and composition of the earth’s continental crust
tion’ of compressional body waves and surface waves has been provided by Christensen and Mooney, 1995,
are shown to increase from about 150 to 8000 between who gave a global review based on 560 determinations by
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 245
Figure 11.10 Locations of 560 seismic velocity-depth measurements. Christensen and Mooney, 1995.
Average compressional wave velocities of common tight structure, probably with Q-values of rock mass
crustal rocks show excellent correlations with density. quality (Barton et al., 1974; Barton, 2002) of 250–500,
Based on tests of 3000 cores of igneous and metamorphic combined with the effect of exceptionally high confining
rocks, taken to 1 GPa confining pressure (similar to 35 km stress.
depth), Christensen and Mooney estimated a mean If sedimentary rocks were included, we would likely
2830 kg/m3 density for the continental crust. The seismic be operating with a rock mass quality Q c value (Q c
velocity data was considered to be accurate to 3%, or Q c/100 plus porosity adjustment) less than the
about 0.2 km/s, while the depths were considered to above, depending on the effects of c 100 MPa and
be accurate to 10%. porosity 5% on the seismic velocity (see Figures 5.36
Figures 11.11a, b and c show the very clear trends and 5.37 in Chapter 5).
of crustal depth, average crustal velocity and upper In Table 11.2, mean velocities for five principal tec-
mantle velocity (the normal P-wave termed Pn by tonic provinces as a function of depths of 5, 10, 15, 20
tectonophysicists). and 25 km are given. The uppermost (lowest Vp values)
These three worldwide compilations suggest a 10 to reflect a great range of lithologies, and presumably some
20% thicker continental crust than previous estimates residual (i.e. tightly closed) jointing.
(due to under-representation of shields, platforms and The velocity-depth gradients for these five tectonic
orogens while the average velocities lie within previous provinces, and for an average continental crustal model,
Eurasian, North American and global estimates of 6.30 are compared in Figures 11.13a and b. The almost linear
to 6.55 km/s (for Vp, continental crust) and 7.7 to gradient between 5 and 25 km for the average crust dis-
8.6 km/s (for Pn of uppermost mantle). plays a gradient of about 0.6/20 0.03 s1, while the
Histograms of average velocities for 5, 10, 15, 20 and gradient between 5 and 10 km for the five tectonic
25 km depths are reproduced from Christensen and regions is approximately 0.5/5 0.1 s1. The reduced
Mooney, 1995, in Figure 11.12. gradient at greater depth is due to the expansion effect
Shallow crustal velocities of less than 5.0 km/s, caused by increased temperature.
corresponding to sedimentary rocks have not been Based on a very extensive (3000 cores) laboratory
included. (This applies to the upper 10 km.) The his- study, stretching over some ten years, Christensen and
tograms at 5 and 10 km are sharply peaked at 6.0 to Mooney, 1995, were able to distinguish anisotropic
6.2 km/s, typical of crystalline upper crust. Possibly a (mineral/fabric orientation related) velocities for a wide
minimum of ‘effective’ jointing is found at these high range of crustal rock types. The results for a confining
pressures of 140 to 280 MPa. In other words in engineer- pressure of 1 GPa (35 km depth) are reproduced in
ing terminology, we would be talking of a very massive Figure 11.14. However the authors pointed out that it
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 247
Table 11.2 Velocities for five principal tectonic provinces. Christensen and Mooney, 1995.
Crustal property Orogens Shields and platforms Continental Arcs Rifts Extended crust Average crust
Vp at 5 km 5.69 0.67 5.68 0.81 5.80 0.34 5.64 0.64 5.59 0.88 5.95 0.73
Vp at 10 km 6.06 0.39 6.10 0.40 6.17 0.34 6.05 0.18 6.02 0.45 6.21 0.27
Vp at 15 km 6.22 0.32 6.32 0.26 6.38 0.33 6.29 0.19 6.31 0.32 6.31 0.27
Vp at 20 km 6.38 0.34 6.38 0.26 6.55 0.28 6.51 0.23 6.53 0.34 6.47 0.28
Vp at 25 km 5.53 0.39 6.53 0.27 6.65 0.28 6.72 0.35 6.69 0.30 6.64 0.29
Figure 11.16 Average continental crustal velocities (shaded) compared to average laboratory velocities at simulated depths and temperatures.
Christensen and Mooney, 1995.
classic knee-shape, with average Vp increasing from (or Q c values) as low as 1, which signifies a good deal of
about 3 km/s close to the surface to about 5.3 km/s at jointing. The calliper log measurements also shown in
500 m depth and to about 5.7 km/s at 1000 m (based Figure 11.20a indeed support the idea of borehole walls
on mean VSP data). Comparison with the velocity- with a good deal of joint-related ‘overbreak’, which nor-
depth-Q (rock mass quality Q or Q c) curves shown in mally occurs when there are 2 or more joint sets (i.e. Jn
Figures 5.36 and 5.37, suggests that this upper 1 km of probably in excess of 4 or 6 in the Q-system of rock
paragneisses (with some amphibolite) may have Q-values mass quality description, combined with unfavourable
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 251
Figure 11.17 Location map for the Mooney et al., 1998 global crustal model seismic refraction profiles. The triangles refer to the locations
within continents, and on margins, where a velocity-depth function was extracted from a published interpretation. In about
10% of the cases the shear velocity-depth profile was also reported.
Figure 11.18 Vp-depth structures for primary crustal types. a) Continental. b) Oceanic. Mooney et al., 1998. c) Continental USA veloc-
ity-depth section. Kearey and Vine, 1996.
anisotropic stress and presumably water pressure see: Nevada Test Site in the western USA, one may note that
Appendix A for Q-parameter ratings). nuclear ‘events’ of 155 to 1300 kilotons equivalent yield
Moving to an entirely different geology and location, were used for forward modelling of surface velocity data
and into an artificial ‘seismic’ environment, namely the that was recorded within 15 km of the underground
252 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 11.20 Borehole measurements and geological profile of the KTB super-deep well. Note (a) shows calliper log measurements and hole
diameter. Note the ubiquitous nature of faulting at all depths. Harjes et al., 1997.
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 253
glacial ice and beach sand. These occur just above sea level While thin, floating sea ice, typically 10 m thick
and they have two aspects in common. They each display constitutes an approximately constant velocity layer, an
high gradients of velocity, but from different starting ice accumulation such as the Ross Ice Shelf, Antarctica
points. of many hundreds of metres thickness, displays a
sharply declining velocity gradient with depth.
A multi-layered upper 50 to 100 m called firn is
responsible for the steep velocity gradient. This includes
snow cover which becomes firn after one melt season, and
eventually becomes glacial ice when permeability to liq-
uid water drops to zero with subsequent burial.
Investigations using seismic reflection and seismic
refraction profiles, reported by Beaudoin et al., 1992,
were located on the 200 to 850 m thick Ross Ice Shelf
as shown in Figure 11.22.
The principal results of Vp versus depth are repro-
duced in Figure 11.23. Compressional wave velocities
in the near-surface ranged from 500 m/s at the surface
to 2000 m/s at 10 m depth, a gradient of 150 s1. From
10 m to 70 m depth, the velocity increased from
approximately 2.0 to 3.8 km/s, which represents a gra-
dient of 30 s1.
In this region, metamorphism of the firn is governed by
recrystallisation. Below about 70 m, any further com-
paction of the ice is by deformation of existing air pockets,
Figure 11.21 Velocity-density-depth trends for the Nevada Test
with little effect on velocity (though possibly giving an
Site Pahute Mesa. Barker et al., 1991. orthotropic distribution). Of the four compression wave
Figure 11.22 Location of Ross Ice Shelf seismic reflection and refraction profiles. Beaudoin et al., 1992b.
254 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 11.23 a) Cross-section of ice and water. b) Near-surface Vp-depth gradient caused by firn c) Overall Vp-depth profile, and chosen
models 1 to 4. Beaudoin et al., 1992b.
velocity models shown in Figure 11.23c, No. 1 was con- q quartz density, air air density, is the porosity
sistent with the observed data. Below the ice, 570 m of of the mixture, assumed at the critical value of 40%.
water with a velocity of 1.44 km/s reached down to sub- Their estimates of theoretical velocity, and their low
sea sediments with a velocity of 2.7 km/s. measured values give velocities that are actually much
Conducting the shallowest possible high-resolution lower than the velocity of sound in air.
seismic reflection and refraction experiment in the upper
2 m of a sea-beach sand, Bachrach and Nur, 1998, meas-
ured a minimum P-wave velocity of 0.04 km/s. They 11.3 The continental margin
used only a 0.1 m distance between the shot and receiver. velocity structures
They calculated a theoretical minimum possible value of
0.013 km/s, considering the top few centimetres of dry Velocities at continental margins, such as that obtained
sand as a suspension of sand in air. in the Atlantic margin seismic experiment described by
The effective elastic modulus (Meff) and the velocity of Holbrook et al., 1994, naturally show some of the high-
the air-quartz mixture were calculated from the following est lateral variations of velocity, plus the familiar
equations: Vp 6.5 km/s to 10 or even 20 km depth beneath the
continental material. Figures 11.24 a and b show vel-
ocities and geological interpretation side by side, for a
1 1 (11.1)
240 km section off the East coast of the US. Short black
Meff Mair Mquartz and white lines are reflectors.
The multi-channel data was acquired using a 177 litre
4 airgun array and 6 km long streamer, and coincident wide-
M K G (11.2) angle data from ten ocean bottom seismic instruments.
3
These seismic results along the US East Coast conti-
nental margin show the presence of a huge, high veloc-
eff (1 )q air (11.3) ity (7.2–7.3 km/s) igneous body of as much as
2.7 106 km3 in volume. This East Coast Margin
Meff Igneous Province (ECMIP) probably extends seaward,
Vp (11.4)
eff making it one of the worlds really large igneous
provinces. The high velocity (in relation to thickness) is
nicely demonstrated in the two further versions of the
The following parameters were used: bulk modulus velocity-depth-distance sections, from Kelemen and
Kquartz 36.6 GPa, shear modulus Gquartz 45 GPa, Holbrook, 1995, shown in Figure 11.25.
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 255
Figure 11.24 US East Coast continental margin velocities (a), densities in kg/m3 (b), and geology (c). Holbrook et al., 1994. Note that black
and white lines are reflectors.
256 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 11.25 Location and velocity-depth trends of two sections (BA-6, and EDGE-801) through the US East Coast margin, showing the
velocity-thickness anomaly. Kelemen and Holbrook, 1995.
11.3.1 Explaining a velocity anomaly This equation was subsequently corrected to lower-
crustal temperatures (400°C) using an assumed dVp/dT
In an effort to understand the likely composition of the gradient of () 0.0005 km/s/°C, by subtracting 0.2 km/s.
rock in this huge magnetic and seismic velocity anomaly, Figure 11.26b shows calculated Vp for rocks crys-
Kelemen and Holbrook, 1995, assembled numerous tallised from mantle melts as a function of the pressure
high pressure laboratory Vp data to try to differentiate of partial melting in the mantle. This was estimated by
the 25 km thick high velocity crust from the general Kelemen and Holbrook, 1995, using their relation:
8 km thick (Vp 6.9 km/s) sub-ocean crust.
Figure 11.26a shows a multiple linear regression fit Vp 6.712 0.16 Pmelting(GPa) 0.661 Fmelting
to 188 garnet-free, igneous and metamorphic rocks. (11.6)
Measured Vp at 25°C and confining pressures from 0.6
to 1.0 GPa, are compared with the bulk composition by where Vp km/s and Fmelting is the melt fraction of the
weight of SiO2 or MgO in the samples. The empirical parental melt, using reported SiO2 and MgO contents,
relation obtained was: and the temperature corrected (0.2 km/s) version of
equation (11.5).
Vp 8.054 0.024 (%SiO2) 0.029 (%MgO) According to Kelemen and Holbrook, 1995, the
(11.5) goodness of fit of equation 11.6 did not substantially
improve when other oxides like FeO, CaO, Al2O3,
(where Vp is km/s). Na2O etc. were entered, because these compositional
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 257
Figure 11.27 Velocity-depth solutions from N and S of the Hawaiian ridge. Brocher and ten Brink, 1987.
below the 6.5 km/s ‘limit’ for intact, strong, highly cracks and joints, in other words, the joint sets that still
stressed rock masses. However there is of course a need remain partly open.
to extrapolate the Q-M-Vp model to greater depths to The author was able to recalculate the hypocentres of
be related even to shallow earthquakes. recent earthquakes using the improved three-dimen-
The amount of detail in depth-velocity structures for sional velocity models, which clearly differentiated the
onshore and offshore southern California (adjacent to the sedimentary basins from the nearby mountains. Hauksson
Pacific and North America plate boundary) was recently also compared his 3D Vp-depth profiles (using double
increased with new 3D Vp and Vp/Vs models using standard deviations) with laboratory Vp measurements
P and S-P travel times from local earthquakes and of triaxially loaded samples from McCaffree et al.,
from controlled sources (Hauksson, 2000). A 15 km 1998.
horizontal grid-spacing, and an average vertical grid It is of interest to note the ‘reluctance’ of the in situ
spacing of 4 km, down to 22 km gave new insight into data in Figure 11.31 to exceed Vp 6.5 km/s – which in
the heterogeneity of crustal structure in this earthquake- the Vp-Q-M model of Barton, 1995, is the supposed
prone region. The near-surface increase in P-wave veloc- limit for completely unjointed rock masses, or rock
ity, from the surface to 8 km depth was found to be masses with neither primary or secondary porosity and
rapid and had a logarithmic shape for stable blocks, but ‘normal’ composition (i.e. granites, gneisses etc.).
was slower and had a more linear slope for sedimentary Presumably the stress levels at 5 or more kilometres
basins (Figures 11.29a, b, c). depth are sufficient to completely close (in a joint-nor-
Ratios of Vp/Vs varied widely in the upper 5 km and mal direction) the apertures of any joints, since stresses of
often fell outside the typical ratio of 1.7 to 1.8 generally the order of 130 MPa and more are close to the expected
seen at lesser depths. Values as high as 1.9 to 2.0 were JCS values of joint walls in the schists, intrusives and
seen in sedimentary basins and in locations below an gneisses. (JCS joint wall compressive strength, Barton
offshore channel (Santa Barbara). High Vp/Vs ratios and Choubey, 1977.) On the other hand with shearing
may be related to the high fluid content of near-surface deformation along the joints, apertures and permeability
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 259
Figure 11.28 Comparison of a) 2D and b) 3D velocity tomograms for San Francisco Bay area crust. c) Range of velocity-depth models pro-
viding solutions to the inverted travel times. Hole et al., 2000.
could remain of finite magnitude at these (and greater) of 1, if we make no allowance for porosity n 1%
depths, as suggested by the work of Zoback and col- or c 100 MPa, or 100 MPa. The relatively low
leagues, reviewed in Chapter 16. velocities of some of the laboratory samples of schist
The 3D velocity data shows mean values of 5.4 and and intrusives (as low as 4.5 to 5.0 km/s at 1 km depth
5.7 km/s at one kilometre depth. In the Q-M-Vp model, equivalent) does suggest that n% and c adjustments
(see Figures 5.36 and 5.37), a significant amount of would be needed to fine-tune Qc rock quality estimates.
jointing and/or alteration along the joints would be There are other important details regarding the vel-
suggested, with a Qc (rock quality) value on either side ocity model for the San Gabriel ranges discussed above
260 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 11.29 Velocity-depth data for a) stable blocks, b) sedimen- Figure 11.30 Vp/Vs ratio trends for a) stable blocks, b) sediment-
tary basins and c) offshore regions off southern ary basins, and c) offshore regions of southern
California. Hauksson, 2000. California. Hauksson, 2000.
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 261
Figure 11.35 Vp and Vs data from hydrostatically confined laboratory samples, plotted as a function of depth in the Blow-Me-Down mas-
sif of the Bay of Islands ophiolite complex Newfoundland. Salisbury and Christensen, 1978.
Figure 11.36 Smoothed envelopes of the same Vp and Vs test data, plus density and dynamic Poisson’s ratio, for the ophiolite Blow-Me-Down
massif samples. Salisbury and Christensen, 1978.
Vs. In contrast, Christensen and Salisbury, 1972, testing cause increased Poisson’s ratio with reducing velocities,
older and shallower depth basalts found Poison’s ratio in contrast to the decrease caused by equi-dimensional
reducing with increased velocity, due to the greater effect (vesicular) pore spaces.
of grain boundary weathering on Vs than Vp. The large Even in 100-m.y.-old sea floor the reduction in vel-
scale joints, fractures and voids in situ are also likely to ocity caused by weathering appeared to only extend to
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 265
Vp 5.94 km/s
Vs 3.26 km/s
2,80 Mg/m3
n 7.8%
while Pe the external stress at the same depth in the Three new experiments carried out on the Mid-Atlantic
crust will be: Ridge (MAR), near latitude 23°N, were described by
Purdy, 1987. The uppermost few hundred metres of
Pe Po r g z (11.8) the oceanic crust were tested using a fixed ocean floor
hydrophone receiver, and a controllable explosive source
Therefore the effective stress Pp Pe will be given by: that was towed within a few tens of metres of the rugged
bottom topography.
Pe Pp (r w)g z (11.9) These 1 to 2 km refraction lines produced direct obser-
vation of the Vp structure of the upper 200 to 300 m
This obvious cause of an effective stress gradient in of the young igneous crust. One of the experiments
the crust was cited by these authors as a reason for was carried out over the site of Hole 648B of the Ocean
measuring velocities in laboratory tests down to zero Drilling Programme on a small volcano within the
effective stress, rather than the practice (at that time) of median valley of the MAR. This was close to a ‘zero age’
measuring velocity at elevated triaxial stress states with location, the two others were 14 km apart, above 7 m.y.
zero pore pressure. old crust. The latter gave higher layer 2A velocities than
Based on an interpretation of the sharp velocity gradi- the ‘zero age’ location.
ents shown in Table 11.3, (where a water depth of 3.4 km The sea floor velocity at ‘zero age’ was observed to be
has been subtracted) and based on Figure 11.40, Spudich 2.1 km/s, overlying an initial 4 s1, roughly 200 m deep,
and Orcutt, 1980b, argued that a vesicular (‘spherical’) linear velocity-depth gradient. The crust at this location
porosity of 18% would match velocities in the top 200 m consisted of fresh basalt lavas, with laboratory measured
of the basalt crust (i.e. 4.6 km/s) and that reductions of velocities in excess of 5.8 km/s (However these tests, car-
porosity to 2% could explain the increased velocity down ried out as early as 1978, were conducted at a confining
268 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
pressure as high as 50 MPa. Later tests in 1984 were also sets at 30° to 60° to the ridge axis of mid-Atlantic Ridge
at high 40 MPa confining pressures, suggesting about oceanic crust could explain their observed horizontal
6.0 km/s for the intact basalt, if ‘artificially’ confined at (azimuthal) velocity anisotropy of up to 0.4 km/s. There
too high pressure). was apparently a negligible seismic influence of perva-
On the basis of the above in situ/laboratory compari- sive ridge-parallel fractures on this anisotropy, which
son, Purdy, 1987, suggested that the 3.7 to 3.9 km/s the authors explained by their infilling by sediment, or
difference in velocities must be due to the presence of hydrothermal precipitation, or by their closure under
large-scale porosity, and various models were discussed. the high ridge-normal principal horizontal stresses.
It was inferred that from 30 to 50% porosity might be In the case of this mid-Atlantic crust of 1.1 to 3.4 m.y.,
needed using conventional arguments about pore shape White and Whitmarsh reported that the top of the
of that period. However, Purdy also referred to the basement had a velocity of approximately 3.7 km/s which
Todd and Simmons, 1972, and Spudich and Orcutt, increased on average at 1.0 to 1.2 s1 in the uppermost
1980b emphasis of the actual importance of effective 2.5 km, giving 6.0 km/s at about 2 km depth. The upper-
stress (subtraction of pore pressure from total stress), most 200–300 m showed higher gradients than this.
which had been used for a long time in soil mechanics, In relation to the Vp-Q-porosity-depth model (Figure
following Terzaghi’s theory of effective stress developed 5.36 in Part I), such velocities would suggest Q-values
earlier in the 20th century. Naturally, with exceptional of about 4 to 6 if the matrix porosity was about 5 to
water pressures of around 30 to 40 MPa, it is under- 10%. If we assume a mean ‘uniaxial’ compressive
standable that the theory of effective stress was appar- strength c of about 200 MPa, then a Q-value of about
ently late in being adopted in this hostile sub-ocean 2 to 3 is suggested, i.e. significantly jointed, perhaps
environment. with the following general character (see Appendix A):
Purdy considered the possibility (‘an elegant solution’)
that increasing differential [sic] (effective) stress could 50 2 0.66
be responsible for the 4 s1 velocity-depth gradient, Q 3 (11.10)
12 4 0.5
and presumed a 4 to 5% per 100 m porosity reduction,
as seen in the first 200 to 300 m of sub-sea layer 2A. In
fact experience from engineering (e.g. tunnelling) proj- At 1000 m depth a velocity of the order of 5.5 to
ects close to the surface, does suggest very high velocity 6.0 km/s would be predicted, if the rock at this depth
gradients when rock quality Q and Q c values (Barton, had unchanged character.
1995; 2002) are a) low and b) are rapidly increasing Christensen, 1984, investigated pore pressure effects
with depth, such as Q 0.1 followed by Q 1 and on basalts and dolerites and verified the strong effect of
very quickly Q 10 etc. i.e. nominal near-surface pore pressure variation on the velocities and on dynamic
‘jumps’ in Vp from 2.5 to 3.5 to 4.5 km/s with a super- Poisson’s ratios. The latter increased significantly as a
imposed stress increase effect on Vp as well. (See later result of increased pore pressure. He discussed the possi-
comments on the question of gradients of velocity, and bilities of over-pressured zones due to seals caused by
‘curve jumping’, i.e. increases of rock quality Q-values rapid accumulation of low permeability clays and shales,
with depth.) and also theorised that release of water accompanying
The reality below the near-surface zone is that both low grade metamorphic reactions in basalts could result
effective stress increases and clay gets compacted, and in excess pore pressure and resulting changes (reductions)
there is less clay as depth increases. Therefore one pro- in seismic velocities, and increases in Poisson’s ratios.
gresses rapidly from low rock quality Q or Q c to higher The authors noted that the pore pressure coefficient was
Q or Q c values quite quickly, with obvious conse- less than 1, and was not a constant for a given sample but
quences for increased Vp. depended on confining pressure and on pore pressure.
The differences between in situ velocity measurement
in the shallow oceanic crust and the higher matrix veloci-
ties measured at suitable (low) effective stress levels, is 11.4.5 Sub-ocean floor attenuation
obviously caused not only by moderate changes to the measurements
matrix porosity but by stress-sensitive (low aspect ratio)
jointing and fracturing. White and Whitmarsh, 1984, Reportedly the first direct measurements of Upper
found that sub-vertical, water-saturated conjugate joint Oceanic Crust compressional wave attenuation were
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 269
Figure 11.41 Selected sub-ocean Qp profiles given by Jacobsen and Lewis, 1990. Variable attenuation, shows only partial consistency of
increasing Qp with depth.
described by Jacobsen and Lewis, 1990, using seafloor is an implicit relation between seismic Q and the rock
hydrophones and large (56 to 116 kg) explosive sources. mass quality Q-based deformation modulus Emass, or M,
The site was on 0.4 m.y. old crust, 13 km SE of the Juan when this is expressed in GPa. The above Vp of 5 km/s
de Fuca Ridge. At the same site a seafloor velocity of suggests a near-surface Q rock 32. Shallow, sub-ocean
2.7 km/s increased uniformly to 5.6 km/s at 679 m seismic Q of 10 to 20 might imply a significant degree of
depth, with gradients as high as 4.6 s1 at the surface ‘structure’, if equivalent Q rock values were, say less than 5.
and 4.1 s1 at depth. Values of seismic Q p obtained by Elsewhere, shallow ocean crust basalts have shown Q p
Jacobsen and Lewis, 1990, varied from 4 to 275, but values of between 20 and 50. Dry samples of oceanic
mostly clustered between about 10 and 20 in the upper basalts from layer 2, tested at (artificially elevated) con-
100 m, which was significantly lower than earlier esti- fining pressures of between 40 and 100 MPa have given
mates based on synthetic seismograms. Q p in the range 5 to 85. Differences are attributed to
They did not find a consistent increase of Q p with crack content, degree of alteration and matrix porosity.
depth, but several sets of data for 1/Q p did show such a These values are lower than the Q p values normally
trend of 1/Q p reducing with depth. (Figure 11.41) The obtained for sound basalts, where values of between 100
variations presumably might be connected with vari- and 600 can often be obtained (Wepfer and Christensen,
able degrees of fracturing or cooling joints, and partial 1990). Wepfer and Christensen, 1987, reporting the
closure with effective stress increases. Their results showed first laboratory measurements of Q p for dry and water-
that Q p was linearly related to frequency between 15 saturated oceanic basalts under appropriate pressure and
and 140 Hz, but frequency-independent components temperature conditions, showed Q p varying from 8 to
of attenuation were also evident. 100 at ultrasonic frequencies. The range was dependent
Pujol and Smithson, 1991, who analysed seismic wave on the state of alteration and porosity.
attenuation from VSP measurements in the Columbia The sudden steps up, and down from, very high
Plateau basalts, found values of Q p of about 50 (with in situ Q p values like 200–300, even negative 1/Qp
Vp 5.0 km/s) that were close to the value of Q p of 40 steps, leads one to question whether the early ship-board
found in Eastern North Sea basalt by Rutledge and triaxial test routines had an element of (local) correct-
Winkler, 1987. As has been argued in Chapter 10, there ness, meaning that some volumes of intact basalt can
270 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
perhaps be subject to high 30 MPa plus-rock-depth con- form of thin ( 0.001) cracks significantly affect seis-
finement loads, interspersed by a majority of permeable mic velocities as these close, but this hardly affects over-
and low effective-stress-loaded permeable blocks. all porosities if thicker cracks and voids remain open.
Near the surface (depth A in Figure 11.42), where
both crack populations were assumed to be open, Shaw,
11.4.6 A question of porosities, 1994, estimated a Poisson’s ratio of 0.28. At intermediate
aspect ratios and sealing depth (B), he postulated that only the thicker ( 0.1)
cracks and voids were open, resulting in an anomalously
Shaw, 1994, using Kuster and Toksöz, 1974 theory, pos- (and as observed) low Poisson’s ratio of 0.24. At greater
tulated that thin cracks preferentially close at shallow depth (C), all cracks were assumed to be sealed, return-
depth while lower aspect-ratio cracks do not. However, ing the velocities to that of the host rock, and Poisson’s
all crack populations were assumed to decrease with ratio was again about 0.28. In older crust, hydrothermal
depth. It was pointed out that even 0.1% porosity in the deposition caused thin cracks to seal first. Thicker cracks
Figure 11.42 Top: a) For young crust: thin and thick cracks at depth A; thin cracks are sealed at depth B, leaving only the thick cracks. b) For
old crust: all cracks are sealed. The above causes a Poisson’s ratio anomaly at depths of about 0.8 to 1.5 km, as shown in dia-
gram d) in relation to Vp and Vs data. Shaw, 1994.
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 271
could remain unclosed and unsealed until the crust was value combinations’, and these may well be parameters
older, which then restored Poisson’s ratio to laboratory of convenience, as Al-Chalabi pointed out. In the rock
values. quality Q-system the ‘convenient’ parameters are clearly
those considered in the formulation of Q, rather than
additional parameters not thought of.
11.4.7 A velocity-depth discussion The non-uniqueness of the parameters in velocity-
depth functions, and the lack of physical significance of
The strong focus on velocity-depth data in these investi- any specific value of a given parameter had been over-
gations of the oceanic crust, in particular the supposedly looked up to then, according to Al-Chalabi, 1997.
‘anomalous’ velocities and gradients discovered in the An investigation of the velocity-depth gradients
mid-ocean fracture zones, should lead us to consider the that are synthesised in the Vp-Q-value-porosity-depth
fundamental non-uniqueness of velocity-depth relations, model of Barton, 1995 follows from Figure 5.36 (Part
as emphasised in a thought provoking article by Al- I), using a plotting format that can readily be compared
Chalabi, 1977. Figure 11.43a shows a smooth velocity- with the oceanic crust fracture zone data of Layer 2A
depth function such as: and 2B.
Figure 11.44 shows the results which were extracted
directly from Figure 5.36 for the case of six specific Q or
Vz Vo k.z (11.11)
Qc-values ranging from 0.001 (intensely fractured, thick
clay-bearing discontinuities) up to 100 (quite massive,
with actual small-scale fluctuations commonly seen in a unweathered competent rock mass with few widely
sonic downhole log. In this simple equation which is spaced joints, principally one set only). See Appendix A
attributed to Slotnick, 1936. Vo is the (P-wave) velocity for relevant – but non-unique – parameter ratings.
at the surface and Vz is the velocity at vertical depth z. The very steep Vp-depth gradients typically seen close
As pointed out by Al-Chalabi, 1977, the fluctuations to the ocean floor, in the first few hundreds of meters of
shown in Figure 11.43a, which represent actual vari- the new crust, could also be analysed with this near-surface
ability (and borehole effects) may not be seen in seismic based empirical method, developed mostly from civil
work, when the seismic wavelength is greater than the engineering and engineering geological projects. Note
scale of the fluctuations.
The actual variations of sonic velocity with depth can
be described by an extremely wide range of ‘parameter
the effect of porosities 1%, which increase strongly in C mean gradient, 500 to 1000 m
influence as one moves from Qc 100 to the lower D mean gradient, 25 to 1000 m
rock qualities (and larger ‘soft porosities’) towards the
left-hand-side of Figure 11.44. In the case of D, giving the overall gradient from V0
In practice there will be a tendency for increased to V1000, the separate effect of increased porosity is shown,
porosities close to the more weathered surface (arrow which moves curves successively to the right. In each
N trend), while with increasing depth, trend N will be of these four cases, a uniaxial compressive strength of
reversed and trend J may dominate (i.e. reduced joint 100 MPa (nominal) has been assumed (giving Qc Q
frequency, mineral healing, increased Q-value and Qc in Figure 5.36). Higher values of c than 100 MPa, due
value, meaning that ‘curve-jumping-to-the-right’ will be to lack of weathering and low porosity would obviously
necessary). This empirically-based, near-surface method give higher surface velocities and a lower gradient
could perhaps help to explain ‘anomalously high’ gradi- k (s1), thereby plotting to the left of these four sets of
ents through Layers 2A and 2B. Both trend N and trend ‘100 MPa hard rock’ lines. The opposite would be the
J stimulate such an effect. case with c 100 MPa (i.e. with younger rocks).
Although ‘parameter value combinations’ in the rock
quality Q-system (Barton et al., 1974, Barton, 2002)
are definitely ‘non-unique’ (as per Al-Chalabi, 1997), 11.4.8 Fracture zones
a physically plausible situation is described by this
empirically-based choice of increasing ‘hard porosity’ The low velocity mid-Atlantic fracture zone studies
close to the surface, and reducing ‘soft porosity’ at depth reviewed in this section, show gradients of 3.0 to 3.5 s1
(higher Qc-values). for the upper 0.5 to 0.8 km, and seabed velocities as low
In a similar manner to the above, we can extract Vp- as 1.9 to 2.7 km/s. Reference to Figure 11.45 suggests
depth gradient (k) data from Figure 11.44, and express that curves B and D with suitably increased porosities
it in the simple form given by equation 11.11. The (nominal 1%) would fit such data very well.
results are shown in Figure 11.45. Data from mid-Atlantic Ridge fracture zone anom-
Four sets of data are shown in Figure 11.45: alies, discovered during the 1970s and 1980s, were
assembled by Detrick et al., 1993. (e.g. Figure 11.46)
A mean gradient, 25 to 100 m (extreme) These emphasise the extreme heterogeneity of their
B mean gradient, 100 to 500 m thickness and internal structure. In general, they consist
Figure 11.45 Analysis of Vp-depth gradients (k, s1) as a function of surface velocity Vo magnitudes, from the Vp-Q-value-depth-porosity
model, Figure 5.36, from Barton, 1995). Based on the Al-Chalabi, 1997 plotting format, shown in Figure 11.43b.
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 273
of thin intensely fractured and hydrothermally-altered rise. Many of the names of researchers will be familiar
basaltic sections, overlying a rather shallow Moho. The after reading or perusing the last section.
sites of some of these investigations are shown in Figure Ewing and Purdy, 1982, both well known for their
11.46a, and a typical structural cross-section is shown in mid-Atlantic ridge studies, assumed a linear velocity-
Figure 11.46b. depth gradient in the upper 500 to 800 m of young (0
Velocity-depth trends for four of the large Atlantic to 4 m.y.) oceanic crust on the flanks of the East Pacific
fracture zones are shown in Figure 11.47. Initial vel- Rise. The data shown in Figure 11.48 indicates an aver-
ocity-depth gradients to 2 km depth appear to vary from age gradient of between 3.0 and 3.5 s1 for the upper
about 2 to 3 s1, though even steeper gradients are seen 0.5 to 0.8 km of oceanic crust, with seabed velocities
in the uppermost 100 to 200 metres. ranging from as little as 1.9 to 2.7 km/s. Ewing and
Purdy suggested that an even higher gradient might
exist in the upper 400 to 500 metres.
11.5 The East Pacific Rise velocity The evidence of very low velocities in the upper-most
structures oceanic crust was reportedly consistent with visual/
submersible and photographic evidence of pervasive
Following the forgoing summary of advances in under- fracturing in mid-ocean ridge crustal regions, where the
standing of mid-ocean ridges and fractured zones for basalt layer was exposed, and it was consistent with
the case of the mid-Atlantic ridge, we will now retrace drilling and logging results that showed high porosity
some of the steps made in studies of the East Pacific (Hyndman and Drury, 1976; Kirkpatrick, 1979).
Spudich and Orcutt, 1980a, had reasoned that a
10% porosity in the form of large fissures, added to a
measured matrix porosity of about 8%, could readily
produce a P-wave velocity of 2.6 km/s. For the case of
rubble zones, Hyndman and Drury, 1976, had esti-
mated a porosity of about 20%.
The Vp-depth data interpretation shown in Figure
11.48 indicated to Ewing and Purdy, 1982 that ‘the
percentage of cracks and voids’ diminished rapidly with
depth, giving a Vp of about 5.2 km/s at 800 m depth. If
we enter the Vp-Q-porosity-depth diagram shown in
Figure 11.44, at a velocity of 2.5 km/s, and at a matrix
porosity of 8%, we see a rock quality Qc value of about
1 (typical of weathered, heavily jointed rock).
At 800 m depth, with assumed unchanged rock mass
quality (but with higher effective stress), the P-wave
velocity is predicted to be 5.3 km/s, almost the same as
above, but without the linear-trend assumption. In other
words, the effect of increased depth may have largely
removed the porosity component created by the tectonic
and thermal fracturing and jointing, but need not have
removed (and indeed could not have removed) the
matrix porosity of a competent volcanic rock which
already had intruded into a pore pressure regime as high
as 30 MPa, resulting from a 3000 m ocean depth.
Ewing and Purdy, 1982 considered that their observed
data showed a significantly lower gradient of about 1 s1
Figure 11.46 a) Simplified tectonic map of North Atlantic fracture below 800 m, which would give a velocity of 6 km/s,
zones. b) Generalised velocity-depth structural cross- appropriate for the ‘solid unweathered basalt’, at about
section of a large Atlantic fracture zone. Detrick 1.5 km depth. They reckoned that this might be a
et al., 1993. reasonable maximum depth of significant fracturing
274 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 11.47 Velocity-depth data from four of the large Atlantic fracture zones. Shaded areas are for ‘normal’ oceanic crust from White, 1984.
although it could be argued that initial fracturing Q-Vp-depth-porosity-strength chart, in Figure 5.36,
extended to greater depth, and some healing has already taking the nominal 25 m line as ‘surface’, the measured
occurred there by compaction and/or cementation’. surface velocities of 3.05 and 2.4 km/s shown in Figure
Purdy, 1982, concurrently reported laterally homoge- 11.49 suggest rock quality Qc values of about 0.5 and
neous velocity-depth behaviour for two areas separated 0.08 (i.e. ‘very poor’ and ‘extremely poor’ engineering
by 110 km on the flanks of the East Pacific Rise. The tunnelling qualities), following which at 400 and 500 m
non-linear Vp-depth curves shown in Figure 11.49, depths, Figure 5.36 predicts velocities of about 4.7 and
which are averages for two areas of 20 to 40 km lateral 4.6 km/s, close to those measured. (Note that the empir-
extent, show, in this case, an inverse relation between ical Vp-Q-depth-porosity-strength relationship was
age and velocity, since the youngest crust has highest determined by trial and error, from land-based refrac-
velocity. Furthermore there was 100 m of sediment tion seismic in jointed and faulted rocks, and from both
overlying the older of the two sets of crustal data, which shallow and very deep cross-hole tomography measure-
would tend to add to the recorded velocity, yet it remains ments, each with Q-logging of relevant core).
lower than the youngest Vp-depth curve. The less steep gradients of about 2 s1 over the next
As a point of curiosity, the initial parts of the 500 m depth to 1 km were the result of measured vel-
curves to the ‘knees’ at 400 and 600 m have gradients ocities of about 5.8 and 5.4 km/s. These compare to
of about 4.2 and 4.4 s1. With reference to the predicted velocities of about 5.5 and 5.3 km/s, from
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 275
11.5.2 First sub-Pacific ocean core In general the uppermost 100 m was an aquifer of
with sonic logs and rubbly pillow basalts, breccias and a few massive flows,
permeability tests and greatest variability and largest velocity gradients
occurred here. The next 0.5 km was composed of pil-
At the beginning of the 1980s, in a sub-ocean Deep Sea low basalts, flows and breccias with an abundance of
Drilling Project borehole in the eastern equatorial Pacific minerals and alteration products. Basalt dikes were
ocean, in the Costa Rica Ridge area, it was possible for typical in the lower 350 m. Velocities, porosities and per-
the first time to correlate core (but usually of low % meabilities varied approximately as shown in Table 11.4.
recovery) with downhole sonic logs, borehole televiewer The fact that average recovery of core was only 20%
logs, and permeability test results. This was first per- suggests many vertical and sub-vertical discontinuities
formed to a depth of 1 km, through layers 2A, 2B and were not sampled. Several of the well logs suggested the
2C. A schematic section and downhole logging results presence of zones of intense fracturing and open porosity,
from Newmark et al., 1985, is shown in Figure 11.53. but the reducing permeabilities with depth clearly sup-
Based on the vertical borehole logging (i.e. biased ported the general observation of increased mineral sealing
against vertical structure) the upper 50 metres contained with depth, and presumably increasing effective stress
numerous horizontal to sub-horizontal fractures, thick effects as well. (Of course the second leads to the first, if
basalt flow units, and thin interbeds of pillow structures. finest fractures are preferentially sealed).
Figure 11.53 Downhole (504B) sonic velocities and schematic structure of 1 km of oceanic 2A, 2B and 2C crust, from the equatorial east-
ern Pacific (Costa Rica Ridge area). Newmark et al., 1985. Note sediment and rock velocity contrast.
278 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Table 11.4 Approximate velocities, porosities and permeabilities from downhole measurements in the top 1 km of Hole
504B, equatorial Pacific ridge. After Newmark et al., 1985.
Figure 11.55 An interpretation of possible permeability trends in the first 1600 m of ocean crust, based on parallel-plate modelling, with
matrix addition, plus measured permeabilities from various sources. See van Everdingen, 1995, for references.
apertures were caused during negative effective normal 11.5.3 Attenuation and seismic Q due
stress episodes, as seems likely in sill and dike intru- to fracturing and alteration
sions, they would not reflect ‘virgin’ permeabilities, as
existing prior to the hydrothermal fluid injections. On Swift et al., 1998a described the seismic attenuation, for
the basis of this reasoning, the ‘fossil’ apertures observed the upper 1.8 km of Hole 504B (Costa Rica Ridge area:
in recovered core may not accurately reflect the porosity see upper 1 km of permeability data in Table 11.4 from
available at the time of hydrothermal fluid injection. Newmark et al., 1985). About 60% of the total observed
280 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 11.56 VSP and sonic log measurements in upper 1.6 km of Hole 504B. VSP Poisson’s ratio log also shown. Qi (intrinsic) values are from
Swift et al., 1998a with Qs (scattering) values at 10 m intervals from Goldberg and Yin, 1994. Note the very high dynamic
Poisson’s ratios at shallow depth, derived from the VSP Vp and Vs values, due to thin flows, pillow lava, and breccia.
shown should occur with relatively thin cracks or joints, about 800m depth, failed to detect the low velocity that
having aspect ratios less than 0,005 in an otherwise would ‘normally’, (nearer the surface), be an obvious
isotropic solid. feature of such a fault: see Figures 8.25 and 8.26 in Part I.
Swift et al., 1998b gave an interesting comparison of
laboratory data (open circles in Figure 11.57) obtained
apparently from 100 MPa confinement, with Vp, Vs and 11.5.4 Seismic attenuation
dyn trends obtained from VSP. The 100 MPa tomography across the East
confinement applied in earlier laboratory studies was an Pacific Rise
incorrect simulation of an actual much lower effective
stress gradient, as discussed earlier in this chapter. Possibly Some results of the first three-dimensional tomographic
some effect of a correct effective stress gradient might have study of crustal seismic attenuation across the East Pacific
been observed on the intact samples, if this had been Rise near 9°30N, dating from 1988, was reported by
applied. We can see that, in relation to this presumably Wilcock et al., 1995. The rather unique layout of 480
unrealistic 100 MPa confinement, there is up to 2 km/s explosive charges distributed over an ocean-bottom
deviation (reduction) of in situ P-wave velocities due to 16 16 km grid is reproduced in Figure 11.58. Solid
structure, at the top of the hole. The difference is more symbols are ocean bottom receivers, which included
than 3 km/s in the case of S-waves, presumably due to the analogue and digital hydrophones and seismometers.
water-filled structure close to the ocean floor. Bathymetric contours (m) are also shown. The East
Swift et al., 1998b suggested that large-scale, well- Pacific Rise near 9°30N is a fast spreading ridge, charac-
oriented vertical fractures (i.e. a joint set) formed tectoni- terized by a sharp upper-crustal to mid-crustal velocity
cally, did not have a detectable effect on P-wave velocities. inversion some 1.5 to 2 km below the seafloor, presumed
Presumably this is an expression of the effect of tight to be the roof of an axial magma lense. Small mid-crustal
closure by stress, which has also been observed in the case (i.e. 3 to 5 km deep) magma chambers appear to be a
of an obvious fault ahead of a (stuck) TBM tunnelling common feature of these fast-spreading ridges. Since a
machine. (Seismic velocity tomography performed from narrow lense of partly melted rock would solidify rapidly
diverging holes ahead of the particular tunnel face at in a cooling environment dominated by hydrothermal
perpendicular to the rise (Macdonald, 1982). fault and over 10 km from the nearest second order
Unfortunately there were insufficient axis-parallel paths discontinuity.
in the tomographic investigation of Wilcock et al., The main features revealed were a thin low velocity
1995, to distinguish the two orientations. layer 2A consisting of about 80 m of (nearly) constant
velocity rock (2.45 3% km/s at the sea floor) fol-
lowed by a steep gradient through 150 m of rock to the
11.5.5 Continuous sub-ocean floor base of layer 2A. The thickness of the 4 km/s iso-velocity
seismic profiles contour was mostly 130 20 m, increasing to 180 m
towards the north. This implied a maximum Vp-depth
As time went by, investigations of the mid-oceanic gradient of about (4.0 2.45)/0.05 31 through a
ridge areas become even more extensive with the added 50 m section compares with the also very steep gradients
possibility to compare new results with ever more numer- at shallow depth in jointed (sub-continental) rock masses
ous earlier studies. An integrating report of this nature by shown in Figure 11.44, as derived from the Q-Vp-
Kappus et al., 1995, also described a high-resolution seis- depth-porosity-strength model of Barton, 1995, 2002).
mic velocity profile of the uppermost 500 m of East Figure 11.60 shows the velocity of the top layer
Pacific Rise crust at 13°N, along a 52 km segment of the 2A (mean 2.45 km/s) and the thickness of the 4 km/s
ridge crest. The continuous profile, synthesised from 70 iso-velocity contour (mostly 130 20 m). Velocities at
individual 1-D models spaced at 750 m, showed remark- the top of layer 2A and at the top of layer 2B are shown
able lack of variation. The 53 km segment was however in Figure 11.61. A reflection deeper in the crust (tri-
more than 100 km from the nearest first order transform angles) at a velocity of 5.5 to 6.1 km/s is also shown.
Figure 11.60 a) Velocity at top of layer 2A (mean 2.45 km/s) and b) thickness of layer 2A where the 4 km/s iso-velocity contour is found (130
to 180 m). Kappus et al., 1995.
Figure 11.61 Velocities at top of layer 2A (circles) and at top of layer 2B (squares). A reflection deeper in the crust (triangles) was interpreted
as the lid of a magma chamber. Kappus et al., 1995.
284 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 11.62 Seismic velocity structure of the upper 500 m of a 52 km long segment along the mid-oceanic ridge crest of the East Pacific
Rise. Kappus et al., 1995.
(a) (b)
Figure. 11.63 Average P-wave velocity-depth curve and standard deviation for 70 profiles covering a 52 km segment of the ridge crest, to a
depth of 400 m. Kappus et al., 1995.
The relative uniformity of much of the 52 km long the seafloor. This transition to an entirely different (2B)
segment (measured at 70 locations) is further emphasised gradient is seen more easily in Figure 11.63, which
by the strikingly beautiful contoured velocities shown shows the average velocity depth behaviour (solid lines)
in Figure 11.62, which show rapid increases in velocity and the mean of N and S parts of the segment (dashed
at first followed by slower increases due to longer depth lines). A starting model of velocity versus depth, and
intervals. various iterations is shown in Figure 11.64.
The base of layer 2A was assumed to be the lower For the purpose of estimating gradients, the average
part of the steep velocity gradient at about 230 m below velocity-depth data is reproduced in Table 11.5. This data
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 285
0 2.25 0.000
40 2.38 0.135
80 2.57 0.240
120 3.17 0.350
160 3.82 0.323
200 4.36 0.289
240 4.71 0.217
280 4.88 0.158
320 5.00 0.140
360 5.10 0.140
400 5.19 0.138
440 5.26 0.141
480 5.36 0.172
Figure 11.65 Comparison of Kappus et al., 1995, mean Wide Aperture Profile data with the rock engineering Q c-Vp -depth-porosity-strength
model derived from Barton, 1995, 2002. A UCS value of 100 MPa gives Q Q c.
Figure 11.66 Waveform inversion results from measurements on the East Pacific Rise near 14°S. Thinner lines show the one standard devi-
ation error band. Collier and Singh, 1998.
applied full wave form inversion to interpret sub-ocean for the initial high value of 0.48. Their results included
crustal structure beneath the East Pacific Rise near 14° S. an estimate of seismic Qp in the low range of 18–30
They provided evidence of extremely high dynamic across layer 2A, with increases at greater depth, as
Poisson’s ratios as high as 0.48, with a sharp drop to shown in Figure 11.66.
0.25 within 200 m of the ocean floor, across the 2A/2B Their calculations suggested a porosity in excess
transition. A very low Vs in the upper 50 to 100 m thick of 30% in layer 2A, which reduced to 6–7% at the
layer-2A (Vp 1.9 km/s, Vs 0.4 km/s) was responsible top of the 2A/2B transition, and further reduced to
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 287
Depth below
seafloor Vp (approx.) Qc (approx.) Gradient (s1)
Figure 11.70 Vp-depth models of upper oceanic crust from inver- Figure 11.71 Layer 2A velocity as a function of age (at top of
sion of 17 OBH split profiles, on 0.5 to 8.3 m.y. layer). New results (star-symbols) and various results
crust, from the East Pacific Rise at 14°S. Note the from referred studies, including Carlson, 1998
three age groupings. Grevemeyer et al., 1999. (solid circles). Grevemeyer et al., 1999.
Figure 11.72 The rock quality Vp-depth-Qc curves with rule-of-thumb estimates for the approximate permeability (m/s) caused by the ‘soft’
porosity (i.e. the jointing). As in the case of pre-grouting with micro-cements ahead of tunnels, one can argue for improve-
ment of various Q-parameter ratings through sealing-mineralization, provided that clay and layer-lattice minerals are not
involved. Harder minerals will have cumulative positive effects on Q-values, and therefore on permeability and other linked
rock engineering parameters. ‘Curve-jumping’ or ‘Q-jumping’ can therefore occur. Based on Barton, 2002.
of heat flow, sediment thickness and sediment perme- along the Q or Qc ‘isoquality’ curves. It is relatively easy
ability, governed the evolution of the seismic properties to invoke this ‘jointed rock’ model as an analogue to
of upper ocean crust. explain a surface or near-surface permeability, as referred
Since massive, non-vesicular basalt has a P-wave veloc- above, of about 105 m/s (1012 m2), with increases to
ity of about 7 km/s (Wilkens et al., 1988), then mature 106 and 107 m/s (1013 and 1014 m2), as age allows
sealed ocean crust, with velocities nearer 4 km/s, must the effective rock mass quality to rise, due to mineraliza-
have a residual porosity consisting of vesicules, fractures, tion sealing in some of the ‘soft’ porosity. At the nomi-
breccia and inter-pillow voids. Most importantly, it is nal 25 m deep ‘surface’ drawn in Figure 11.72, Qc
actually under a low effective stress, just as at the earth’s changing from 0.01 through 0.1 to 1 (i.e. ‘curve jump-
surface, despite (and because of ) 30 to 40 MPa hydro- ing’ due to improving quality with age) implies permea-
static pressure, and because of the shallow sediment and bility reducing from 105 through 106 to 107 m/s.
rock cover. We can express these analogues for rock mass quality
In the rock quality world of Q and Qc (Qc improvement with age, due to sealing-mineralization
Q c/100) there is a rough rule-of-thumb (Barton, (as opposed to clay-lubrication) in another way in the
2002) that due to different degrees of ‘soft’ porosity Vp-Qc-M-L interaction nomogram in Figure 11.73.
caused by jointing, the Lugeon value (1L 107 m/s Here we have marked the above analogue for perme-
or 1014 m/s) is approximately inversely proportional to ability reduction with age (roughly 105 to 106 to
Qc. This applies in a central range of rock quality, uncom- 107 m/s) at the nominal near-surface depth of 25 m
plicated by clay sealing of joints, which reduces both Q (central diagonal), and at 50 m. Also shown is the implied
and permeability together, thereby defeating the inverse improvement of modulus of (static) deformation for
proportionality. the rock mass: 2 to 5 to 10 GPa, based on the simple
In Figure 11.72, shown earlier in connection with empirical relation (units: GPa):
velocity-depth gradients, the above rule-of-thumb per-
meabilities have been marked at appropriate depths M(or E mass ) 10Q 1/3
c (11.12)
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 291
Figure 11.73 The rock quality Qc-Vp-M-L interaction nomogram, with appended ‘circles’ to mark the engineering consequences of ‘curve-
jumping’ on permeability, modulus and velocity. After Barton, 2002.
11.6.2 The analogy of pre-grouting need for rock support (bolting and shotcreting quantities
as a form of mineralization are reduced), and of course reduced or negligible inflows.
Permeability K (m/s) may reduce from 105 to 108,
In this final section of Chapter 11, a possible rock engin- 106 to 108 or 107 to 108 m/s, the relative degree of
eering analogy to the hydrothermal mineral sealing of improvement being related to the ‘severity’ of pre-treat-
ocean-floor basalts will be demonstrated, using the ment conditions. Higher pressure injection, from 5 to
analogy of high pressure (5 to 10 MPa) pre-injection 10 MPa excess pressures (above joint water pressure), can
pressures used in an ‘umbrella’ of numerous (20 to 40) cause permeabilities to reduce to between 108 and
boreholes, which are commonly drilled and injected 109 m/s. There is an interpreted 1 to 5 litres of grout per
ahead of leaking tunnels, or where there is environmen- 1 m3 of (locally-injected) rock mass in successful, high-
tal sensitivity at the surface and significant inflows to pressure grouting (Barton, 2004a). In other words there is
the tunnel cannot be allowed. the effect of some joint deformation close to the injection
The argument for improved rock mass quality due holes, made permanent by the subsequent hardening.
to the sealing (by micro-cement and micro-silica) of Such would also be expected during hydrothermal
successive joint sets, is based on the evaluation of individ- episodes of injection, the subsequent ‘fossil’ mineral fill-
ual Q-parameter descriptions and ratings. Each small ings therefore somewhat exaggerating the pre-injection
improvement, like the reduction of the number of effect- apertures and permeabilities, despite some subsequent
ive joint sets due to sealing (i.e. Jn reduces, see Appendix pressure adjustment prior to crystallization. Sealing of
A), may have cumulative effects on rock qualities Q and major channels is ‘a problem’ in both scenarios, because
Qc. There exists in situ proof of improved qualities due to any continued flow will tend to hinder crystallization/
observations of improved stability, less deformation, less hardening in the two processes.
292 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 11.74 Three-dimensional permeability monitoring (hydro-tomography) performed before and after grouting, showing rotation of
permeability tensors, and reduction in principal magnitudes. Quadros and Correa Filho, 1995; Barton and Quadros, 2003.
Velocity structure of the earth’s crust 293
Table 11.7 A hypothetical model of potential Q-parameter improvements as a result of both pre-injection with micro-
cement (in tunnelling) and through (hard, resistant) mineral sealing in sub-ocean crust.
30 1 0.5
Before pre-grouting Q 0.3 (i.e. prior to mineralization)
9 2 2.5
50 2 0.66
After pre-grouting Q 11 (i.e. after mineralization)
6 1 1
RQD J J
Q r w
Q 0.3 Q 11 Jn Ja SRF
c
Qc Q
100
As referred to in Chapter 9, it has also been shown by joint sets that may be sealed. More likely, the three sets
Quadros and Correa Filho, 1995 and Barton and represented by Jn 9, could be reduced to two sets
Quadros, 2003 that permeability tensors can rotate and (Jn 4), or even to one set (Jn 2). On the other hand,
reduce in magnitude as a result of grouting. This is shown the grout is an ‘inferior’ fill in relation to hard rock, and
in Figure 11.74. It appears to be evidence of successive may not then provide the expected increases in velocity
sealing of the joint sets, starting presumably with the set and modulus, shown by the empirical equations in Table
that is under least normal stress (probably nearly paral- 11.7. So a greatly increased apparent Q-value, would not
lel to max), or with the most permeable set (or sets) per- then give realistic velocity improvements.
haps caused by (conjugate) shearing and dilation. This The exception would be the case of injection into
presumably could also govern the chronological order of weak rocks with comparable compressive strengths and
deposition in hydrothermally opened fractures and major densities (roughly 20–30 MPa and 1.5 gm/cm3). A beau-
inter-connected pore space in the sub-ocean basalts. tiful example of an igneous intrusion into what was, or
The mechanism by which rock mass quality and rock has since become a weaker rock is shown in Figure 11.75.
mass velocity increases, as a result of both successful pre- This could act as a reminder that the injected hydrother-
grouting and ‘successful’ mineralization of sub-ocean mal fluids, and of course magma, if subsequently very
crust (as it gets hotter due to sediment sealing), could be stiff compared to the surrounding rock, will tend to be
as in Table 11.7 (see Appendix A for descriptions and jointed due both to cooling and deformation, thereby
ratings of the six parameters). maintaing a level of permeability at depth.
The hypothesised improvements in Q-parameters are
very conservative particularly concerning the number of
294 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure. 11.75 An igneous intrusion (dike) tends to have elevated permeability due to the number of joint sets (typically four: Jn 15). High-
modulus mineralized veins may be fractured by subsequent tectonic deformation, helping to maintain some permeability
despite the ‘sealing’ process. (see Plate 2)
12 Rock stress, pore pressure,
borehole stability and
sonic logging
By their very nature, hydrocarbon-bearing rocks rely on to stress-fracturing, increased permeability, and acceler-
pore-space and permeability for the possibility of hav- ated mud-filtrate invasion. The frequent development
ing recoverable reserves that can be produced at a well. of a near-wellbore, tangentially-distributed discontin-
The necessary entrapment beneath a shale-sealed anti- uum, in cases of insufficiently mud-supported rocks,
cline or by the juxtaposed impermeable layer caused by may perhaps have been overlooked, when modelling
fortuitous faulting, are two basic scenarios for the present- infiltration.
day existence of the reserve. The necessary migration of
the hydrocarbons from source rocks into potential
entrapment structures, without escape to the atmosphere, 12.1 Pore pressure, over-pressure,
adds to the adverse statistics of hydrocarbon explor- and minimum stress
ation. Too close to the surface the sealing properties of
shale, salt or clay-smear in faults, may have been com- Before addressing the details of seismic signatures of
promised by lack of plasticity and too high permeabil- reservoir rocks, caused by numerous environmental
ity. Too deep, the pore space and permeability of the effects such as pressure, temperature and fluid type in
reservoir may be compromised, giving a reduced reserve Chapter 13 (at laboratory rock physics scale) and in
and the need for permeability enhancement and gradi- Chapters 14 and 15 (at reservoir-scale), it is appropriate
ent enhancement, or a decision for non-development. to consider the components and modifiers of the most
Following seismic interpretation of potential fundamental of reservoir parameters, namely the effect-
hydrocarbon-bearing structures, the need for expensive ive stress magnitude. The rock stress and its variations
exploratory drilling and well-testing follows. Besides with direction, depth and location, and the pore pres-
reservoir access for production testing, the hole is used sure and sometimes over-pressure which are influenced
for sonic logging and selected side-wall and regular core by compaction and also by fluid type, are the major
recovery, to better define the properties of the different boundary conditions. Their relative magnitudes affect
lithologies, seals and reservoir rocks. Fortunately, or both the laboratory test simulations, the drilling pro-
unfortunately according to viewpoint and tools avail- gramme, the production planning, and the reservoir
able, rock reacts to the drilling of boreholes with a com- production and depletion, possibly for 50 years or
plex coupling of rock stress and strength magnitudes more in a large reservoir.
(plus the anisotropies of each), not forgetting the neces-
sary subtraction of pore pressure for conversion of the
three principal stresses to effective stresses. The appropri- 12.1.1 Pore pressure and over-
ate selection of wellbore ‘temporary support’ in the form pressure and cross-
of mud pressure, using variable mud weight, deter- discipline terms
mines the state of the borehole wall in the different
lithologies, prior to setting and cementing the casing. Without attempting too much detail, since ‘pore pressure
Due to various opinions about an ‘alteration zone’ analyst’ has become a speciality career choice for numer-
around the wells, there is now widespread acceptance ous petroleum engineers, it is worthwhile following the
of the need for logging while drilling (LWD) with helpful philosophy of Bruce and Bowers, 2002, and men-
monopole and dipole tools, to obtain ‘early’ velocity tioning various cross-discipline differences for describing
responses, which may differ significantly from subse- the effects of pore pressure and over-pressure. Reproduc-
quent wireline logging. The differences are probably due ing selected diagrams from their practical article, we see
296 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 12.3 Example of high-pressure well from Bowers, 2002, where velocity (and resistivity) undergo reversals, due to ‘under
compaction’.
Figure 12.6 The driller’s dilemma: avoidance of lost circulation Figure 12.8 Compilation of North American reservoir (and
(hydraulic fracturing or jacking), with the simultan- harder rock) and h min/v(Ko) ratios as a function
eous need to support the rock walls of the well before of depth. Swolfs, 1977.
casing is in place. Bradley, 1978.
Figure 12.9 A general tendency for lower Ko ratios (h min/v) in weaker rocks like shale and siltstone, according to hydraulic stress meas-
urements at 100 to 300 m depth. Barton, 1981; Barton, 1986.
Figure 12.12 A wide collection of failure modes for circular openings. Upper pair: from Maury, 1987 (ISRM commission on failure modes).
Second pair: from NGI joint industry project and Addis et al., 1990. Third pair: left - deep log-spirals from NGI study by
Rawlings, 1991, right – slotted breakouts sketched from Haimson, 2003. See Lee and Haimson, 2006 for recent results.
Bottom pair: from NGI joint industry project: Bandis, 1988. Undrained shear strengths (in kPa) from centre: 0–5 (f ), 5–10
(p), 10–30 (p), 70–75 (c), 40–50 (s), and 50–60 (v). (f: flow, p: plastic, c: compacted, s: softening, v: virgin). See Zoback
et al. 2003 for detailed theoretical analysis of break-out phenomena.
304 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Table 12.1 Failure and deformation modes typical in tunnels (after Barton, 2004b) may also apply at greatly reduced scale to the mini-EDZ
that are likely to occur locally, where insufficient mud-weight has been applied.
1. Hard, massive, brittle rocks that dilate during failure even Extension failure, thin-walled stress-slabbing, dynamic ejection,
when stresses are high. Stress-induced failure may be delayed bursting. The symmetric ‘dog-eared’ fall-out due to the anisotropic
as ‘strength corrosion’ occurs. stresses may have a ‘nose’.
2. Hard or medium hard, bedded and jointed rock that can Anisotropic response. Shear stress dissipates by slight shear on
shear and dilate along structural planes, while under moderate bedding planes and joints. Deformations are moderate. Block falls
to high stress levels. can occur.
3. Soft, massive, non-brittle rocks that may, or may not dilate Failure may occur by log-spiral shear development and tangential
during shear failure. Typical for young e.g. Tertiary rocks such strain. Radial deformations are large, and pressure on support is
as the mudstones and siltstones in Japan. high. Multi-diameter influence.*
4. Very soft, plastic rocks (and clays) that contract when sheared Post peak strength loss reaches an extreme of virtual ‘flow’, with
under significant stress levels. in-rush of failed material.
(*Twin tunnels need pillars 4 to 5 times their span c.f. Japan, Taiwan, in order to minimise excavation interaction)
debris, filling a 70 m2 tunnel for 100 m has also been terms it is a case of ‘c then tan ’, not ‘c tan ’.
seen by the writer, in the Pinglin tunnels in Taiwan. Numerical models that are programmed, or manually-
Water pressures may of course be fundamental catalysts steered, to dissipate cohesion while mobilizing friction
for such dramatic and sometimes tragic events. are capable of matching observed behaviour. The BEM
The ‘slotted’ failures described by Haimson, 2003, (Boundary Element) fracture mechanics code FRACOD
were obtained in polyaxially-loaded blocks of Berea (Shen et al., 2002) seems to model log-spiral fracture
sandstone, with 23 mm diameter hole-drilling while development, and over-stress dissipation, in a particu-
under stress, parallel to the intermediate vertical stress. larly realistic way.
Haimson’s samples with 17% porosity developed ‘con- If stress anisotropy (and stress magnitudes in relation
ventional’ dog-earing, while the weaker 22% and 25% to rock strengths) are sufficient to cause break-out, then
porosity samples developed increasing lengths of sym- clearly the principal horizontal stress direction is easy to
metric ‘slotting’ (see simple holes-with-slots traced from predict from calliper logs, it being at right-angles to the
the experimental results, reproduced in Figure 12.12). The largest well diameter in the case of a vertical well. This
uniaxial strengths of the three sandstones were 53 MPa, ‘simple’ situation may be disturbed by break-out caused
42 MPa and 22 MPa respectively. The depicted ‘slotting’ by structure, i.e. steeply dipping jointing causing wedge-
occurred during drilling, with principal applied bound- shaped fall-outs assisted by local bedding.
ary stresses of 50, 60 and 90 MPa, i.e. up to four-times Such mechanisms are a sign of a mini-EDZ that is in
the uniaxial strength of the weakest sandstone. progress around the well, and one that could be used in
Table 12.1, from Barton, 2004b, summarizes a quite dedicated, azimuthal, short-base, well-logging. The
complete range of failure and deformation behaviours influence of stress fracturing on velocity anisotropy,
for tunnels, with potential relevance to mini-EDZ devel- including but beyond the pre-failure states investigated
opment around boreholes, and possible consequences for by Plona et al., 1997, means that there will be anisotrop-
sonic logging, and for bed-property enhancement or ically distributed fracturing around eventual over-stressed
degradation, as discussed above. part of a well, that had not been adequately supported
As emphasised by Barton, 2004b, the actual modes by mud pressure.
of physical behaviour experienced by boreholes and To emphasise (and probably exaggerate) the likeli-
tunnels, are unlikely to be predictable when modelling hood of possible serious differences in EDZ-potential
with conventional Mohr-Coulomb type (c tan ) down a well in alternating hard/soft rocks, one may refer
shear strength criteria, because rock tends to fail first again to some of the borehole stability studies reported
by loss of continuity at small strain, caused by loss of by Addis et al., 1990. These were performed in the late
local tensile or cohesive strength, followed by frictional 1980s at the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, in a
mobilization at larger strain. In modified Mohr-Coulomb joint oil-industry study. Figure 12.13 shows one of the
Rock stress, pore pressure, borehole stability and sonic logging 305
of earth science’s favourite continuum theories to be demonstrates a distinct rotation of the dark grey-scale,
ignored, and instead we witnessed the development (in from a ‘NNE-SSW’ to ‘E-W’ azimuth. The grey-scale
every case), of a 1 to 2 diameter wide zone of log-spiral represents F. of S. 1.0.
failure surfaces, making in effect a discontinuum, which
actually allowed the wall-rock to dissipate the highest
shear stresses further into the surrounding rock, just as 12.5 The EDZ caused by joints,
occurs in tunnelling through over-stressed ‘squeezing’ fractures and bedding-planes
rock. A ‘radial’ strain is observed in the opening – there
is measured radial closure – but the reality is tangential Due to the influence of deformation of ‘soft’ as opposed
strain due to the log-spiral shearing. This mechanism to ‘hard’ porosity, a borehole for hydrocarbon explor-
has been well documented by Aydan et al., 1992. ation that penetrates variably jointed and faulted
These three-dimensional failure surfaces ‘followed ground, will actually experience variable small amounts
the borehole’, and also curved in front of the face of the of deformation, due to different degrees of joint closure,
hole, whenever the holes were drilled into the highly joint opening, and joint shearing. There will also be the
stressed blocks of rock simulant. This was seen follow- pseudo-elastic response, due to both loading (at the dia-
ing sectioning. Such an EDZ, developed in an insuffi- metrically-opposite max locations) and potential
ciently mud-supported weakness zone, or in a bed of unloading (at the diametrically-opposite min loca-
shale adjacent to a reservoir sandstone (with insuffi- tions) of the matrix as well as the joints, the latter usually
cient hmin to tolerate higher mud weight), would tend dissipating some of the theoretical (isotropic, elastic)
to locally accentuate both the expected low seismic peaks of maximum and minimum tangential stress.
velocity, and an expected low seismic Q value, that This process will occur even with a constant mud-
could be obtained from seismic logging. weight, since the mud – unlike rock bolts in a tunnel –
Before leaving rock failure mechanisms in the intact cannot prevent joint movements of unequal magnitude
matrix around boreholes, a hybrid (intact plus jointed) at different points around the opening, although the
result will be shown from modelling with the FRACOD mud may help to make them very small.
fracture mechanics BEM code of Shen, described in Shen Figure 12.17 shows four idealized, two-dimensional
et al. 2002. The two models shown in Figure 12.15, per- models of circular hole excavations in anisotropically
formed by Shen for the case of a deep excavation under loaded ‘blocky-rock’, with four successively reduced block
high stress, had deliberately sparse jointing. Different lev- sizes. There are 250, 1000, 4000 and 10,000 blocks in the
els of ‘log-spiral-type failure are demonstrated, depending respective models. Two of the coarsest block geometries
on the ‘disturbance’ to stress distributions, caused by are shown in the top of the figure, while all four of the
jointing, which dissipates some of the highest, near-wall joint-shearing fields are given. The reducing block sizes
tangential stresses. can be glimpsed within the two lower models. These
The resultant ‘dispersed’ fracturing (as opposed to models represent ‘crushed zones’ at borehole scale, i.e.
jointing) would presumably be a strong source of scat- gross approximations to fault-zone-crossing stability
tering attenuation – and velocity reduction. Note that problems.
the principal applied stress levels in the case of this Figure 12.18 demonstrates analytical Mohr-Coulomb
strong rock were only about 35–38% of the uniaxial formulations used by Shen to produce the general result
strengths. A brittle sandstone of 50 MPa UCS would be for zones of shearing on differently inclined, conjugate or
acted on by an equivalent ratio of effective stress beyond perpendicular joint sets. The four-sector EDZ, at roughly
about 1200–1300 m depth, with standard density and 45°, 135°, 225° and 315° is bisected by the two applied
pore pressure assumptions, considering a H max value boundary principal stresses, e.g. a ‘N-S’ H and an ‘E-W’
no larger than the vertical effective stress. h. Shear displacements occur on the joints in these four
Of particular interest to the frequent velocity discrep- sectors, even when stresses are isotropic, as shown by
ancy between LWD and later wireline logging of the UDEC-MC or UDEC-BB modelling of tunnels through
same formation (see later examples), is the possible horizontally and vertically jointed rock.
development of fracturing over time, and the result this A more realistic model of ‘fractured rock’ (such as
has on the ‘factor of safety’ against further shear failure. might be found in the neighbourhood of fault zones),
Figure 12.16 shows two episodes of fracture develop- actually representing slightly random jointing in tuff, is
ment over time from the same FRACOD model, and shown in Figure 12.19. The model represents a bored
Rock stress, pore pressure, borehole stability and sonic logging 307
(a) (a)
(b) (b)
Figure 12.15 Fracture mechanics BE modelling of circular openings Figure 12.16 Fracture development over time in a FRACOD
in high over-burden environments, using the FRA- model of a circular opening in a jointed zone. Note
COD code developed and demonstrated by Shen. The the ‘rotation’ of the diametral-pair of red regions,
modelled rock mass was hard and of high modulus which represent low factors of safety against shear fail-
(UCS 160 MPa, M 50 GPa), with assumed shear ure. Further fracturing dissipates and displaces the
strength of c 40 MPa, 35° and appropriate low F. of S. zones, suggesting that more fracturing
fracture toughnesses at the modelled effective stress could occur across the ‘E-W’ diameter. Changed seis-
levels of 30 to 60 MPa. a) EDZ with sparse jointing mic response over time is easy to imagine, also a mud-
and 1 (‘NS’) of 55 MPa and with 2 (‘EW’) of 40 MPa. filtrate invasion speed that could be highly
b) EDZ with significant jointing and 1 (‘EW’) of non-uniform, due to developing permeability in the
60 MPa and with 2 (‘NS’) of 30 MPa. Note: deform- partly connected discontinuum. Nick Barton &
ations do not track subsequent fall-out/loosening. Associates 2005 contract report. See Figure 12.15
Nick Barton & Associates contract report, 2005. for input data. (See plate 3).
308 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 12.17 Shear deformation zones developed around circular openings, as a result of slip along both joint sets, when excavated under
anisotropic stress, and when with limited joint strength, e.g. due to clay-smear or general smoothness. Cundall’s distinct-
element UDEC-MC code (with Mohr-Coulomb sub-routine), was used for the analyses, with four successively reduced block
sizes. Note the increasing multi-diameter EDZ, as block size and therefore rock quality reduces. Line thickness depicts joint
shear magnitude. Shen and Barton, 1997.
Figure 12.18 Theoretical, Mohr-Coulomb based solutions for shear displacement zones
involving slip on conjugate joint sets. Note that the largest joint-shearing
EDZ is for the 60° case, in which shear stress is maximized relative to the
joint directions. The smallest joint-shearing EDZ is for the 90° case, in
which the shear stress is minimized relative to the joint directions. Shen
and Barton, 1997.
Rock stress, pore pressure, borehole stability and sonic logging 309
Figure 12.19 UDEC-BB modelling of a TBM tunnel EDZ in jointed tuff, at a simulated 650 m depth. Note far-field h fiv. This model
is assumed to represent a generic case of heavily fractured (faulted) and sheared rock close to a vertical borehole. Clockwise
(with 8 m full-scale excavation diameter): principal stresses (max. 30 MPa), deformations (max. 11 mm), joint shearing (max.
8 mm), and joint (and block-corner channel) conducting apertures (max. 2 mm). Hansteen, 1991 (NGI contract report), and
Barton, 2000.
excavation at 650 m depth, and had the predicted, close- each set, as recovered from deep boreholes at the UK
to-the hole EDZ behaviour. (Note that the model’s Nirex Sellafield’s site in NW England. A second model,
loaded boundaries extended some 10-diameters from this time representing a horizontal bored tunnel at
the hole, and the hole was also close to a simulated clay- 400 m depth through inter-bedded sandstone and shale,
bearing fault.) Four basic EDZ components are shown: is shown in Figure 12.20.
If we scale the roughly 5–15 mm range of deform-
● Principal stresses (‘N-S’), and redistributed tangen-
ations from 8 m tunnel size in hard rock, to a nominal,
tial stress
and convenient, 16 cm well size, with correspondingly
● Displacement vectors: maximum parallel to ‘N-S’
reduced rock strengths, the magnitudes become 0.1 to
stress maximum
0.3 mm. The deformations, although small (i.e. sub-
● Joint shearing (clockwise or anticlockwise) and
millimetre size when the hole is stable), are probably up
proportional to line thickness
to a few orders of magnitude larger than the displace-
● Joint (and block corner channel) conducting
ment discontinuities that are sufficient to generate joint
apertures
compliance changes (normal and shear), that are of
The modelled rock was actually jointed tuff, with recognisable (inverted) magnitude, in relation to the
input data from index testing of numerous joints from joint stiffnesses familiar in rock mechanics. The lower
310 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 12.27 Dipole dispersion cross-over of fast and slow shear waves, demonstrated by modelling, and by testing unloaded and loaded
blocks of Berea sandstone containing a borehole. Caused by unequal radial stress gradients in the two principal stress direc-
tions, when uniaxially loading one of the blocks of sandstone containing an instrumented borehole. Winkler et al., 1998. This
study should ideally be performed on a borehole drilled while the block is under stress, e.g. following Addis et al., 1990,
Haimson, 2003.
A case was described from an Egyptian oil-producing with depth, the slowness data will tend to diverge from
well drilled in basement granites. With the shear-wave the expected trend (Brie et al., 1998).
anisotropy logging, the fault signature was clear, with By the beginning of the 21st century, it has become
the fast azimuth starting to change slowly when about more common to use dipole sonic logs to help interpret
20 m from the fault, with a rapid change of nearly 65° AVO or amplitude variation with offset anomalies, and
across the fault, followed by a return to an intermediate to help tie in ocean bottom seismic surveys (OBS) with
azimuth some 30 m beneath the fault, and a final return four-component (4C) acquisition. These techniques will
to background azimuth at greater distance. The particu- be briefly described with case examples, in Chapter 14.
lar fault had high permeability. The use of both wireline dipole logging in vertical
A final mention will be made of two other very use- holes, and pipe-conveyed dipole tools for deviated and
ful applications of LWD with dipole shear-wave horizontal wells has now given reservoir geophysicists
anisotropy analysis, which is available almost in real- improved means of calibrating the responses of their
time (some hours behind the drill-bit). The first is the rock physics based reservoir models, against small-scale
application to drilling of horizontal well sections, measurements.
designed to intersect a maximum amount of structure,
and simultaneously avoid the less favourable parallel to
H max hole direction. The second is early warning 12.7.1 Some further development of
while drilling in formations with rapidly changing pore logging tools
pressure. LWD is then an important aid in choosing
appropriate mud pressures. When porosities are no longer More recent descriptions of mechanical damage and
maintaining a normal trend of increased compaction anisotropy evaluation using a new modular dipole sonic
316 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
‘rock mechanics’ effects (i.e. stress induced fracturing of same interval in the same well. Both monopole and
some form). dipole logs were measured by the wireline tool, which
In addressing the needs of a multi-physics approach was run some 10 days following completion of the
to the complex question of formation evaluation, based drilling. The LWD tool provided dipole measurements.
on time effects registered by well logging (LWD fol-
lowed by wireline), Torres-Verdin et al., 2003 utilised a
variety of modelling approaches. In Figure 12.30 they
show the result of a four-days mud-infiltrate invasion
model, using constant-permeability-with-radius assump-
tions, but with a 1:10 ratio of Kvertical and Khorizontal in
the formation of interest. The figure shows the calcu-
lated formation resistivity distribution, due to the unequal
rates of invasion in the central formation.
This anisotropy modelling gives an improved vision
of possible realities, but due to wellbore damage, mod-
ellers and analysts should perhaps also consider a
radius-dependent distribution of permeability, related
with the radius-dependent velocity caused by the (also
radius-dependent) degree of stress-induced fracturing
and stress redistribution. Such will only be necessary of
course, when the formation characteristics, in relation
to the stress levels and mud-pressure applied, cause
unwanted ‘alteration’ of properties, both immediately,
(a)
and exacerbated by time effects. Infiltration rates seem
likely to be accelerated at smaller radius, due to the pos-
sible presence of a miniature, failure-related discontin-
uum. (Revealing velocity-versus-radius measurements
in tunnels were reviewed in Chapter 7, see for instance
the circular tunnel cross-hole seismic results in Figure 7.5).
Briggs et al., 2004 in research at MIT, compared
LWD and wireline data that was collected over the
(b)
The authors found that for this well, there was on aver- The authors emphasised that in poorly consolidated
age about 5% discrepancy in shear wave data, and about zones that would be susceptible to damage by drilling,
3% in compressional wave data. These trends suggested the slower velocities should be accounted for, either by
higher average velocities from the subsequent, deeper- making a sufficient correction, or by using lower fre-
viewing wireline logs. A short section of the formation quencies and/or larger offset, in order to see deep enough
showed velocity differences of just over 10%, with an into the formation to register undisturbed velocities.
opposite trend. Significantly, both tools measure in dif- Material reviewed in this chapter has demonstrated
ferent frequency ranges, and had different offsets between that geomechanics/rock mechanics wellbore stability
source and first receiver. studies have an important place in improved understand-
The authors pointed out that as a general rule-of- ing of well-logging anomalies (e.g. Fjaer et al. 1992).
thumb, a tool sees 1 inch into the formation for every foot However, the existence of a miniature, but potentially up
separating the source and first receiver. Furthermore, low to several diameter EDZ discontinuum, which cannot be
frequencies (1–3 kHz) see 2 to 3 borehole diameters, modelled in conventional Mohr-Coulomb based contin-
while the higher frequencies see less than one borehole uum modelling (Barton, 2004b), due to incorrect addi-
diameter. Consequently, the higher frequency LWD tool tion of the cohesive and frictional components, is perhaps
was assumed to see the formation nearer to the borehole the root cause of the phrase ‘alteration zone’ being used to
wall than the lower frequency wireline tool. This would describe the complex, time-dependent interactions occur-
mean that the damage zone would tend to be seen by ring in the over-stressed, near-wellbore zone. The use of
the LWD tool, while the virgin formation would tend logging tools that illuminate to greater depth, due to low
to be seen by the lower frequency wireline tool. frequency, but that can also give information about the
However, the deeper penetration of split shear waves discontinuous zone, are clearly of importance for
nevertheless detects fracturing and anisotropy in the improved understanding of this cross-discipline region that
formation, outside the damage zone, as we saw earlier. surrounds wellbores.
The overall scatter plots of LWD versus wireline The mini-EDZ theme will be terminated with two
P- and S-wave velocities shown in Figure 12.31 support photographs from a large ‘borehole’, namely one of the
this radius-bias, with the wireline velocities sometimes world’s first TBM tunnels, excavated by a 7 ft (2.1 m)
1 km/s faster in Vp, and 0.5 to 1.0 km/s faster in Vs. diameter steam-driven machine credited to Beaumont,
Figure 12.32 One of the world’s first TBM tunnels, from 1880, credited to Beaumont. Excavation in chalk marl of UCS 4 to 9 MPa,
close to the Channel Tunnel between England and France. Note structurally controlled and (vertical) stress-controlled break-
out to at least one-radius on diametrically opposite sides of the tunnel. Barton and Warren, 1996.
320 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
for ‘pilot-drilling’ towards France, in an early (1880) Table 12.2 Definitions of maximum HPTP pressure and tem-
effort to examine the feasibility of a sub-sea link perature tiers (after Willson, 2006).
between England and France. Tier Reservoir pressure Reservoir temperature
The four pictures shown in Figure 12.32 are very
informative for this chapter. They show: a) structurally Tier I 15,000 psi (103 MPa) 350ºF (177ºC)
Tier II 20,000 psi (138 MPa) 400ºF (204ºC)
controlled, three joint set fall-out, which would be a
Tier III 30,000 psi (207 MPa) 500ºF (260ºC)
source of calliper-log ‘noise’ in other (vertical well) cir-
cumstances, disturbing the assumption of hole-ellipticity
parallel to h min. Photos b) and c) show progressive
The Tier II and Tier III categories are termed ultra-
stress-controlled ‘break-out’ at least doubling the effec-
HPHT and extreme HPHT for obvious reasons. The
tive diameter, caused in this case by tunnel loading under
current record for the offshore environment is report-
a 50–60 m chalk cliff along the S. England Folkestone
edly Mobile Bay, off the coast of Alabama, at 138 MPa
Warren coast line. The weak (UCS 4 to 9 MPa) chalk
and 215°C. There are now several North American deep
marl at tunnel level, has failed in combined shear and
gas reservoirs both onshore and offshore that would
compression, due to a vertical stress of only about 25%
classify as Tier III. As might be expected, there are oper-
of UCS, possibly with some bedding plane influence in
ating temperature limits for ‘conventional’ LWD log-
the ‘break-out’.
ging while drilling components, and for steerable
The discontinuum lies on the tunnel floor and behind
downhole drilling motors. Even Tier I temperature lim-
what we see at the tunnel wall. In a ‘mud-filtrate inva-
its may be reached at well depths in excess of 6 or 7 km,
sion’ scenario, the fluid would not penetrate in an
meaning that real-time data may no longer be available
isotropic or linear manner, but faster into the haunches,
while drilling. However, subsequent wireline logging
or ‘E-W’. In a further possible illustration of unwanted
can presently be performed at temperatures up to the
hole collapse, this time due to ‘over-pressure’, photo-
Tier III ‘limit’ of 260°C.
graph d) shows failure due to successive bedding plane
As we shall see in Chapter 13 on rock physics phenom-
opening under the sea section of this tunnel. The
ena at extreme levels of confining stress, the high state of
original circular 2.1 m diameter hole has ‘migrated’
compaction at great depth means that the porosity and
with time, into the collapsing, bedded rock above the
seismic velocity of typical reservoir rocks may exhibit
crown. Could this be the occasional fate above and
little sensitivity to changing depth. The prediction of
below horizontal sections of wells waiting for casing
fluid pressures and fracture gradients (e.g. Figure 12.1) is
installation, in case of thinly bedded strata with over-
then more difficult.
pressure?
A related problem of extreme rock pressure is that the
Terzaghi, 1943 theory of effective stress:
– p (12.1)
12.9 Challenges from ultra HPHT
may no longer give a correct description of the magni-
The drive to discover more petroleum, which is especially tude of the three effective principal rock stress compo-
relevant at the time of publication (2006) with oil prices nents that would normally define the likely stability or
above 70 US $ per barrel, is stimulating the exploration of instability of a deep well. At great depth, the rock skele-
deeper petroleum reserves, with all the associated difficul- ton may bear a greater proportion of the total rock
ties of high temperatures, high fluid pressures, and high stresses due to an effective stress parameter that is less
rock stresses. Some of this is so-called ‘infrastructure-led than 1.0, following the Biot, 1956b generalized theory
exploration’, searching deeper or laterally and deeper from of poroelasticity:
developed fields with their existing production facilities.
Since a 1990 accident report (the Piper Alpha plat- – p (12.2)
form disaster in the UK sector of the North Sea), there
have existed formal definitions of high pressure high A ‘moderate’ example from Hettema and de Pater,
temperature (HPHT) wells. With time this has been 1998 is a clay-rich sandstone with an unstressed porosity
extended to the following three-tier system for classify- of 20%, which demonstrated an -value of 0.9 under
ing these extreme conditions. zero differential pressure, reducing to 0.6 at 36 MPa
Rock stress, pore pressure, borehole stability and sonic logging 321
differential pressure. A more extreme example is a lime- as discussed by Pepin et al., 2004 and others, in recent
stone tested by Laurent et al., 1993, with -values reduc- literature.
ing from 0.8 to 0.2 as porosity decreased from 23% to As pointed out by Willson, 2006 in a helpful techni-
4.5%. Such effects may increase the effective stress com- cal review of the subject (‘Feeling the heat, can’t stand
ponents by tens of MPa, which leads, as also in TBM tun- the pressure?’), manipulating the mud temperature dur-
nelling (Barton, 2000) to reduced drilling penetration ing the drilling process, before formation temperature is
rates as the rock is stronger. However it also leads to the re-established, can also be used ‘in the opposite direc-
opposite effect of a potentially increased likelihood of tion’ to positively influence the hydraulic fracture (mud-
stress-induced fracturing or (log-spiral) shearing, depend- loss) gradient if there is no risk of formation well-bore
ing on rock type. (In the world of TBM tunnelling there compressive failure. This would be done by increasing the
are extremes of 0.1 m/hr and 10 m/hr penetration rates, mud temperature. However, in the case of shale, an ini-
the former due to extremely hard rock at great depth in an tially undrained condition when exposed by drilling
Idaho mine, with a TBM giving insufficient thrust. means that the greater thermal expansion coefficient of
Practical measures for reducing the double impact of the contained water will have greater influence on the
both high effective stresses, and the additional thermo- stability than the rock’s response to increased or lowered
elastic effect of high drilling mud temperatures were pro- mud temperatures (Li et al., 1998).
posed by Maury and Guenot, 1995, by introducing mud There are reportedly particular problems when pene-
cooling systems. When the circulating mud is cooler trating salt rocks at high temperature and pressures
than the formation, thermoelastic contraction means (Willson and Fredrich, 2005), due to the particular
lower tangential stresses, with the dual effect of reducing sensitivity of the creep rates of salt to high temperature.
the likelihood of compressive stress-induced fracturing, There is a so-called ‘undefined mechanism’ of creep at
but an increased likelihood of mud pressure induced ten- lower temperatures, and a ‘dislocation climb mecha-
sile cracking, due to the reduced minimum tangential nism’ at high temperatures, which can result in orders of
stresses on opposite sides of the well, and rotated 90° magnitude increased rates of ‘creep’. Already between
from the potential compressive fracturing locations. 60°C and 230°C there is a reported 200 increase.
The tensile cracking allows mud loss, but some is Clearly this is of particular concern to petroleum com-
returned when the temperature subsequently rises. The panies who are developing reserves beneath thick bed-
apparent wellbore ‘ballooning’ represents the mud loss, ded salt formations or next to salt dome structures. A
prior to the subsequent gain of fluid. The subject of review of drilling problems, and an emphasis of the need
mud temperature management is of great current inter- for high pressure and high temperature creep tests for
est for ultra deep wells, for extending fracture gradients, salt is given by Maia et al., 2005.
13 Rock physics at laboratory
scale
Figure 13.2 An assembly of Vp-porosity data for saturated chalk, two limestones of widely different porosity, dolomite, and two sandstones
of medium and high porosity. a) Chalk: from sonic log and porosity log, Urmos and Williams, 1993. b), c) Limestones: ultrasonic,
10 to 50 MPa effective pressures, Cadoret, 1993, Lucet, 1989, Yale and Jamieson, 1994. d) High porosity sandstone: ultrasonic,
35–40 MPa effective pressures, Strandenes, 1991. e) Sandstones (with yet-to-be-defined clay-content): ultrasonic, 30–40 MPa
effective pressures, Han, 1986. f ) Dolomites: ultrasonic, 10–35 MPa effective pressures, Geertsma, 1961, Yale and Jamieson,
1994. After Mavko et al., 1998.
A ‘reservoir rock’ selection of P-wave velocity versus mineralogy of ‘sandstones’, with 10–15% variation in
density data, is reproduced in Figure 13.5a for ready density possible for the same velocity, particularly in
reference. This limited Vp- selection, from Mavko et al., the case of the tight gas sandstones, which gives a cor-
1998 appendices, is also credited to original authors in relation coefficient of only 0.39. In contrast to these
the figure caption. Chalk, limestone, dolomite, and three variations, the Vs Vp trends are consistently uniform,
sets of sandstone data are reproduced. Again for refer- as befits characterization by seismic waves.
ence purposes, both the shear-wave and compression- In Chapter 14, an early introduction to the age
wave velocities, for the same six groups of rocks, are and depth effects on velocity is reproduced from Faust
shown in Figure 13.5b. 1951, who analysed well survey results from some 500
The relatively ‘ordered’ density-Vp trends for the chalk, petroleum wells in the USA and Canada. Faust used
limestone and dolomite reflect the simpler mineralogy. data from about 300 kilometres of well sections. The
The contrast to the widely scattered density-Vp data for great majority of data was for mixed shale/sandstone
the three groups of sandstones is evidence of the variable sections.
326 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a)
Figure 13.5a An assembly of Vp-density data for saturated chalk, limestone, dolomite, and three sandstones of low, medium and high poros-
ity. a) Chalk: from sonic log and porosity log, Urmos and Williams, 1993. b) Limestone: ultrasonic, 10 to 50 MPa effective pres-
sures, Cadoret, 1993, Lucet, 1989, Yale and Jamieson, 1994. c) Dolomites: ultrasonic, 10–35 MPa effective pressures, Geertsma,
1961, Yale and Jamieson, 1994. d) Tight gas sandstones: ultrasonic, effective pressures 40 MPa, Jizba, 1991. e) Sandstones:
ultrasonic, 30–40 MPa effective pressures, Han, 1986. f ) After Mavko et al., 1998. f ) High porosity sandstone: ultrasonic,
35–40 MPa effective pressures, Strandenes, 1991. After Mavko et al., 1998.
brine saturation, and this difference persisted to great 50 MPa. Greatest sensitivity, as one would expect, was
depths according to their model. shown when pressure or depth was smaller.
Figure 13.6, from Toksöz et al., 1976, is a good exam- From summaries of the numerous experimental and
ple of their modelling predictions, showing the relative theoretical trends given by Toksöz et al., 1976, Table 3.1
predicted effects on Vp of brine-filled and gas-filled cracks was developed.
in a 16% porosity sandstone model. The fluid occupy- The effects of the dry or brine-saturated states, and
ing the smaller aspect ratio cracks has more influence the influence of effective stresses, as predicted theoret-
on velocities at low pressures, due to the greater pres- ically by Toksöz et al., 1976 so long ago, were nicely
sure sensitivity of the fine cracks. illustrated by more recent testing by King and Marsden,
Figure 13.7 shows the same authors’ predicted Poisson’s 2002, who tested numerous sandstones both dry and
ratio variations, with varying degrees of brine or gas sat- brine saturated. Ultrasonic P- and S-wave measure-
uration, and also as a function of differential pressure to ments were made on ten sandstones with porosities less
328 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(b)
Figure 13.5b An assembly of Vs - Vp data for the same saturated chalk, limestone, dolomite, and three sandstones of low, medium and
high porosity, that are presented in Figure 13.5a. a) Chalk: from sonic log and porosity log, Urmos and Williams, 1993.
b) Limestone: ultrasonic, 10 to 50 MPa effective pressures, Cadoret, 1993, Lucet, 1989, Yale and Jamieson, 1994. c) Dolomites:
ultrasonic, 10–35 MPa effective pressures, Geertsma, 1961, Yale and Jamieson, 1994. d) Tight gas sandstones: ultrasonic,
effective pressures 40 MPa, Jizba, 1991. e) Sandstones: ultrasonic, 30–40 MPa effective pressures, Han, 1986. f ) After Mavko
et al., 1998. f ) High porosity sandstone: ultrasonic, 35–40 MPa effective pressures, Strandenes, 1991. After Mavko et al., 1998.
than 10%, and thirty-four specimens with porosities in state, given by the authors, has been omitted from these
the range 20 to 30%, under hydrostatic effective stresses figures for the sake of clarity.
up to 60 MPa (in the case of the stronger, lower poros-
ity samples), and up to 40 MPa in the case of the higher
porosity set. 13.4 Velocity, temperature and
Figure 13.8 shows the Vp and Vs results for the dry and influence of fluid
saturated specimens to a common hydrostatic stress of
40 MPa. Equations relating Vp and Vs are shown in the Although far from exhaustive, a limited set of data for
figure. temperature effects on hydrocarbon-saturated samples
King and Marsden, 2002, also presented their Vp and will now be presented to illustrate some of the geophys-
Vs results as a function of the effective stress (10, 20, 40 ical changes that can be used to monitor producing, stim-
or 60 MPa). Figure 13.9 shows both the Vp-Vs-effective ulated reservoirs. Nur, 1989, referred to the new ‘four
stress trends, and the dry-saturated trends. The add- dimensional seismology’, in other words the ability to
ition of a ‘Gassman predicted’ result for the saturated monitor in three dimensions the effect of time during
Rock physics at laboratory scale 329
saturated. This temperature effect on velocity reduces dependence of the viscosity of the oil. The phenomenon
to about half strength when 50% oil/50% gas or 50% was described as follows by Winkler and Nur. At low
oil/50% brine are present. In other words, when the oil temperature the higher viscosity means that the oil can-
is removed from these sands, the velocities successively not flow easily, so the dynamic measurement is on the
become independent of temperature, with roughly half high-frequency, high velocity, unrelaxed side of the local-
the effect when 50% oil remains. flow mechanism. As temperature increases viscosity
Nur, 1989, also referred to a pilot steam flood experi- reduces, so fluid flows more easily, and velocity there-
ment in viscous tar sands in Canada, conducted by fore decreases since measurement is on the relaxed side
Amoco. Changes in travel-time caused by heating effects of the absorption/dispersion mechanism.
reducing Vp were readily detected. A differential travel-
time plot revealed the areas closest to the wells (and
13.5 Velocity, clay content and
partly between the wells) where velocity had been
permeability
reduced by the change in viscosity. Laboratory tests of
the tar sand showed an S-shaped reduction in velocity
A comprehensive series of laboratory tests reported
from Vp 2.4 km/s at 25°C, to a final plateau of about
by Klimentos, 1991, were designed to investigate the
1.1 km/s at 150°C. (Den Boer and Matthews, 1988).
influence of clay content on the P-wave velocities of sat-
In their review of acoustic velocity and attenuation in
urated sandstones under varying confining and pore fluid
porous rocks, Winkler and Nur, 1995 refer to the work
pressures up to 40 MPa. Forty-two samples of sandstones
of Wang and Nur, 1990 who measured the temperature
were investigated, having the following range of charac-
dependence of compressional and shear wave velocities
teristics, in order to see their combined and individual
in sandstones that were either dry, saturated with water,
effects on velocity:
or saturated with crude oil. Figure 13.11 shows the quite
widely differentiated results, due again to the temperature ● Porosity: 2 to 36%
● Permeability: 0.001 to 306 mD
● Clay content: negligible to 30%
The principal results are shown in Figure 13.12, with
sorting according to clay-content, shown in Figure 13.13.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 13.14 a) Unsorted Vp – n% data for sands with 35% clay. b) Logical differentiation of Vp – n% trends when grouped by clay-content.
Gutierrez et al., 2002. c) and d) A more detailed presentation of Han, 1986, data given by Yan, 2003.
cycles of the Tertiary basin. Successively smaller depos- permeability, through a more relevant match of porosity
ition cycles were then considered, first down to a specific and permeability with common sediment compaction
operational zone, then so-called ‘fining-up’, giving suc- and cementation history.
cessively higher Vp-n% correlation coefficients, reflecting This work followed the permeability-porosity match-
the more uniform sedimentary environment and diage- ing of Amaefule et al., 1993, who showed the importance
netic nature of the smaller cycles. An essentially of separation into hydraulic units. Possibly we can draw
linear plot was shown for one of the fining-up cycles: in a parallel here to the common separation of rock mass
a 5 m section Vp was 3.5 km/s at n 10%, and 2.5 km/s qualities into classes (Q 1 4: poor, Q 4 10:
at n 30%, with correlation coefficient r 0.973. fair, etc), for different structural domains, which is the
The authors found that due to a large fraction of silt basis for prediction of similar behaviour, such as particu-
(whose mineralogy is close to that of clean sand), the lar reinforcement needs in a tunnel, a particular range of
clay-content in 100% shale intervals could be as low as deformation moduli or P-wave velocities.
20–30%. Poor sorting in the shale caused a reduction Amaefule et al., 1993 and Prasad, 2003 used the fol-
in total porosity, which caused an increase in the vel- lowing simple ‘classification’ relations:
ocity in relation to existing models, and in relation to the
data sets in Figure 13.14, which show lower velocities RQI 0.0314 (k/)
1
2 (13.7)
with these amounts of clay.
The concept of sorting data into common categories, 1
using stratigraphy and other matching techniques, was FZI 0.0314/ (k/) 2 (13.8)
also the theme in Prasad, 2003, who showed that by
grouping and sorting rocks into hydraulic units, it was RQI is known as the reservoir quality index, with
easier to establish relationships between velocity and permeability (k) in units of millidarcies, and () is the
334 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 13.15 a) A well log from the heterogeneous Tertiary sands Prasad, 2003 also provided a practical illustration of the
of the LCI field, showing Vp, with stratigraphy- effect of depth-of-sediment on porosity, velocity and per-
guided core data for b) porosity and c) permeability. meability development to 500 m below sea floor, using
Gutierrez et al., 2002. marine logging results from ‘Site 977, ODP Leg 161
(Shipboard Scientific Party, 1996). In the parallel dia-
grams reproduced in Figure 13.19, the scattered down-
fractional porosity. The term () is the void ratio, given hole log data is shown beneath the smoothed trend lines
by /(1-). It thus links FZI the flow zone indicator A-B in each case. Curves D-D' represent the hypotheti-
with RQI, using the ratio of pore volume to solid vol- cal trend if porosity is ‘frozen’ by a cementation episode
ume. Rocks with FZI values within a narrow range from point D. Note the FZI-predicted maintenance of
belonged to one hydraulic unit: they had similar flow high permeability, and the ‘non-correlating’ increase in
properties. A semi-log plot of porosity versus perme- velocity (but one that can be explained by FZI).
ability showed similar FZI values plotting together. Curves C-C' represent the hypothetical effects of an
Prasad first tested this older method, showing ‘opposite’ trend – an influx of pore-filling materials from
unsorted data (left), then data sorted by FZI (right) point C. There is a rapid reduction in porosity. This can
in Figure 13.17. This demonstrated that the FZI con- be used to give an estimated reduction in velocity fol-
cept could be extended to seismic parameters, giving lowed by an FZI-predicted reduction in permeability.
a strong correlation between velocity and permeabil- Prasad, 2003 calculated the permeability scatter-curves
ity, when using the appropriate FZI grouping. She used directly from assumed FZI values of 0.1 (left curve),
a laboratory-test data base, which included porosity, and 0.25 (right curve), using the log data for porosity
permeability, velocity and attenuation data from tests and velocity. Note the similar scatter-shape of porosity
at similar confining pressures. Figure 13.18 shows data, and FZI-calculated permeability, due presumably
a much larger set of data with Vp – k correlation to the use of (porosity)0.5 and (void ratio)1.0 in the
through FZI. FZI estimate.
Rock physics at laboratory scale 335
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 13.17 a) Unsorted log k versus data on the left, and b) sorted data using the expression for FZI with measured matrix parameters
on the right c) Unsorted log k versus Vp data on the left, and d) sorted data using FZI on the right. Prasad, 2003.
Figure 13.19 An illustration by Prasad, 2003 of the possibility of predicting permeability from log data of porosity and permeability, using
a relevant, logging-based FZI-value. Marine logging results from ‘Site 977, ODP Leg 161 (Shipboard Scientific Party, 1996).
Hypothetical mineralization from D (curve D-D’) , and hypothetical pore-filling from C (curve C-C').
style) when draining as compared to imbibing. The allow reinforcement of the compliant part of the rock,
drainage process creates a more heterogeneous distribu- so velocities are low.
tion of saturation. At high frequencies, (Figure 13.20b), this pressure
Local full saturation of the crack-like regions of the equilibrium cannot occur because the pore fluid relax-
pore space tend to stiffen these regions in relation to high ation time is greater than the seismic wave period. Pore
frequency, but at low frequency these ‘patches’ can drain fluid in the thin compliant pores is then effectively
to the less saturated pore space. The phenomenon appears ‘trapped’, and it therefore reinforces the otherwise com-
to be shifted in frequency at ‘macroscopic-patch’ scale. pliant pore spaces, resulting in higher apparent modu-
Such results clearly impact poroelastic modelling with lus and velocity.
different frequencies, which is discussed in Chapter 15. Knight et al., 1998 described a comprehensive inves-
Knight et al., 1998, found that the pore fluid relax- tigation with a controlled distribution of (10) lithologic
ation time increased as the size of the volume occupied units, an assumed state of capillary equilibrium, and
by the fluid increased. They argued that the size of a calculated the saturation level in each unit from corres-
patch (or partly drained rock joint?) may be orders of ponding capillary pressure curves. Their contrasting cal-
magnitude larger than a compliant pore. So if pore culations for shaley and clean sand, shown in Figure
fluid is arranged in patches, the apparent (Vp) stiffening 13.21, demonstrate the effect of saturation heterogeneity.
of partially saturated rock in response to a dynamic The effect of ‘patchiness’ (of saturation), compared
wave may occur even at low frequencies. to homogeneous conditions is nicely demonstrated in
Examples of frequency-dependent differences in Vp- Figure 13.22. The two parallel lines defining ‘patchy’
saturation response, for the case of carbonate samples, Vp-saturation response, are two different theoretical solu-
are shown at lower frequency (1 kHz) in the first example, tions given by Knight et al., 1998, in which just two
in Figure 13.20a. Presumably the lower frequency allows different lithologies have been combined.
the wave-induced pressure changes in the pore fluid to In Figure 13.23, the ‘extremes’ created by mixing the
dissipate, so that the pore fluid pressure is very close to ten lithological units are shown. (Properties were given
that of the high-compressibility gas in the dry pore space, in Figure 13.21a). The smooth, conventional result
as described by Knight et al., 1998. (Figure 13.23a) was obtained by a pore-scale mixture of
As a result, the pore fluid lying in thin, compliant the ten sand-to-shaley-sand units, while the ‘multi-
pores can flow freely into the dry pore space, in a squirt- stepped’ response shown in Figure 13.23b was obtained
flow type of attenuation response. It does not therefore using a patchy mixture of the ten lithological units.
Rock physics at laboratory scale 337
1 1
1
1 K
(13.10)
2
3
Some of the subtle differences between velocity and In 1979, Toksöz et al. presented ultrasonic laboratory
attenuation (in the form of seismic Q) were shown by data on dry and water- or brine-saturated rocks, inves-
Frisillo and Stewart, 1980 tests with variable gas/brine tigating how the attenuation varied with ‘differential’
saturations. The tests on Berea sandstone (n 19.7%, pressure. Pore fluid pressure (Pf) and confining pressure
k 376 mdarcy) shown in Figure 13.29 give Vp and Qp (Pc) on their specimens was controlled independently,
on the vertical axes, and percent gas saturation on the Pc Pf giving their quoted ‘differential’ pressures. In
horizontal axes. Zero percent gas saturation corresponds a companion paper, reviewed in Chapter 10, Johnston
to 100% brine saturation. et al., 1979, presented the assumed mechanisms of
Frisillo and Stewart’s data represented by black circles, attenuation, and formulated theoretical models that fit-
is shown supplemented by some reasonably consistent ted this laboratory data. The present data was obtained
data (also for Berea sandstone) reported by Spencer, at ultrasonic frequencies (0.1 to 1.0 MHz), using a
1979 (squares), and by Toksöz et al., 1971 data for dry Berea sandstone with 16% porosity.
or full saturation (triangles). The expected reduction Toksöz et al., 1979 used a frozen rock (limestone),
in Vp by reduced brine saturation (and increased gas showing very small attenuation and very high Qseis, as a
342 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.30 Qp and Qs values as a function of confining (or dif- The anomalous high value of Qp at highest differen-
ferential) pressure, in a) dry (Pf 0) and b) methane
tial pressure in Figure 13.30a was assumed to be due to
saturated (Pf 0.465 Pc) Berea sandstone. Toksöz
some pore collapse and locking of grain boundaries.
et al., 1979.
Several important trends can be seen in the Q data.
reference standard. Their subsequent detailed studies of Firstly, Qp and Qs were both higher (less attenuation)
environmental effects such as dry, methane-saturated, in the dry or methane saturated states, than in the case
or brine-saturated, were conducted on Berea sandstone. of brine saturation. Furthermore, Qs was more often
At zero pressure, the P-wave velocities of their dry larger than Qp in the case of the dry and methane-satu-
and brine-saturated Berea sandstone were about 3.3 and rated sandstone. In contrast, there was a consistently
3.8 km/s respectively, rising rapidly to about 4.1 and wide separation of Qp and Qs of some 100 to 150%
4.2 km/s at 3000 psi (about 21 MPa). At the highest (Qp Qs) in the case of the brine saturation.
differential pressure used there was little difference
between the dry and brine-saturated Vp in relation to
the differentiation of the dry or brine-saturated condi- 13.10.3 Effect of frequency on
tion. These and similar velocity trends for methane velocity and attenuation,
and for other brine concentrations were used in their dry or with brine
calculation of seismic Q, which are shown in Figure
13.30 and 13.31, for the case of dry, methane-satu- Winkler, 1983, provided a remarkably detailed collection
rated, and two NaCl concentrations. of velocity and attenuation data for three sandstones
Rock physics at laboratory scale 343
when tested in triaxial compression, over a range of in the case of the three sandstones could readily induce
frequencies (400 to 2000 kHz) in a dry or brine- fluid flow into and out of the contact regions.
saturated state. Effective stresses were increased in Interestingly, the reported behaviour of fused glass-
the sequence 2.5, 5, 10, 20 and 40 MPa in the case of bead samples was entirely different, as the sintered con-
the dry samples. tacts between the glass beads were very stiff and lacked
The three sandstones had the following basic phys- pressure dependence, and would not therefore generate
ical properties: local (micro) fluid flows (squirt) which would have
increased the attenuation.
Massilon sst. Berea sst. Boise sst. Figure 13.33 shows this contrasting Vp and attenua-
tion behaviour for the fused glass-bead samples, which
Porosity % 24,6 20.3 24.9
had spherical 177–210
m beads (initially) that were
Permeability (mD) 1425 107 286
Grain size (
m) 200 150–200 150–200
fused by heating to give a porosity of 26.6% and a
Quartz % 94 80 46 permeability of ‘several’ Darcies (1 Darcy 1012 m2),
i.e. it was significantly more permeable than the three
(Note: 1 Darcy 1012 m2 or 105 m/s, approximately) ‘sandstones’, yet could not generate squirt-related
attenuation.
The three ‘sandstones’ were of Mississippian age (first
two) and Pliocene (last), with geological descriptions
quartose sandstone, greywacke and arkose, respect- 13.10.4 Attenuation for
ively. Grain densities varied only from 2.68, 2.65 to distinguishing gas
2.63 gm/cm3, respectively. condensate from oil
The frequency-dependent, saturation-dependent and and water
effective stress-dependent variations of Vp and attenu-
ation (1/Q) measured by Winkler in this study, are On the basis of the differentiation of Qp values, listed
reproduced in Figure 13.32 (a to f ). below, Klimentos, 1995, suggested a way of distinguish-
The dry samples all showed negative velocity disper- ing gas and condensate from oil and water in sandstone
sion, meaning velocity decreasing with increasing fre- reservoirs, but at the same time questioned whether the
quency, while the attenuation increased as the third to method could also be used in carbonate reservoirs.
fourth power of frequency. This was taken as evidence
of scattering within the pore spaces between the grains. 1. in perfectly dry rocks, Qp is very high
(Inter-grain scattering in aluminium reportedly also 2. in fully liquid saturated rocks Qp is at an intermedi-
results in f 4 attenuation.) ate level
The brine-saturated ‘sandstones’ mostly showed 3. in partially saturated rocks Qp is low
slight, positive, velocity dispersion (at least at the lower
confining pressures) while attenuation varied with only Ranges of Qp and Qs for sandstone reservoirs were
the first or second power of frequency. This change in reportedly as follows based on well log, i.e. sonic
attenuation-frequency dependence was taken as evi- frequencies:
dence of local fluid-flow loss mechanisms. The sat-
urated rocks always showed much stronger attenuation ● Gas and gas- 5 Qp 30 15 Qs 30
(lower Qp ) than the dry samples. condensate bearing
All the data sets showed the strong influence of effec- sandstones
tive stress, which had greatest influence on attenuation ● Oil bearing 8 Qp 100 15 Qs 50
when the samples were brine-saturated and at the low- sandstones
est levels of effective stress, as we have seen earlier in ● Water bearing 9 Qp 100 15 Qs 50
this chapter. sandstones
Parallels to compliant joints affecting rock mass behav-
iour (Chapters 15 and 16), were the observations by Cross-over of P-wave and S-wave attenuation (or cross-
Winkler, 1983, that the nature of the grain contacts was over of Qp and Qs, due to the increase in attenuation of
all important. Compression and dilation of relatively P-waves by gas (lower Qp) and the absence of effects on
compliant contacts (and strong pressure dependence) the S-wave attenuation (as above), was the basis of the
344 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 13.32 Compression wave velocities and attenuations (1000/Qp) as a function of frequency, and whether dry (dashed line) or brine
saturated (solid line), for three ‘sandstones’. Numbers on the curves represent the applied effective pressures (MPa), Winkler,
1983. Note interpreted Qp scale added on right-hand axis for convenience.
Rock physics at laboratory scale 345
Qp 179C0.843 (13.11)
(a)
(a)
(b)
3.6 2.7 (km/s) 0.9 Assefa et al., 1999, conducted ultrasonic (0.7 to
10 s1 0.85 MHz) compressional and shear wave attenuation
3.0 0.8 (MPa) 0.09 measurements on forty, 5 centimetre-sized samples of
water- or oil-saturated oolitic limestones, at 50 MPa effec-
In the above, the pressure increment 2.2 MPa has been tive hydrostatic confining pressures (' 55 – 5 MPa
converted to an approximate 90 m depth (0.09 km) pore pressure 50 MPa). They found that attenuation
to give the conventional Vp-depth gradient in s1 units. reached a maximum value in the samples which had the
This steep gradient suggests quite a low rock quality most fully developed ‘dual-porosity’. This dual porosity
Q-value, representing the soft porosity in this bedded consisted of inter-particle macro-pores (dimensions up
sedimentary strata, which responds strongly to pressure to 0.3 mm) and micro-pores (with dimensions of 5 to 10
increase at shallow depth. In Chapter 11, Figure 11.72, microns). They interpreted this increased attenuation
an empirical Vp-Q c-depth trend was shown, that suggests, (low Q seis) as evidence of a squirt-flow mechanism, as
Rock physics at laboratory scale 349
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 13.44 Modelling of low frequency (25 Hz): a) and b), and ultrasonic (1 MHz): c) and d) P-wave seismic Q versus differential pressure,
or versus excess pressure, for a water-saturated model sandstone reservoir. Experimental squares for bedding-parallel Q of Berea
sandstone, from Prasad and Manghnani, 1997. (Dotted lines correspond to 0 to 2 km, where the rock is normally pressured, and
the continuous lines to the range 2 to 8 km where the rock is over-pressured.) Carcione and Gangi, 2000.
and organic matter. The data for Vp and Vs versus kerogen compared to the calculated lithostatic minus hydrostatic
content, was presented from measurements in bedding pressures of 82 MPa and 34 MPa. A kerogen content of
normal (0°) and bedding-parallel (90°) directions. The 35% was assumed here. The sonic log result for Vp
marine Kimmeridge Shale was from the Draupne showed a typical reduction from about 4 km/s to a fairly
Formation, located at between 3480 and 3580 m depth, constant value of only 2.6 km/s for the 100 m thick sec-
in the central Viking Graben of the North Sea. tion of this valuable over-pressured source rock.
The modelled seismic Q p and Q s trends, shown in dia-
grams d) and e), demonstrated an attenuation anisotropy
that was higher than the velocity-based stiffness 13.11.1 Attenuation for fluid front
anisotropy. The largest anisotropies were at 18% kerogen monitoring
content for the case of attenuation, and 30% kerogen con-
tent for the case of stiffness or velocity. In Figure 13.45, In 4-D, time-lapse seismic monitoring of reservoir
diagrams e) and f ), Carcione demonstrated the modelling processes, several 3-D seismic surveys of the same reser-
of Vp and Vs for the case of a fixed kerogen content of voir locations made at different times are compared.
35%, and several water saturation levels (Sm 0 to 0.7), Differences in reflection amplitude or impedance indi-
again for the case of bedding normal (0°) and bedding par- cate changes in the reservoir. There is an increasing move
allel (90°) directions. A key variable in these plots was the to have permanent down-hole sources and receivers for
strong effect (in the case of the bedding-normal (0°) direc- obtaining greater detail of the movement of fluids dur-
tion of measurement), of an excess pore pressure of up to ing production and injection (Ziolkowski, 1999), and
50 MPa, giving as expected, successively lower velocities, for enabling the periodic performance of high fre-
with greatest reductions for the highest saturation levels. quency cross-hole imaging (e.g. see Chapter 14).
The different maturation stages of this source rock were Wulff and Mjaaland, 2002 studied time-dependent
modelled by evaluating the kerogen to oil conversion fluid-front 4-D seismic effects, using a large scale
and the excess pore pressure, with fracturing estimated if laboratory test, in which a block of lower Triassic sand-
a change of pore pressure of as much as 48 MPa occurred, stone of 17% porosity, was successively submerged in a
Rock physics at laboratory scale 353
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 13.45 Experimental velocity data for Kimmeridge Shale source-rock samples from three and a half kilometres beneath the North Sea,
with comparison to viscoelastic, transversely isotropic model results. Anisotropic velocity, attenuation, and velocity depend-
ence on excess pore pressure was demonstrated, when measured or modelled in bedding-normal (0°) and bedding parallel
(90°) directions. Carcione, 2000.
water tank in four stages, with immediate and long 1/Q s of 0.3. The authors therefore preferred to use the
term (300 days) seismic monitoring of the effect of the attenuation calculated from (). This gave 1/Q p of 0.065
intermittent ‘water-flood’ and capillary effects. They and 1/Q s of 0.07. Attenuation had increased very rapidly,
used P- and S-wave transducers, with centre frequency such that maximum attenuation was reached prior to full
of 500 kHz. Transmitted and reflected waves were used saturation, followed by a quite fast decline in the three fol-
for the monitoring, with six transducers glued to the lowing months. This was assumed to be due to the
top and (submerged) bottom of the block. decline in local fluid flow (squirt) effects which were
The water-flooding caused the velocity, amplitude dominant prior to full saturation, prior to full flooding.
and frequency of the transmitted waves to diminish The authors assumed that the velocity reductions were
significantly, with reversal upon final drying of the block. due to water adsorption effects causing a reduced mod-
The authors evaluated both the attenuation coefficient ulus (strictly a laboratory, as opposed to an in situ reser-
(), where 1/Q V/f, and the attenuation 1/Q, rela- voir effect, unless gas replaced by water-flooding could
tive to the signals obtained for the dry rock. Seismic be considered?). They concluded that improved inter-
Q was also estimated by the spectral ratio method. pretation of reservoir processes required not only P- and
At maximum saturation of the block, the spectral ratio S-wave measurement, but also amplitude and attenua-
method indicated a very high maximum 1/Q p of 0.5, and tion measurement.
354 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
13.12 Anisotropic velocity and just as it is for the case of rock joints, as reviewed in
attenuation in shales Chapter 3. Figure 13.47 shows the complete distribution
of velocities, with the vertical/horizontal axes showing
Anisotropy in shale has not been frequently studied due respectively the perpendicular to bedding and parallel to
to difficulties with sample disturbance when handling bedding magnitudes (units km/s).
fissile materials. The set of data from Johnston and Domnesteanu et al., 2002, measured the anisotropic
Christensen, 1995, (Figure 13.46), shows the effect of velocity and attenuation of fully saturated shales under
Vp measurement direction, and the effect of confining overpressured conditions, Figure 13.48, apparently for
pressure, and is a useful summary of the effects of pre-
ferred clay mineral orientation.
Data sets reviewed by Johnston and Christensen, 1995
showed Vp anisotropy of 20 to 30%, and Vs anisotropy
of 32 to 35%. The maximum velocity was always parallel
to bedding and the minimum perpendicular to bedding,
Figure 13.48 a) Propagation and vibration directions with respect to foliation, and relevant to shale sample number. b) Seismic qualities for
P- and S-waves through over-pressured shales, as a function of differential pressure, and as a function of propagation direction
relative to the foliation. c) One set of examples of P-wave and S-wave attenuation as a function of over-pressure, where
PP/Pc 0.46 corresponds to over-pressure. Domnesteanu et al., 2002.
356 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
the first time in the laboratory. They used an ultrasonic waves propagating parallel to the layering (Vp11). Q p
reflection technique. The shale cores were from the reduced with overpressure, regardless of propagation
North Sea. Confining and pore pressures were applied direction, while Q s was highly dependent on propaga-
that were relevant to in situ conditions, giving differen- tion direction, and depended less on pore pressure than
tial pressures from 5 to 60 MPa. (In view of the low per- Q p. Perhaps predictably, the results suggested a strong
meability of the shale, the use of the rock mechanics link between the rock framework, the pore geometry and
adjective for 1 3 differential stress, will not be connectivity, and therefore the response of pore fluid to
questioned, as the actual effective stress is uncertain, due the propagation of seismic waves, in specific directions.
to test rate dependency).
The seismic signature of the shale was explored by
taking the samples through cycles of over-pressured and 13.12.1 Attenuation anisotropy
normally pressured states, whilst increasing the overall expressions E, G and D
confining pressure. The authors found that each incre-
mental increase in pore pressure caused the shale to At a seismic Q workshop in Madrid, Best et al., 2005,
expand slightly, counteracting the opposite effect of described an ultrasonic pulse-echo technique for investi-
increasing the confining pressure. It was found that the gating both velocity and seismic Q anisotropy of P- and
shales behaved elastically at confining pressures higher S-waves in finely inter-bedded reservoir-type rocks. They
than 35 MPa. As expected, the compressional and shear had modified the earlier version of the equipment, so as
wave velocities and seismic quality factors increased to be able to study shear wave anisotropy, using a 360°
with increasing differential pressure (i.e. with reduced rotating S-wave transducer, for observing the shift of
over-pressure. arrival time. This will be described here because of obvi-
The plane of circular symmetry was parallel to the ous relevance to attenuation in finely bedded reservoir
foliation (see Figure 13.48a). The degree of sample rocks, which will be partly addressed in the next section.
anisotropy was found to be related to the depth of origin Their studies were performed at effective stress levels
of the shale. Both Vs and Vp decreased with increasing of 5 and 40 or 50 MPa, on vertically or horizontally
over-pressure. Nevertheless, the ratio Vp/Vs decreased aligned samples of Carboniferous sandstone, siltstone
with increasing differential pressure. As expected there or limestone obtained from the Imperial College exper-
was a general increase in seismic Q p and Q s with differ- imental borehole site in northern England.
ential pressure, but with lowest values showing least Following Thomsen (1986) velocity anisotropy
increase with stress. Under a fixed differential pressure, expressions for , and in weakly transversely isotropic
an increasing pore pressure was found to reduce Q p by media, and because of the excellent stability of their
about 16%, or up to 8 units. An anisotropic pattern of pulse-echo data, they gave equivalent expressions for
wave attenuation is evident from Figure 13.48b. attenuation (Q1), and derived relevant results for
The authors found that the relative proportions of these new parameters:
Biot ‘fluid-past-frame’ attenuation, and local squirt
flow attenuation were different in the plane parallel to 1 1
Q p (H ) Q p ( V )
foliation, and in the plane perpendicular to the layer- (Q 1 ) 1
(13.13)
Q p (V )
ing. Squirt flow, localized between compliant and non-
compliant pores, was considered a predominant loss in
the bulk modulus, and a small loss in the shear modu- 1 1
Q sh (H) Q sh ( V )
lus. It was naturally considered to be more active in the (Q 1 ) 1
(13.14)
plane of the foliation, than perpendicular to it. Biot Q sh ( V )
flow was considered a predominant loss in the shear
modulus, and a very small loss in the bulk modulus. 1 1
Q sv (H) Q sv (H)
Since arising from fluid movement in the open pores, it ((Q 1 ) 1
(13.15)
was considered to be related to the macro-permeability. Q sv (H)
The authors found that at differential pressures
20 MPa, compressional waves propagating perpendi- where V denoted vertical, H horizontal, and the
cular to the layering (Vp33) were attenuated by squirt flow, sub-scripts p, sh and sv denoted P-waves, S-waves with
and hence more attenuated than the compressional horizontal polarization, and S-waves with vertical
Rock physics at laboratory scale 357
Figure 13.50 a) Three-dimensional P-wave velocity measurements on spherical samples in more than 100 directions, in the dry and sat-
urated states. Two of the six results (k3 and k5) for the tight gas sandstones are shown. These illustrated cases were under zero
confinement. b) Confined tests with sedimentary layering (ss) and sometimes jointing (r1 and r2), provided an anisotropic, con-
fining pressure-dependent mix of effects on velocities. (Note: sample porosities are listed in Figure 13.51). Dürrast et al., 2002.
permeabilities in each case, due to the thin dark-clay The authors commented on the significance of the sur-
layers obstructing vertical flow. face roughness of the joints providing a significant fluid
However where discrete jointing occurred, with sub- path, even at higher confining pressures. From 50 to
vertical orientation, as in the case of sample k5, the high- 80 MPa confining pressure, corresponding to depths of
est permeabilities were recorded parallel to the core axis, several kilometres, the permeabilities parallel to the frac-
i.e. vertically. This clear trend is shown in Figure 13.51b. tures were up to nine times higher than those parallel to
With confining pressure below 50 MPa, there was a the sedimentary layering. In view of the possibility of
mono-clinic symmetry of the P-wave velocity distribution conjugate shearing of such joint sets, one may speculate
caused by the combination of sedimentary layering, joint- that in a reservoir environment, with anisotropic stress,
ing, and cross-bedding, while at higher confinement, the there would be a possibility of relative maintenance of
sedimentary layering was virtually the only remaining fea- joint permeability despite high effective stresses. These
ture, resulting in a more transversely isotropic symmetry. possibilities, and the influence of joint-surface related
Rock physics at laboratory scale 359
Figure 13.52 Comparison of elastic anisotropy, measured on a spherical North Sea sandstone sample, and hydraulic anisotropy, measured
by a tracer-injection X-ray technique in the same rock sample. ISO: isotropic, TI: transversely isotropic, MON: monoclinic
symmetry, ORT: orthorhombic symmetry. Rasolofosaon and Zinszner, 2002.
King, 2002 described dynamic hydro-mechanical (ultra- loading. At approximately 100 MPa, the set of ‘biaxial’
sonic and flow) measurements both before fracturing, extension fractures started to develop (point F), and the
during fracturing, and in load-unload cycles after perpendicular velocities Vp2 and Vs2 indicated rap-
fracturing. idly declining velocities due to the presence of the new
Figure 13.54 reproduces some of the very interesting fractures.
experimental results of principal P-wave and S-wave Figure 13.55 indicates what happened when the newly
velocities that were recorded during the initially almost fractured cube was reloaded with equal hydrostatic stress.
biaxial loading of a 6% porosity, and almost isotropic There was a more rapid increase in Vp2 and Vs2 as the
sandstone up to fracturing. Diagrams a) and b) show Vp1 fracture set was (nearly) closed, while parallel with the
and Vs1 increasing steadily parallel with the high ‘biaxial fractures, the velocities Vp1 and Vs1 behaved almost as
Rock physics at laboratory scale 361
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.53 a) Section through the 3D static and dynamic loading facility at Imperial College. Permeability can also be measured in the
presence of a high pore pressure. b) Principal loading and velocity measurement directions, with definition of the nine com-
ponents of P- and S-wave velocity, and the vibration directions of the S-waves. King et al., 1995, King 2002.
362 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a) (a)
(b)
(b)
Figure 13.55 Ultrasonic P- and S-wave components from tests
Figure 13.54 Ultrasonic P- and S-wave components from tests performed across a 6% porosity, isotropic cube of
performed across a 6% porosity, isotropic cube of Crossland Hill sandstone, when re-loaded in a polyax-
Crossland Hill sandstone, when loaded in a polyaxial ial facility in parallel and perpendicular-to-fracturing
facility. Pre- and post-fracturing results are shown, and directions, upon subsequent hydrostatic loading to
compared with excellent modelling results, from 90 MPa. Note the almost unchanged velocities meas-
Shakeel, 1995. Measurable permeability (1 md) ured parallel to the fracture set that was developed.
parallel to the pending fractures, did not develop until King, 2002.
velocities reduced at fracturing point F. King, 2002.
(a)
E2
e (13.16)
JRC 2.5
Table 13.3 ‘Rule-of-thumb’ for order of magnitude estimates of seismic Qp, based on the empirical scheme
linking the jointed rock mass quality Q, Vp, Emass – and in very approximate terms – the rock mass
permeability. (Barton, 1999). Water at 20°C assumed in mD to m/s conversion
Vp km/s 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
Qseis (est.) 2 3 5 7 10 15 22 32 46 68 100
K mD 1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01
K m/s 105 106 107 108 109 1010
with the two-dimensional UDEC and three-dimensional There is something quite familiar about these esti-
3DEC codes of Cundall, allowing dynamic wave trans- mates of seismic Q in relation to Vp, based on the large
mission and attenuation through intersecting joint sets number of cases in fractured rock, reviewed in Chapter
of any desired orientation or block size. Various numer- 10, and in relevant parts of Chapter 13. Note that Vp2
ical modelling methods are discussed in Chapter 15. in Figure 13.54a is 2.5 km/s at the end of the cracking
phase, just as the reported seismic Q of a second sand-
13.14 Rock mass quality, stone was 5 at the same stage of loading, following the
attenuation and modulus same method of fracture development.
Beyond the ‘jointed rock’ modulus limit of roughly
This chapter will be concluded by bringing an empiri- 150 GPa, the question of seismic Q value estimation is
cal rock mechanics scheme into consideration, as justi- problematic, but remarkably it starts to resemble the rock
fication for the tentative, repeated conclusion, first mass Q and Qc value, i.e. 500, 1000, 2000 – the latter
launched in Chapter 10, that seismic Q very much representing completely intact hard rock at moderate,
resembles the static modulus of deformation expressed deep and kilometre-depths, or relevant to hard, very hard
in GPa, strictly for the case of jointed or fractured rock, for and extremely hard unjointed rock at moderate depths
which a good data base exists. The special fracturing of say 1⁄2 to 1 km.
tests of King and his colleagues at Imperial College, In case of knowledge of the approximate uniaxial
have given repeated support for this simple hypothesis. compressive strength (c) of the rock where the P-wave
Deformation moduli are almost always in the range of velocity measurement is made, the improved linkages
5 to 100 GPa, and seismic Q seems also to be most fre- between (c) and deformation modulus (and therefore
quently in this range in the case of near-surface rock an approximate seismic Q ) can be applied, as shown in
masses (to 1 kilometre depth?), as frequently suggested Figure 13.60. Example: Vp measured at 2 km depth in
by attenuation data presented in Chapters 10 and 13. fractured sandstones 5.0 km/s. Uniaxial strength of
The empirical expression for static deformation modu- sandstones 50 MPa. Estimate of ‘static’ deformation
lus: Emass 10 Qc1/3, and the expression linking vel- modulus is 25 GPa. A first estimate of seismic Q,
ocity and rock quality: Vp 3.5 log Qc can be specifically Qp is therefore 25.
merged, by elimination of Qc into the form: The possible relative differences in frequency effects on
Vp and seismic Q is of course a source of additional error
in this simple method. Porosity effects not captured by
E mass 10(Vp0.5)/3 (GPa ) ( Q seis ?) (13.17) direct effects on (c) may be subtracted from the esti-
mates of modulus, using the graphical adjustments sug-
The Vp scale on the left-hand side of Figure 13.59 can gested in Figure 13.59. These are empirical by nature and
be followed across the diagram (‘ignoring’ the rock mass have an insignificant data-base at high rock quality Q-
quality Q c), all the way to the right-hand side deformation values, since high n% seldom accompanies high Q-values.
modulus estimates, giving (in Table 13.3) proposed Vp – In Chapter 7 concerning excavation disturbed zones,
Emass (GPa) or seismic Q ‘first-pass’ estimation of (better we reviewed the very thorough seismic studies of the
than) order of magnitude values of seismic Q, specifically Basalt Waste Isolation Project (BWIP) conducted by
where jointed or fractured rock masses are involved. For King et al., 1984 and 1986, and several other researchers.
good measure, a very rough estimate of permeability is The review included EDZ effects on P- and S-wave
also given, based on the Lugeon value (1 L 107 m/s, velocities in the columnar basalt, using cross-hole seismic
and with 1 Darcy 1012 m2 105 m/s, for water at measurement at different depths into the tunnel wall in
20)C, we have 1 Lugeon 10 millidarcies). horizontal, diagonal (inclined), and vertical directions.
366 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 13.59 For the case of jointed or fractured rock, there is a strong resemblance of the magnitude of seismic Q, to the ‘static’ deformation
modulus expressed as GPa. The figure shows the inter-relationships developed from an empirical expression linking the rock
mass quality Q-value with the ‘static’ deformation modulus Emass (or M) and velocity Vp. Permeability, in Lugeons
(1 L 107 m/s 10 millidarcies for water at 20)C) is also roughly linked, in the absence of clay-sealing of the joints. In this
chart a nominal uniaxial compressive strength of ‘hard’ rock, namely 100 MPa forms the basis of the graphics, but using the
Q c Q c/100 relation, other compressive strengths can be applied, as shown in Figure 13.60. Barton, 1999a.
Figure 13.60 A rough method for estimating seismic Q from P-wave velocity and uniaxial compressive strength linkages to ‘static’ deforma-
tion modulus. By implication, and also in practice, the trend when moving downwards-and-to-the-right is for increased depth
and reduced porosity, thereby reaching values of Emass in the higher range of 50 to 100 or more typical for crystalline rocks or
hard limestones or well-cemented sandstones.
A very interesting result of relevance to the possible Q p value in situ cannot be more than that of an intact
link between seismic Q p and the static deformation mod- sample of the same rock at the same stress level. King et al.,
ulus determined from Q rock is shown in Figure 13.61. 1986 normalized their in situ estimates of Q p, using
This is not laboratory data for Q p, but it is normalized an assigned maximum value of 50, where the highest
by laboratory data, on the assumption that the relative value of Q seis was recorded, 9 m from the tunnel face, in
Rock physics at laboratory scale 367
The ability to detect the presence of viable hydrocarbon- velocity-depth function attributed to Slotnick, 1936:
bearing structures, with sufficient porosity, and with
tolerable matrix and mass permeability, are among the (14.1)
v z v o Kz
challenges of the petroleum geologist, petrophysicist,
and geophysicist, whose joint role may last far into the
reservoir engineers’ production phase. In this chapter where vo is the (P-wave) velocity at the surface and vz is
we will give examples of some of the basic ways of ‘seis- the velocity at vertical depth z.
mically illuminating’ reservoirs at larger scale, some- There was also early recognition of a quite systematic
times extending over 100’s of km2 to depths of 5 km. trend linking velocity to the geological age, in combin-
(Small-scale dipole and monopole sonic logging was ation with the present depth of occurrence. The interest-
described in Chapter 12, because of its intimate con- ing empirical method of Faust, 1952 will be summarized
nection to rock stress, borehole stability and mud pres- as a ‘geological’ and ‘stress-effect’ introduction to hydro-
sure). The larger scale techniques illustrated in this carbon reservoir investigation.
chapter range from cross-well tomography, VSP 2D Faust discovered that the greatest rate of velocity
and 3D multi-azimuth walk-away surveys, 4C multi- increase occurred at shallow depth in the oldest units, which
component surveys, AVO and AVOA for detecting is fundamental early proof of the importance of dual
fracture orientation, and 4D repeated surveys for track- porosity. The likelihood of more joints in the stiffer, older
ing reservoir changes over time. One of the causes of units make these units more sensitive to stress change.
such changes is the use of water flooding, which causes However, with only Vp as a dynamic indicator of condi-
various coupled mechanisms, besides an advancing tions, acoustic closure represented a limit to the sensitiv-
oil/water contact. 4D can also be used for monitoring ity, especially for the weaker, younger reservoir rocks.
the effects of compaction, and subsidence. In general, Faust, 1951, used data from almost 1 million feet (or
apart from a brief treatment of C-waves or converted about 300 kilometres) of well sections, in 500 petrol-
P-S waves, we will leave a detailed description of the use eum well surveys, mostly from the USA and some from
of shear wave splitting and polarization for Chapter 15. Canada. The great majority of data was for mixed
This remarkable method for characterization of frac- shale/sandstone sections. A non-systematic comparison
tured reservoirs is a suitable finale, and a good intro- of shale and sand (sandstone) velocities had revealed an
duction to the need for more geomechanics (in Chapter average discrepancy of only 350 ft/sec, or 106.7 m/s in
16), for improved understanding of fractured reservoir velocity between these two, frequently inter-bedded
behaviour. units, the sandstone having the highest velocity by this
small average margin.
The ironic similarity of velocities for these two basic
14.1 Some classic relationships dissimilar as ‘chalk-and-cheese’ units, is a reminder of the
between age, depth and potential ‘non-uniqueness’ of P-wave velocity, and the
velocity recognised need for alternative interpretation methods,
such as impedance and attenuation, to distinguish the
The most fundamental and earliest means of interpret- different lithologies and their fluid-bearing signatures.
ing possible reservoir conditions at kilometre depths was The potential closeness of velocities for shale and
the use of seismic P-wave velocity well surveys, using a sandstone is actually surprising, in view of the greater
simple VSP concept. There was early recognition of tolerance of the stronger sandstone to stress anisotropy,
velocity increase with depth, with the following smooth often resulting in several MPa greater minimum stress
370 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Table 14.1 Mean depth-velocity data from Tertiary and of velocity increase occurs at ‘shallow’ depth in the oldest
Pennsylvanian shale-sandstone units, selected from units, which is presumably a function of more joints that
Faust, 1951, from wells in the USA only. therefore make the older units more sensitive to stress
Mean Mean change. The steepest velocity-depth gradients occur, of
Mean velocity No. of velocity of No. of course, in the 300 m to 1 km depth range, 1000 ft being
depth of Tertiary wells of Pennsylvanian wells of the approximate limiting depth of measurement.
Z (ft) (ft/s) Tertiary (ft/s) Pennsylvanian The trend of the data is given by Faust, 1951, as:
1 025 6 800 71 9 420 18 1
V m Z n (14.2)
2 500 7 660 63 11 110 14
3 500 8 160 63 11 720 18
4 500 8 670 64 12 230 18
which was reportedly similar to a current weathering
5 500 9 220 54 12 650 14 correction method known as the ‘Blondeau weathering’.
6 500 9 520 53 12 710 7 Z is depth in feet, m is a constant with units of velocity
7 500 9 860 48 13 320 5 (that proves to be age-dependent) and n is a constant,
8 500 10 220 31 13 390 4 independent of age.
9 500 10 670 23 13 020 4 Faust plotted the same data in log-log format, as
10 500 11 090 13 14 030 3 shown in Figure 14.2. The velocity at each depth could
11 500 11 300 2 14 500 2 then be represented as:
log V log m 1 n log Z (14.3)
in the shale, which is frequently a fluid barrier for the
hydrocarbon-bearing sandstone. To the extent that equation 14.2 is correct, m
Faust minimised lithological variations by averaging all represents the velocity for a particular geological age
measurements at the same depth and age. At the outset he at 1 foot depth (0.3 m). The relevant geological ages
assumed that velocity (V) could be expressed as a func- and the ‘zero depth’ velocity constants (m) are given in
tion of depth (Z), age (T) and lithological variables (L). Table 14.2. The constant n 6, applies for all the
Since L was considered too problematic (i.e. how to com- curves in Figure 14.2.
pare the separate units limestone, shale and sandstone) By plotting m against age, shown in Figure 14.3, a
shale and sand were accepted as representing equivalent linear log-log plot was obtained of the form:
sections, as they alternated too frequently in relation to
the usual interval of down-hole velocity measurement, am T1/6 (14.4)
which then was as much as 500 feet (or 152 m). Table 14.1
gives an extract of the data for the two most frequently where T is geologic age in years and is a constant.
represented geologic ages, namely the Tertiary and the Equations 14.2 and 14.4 could therefore be combined as:
Pennsylvanian, which follows the Permian. The oldest
V (TZ)1/6 (14.5)
units were Devonian (15 wells) and Ordovician (3 wells).
Although reproducing very ‘smoothed’ data due to the In Faust, 1951, is given as 125.3, and is numeric-
averaging process, Faust, 1951, was careful to point out ally equal to velocity in feet per second when TZ 1.
that the maximum deviations from the velocity averages From the literature of the time, values of of 121.5
could be great. Nevertheless both minimum and max- and 127.2 were also quoted by Faust. A mean value of
imum values also demonstrated increased velocity with 124.7 from these three results suggests that 125
depth. Comparison of same-age same-depth data from would be an acceptable constant.
different regions of the USA, reportedly showed little sys- An example will now be given to illustrate this simple,
tematic deviation of the mean from one area to another. early technique.
However the Devonian of the Appalachian Basin and the
Eocene and Cretaceous of SW Texas had velocities more
typical of data 3000 ft (915 m) deeper. This was thought Assume Pennsylvanian 220 106 years (Table 14.2)
to be due to unusually high degrees of cementation. M 3,047 ft/s 929 m/s (Table 14.2)
Evaluating Z 1,000; 1,500; 2,000; 3,000 ft, we obtain:
Figure 14.1 is derived from the extensive data that was
equation 14.5 at V 9,712; 10,391; 10,900;
partly sampled in Table 14.1. It shows the quite systematic
11,663 ft/s 2.96; 3.17; 3.32; 3.56 km/s
average trends of velocity, age and depth. The greatest rate
P-waves for characterising fractured reservoirs 371
Figure 14.1 Velocity-depth trends for in situ reservoir rocks of various geological ages (linear scales). Faust, 1951.
wavelength, while the smallest scale of ordered hetero- 4. Type IV: macro-porous reservoirs have high matrix
geneity, less than 0.01 of the wavelengths, may be the porosity and permeability – matrix provides both
cause of most of the azimuthal and offset dependent vel- storage capacity and fluid-flow pathways – frac-
ocity. Conventional seismic wavelengths are much longer tures merely enhance permeability.
than the scale lengths of either of the features that gov-
ern dual-porosity flow in a reservoir. The author warned that Type I and Type II reservoirs
As pointed out by Williams and Jenner, 2002, the could be easily damaged by excessive production rates
earth does not care which tools or frequencies we use; it (due presumably to the rather strong sensitivity of per-
still knows it is anisotropic. Strong P-wave velocity meability to unnecessarily high effective stress levels),
anisotropy is being observed in every geologic environ- but many performed well under unassisted primary
ment, with the possible exception of basins under pri- recovery when managed properly. In Type III reservoirs
mary deposition and burial. P-wave azimuthal anisotropy the recovery factor was dependent on lithology,
was previously ignored, and left to the research and wetability, and fracture intensity. The choice of appro-
technology group, but is now known to be one of the priate EOR (enhanced oil recovery) was essential
most significant properties of the acquired seismic data. for optimal exploitation. In Type IV reservoirs, the
Unfortunately, in the marine environment, fully popu- recovery factor was most sensitive to the selected drive
lated offsets in each azimuth class are less common than mechanism.
on land, but Williams and Jenner emphasised that even The sophistication of investigation methods, using
narrow azimuth data gave an opportunity to see the multi-component and multiple-frequency methods, gives
effects of azimuthal anisotropy. the capability of revealing heterogeneity and fracturing
Hand-in-hand with the basic anisotropy caused by at many scales, even if indirectly, thanks to some remark-
sedimentary layering, and deformation processes, is able and fortuitous dynamic wave properties.
marked heterogeneity, occurring at many scales and for A good analogy to the developing heterogeneity of a
many reasons. As Nur, 1989 pointed out, reservoirs are better understood reservoir, is all the adverse faulting
much more heterogeneous than anybody likes to believe, gradually revealed by successive drilling at a potential
and as time goes by more and more reservoirs are nuclear waste disposal site, perhaps causing its eventual
re-classified as severely heterogeneous, due to a multitude rejection, after many years of costly investigations.
of dynamic flow-related cyclical events during their for- With huge quantities of petroleum in place at a poten-
mation, and due to fracturing and faulting in subsequent tial or existing reservoir, rejection is seldom an option,
geologic eras, each of which become better understood as and better understanding through improved seismic
time, and seismic developments, advance. An appropriate and enhanced production techniques, are the obvious
quotation from Lynn, 2004, also has relevance here. ways forward.
‘Fractures are like cockroaches. There is no such thing as
one cockroach. If you see one, a whole family of all scale
lengths is hiding nearby.’ 14.2.1 Some basic anisotropy
In a survey of one hundred fractured (i.e. jointed, not theory
MHF) oil reservoirs from around the world, it was found
convenient to divide the reservoirs into four groups For reference purposes we need to summarize some basic
(Allan, 2002): elements of isotropic and anisotropic behaviour, since
various categories of anisotropic behaviour will now be
1. Type I: little matrix porosity and permeability – treated in somewhat more detail than in earlier chapters.
fractures provided both storage capacity and fluid- A linear elastic isotropic medium requires only two
flow pathways. constants to specify the stress-strain behaviour, either
2. Type II: low matrix porosity and permeability – Young’s modulus (E) and Poisson’s ratio (*), or alterna-
matrix provides some storage capacity – fractures tively Lamé’s constants ( ) and (
), where (
) is the
provide fluid-flow pathways. shear modulus. These pairs of parameters can be
3. Type III: micro-porous reservoirs with high matrix derived from each other using standard equations of
porosity but low matrix permeability – matrix pro- elasticity (see Chapter 1, and refer also to the Rock
vides the storage capacity – fractures provide the Physics Handbook by Mavko et al., 1998, and Birch,
fluid-flow pathways. 1961).
374 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Matrix format (6 6) is used to represent the three- ● Transversely isotropic with horizontal axis of sym-
dimensional elastic tensors, which in the isotropic case, metry (TIH) perpendicular to the vertical layers, but
requires only two parameters, as follows: typically caused by stress-related aligned, vertical
jointing, fracturing, and/or microcracks. (Also five
independent constants: tensor elements 1,2 and 1,3
2
0 0 0 are the same term c13)
2
0 0 0 Orthorhombic symmetry typical of horizontally
0
●
2
0 0
0 0 (14.7) bedded rock containing a set of vertically aligned
joints, fractures and/or microcracks. (Nine inde-
pendent constants).
Figure 14.6 3D P-wave velocity tomograms for mid-depths of 32, 96 and 106 m depth in quaternary sediments, alluvial stream beds and
sandstones. Brzostowski and McMechan, 1992.
attenuation data had been one of the important unsolved Figure 14.11 Comparison of models (K super – k, B Biot,
and D BISQ ) with cross-well velocity and attenu-
problems in seismic exploration, the author was able to
ation data from 300–480 m depth at a permeable
demonstrate good correspondence between acoustically-
aquifer site. Data from Yamamoto and Kuru, 1997.
imaged permeability and hydraulic pumping (extraction) Yamamoto, 2003.
and packer (injection) tests. An unusual close, 11 m
horizontally-spaced cross-well set-up was used for deriv-
ing 4 kHz velocity and attenuation tomograms. Data was
also acquired at five other frequencies (1, 2, 3, 5, and it would presumably resemble chalk more than lime-
0.250 kHz). Permeability was measured in four packered stone). Significantly, the mismatch with the Qseis modu-
intervals down the same 300–480 m deep test section. lus-model (Figure 13.60) increases strongly at higher
His model reportedly coincided numerically with the frequencies.
combined Biot and squirt flow mechanism (the BISQ
model of Dvorkin et al., 1994), when permeability
was 100 md, and when the frequency was 100 kHz 14.3.3 Cross-well seismic in deeper
(the so-called super-k regime, where the pore fluid is reservoir characterization
always relaxed). The limestone where the author per-
formed these studies had extremely high permeability A special issue of Geophysics was devoted to cross-well
(10–250 d). He described a large wave attenuation and methods in 1995, due to the large number of unsoli-
velocity dispersion in this highly permeable limestone. cited papers on the subject, following strong oil indus-
This in situ data is reproduced in Figure 14.11. try interest in use of cross-hole tomographic methods
The author divided the 180 m 11 m imaged cross- since the late 80’s, for imaging below the resolution of
section into seven, mostly 25 m long sub-sections, for surface seismic, for such purposes as steam injection
the purpose of velocity and attenuation inversion. His front imaging. An important discovery from the early
analytical inversion model for permeability involved a period of cross-well research, was that very high fre-
quadratic equation for a non-dimensional permeability- quency could be propagated over distance of several hun-
frequency parameter, with attenuation as a polynomial dreds of metres, when both source and receiver were
constant. down-hole, in deep boreholes.
It may be noted that although the porosity and per- The additional discovery of very high bandwidth
meability were of exceptional magnitude, the seismic with downhole receivers and sources apparently con-
velocities of 3.5 and 3.6 km/s obtained at the two lowest firmed the phenomenon that seismologists also have to
frequencies of 2 and 4 kHz, were matched with seismic live with, if without downhole instruments (Chapter
Q values of 14 and 18, which are quite close the jointed 10), that most of the surface-based frequency loss is due
rock model potentially linking Vp and Qp, if the assump- to attenuation in the near-surface low-Q zone. Rector,
tion is made that the uniaxial strength of the limestone 1995, mentioned an order of magnitude improvement
is high, and that the high porosity and permeability is in subsurface resolution, with many investigators now
due to solution channels. (If porosity was distributed using secondary arrivals, such as reflections, to obtain
P-waves for characterising fractured reservoirs 379
Figure 14.14 Estimated velocity models based on an IFP Picrocol data set from a southern North Sea salt dome and surrounds. Note lateral
velocity variations in individual layers. Kabir and Verschuur, 2000. Reproduced by kind permission.
Nevertheless each layer was described with an average Fracturing or jointing caused by anticlinal structures
velocity and a vertical velocity gradient. Overburden can be a key to effective drainage of oil and gas from a
stress and fluid pressure were assumed to increase lin- porous but low permeability matrix such as tight sand-
early with depth. The authors discussed the sometime stone or chalk. Depending on the efficiency of the cap-
need for lateral velocity gradient in addition to vertical rock, often shales, there may also be over-pressured shale
velocity gradient, in interpreting variations. They sug- layers in the reservoir. Fracturing or jointing causing
gested the use of well velocities to improve depth con- reduced velocities may be seen as a seismic time-sag.
version and geological interpretations. This can be accentuated by the presence of gas rather
382 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
than oil, and can also be accentuated by the effect of fluid. Subtraction of seismograms for the down-going
over-pressure. and the up-going pulses leaves an enhanced reflection.
(Christie et al., 1995).
There is a growing trend to instrument some petrol-
14.5 Detecting anisotropy caused eum wells on a ‘permanent’ basis, so that 4D seismic can
by fractures with multi-azimuth be used ‘more easily’, to monitor changes bought about
VSP by different water-flood and production practices, using
rock physics principles to assist in the interpretation. As
In the same way that we had to reject earlier assump- we saw in Chapter 10, the in-well installation practice
tions about elastic isotropic rock mechanics behaviour, apparently started in the late 80’s and early 90’s in the
the sedimentary rocks containing hydrocarbons have case of permanent installations in deep holes adjacent to
also proved to be neither isotropic nor homogeneous, the San Andreas fault in California.
but heterogeneous and anisotropic. Besides detecting
azimuthal velocity anisotropy, signalling aligned fractur-
ing and/or anisotropic rock stress, there are now needs 14.5.1 Fracture azimuth and
for spatial resolution of variable structure, and also for stress azimuth from P-wave
resolution of temporal changes. A more recent challenge surveys
is the resolution of azimuthal variation in attenuation as
an indicator of horizontal permeability anisotropy. The original goal of a seismic study reported by Lynn
All seismic data are now known to vary with the off- et al., 1999a, for the US Department of Energy, was to
set (angle in relation to the well), and with the azimuth. evaluate and map fracture azimuth and relative fracture
Since all seismic data also varies with frequency, there is density throughout a naturally-fractured gas reservoir
an increasing recognition that 3D multi-component, interval. P-waves travelling in the plane parallel to aligned
multi-mode and multi-azimuth acquisition may be vertical fractures (thus giving transverse isotropy with a
required and economically justified. The seismic wave- horizontal axis – known as HTI media), have higher
length at which the measurement is made, determines velocity than the P-waves travelling perpendicular to
what seismic attributes can be measured, and whether the fractures. The latter direction corresponds to the
the rock looks homogeneous and isotropic or heteroge- high attenuation direction, due to the lower frequency
neous and anisotropic. of the P-waves, and therefore a lower seismic Q. The
According to Lynn, 2004 when the cause of the advantages of using of both travel time and amplitude,
ordered anisotropy replicates itself across different scale or travel time and frequency, for detecting permeability
lengths, or exhibits fractal tendencies, the anisotropy was emphasised.
measured in modern dipole well logs at kilohertz fre- As the authors pointed out, the detection of relative
quencies, may match the anisotropy trends that are crack density and crack orientations was not the final
detected at another scale, with 10–100 kH reflection goal, rather it was the detection of azimuthal anisotropy
seismic. A given set of vertically aligned fractures will that was attributable to structure that controlled the fluid-
therefore cause anisotropy with low frequency measure- flow properties at reservoir scale. With sufficient fracture
ment, signal distortion with mid-frequency measurement, density, connectivity and permeability anisotropy were
and lead to reflections by the highest frequency waves. likely. A threshold value of anisotropy would probably
The practice of VSP (vertical seismic profiling), walk- be involved. The detection of permeability anisotropy
away VSP, multi-azimuth VSP, and numerous other could be considered as one step beyond the detection of
techniques related to VSP are so fundamental in explor- vertically aligned fractures, and/or the detection of
ation that a diagram for illustrating the technique is unequal horizontal stresses.
probably superfluous. Nevertheless, since a figure is The authors emphasised the importance of know-
worth a thousand words: Figure 14.15 shows the princi- ledge of the orientation of maximum horizontal stress,
ple of e.g. walkaway VSP, with surface shot points shown due to the commonly assumed strong correlation between
along a single azimuth, and downhole receiver positions. directionality of reservoir flow and the local, present-
There is also a technique for performing VSP for hori- day orientation of the maximum horizontal stress. Typ-
zontal well sections, using geophones clamped to the for- ically, oriented four-arm calliper logs show a long axis
mation, and hydrophones suspended in the borehole that is oriented parallel to the minimum horizontal stress
P-waves for characterising fractured reservoirs 383
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 14.15 a) Simple illustration of the principles of walk-away vertical seismic profiling (VSP). The usual practice will be the use of shot
points along multi-azimuth lines, preferably symmetrically distributed, such as in two perpendicular arrays related to the dom-
inant fracturing direction (e.g. Grimm et al., 1999), or as illustrated by b) with a more complete double-orthogonal coverage
for the case of the hypothetical fractured reservoir (Liu, 2003). A walk-around lay-out at constant offset or radius, for improved
characterization of fractured reservoirs has also been used (Horne, 2003). Use of wide aperture layouts, extending on the sur-
face to at least the target depth is recommended, e.g. Lynn et al., 1999. c) Zero, or limited offset VSP with the direct and
reflected wave-paths explained (Christie et al., 1995).
direction, if there is stress-induced break-out. (However, WNW-oriented fracture strike (based on oriented core
as mentioned earlier in this chapter, and discussed in and impression-packer results). The WNW fracture direc-
more detail in Chapters 15 and 16, there may be joint- tion also agreed with the maximum stress indicated by
or fracture-related reasons for a careful evaluation of this break-out analysis from calliper logs. A plausible explan-
commonly-held viewpoint.) ation of enhanced dilation of the WNW fracture set, due
Interestingly for later discussion of this topic, the to structural flexure of the anticlinal structure, mentioned
authors mention the ‘problem’ of a NW-oriented improved connectivity as a possible explanation of the
production trend at a neighbouring well, yet with a (roughly 20°?) rotated NW production trend.
384 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Analyses at the Rulison Field by Lynn et al., 1999b, fracture direction (based on structural geology). This
using just two azimuthal bins of data, also showed a ‘dis- method was used in order to construct azimuthally dif-
crepancy’ of orientations: a similar present day stress as ferentiated, and azimuthally limited seismic attributes,
above (N 70–80° W), but principle P-wave velocity that would highlight the formation’s fracture and
directions of N30W and N60E. The authors continued matrix response, respectively.
to assume that the direction of H max would be the A rough measure of fracture anisotropy was given by
direction of open cracks or fractures, but did not dis- the resulting P-wave interval velocities, measured in two
cuss the possibility of the interaction of e.g. two sets of such azimuthal bins. (Two-azimuthal binning is however
joints or fractures, or the possibility of conjugate shear- blind to anisotropy near 45° to the principal chosen
ing as an explanation of ‘open’ fractures. directions). The authors found that when the anisotropy
This topic is treated in detail in Chapter 16, following exceeded 5 to 10% using this simpler approach, there
analysis of the shear strength of rock joints and fractures, was good agreement with the principle directions obtained
and analysis of what has been learned by Zoback and co- by more sophisticated methods. There was correspond-
workers, about water conducting joint (or minor fault) ingly robust correlation and identification of zones of
directions relative to H max directions. Their findings high fracture density and permeability.
should have special relevance in petroleum reservoirs The authors reported that reflectivity and frequency
where rock strengths are limited, yet fractures are assumed were also anisotropic, and actually had better correlations
to be ‘open’, despite h min magnitudes of tens of MPa. with gas productivity than P-wave velocity anisotropy. Ray
In Chapter 16, (and Barton, 2005), a further reason paths travelling parallel to fractures giving increase in fre-
is discussed for such minor angular discrepancies, namely quency may have been due to squirt flow mechanisms
a dilation-related contrary-rotation of fluid lenses parallel to the fractures. The authors used the neural net-
contra rock-to-rock contacting asperities, when non- work technique (with 85% success), to infer commer-
planar joints (or fractures), are actually under signifi- cial prospectivity over undrilled areas, using the available
cant shear stress, and therefore significantly ‘open’. This geological, geophysical and engineering attributes.
geometric effect could possibly rotate shear wave split- The authors advised full-azimuth 3-D P-wave sur-
ting mechanisms. veys for such analyses, with maximum offsets equal to,
Interesting observations on the subject of ‘open’ fracture or greater than target depth, using azimuthally isotropic
orientations were made by Laubach et al., 2002. They source and receiver arrays. Naturally they also recom-
cited comparisons of measured stress directions and orien- mended processing in as many azimuths as allowed by
tations of open, flow-controlling fractures that showed cost, with independent velocity analyses in each azimuth.
that open fractures in the sub-surface were not necessarily An admirably detailed integration of structural orien-
parallel to maximum compressive stress (H max). Fractures tation data with near-offset VSP at the Conoco
perpendicular to this direction could also be ‘open’ if par- Borehole Test Facility, was given by Queen and Rizer,
tially filled with mineral cements, and for this reason, 1990, based on the surface outcrop joint orientations,
sealed fractures parallel to H max were numerous. rock fabric orientation (from point-loading), and from
They pointed out that a determining factor for fluid the results of joint orientation using a borehole tele-
flow was the degree of mineral cements deposited within viewer and oriented core. Figure 14.16 shows the prin-
the fractures, either ‘at the time of fracturing’ (synkine- cipal orientation data at these different scales. The two
matic), or as post-kinematic cements precipitated after joint sets seen at the surface proved not to be as consist-
fractures ceased opening. They suggested, from experi- ent as expected with the three sets of jointing in the
ences in both compressional and extensional provinces, sub-surface. The quite consistently oriented point-load
with production data from 2,400 to 6,400 m depth, fracturing traces could not apparently be related to any
that the divergence between H max and ‘open’ fractures observable microcrack directions or to fabric, and
demonstrably contributing to flow was ‘from a few would then seem likely to have some relation to resid-
degrees to 90 degrees’. ual stresses in the samples.
Grimm et al., 1999 also chose a relatively simple The seismic anisotropy measurements consisted of
(two-azimuth bin) method of estimating the spatial dis- near-offset VSP in twenty three 30 m intervals from
tribution of gas-producing natural fractures in a tight 183 to 853 m depth, and azimuthal VSP uniformly
gas reservoir. This relatively large P-wave survey was spaced at 15° intervals around a 120° quadrant, with
divided into two volumes, with ray-paths parallel and nine sources on a 290 m radius centred on the Conoco
perpendicular (/45°) to the assumed dominant 33–1 well.
P-waves for characterising fractured reservoirs 385
Figure 14.16 Top left: surface outcrop and joint rosette. Top right: superimposed tensile-fracture traces from point-load (steel ball) indentation
testing of the limestone. Middle: left and right: cumulative induced-fracture lengths and orientations from 35 tests on oriented sur-
face samples of the limestone, and from 9 tests on oriented indurated shale core from 734 m depth down the Conoco 33–4 well.
Bottom left: Joint rosette concerning accumulative length of sub-surface jointing of given strike, interpreted from BHTV and
oriented core (with bias against non-vertical jointing). Bottom right: Polar histogram for all levels and azimuths of all the nine-
component VSP data, with lengths weighted by travel time. Queen and Rizer, 1990.
386 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
The results of shear wave splitting and polarization, from spectral ratios. When the two Q seis values agreed,
from this multi-component survey (strictly also belong- they concluded that velocity dispersion resulted solely
ing in Chapter 15), suggested closest correspondence from absorption. They showed logs of Q p down a 1000 m
with the ‘middle’ set of (ENE) fractures, which was close deep borehole that showed an average difference of Q p
to the BHTV-interpreted break-out analysis indication (dispersion formula) minus Q p (spectral ratio method)
of the (perpendicular) major horizontal stress. of 13. Typical ranges of Q p were 10 to 50 (again remind-
Alternatively, the ENE direction could be the theor- ing one of the expected magnitude of deformation
etical and therefore practical resultant of shear wave split- moduli, as expressed in GPa).
ting influences from the other sets, which strike to each They found that VSP (i.e. seismic) Q p were systemat-
side (NE and ESE). The point load fracturing, perhaps ically smaller than those from sonic Q p, therefore sug-
responding to a residual stress (since no microscopically- gesting a bias between VSP and sonic log Vp that could
visible oriented microcracks, nor aligned fabric were not be explained by intrinsic attenuation alone under a
seen), was also in the conforming ENE direction. The constant Q seis assumption. Besides these observations,
authors were of the opinion that their data, although the authors observed that individual values of Q p or Q s
consistent, did not have enough resolution for detailed changed ‘erratically with depth’ unless depth averaging
engineering analysis of fluid flow. was used. The authors suggested that the validity of
seismic Q ‘does not always correlate with the data qual-
ity or with the rocks themselves’.
14.5.2 Sonic log and VSP Since there is a potential relation between rock qual-
dispersion effects and erratic ity Q c and seismic Q p via the empirically derived ‘static’
seismic Q modulus of deformation (Figures 13.59, 13.60), it
must be emphasised that the rock mass quality Q-value
The authors De et al., 1994, from Chevron, compared also usually varies rapidly down any given drill-core,
P- and S-wave velocities and seismic quality factors (Q p unless rock mass conditions are unusually uniform. So
and Q s) using vertical seismic profiling (VSP) and sonic on that basis it would not then be surprising to see
log measurements in five wells, which were situated in ‘erratically’ varying Q p or Q s with depth.
California, Texas and Alberta. The expected bias (VSP An example of rock mass (core-logged) Q-value vari-
transit times were greater than sonic log times) were ations and an alternative rock mass rating RMR from
attributed to normal velocity dispersion, due to which Bieniawski, 1989, down a recovered core is shown in
higher frequency (sonic) waves travel at higher veloci- Figure 14.17. It is unfortunate that such logs of rock
ties than lower frequency seismic waves. Differences in quality are never (?) a part of the geophysicists’ report-
average P-wave travel times ranged from 2.5% to 7% in ing of seismic attributes. There is after all, a strong
the different wells, giving velocity differences between empirical relationship between Q rock and Vp, and there
the two methods that were consistently in the direction is an implicit similarity in the variable values of Q rock
predicted by dispersion. with both rock quality (obviously), and also with depth,
The authors discussed additional potential causes of as we saw in Chapter 10.
the systematic velocity differences, citing local stress
concentrations around the boreholes, altered zones and
velocity anisotropy or lateral inhomogeneity. In fact 14.6 Dispersion as an alternative
stress concentrations around the wells, will cause a mag- method of characterization
nification of (tangential) stress, in the same direction as
major principal stress, and diminution of (tangential) Seismic attenuation has come to be recognised as poten-
stress in the perpendicular direction. If these effects are tially very sensitive to reservoir properties. This is because
strong enough in relation to rock strength, shear sur- of its sensitivity to fractures, joints or bedding planes, and
faces may develop, first giving break-out, subsequently in turn, due to sensitivity to changes of effective stress.
a log-spiral-fractured discontinuum. Various forms of Attenuation levels are also sensitive to the saturating fluid
borehole wall disturbance are possible, as emphasised and petro-physical properties. However, as emphasised
in Chapter 12. by Hackert et al., 2001, field measurements of in situ
De et al., 1994, calculated seismic quality factors (Q p attenuation are complicated due to reflections, geomet-
and Q s) both from a velocity dispersion formula and rical spreading losses and varying formation stiffness.
P-waves for characterising fractured reservoirs 387
Figure 14.17 Examples of rock mass quality variability in terms of where Vsc change of velocity due to elastic scattering,
Q-values and RMR, down a 600 m section of the and Vi change of velocity due to intrinsic attenuation.
UK Nirex Ltd borehole RCF1, at Sellafield. This The former is related to geometric effects including the
was the planned site for a 500–700 m deep shaft, to natural anisotropy (layering) of the medium, while the
develop a Rock Characterisation Facility, for nuclear
latter is caused by inelasticity of the rock matrix and/or
waste disposal feasibility studies. NGI contract
viscous losses of saturating fluids in compliant pores.
report, 1994. The rock was tuff and ignimbrite, of
(obviously) varying quality due to jointing and
They also defined a term (VES) from the above terms:
faulting. These Q-values, modified to Qc using
UCS, correlate with Vp, Emass and depth. VES Vsonic Vsc (14.9)
Figure 14.18 P-wave velocity and density logs in relation to the location of non-shale layers (sand and carbonate) in the Antelope shale.
Hackert et al., 2001.
Figure 14.20 Survey geometry for Pérez et al., 1999a and 1999b analyses of 3D AVO and converted (C) wave P-S shear wave splitting analy-
ses. Small inward-facing arrows indicate H max direction interpreted from break-out orientation logs, from wells 16, 17, 20
and 23. The (unconventional) rose diagrams, which have been blackened for clarity, indicate the various fracture orientations,
and their density, based on FMS logs at these boreholes.
perpendicular, the P-wave velocity is expected to also be The authors opinion at this time was that there were
affected by the acoustic properties of the fluids filling few studies that related AVO attributes to fracture or
the fractures. So in the presence of anisotropy, the reflec- crack parameters. However they were convinced that
tion amplitude will vary with offset, due to changed P-wave AVO gradients were affected by fracture-
angle of incidence, and also will change with azimuth induced azimuthal anisotropy. Analysis involved calcu-
(AVOA). lating reflection coefficient curves in two azimuths, one
The authors used data acquired from three, intersect- parallel, the other perpendicular to fracture orientation
ing 10 km, three-component seismic lines, with three (implying the need to know the expected result). They
different azimuths. The three lines intersected at one of found that the AVO gradient was larger for the lines
the wells, where there were results of FMS (formation perpendicular to fractures than for the line parallel to
micro-scanner) and caliper logs for estimating both the fractures: this direction showed a somewhat higher
dominant fracture strike and the direction of H max. reflection coefficient.
The latter was oriented NW-SE, and the authors In a companion paper, Pérez et al., 1999b compared
assumed that the fracture set in approximately this their local 2D AVO study of the fracture effects at the
direction (one of several sets), would be the one most intersection of their three azimuthal lines (with tie-in to
likely to be ‘open’, and therefore most detectable. well data at this point), with more comprehensive 3D
In this study the far offset extended to 3600 m, a bit azimuthal AVO analysis, and with analysis using con-
more than the depth of the target zone: a 35 m thick verted (C) P-S waves, using shear wave splitting and
fractured limestone at approximately 3000 m depth. polarization (see Chapter 15).
This had a P-wave velocity of only 3513 m/s, and an The converted P-S waves have the advantage that
S-wave velocity of 1890 m/s, with a density of 2.5 gm/ they can be generated by compressional ( i.e. explosive)
cm3. In other words it would seem to have been sources, yet are expected to contain the same informa-
extremely well fractured or over-pressured. tion as pure S (or SS) waves. These comprehensive stud-
A geophysical term NMO (normal moveout) is rele- ies were finally used to assist reservoir engineers in
vant here, as the so-called NMO stretch decreased fre- exploiting the fractured limestone layer at 3 km depth,
quency at far offsets, which therefore affected the using horizontal wells oriented perpendicular to the
amplitudes. This distortion was most significant at shal- densest (or the assumed more ‘open’?) fracture set.
low depth and large offset. During processing, the authors Figure 14.20 shows the layout of the three survey
observed a higher frequency (and velocity), along the off- lines relative to the wells, with details of some fracture-
set line that had an azimuth parallel to the assumed dom- strike orientations from FMS logs. Figure 14.21 shows
inant (‘open’) fracture set, which agrees with other studies. the results of two of the three fracture direction analyses,
390 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 14.23 Fracture pattern map, assuming that the high levels of observed anisotropy could only be modelled if the most positive near-
offset AVO gradient was in the direction perpendicular to dominant fracturing. Hall and Kendal, 2003.
levels of observed anisotropy could only be modelled if the mechanism being modelled, i.e. squirt flow attenu-
the most positive near-offset AVO gradient was in the ation would actually be governed by a different aspect
direction perpendicular to dominant fracturing. Hall ratio to that determining the fracture compliances – if
and Kendal 2003 emphasised that in other situations, these mechanisms were being modelled in poroelastic
the reverse could be true, i.e. the direction of the most models that required aspect ratio as input.
negative AVO gradient could be in the direction per- The standard assumption that maximum permeabil-
pendicular to the dominant fracturing. ity in a rock mass tends to be parallel to a dominant set
The principal fracturing directions interpreted from of vertical joints or fractures, which themselves usually
the AVOA studies described, were NNW-SSE to N-S, trend parallel to the maximum horizontal stress, is a
the former nearly resembling the ‘compartmental- simply understood concept for which there is also the-
like’ NW-SE component of faulting, as shown in oretical support (e.g. Sayers, 1990). The arguments
Figure 14.23. clearly extend also to the P-wave and S-wave velocities.
The concept and the theory are defensible, when the
rock is of sufficient strength in relation to the effective
14.7.2 Conjugate joint or fracture normal stress, to provide (partly) ‘open’ joint apertures
sets also cause anisotropy in the major stress-parallel direction. This generally
applies at least to near-surface rocks, and it may apply
From experiences of domal-structure jointing at Ekofisk, at reservoir depths in the case of harder rock types.
one may pose a tentative question: could the above However, if stress-closure modelling that is based
images of dominant, fracturing directions actually be on empirical rock mechanics data, can demonstrate
images of the similar strike of conjugate, steeply dipping virtual closure of the set under discussion, at effective
sets? If so, then an important mechanism of compaction normal stress levels of several tens of MPa, then other
and production-maintenance could also be at work, mechanisms are likely to be operating, in order to
namely down-dip shearing, despite the one-dimensional explain a viable production rate, assuming that matrix
strain boundary condition. (Barton et al., 1988). permeability is insufficient to explain production, as for
The modified apertures caused by slight shear- instance at both the Valhall and Ekofisk jointed chalk
induced dilation, could perhaps have influence on the reservoirs.
above aspect ratio assumptions, where the inequality of The conjugate shear mechanism, and an important
physical aperture (E) and conducting aperture (e) detail of this mechanism for the common case of non-
(Barton et al., 1985), actually results in two possible planar joint or fracture surfaces, is introduced in
aspect ratios, whose individual relevance may depend on Chapter 15, and further quantified in Chapter 16, with
P-waves for characterising fractured reservoirs 393
Figure 14.24 a) Two synthetic models of jointed or fractured reservoirs, with one set, or two intersecting sets of joints. The modelling of
overlying shale (Vp 3700 m/s) and reservoir matrix (Vp 5877 m/s and density 2.4 gm/cm3), was supplemented by com-
pliance additions to account for the joints, but with neglect of complex joint-set interaction (as modelled in UDEC).
b) Azimuthal P-wave reflection coefficients as a function of angle of wave incidence at four selected azimuths for models
1 and 2. c) Equivalent coefficients for split shear waves: P-SV for model 1 and P-SH for model 2. Note greater azimuthal sen-
sitivity of a single set of joints, and greater azimuthal separation of the reflection coefficients for the case of polarized shear
waves. Sensitivity of P-waves to azimuth is limited, below angles of incidence of 25°. Chen et al., 2005.
particular reference to the ‘shearing critical crust’ con- Some of the theoretical assumptions concerning the
cept of Zoback and co-workers. So far little recognition ratio of compliances being 1.0 for the case of ‘open, gas-
of the importance of this mechanism is evident in reser- filled’ fractures seem not to match engineering concepts,
voir geophysics literature. due to the entirely different mechanisms involved in clos-
Sayers and Dean, 2001, and also Chen et al., 2005, ure and shear. However a lower ratio of ZN/ZT (or Bn/Bt)
addressed the question of the effect of additional fracture for the case of clay filled fractures seems reasonable.
sets, in particular non-orthogonal vertical sets, on the Chen et al., 2005 presented reflection coefficients as
AVO response. The first authors showed sinusoidal- a function of both angle of incidence and azimuth for
type P-wave reflection coefficient trends, when plotted two very ‘tangible’ images of single-joint set and two-
versus azimuth (0 to 360°), with variations depending joint set models, as illustrated in Figure 14.24. The
on the assumptions for the ratios of fracture normal authors set up synthetic jointed reservoir models with
and shear compliance, and whether these ratios were the model 1 and model 2 jointing, intending to have a
equal or unequal for the different sets. fracture density of 0.1 in each case.
394 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
14.7.3 VP anisotropy caused by going from a vapour-saturated (low pore pressure) condi-
faulting tion to a liquid-saturated (high pore pressure) condition.
Water-dominated geothermal fields tend to have higher
Concerning anisotropy in the neighbourhood of faults, values of (i.e. 0.2–0.3), while steam-dominated fields
Williams and Jenner, 2002, warned of the possibility for have lower values of (i.e. 0.15–0.2). NW-SE and NE-
multiple fracture directions, with the fast velocity no SW trending structures associated with reservoir fluid
longer equal to the matrix or bulk rock velocity. The nor- channelling were suggested by the anisotropic distribu-
mal elliptical Vfast and Vslow distribution is then replaced tion of , according to Simiyu, 2000.
by superimposed multiple ellipses, which have the effect
of reducing the observed velocity, and the previous direc-
tionality with a single set of joints or fractures will be lost. 14.8 4C four-component acquisition
Due also to rapid changes in fracture frequency, rapid of seismic including C-waves
changes in velocity are also seen – in fact responding to
the rapid changes in rock mass quality Q close to, and There is a multitude of technical jargon in the geo-
across faults, as frequently observed in tunnelling, and physical industry, not least because of the advanced
when logging fault-zone core for rock quality purposes. developments, the large number of practitioners, and the
The authors showed a velocity difference tomogram complex processes of seismic data gathering, and meth-
of Vfast – Vslow, with velocity differences of up to ods of interpretation. One of the simpler sources of
150 m/s in the neighbourhood of known faulting, due confusion is double use of C – which singly used refers
not to bulk velocity changes, but due to changes in frac- to converted waves (i.e. P-wave converting to S-wave
turing frequency and directions. Since even 2-D offset mode, at the sea floor), and the 4C term meaning four-
lines cross the earth’s azimuthal velocity field, a case was component seismic recordings, typically using ocean-
made for dense sampling near fault and fracture zones. bottom-cable (OBC).
Mostly, azimuthally varying P-wave velocities are attrib- A helpful diagram, illustrating each term, and also pre-
uted to fractures, but the authors suggested that stress- senting an important ‘new’ seismic acquisition method,
aligned microcracks, as always suggested by Crampin, was found in Yuan, 2001, who analysed four-component
may also be responsible, and that the fractures did not seafloor data to determine the possible presence of verti-
need to be ‘open’. cal (TIV) or horizontal (TIH) transverse isotropy, in the
presence of mode-converted shear waves.
The illustrated acquisition technique consists in prin-
14.7.4 Poisson’s ratio anisotropy ciple of implanting four-component (4C) sensors into
caused by fracturing the seabed. These consist of one hydrophone, one verti-
cal geophone, one in-line horizontal geophone, and one
A useful contribution to the question of seismic cross-line horizontal geophone. (See also Figure 14.22c).
anisotropy caused by fracturing is found in a descrip- Conventional air gun arrays (P-wave generating sources)
tion of geothermal development in the Olkaria field of are used, towed by a shooting vessel, while a recording
the Kenya rift. This incipient caldera structure has had vessel stays above the receiver array. The receiver (OBC)
a number of injection episodes. It was monitored with array must of course be relocated, to give multiple-
a seismic network comprising 18 stations. Simiyu, 2000 azimuth data if not already installed in multiple azimuth
gave Vp, Vp/Vs, and data from 2613 well-located directions. There is a potential tendency for 3D OBC to
micro-earthquakes, 45 quarry blasts and 25 calibration give ‘patchy coverage’ in offset and azimuth (e.g. Hall
shots. Velocity-depth data, extending beyond 4 km and Kendall, 2003), though not in the case of the exten-
depth, for six geothermal fields in the area (identified sive survey illustrated in Figure 14.22.
by initials) are reproduced in Figure 14.25. The well An interesting proposal by Thomsen, 2002, based on
distributed stations made possible the presentation of imminent plans at BP, was to ‘fuse’ 4D (repeated surveys
less frequently seen, azimuthally dependent dynamic for reservoir management), with 4C. Although 4C tech-
Poisson’s ratio data, as shown in Figure 14.26. nology had proved an economic success, e.g. for imaging
For the case of geothermal reservoirs, Vp/Vs and beneath gas clouds, and helping to delineate anisotropic
are more controlled by Vp than Vs due to the various structure, it had not according to Thomsen caused a revo-
fluid-phases in the reservoir. Vp/Vs ratios increase when lution. He also considered that 4D, though very useful
P-waves for characterising fractured reservoirs 395
Figure 14.25 Vp and Vs-depth trends and Vp/Vs histograms for six geothermal fields in the Kenya Rift. Simiyu, 2000.
396 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
for enhancing reservoir management, was expensive as done frequently. The key was to accept the investment
each new survey cost as much as the previous one. of permanently installed receivers in the seafloor, so
Thomsen’s vision was to make subsequent 4D surveys that the marginal cost increase for making 4D receivers
much cheaper than the first, so that re-shoots could be also 4C, would be born by the economic gains made
from ‘dozens’ of 4D re-shoots. Management needed to
become confident in the gains to be made from fre-
quent 4D4C surveys.
Such a philosophy, based on huge investment until
prices were driven down by marketplace economics,
could revolutionize the practice of reservoir manage-
ment according to Thomsen, with ‘history matching’
replaced by ‘parameter estimation’ and prediction of
performance. The consequence of frequent full-field
4D4C re-shoots, providing full-field estimates of all
required reservoir parameters, would result in much
more efficient exploitation of reserves, a production
increment coming sooner, and also possibly larger, than
discovery and exploitation of new fields.
Regarding penetration of gas clouds, referred to by
Thomsen, Granger et al., 2000 referred to the fact that
even 2D-4C surveys at the Valhall reservoir in the
North Sea, had been able to penetrate through a gas
cloud using the converted or C-waves, since the resultant
shear-wave component could illuminate a target other-
wise invisible to P-waves. In 1998, a 3D-4C seismic
survey was performed at Valhall with the intention of
improving the structural imaging of the crest of the field,
and for establishing the potential for jointly using P-wave
Figure 14.26 Dynamic Poisson’s ratio as a function of azimuth and C-wave data for reservoir characterization, lithology
and depth. Simiyu, 2000. prediction, and for stress and fracture orientation.
Figure 14.27 Configuration of four-component (4C) seafloor seismic, for P-wave and mode-converted S-wave acquisition, using ocean-bot-
tom-cables (OBC). Companie Général de Géophysique (CGG) diagram, from Yuan, 2001.
P-waves for characterising fractured reservoirs 397
The P-wave part of this work was briefly reviewed ear- through finite compliances, to attenuation, as already
lier, see Figures 14.22 and 14.23. seen in Chapter 10. This emphasises the need for both
velocity and attenuation monitoring in 4D seismic.
In addressing stress sensitivity questions related to
14.9 4D seismic monitoring of 4D seismic, MacBeth, 2004, developed semi-empirical
reservoirs pressure-sensitive bulk-moduli and shear-moduli for-
mulations using the concept of excess compliance, which
In recent years, many more oil companies have been was designed to capture all categories of weakness in the
utilising Ocean Bottom Cable (OBC) acquisition meth- rock, specifically in numerous types of sandstones. He
ods to make repeated three-dimensional measurements found that the bulk and shear modulus pressure-sensi-
over time, so-called four-dimensional or 4D seismic. (e.g. tivities (i.e. sensitivities to effective stress change), lay
Bull-Gjertsen, 1998). This has made it possible to track between 1 and 10% per MPa.
reservoir depletion phenomena, such as changing pore This meant that a 5 MPa pore pressure decline in a
pressure, and especially to track water-injection fronts in reservoir could produce from 5 to 50% increase in bulk
water flood treatments. Experiences from several North modulus, depending on sand/sandstone type. Rocks of
Sea oil and gas reservoirs have shown that the higher higher porosity tended to show higher pressure sensitiv-
velocity of reservoir zones saturated with water allows ities, and the reverse behaviour was also shown, as intui-
operators to register where the oil-water contact is mov- tively expected. MacBeth pointed out several potential
ing, and where oil may be by-passed by the water flooding. problem areas related with using ultrasonic core meas-
In this section we will see a brief selection of uses for urements for interpreting changes of reservoir seismic
4D seismic, including the mapping of oil saturation velocities in 4D seismic monitoring. Some of these are
changes over time, the monitoring of water-flooding, summarized below:
and the detection and quantification of reservoir com-
paction, and even near-surface, sub-sea subsidence. 1. In saturated rock, higher velocities are generally
Reservoir monitoring with 4D seismic in its most basic measured at higher frequencies.
form is the inversion of seismic data to obtain (dynamic) 2. Saturated samples containing microcracks would
reservoir properties, which can subsequently be used to project a lower stress sensitivity with laboratory
predict pore pressure change at a distance from the wells ultrasonics, than with seismic waves.
due to the assumed, laboratory-sample-based effective 3. Cores loaded back to their original in situ stress
stress sensitivity of the reservoir rocks. While there is high state do not recover their original velocities, and
sensitivity to effective stress in shallow reservoirs, the typ- due also to the possible microcracking caused by
ical ‘plateau’ that may be reached at high effective stresses sampling, may show increased sensitivity to effect-
(i.e. beyond roughly 25 to 50 MPa, depending on rock ive stress relative to in situ.
type), suggests that the fluid compressibility effects may 4. On the other hand, jointing is not a part of the labora-
become more important at greater depth. tory sample response.
5. Cores may be selected from the most productive
and competent part of the reservoir.
14.9.1 Possible limitations of some 6. Subsequent core-to-log correlations, and interpret-
rock physics data ation using long wave-length seismic averages may
cause underestimation of pressure sensitivity.
There is unfortunately a basic complication that the
Most of the rocks studied by MacBeth were predicted
more compressible grain-boundary cracks with their
to have only 1% per MPa sensitivity to stress change (at
low aspect ratios may be partly the result of stress
24 MPa effective stress). However, elevated temperature
unloading when drilled and bought to the surface (Holt
testing may be needed; see Chapter 16.
et al, 1996, 1997, Nes et al., 2000), and it is such sam-
ples that are the basis for much of the collective assump-
tion of a given stress sensitivity. 14.9.2 Oil saturation mapping with
There is in addition the possibility that joint sets that 4D seismic
are under lower levels of effective stress may still be
contributing to some of the (anisotropic) sensitivity to An impressive and very clear indication of the utility of
effective stress change, and they certainly contribute, 4D time-lapse seismic analysis of producing reservoirs
398 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 14.29 Comparison of a) detailed seismic-based (4D time-shift) compaction interpretation (with adjustment for the velocity reduc-
tion caused by a subsiding overburden), with b) geomechanics-based one-dimensional strain compaction model, that included
porosity reduction due to weakening effect of water saturation, seen in the next figure. Smith et al., 2002. Note gas cloud effect
in centre of seismic model. (See Plate 4). Reproduced by permission from NPF.
down-flank were deeper than nearby exploration wells. paper by Guilbot et al., 2002. The water injection pro-
The authors therefore developed a method for improv- gramme, designed to compensate for the big pressure
ing the seismic depth structure match to the horizontal draw-down following about 20 years of production,
sections of wells that penetrated far down-flank. had side effects, well known from early rock mechanics
The authors mentioned that a straightforward time- testing, of reducing the strength of the chalk.
lapse comparison between the 1989 3D seismic survey, Figure 14.30 shows how this water-weakening was
with the newer 3D seismic survey in 1999, had given tied to assumed porosity reduction, due to accelerated
unrealistically large values for compaction and pore-collapse, based on tests of ‘water-flooded’ triaxi-
subsidence. Subsequently a geomechanics-based model ally confined chalk. In fact the water weakening effect,
was developed, based on vertical uniaxial strain although not positive in terms of arresting settlement of
behaviour for (intact) chalk, that related porosity the sea-bed, has given a strong boost to the compaction
changes to layer thickness changes. The authors men- drive mechanism, resulting in exceptional recovery of
tioned use of a linear porosity-velocity relationship for the reserves.
the chalk, to compute depth conversion from velocity The extensive casing damage to numerous wells at
change. An example of the good general fit between Ekofisk is one set of evidence of discontinuous behav-
the seismic time-shift compaction model, and the iour, due to stretching of the overburden and differen-
geomechanics-based compaction model, is reproduced tial bedding plane slip. A new source of evidence for
in Figure 14.29. (see also Plate 4). discontinuous behaviour during the compaction at
The water-weakening porosity-reduction model used Ekofisk can be seen in the results of the 4D seismic.
at Ekofisk is shown in Figure 14.30, from a companion A 1989 to 1999 ‘time lapse’ comparison (Geo, 2001),
400 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
0 0
360 10 20 360 10 20
350 350
340 30 340 30
320 40 320 40
310 50 310 50
300 60 300 60
290 70 290 70
280 80 280 80
270 90 270 90
260 100 260 100
250 110 250 110
240 120 240 120
230 130 230 130
220 140 220 140
212 150 212 150
200190 170160 200
190 170160
180 Shmax 180
Figure 14.33 Statistical data for water flood directionality effects in relation to Sh max directions in 47 unfractured reservoirs, and in 33 frac-
tured reservoirs. Heffer et al., 1997, Heffer, 2002. See also extensive data sets in Tingay et al. 2005.
rosettes), that the unloading caused by the two water- The new sub-30 Hz data was shown to suffer signifi-
flood effects mentioned above, are in many cases cantly less attenuation due to scattering, and revealed
stimulating shear-failure (of ‘intact’ rock), or shear deep reflections not previously seen in conventional
displacement, and therefore further dilation, of existing surveys. One of the problems identified in numerous
joint or fracture sets, or faults. previous attempts had been the scattering and attenua-
The direction of H max shows a frequent tendency to tion from the rough basalt surface, and absorption due
have bisected the geologic features that are the basis for to faults and joints, plus interference from inter-bedded
the rosettes shown in Figure 14.33. The mechanism units of e.g. claystone and siltstone.
may (often?) be one of conjugate shear, in which case Strong sea-surface reflections had also been a problem.
showing strong parallels to the findings of Townend Basalts of this region are very heterogeneous at scale
and Zoback, 2000 concerning the frequency of water lengths of tens of metres, approximately an order of
conducting features being under shear stress. These magnitude less than the seismic wavelength when
topics are addressed in detail in Chapter 16. of 10 Hz. So use of the long wave-lengths could avoid
the problems of thin inter-layering and lateral inhomo-
geneity.
14.12 Low frequencies for The authors generated synthetic seismograms, using
sub-basalt imaging an available sonic well log in basalt, and assumed a sin-
gle deep reflector. They used the following model:
Many prospective ocean margins are covered by large
areas of basalts. These tend to be extremely heteroge- 1. 0–400 m Vp 1500 m/s
neous, and scatter and attenuate the seismic energy 2. 400–1000 m Vp 2500 m/s
of conventional seismic reflection surveys, making it 3. 1000–1800 m Vp 3500–5500 m/s (strong oscil-
difficult to obtain seismic images from deeper reflect- lation in basalt flows, greater extremes)
ors. Ziolkowski et al., 2003, argued that since high fre- 4. 1800–5000 m Vp 3000 m/s (assumed sediment-
quencies were scattered more than low frequencies, it ary basin)
would be logical to emphasise low frequencies, by using 5. 5000–6000 m Vp 4000 m/s
much larger air guns, towing the source and receivers
at greater depths than usual, i.e. 15–20 m. This was The modelled basalt was 800 m thick. Their subse-
done in 2001, over an area of the NE Atlantic margin quent field survey, using large air guns towed at 15 m
that holds promise of very large accumulations of hydro- depth, were able to image deep reflectors in a much
carbons in the Mesozoic and Palaeozoic sediments, clearer manner than achieved in a conventional survey.
which are covered by higher velocity Cenozoic flood We may conclude this section with an exotic use of
basalts. reflection seismic imaging, described by Dypvik et al.,
404 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a) (b)
Figure 14.37 Two examples of attenuation modelling with a set of vertical aligned fractures, using Chapman’s dynamic poroelastic matrix-
and-fracture-set model. See Chapter 15 for a description of this model. (Reproduced by kind permission, Maultzsch pers.
comm. 2005). (see Plate 5).
406 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
minimum attenuation was scattered between wider a) the rock is unusually strong and that joints are
azimuths, as shown in Figure 14.38a. rough,
Rose diagrams of all the fractures and of the open con- b) there exists a close-to-fracturing pore pressure,
ducting fractures, from others’ logging of cores and bore- c) that shearing has occurred,
hole images are reproduced in Figure 14.38a and b. d) there is a suitable quantity of hard mineralization
Maultzsch et al., 2005, also provide, in Figure 14.38c, to ‘bridge’ and maintain an earlier porosity.
their measured azimuth of minimum attenuation, which
although close to a match with the open fractures, is Fractures can presumably be conceived as ‘open’ if
actually some 20° oblique to these. Curious to see where they have good connectivity and reasonable apertures
the major horizontal stress is oriented, we can add this as (for example 10 to 100
m conducting apertures?)
in Figure 14.38d, from Smith and McGarrity, 2001, just with respect to the gradients that are operating.
reviewed. It is close to parallel to the open fractures, yet If limited shearing and therefore dilation has occurred
the minimum attenuation was 20° different. in the past, and if there are limited influences from a sec-
A possible explanation is that the ‘open fractures’ are ond set of fractures, then Figure 14.39 can be a possible
open due to limited (but sufficient) shear dilation explanation for the apparent 20° rotation in the above
episodes in the past, when H max was perhaps not par- case. Note the possible influence of a rotation of the
allel to these joints. From a rock mechanics point of fluid-bearing parts of the fractures (black), in relation to
view, and armed with several experiences of measuring the contacting parts taking the load. This model will be
a considerable h min magnitude at reservoir depths developed further in the last two chapters of this book.
15 Shear wave splitting in
fractured reservoirs and
resulting from earthquakes
In this chapter the effect of structural anisotropy on rock joints will be referred to in several contexts, where
shear wave splitting and polarization phenomena will be deemed appropriate. There will also be a strong focus
treated in some detail, due to its extreme importance on the possible links between the joint or fracture shear
in helping to characterize jointed or fractured reser- and normal compliance used by geophysicists, and the
voirs, and due to the improved insight it is giving into macro-deformation, and inverted stiffnesses used for
earthquake phenomena. The structural anisotropy may many years in rock mechanics models of jointed media.
be stress aligned, and there are then logical ties to the The need for compatible measures of volume-defined frac-
principal permeability or drainage directions. Dominant ture densities and in situ values of compliance (as opposed
jointing and natural fractures are of increasing interest to those obtained from hand-sized joint samples or
to petroleum companies, both for production and for aid- roughened plates of Lucite) is necessary for further
ing stimulation, where matrix permeability is low but development.
hydrocarbon storage high. This vitally important struc-
tural feature is notoriously poorly sampled by vertical
core and well-bore scanning, since itself often sub-vertical 15.1 Introduction
or vertical. The ‘miracle’ of shear-wave splitting (with
assistance from azimuthal AVO P-wave surveys) has In view of the very widely accepted knowledge that ver-
provided the means of detecting the presence of these tical and sub-vertical jointing is extremely common in
compliant, fluid-bearing fractures. Contrary to the clas- most rock masses (due to such diverse effects as cooling,
sic wisdom of porous media fluid substitution theory, bed-flexure and tectonic influences of horizontal stress),
in situ fractures also seem capable of signalling to the it is unfortunate to say the least, that vertical boreholes
shear-waves, whether they contain gas or brine, through are usually the first, and seemingly also the second choice,
subtle velocity reduction of the slow S-wave, due to the for sampling and gaining access to the sub-surface. As
fluid-compressibility-altered fracture compliance mag- pointed out by numerous authors, and also quantified
nitudes. Geophysicists utilise an unfortunately ambigu- by R. Terzaghi, 1965, the sampling bias caused by the
ous way of describing fracture density: as number per unit mismatch of borehole diameter and horizontal spacing
volume times radius cubed. This ambiguity, meaning of vertical structure, and the vertical borehole itself, is
that millions of microcracks or a hand-full of fractures extreme.
can give the same magnitude, nevertheless seems to have Our vertical boreholes provide such a poor sample of
a remarkable proportionality to shear-wave anisotropy, the jointed sub-surface, that P-wave azimuthal anisotropy
but clearly this can be altered by changed compliances. on the one hand, and shear-wave splitting caused by the
The need to define a specific volume of fractures for presence of vertical or aligned structure on the other
reservoir understanding is urgent. Consequently, recent hand, are truly god-given means for rectifying our poor
numerical dual-porosity poro-elastic modelling devel- sampling strategies. If the ‘economy’ of a vertical well as
opments have become increasingly important for explor- opposed to a steeply inclined one, and the subsequent
ing the frequency-dependent velocity and attenuation ‘cost’ of an extensive seismic survey were combined, there
resulting from the various potential scales of anisotropy. would perhaps be more reason for rapidly deviating our
Case records both from seismology and petroleum engin- boreholes at least 10° or 15°, in order to sample the
eering will be used to show recent trends in analysis increasingly understood relevance of vertical and sub-
of seismic survey data. Relevant rock mechanics experi- vertical structure on hydrocarbon production. As empha-
ence with coupled stress-deformation-flow testing of sised by Laubach, 2003, a central challenge of sub-surface
408 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
fracture characterization is obtaining data on essential Shear waves were once considered just noise and had
fracture attributes where direct observation is (remark- to be filtered out. Now, with proper multicomponent
ably) unlikely. recording, S-waves can deliver important information
Recently, five boreholes inclined just 30° from the hori- both concerning rock and fracture properties, and con-
zontal, with a combined length of 1.4 km were used to cerning fluid type in the case of shear-wave splitting.
investigate the steeply folded geology and structure along
the route of a rail tunnel in Norway. The value and rele-
vance of the core logging and permeability measurements 15.2 Shear wave splitting and
was thereby increased 10- or 100-fold in relation to the its many implications
equivalent length of vertical holes. Of course this is not
a recipe for deep oil-field wells, but a fairly early devia- A landmark paper on the relatively new technique of
tion of 10° or more would greatly improve understand- shear wave splitting, summarising the first ten years
ing of both the overburden jointing and the reservoir of developments, was given by Crampin and Lovell,
jointing. The potential anisotropy of the overburden 1991. Following theoretical developments of Keith and
cannot be ignored in seismic inversion. Crampin, 1977, and the suggestions of Crampin, 1978,
As Barkved et al., 2004 pointed out in their review of shear wave splitting was positively identified above small
multicomponent data, countless reservoirs have been earthquakes by Crampin et al., 1980, and many times
discovered, characterized, and monitored by P-waves. subsequently. Shear wave splitting had already been
However, P-waves cannot solve every seismic imaging noted in a number of sedimentary hydrocarbon basins,
or reservoir description problem. With the addition of with Lynn and Thomsen, 1986, and Willis et al., 1986,
S-waves, (usually in the form of converted PS-waves, see reporting at the 56th SEG (Society of Exploration
Chapter 14), oil and gas companies have found an enor- Geologists) meeting in Houston.
mous quantity of new reserves that could not have been A simple schematic of the shear wave splitting prin-
found with P-waves alone. The new reserves have been ciples, given by Crampin and Lovell, 1991, is reproduced
more effectively exploited by better identification of in Figure 15.1a. When a steeply inclined shear wave
fracturing, and therefore better placement and devia- meets sub-vertical, aligned discontinuities, the shear wave
tion of the wells. Not infrequently, shear-wave technol- splits into two components, which have different arrival
ogy provides information where shallow gas has obscured times and different, usually orthogonal polarization. Both
P-wave imaging over central parts of a field. A particu- these aspects are shown in Figure 15.1.
larly good example is the Ekofisk reservoir. A more complete version of this simple diagram, from
Shear waves bring additional knowledge to a seismic Barkved et al., 2004, is also reproduced in Figure 15.1.
study due to the different rock mass properties that are This shows, depending upon ones preference for micro-
sampled. The traditional view is that shear-wave velocity cracks or joints, the simplest source of polarized shear
remains unchanged whether a formation contains gas, oil waves: a set of vertical joints or fractures. These, like
or water. However, as we shall see, because of the effects microcracks, cause the transmitted shear-wave to split
of fluid compressibility on the normal stiffness of frac- into a fast and slow component, registered as time delay,
tures (or its inverse: compliance), the shear waves passing due to the attenuating effect of fracture compliance on
through a fractured or jointed medium, will give the abil- the S-wave component that has particle motion perpen-
ity to distinguish between oil (low compressibility) and dicular to the fracture strike. The difference in travel-
gas. (Van der Kolk et al., 2001). time between the fast and slow waves (termed qS1 and
There is possibly a small point of controversy here, qS2 elsewhere in this book), is strongly related to fracture
concerning whether the fractures and shear-waves can density, and also to fracture compliance, since both have
both be vertical, when theoretically only shear compli- an attenuating effect.
ance is sensed. It is uncertain if shear compliance will be An often referred aspect of shear wave splitting and
sufficiently affected by the fluid compressibility. A more polarization is that the faster of the two polarized com-
certain effect of fluid compressibility – i.e. the ability to ponents is parallel or sub-parallel to the direction of
distinguish between oil and gas is when normal com- maximum horizontal stress and/or to the preferentially-
pliance is involved in the case of sub-vertical fractures oriented fluid-filled microcracks, cracks or sets of sub-
(or sub-vertical shear-waves) giving a finite incidence vertical joints or fractures. The shear-wave velocity
angle (Sayers, 2002b). anisotropy is often in the range 0.5 to 5%, sometimes
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 409
The shear waves would likely pass through a range of rock as we shall see in Chapter 16, there are other joint or
types with different ages. Velocity, fracturing style and fracture alignments (caused by shearing), that are of
individual fracture-set properties would therefore likely major importance too.
vary, and each split shear wave could therefore split again, Temporal changes of shear wave splitting were referred
giving multiple splitting, with the influence of the joint to already in Crampin and Lovell’s ‘10 year review’ paper.
structures near the recording site as one of the prominent These had occurred before and after earthquakes, and
results. Multiple splitting obviously makes time delay after hydraulic pumping in granite. Changes in the aper-
estimation more difficult. ture of the fluid-filled, aligned features (cracks, joints or
Crampin and Lovell emphasised that the fluid filled fractures) would presumably have changed the aspect
features (cracks, inclusions, fractures) being the most com- ratio of these features, and changes in Kn/Ks ratios would
pliant (i.e. with least stiffness, as referred in rock mechan- be a macro-deformation rock mechanics consequence
ics), would potentially be most sensitive to pore pressure of such changes.
changes or deformation, and thereby modify the way that In the case of earthquake source investigations, it is
the shear waves pass through the rock mass. unfortunate that shear-wave polarizations tend to be
determined by the anisotropic joint or fracture struc-
ture close to the recorder, which of geometric necessity
is likely to be much nearer the surface than the source.
15.2.1 Some sources of shear-
However, in the petroleum industry with its more limited
wave splitting
depths, down-hole recording as in VSP, can focus on
the structural domain of interest. For this reason, many of
Crampin and Lovell, 1991, listed five possible scales
the important developments up to the time of Crampin
of azimuthal anisotropy that could cause shear wave
and Lovell’s 1991 ‘10-year’ review, had been made with
splitting:
VSP configurations.
Two further important practical details concerning the
1) aligned crystals potential uses of shear-wave splitting technology were
2) direct stress induced anisotropy emphasised by Crampin and Lovell, 1991. Firstly that
3) lithological anisotropy (e.g. aligned grains) the shear-wave-train likely contained many times the
4) structural anisotropy (fine layering) information carried by the P-wave-train, and that this
5) stress-aligned crack-induced anisotropy was in the wave forms themselves rather than just in
arrival times. Secondly that the multiplicity of source-
Subsequently, much evidence for larger-scale fracture- to-geophone ray paths required to analyse P-wave arrival
or joint-set alignment effects on shear wave splitting have times, was not needed to obtain information from shear
been obtained, which is a very important ‘addition’ for waves.
shear wave splitting, in view of the importance of these The problem of relative scale was also emphasised by
structural alignments for hydrocarbon production from Crampin and Lovell, 1991. The likely dimensions of the
fractured (naturally jointed) reservoirs. The larger scale different phenomena (from extension-dilation cracks
features dominate drainage potential from the matrix to perhaps of microns to fractions of millimetre size, to frac-
the joints, and thence to the wells, while the smaller scale tured reservoir features of many metres size) were each
EDA(extensive dilatancy anisotropy), popular with much smaller than the wave-lengths of most shear waves
Crampin in many subsequent papers, would logically (i.e. tens of metres in reflection experiments to several
dominate drainage from the pores to the microcracks. kilometres in teleseismic shear waves). It was emphasised
However, Crampin and Lovell emphasised that it was that multi-offset, multi-azimuth, three-component VSP
the stress-aligned vertical fluid-filled cracks that were was likely to be the best way to attempt to analyse the
most likely to cause more uniform splitting. That the geometrical aspects. Some of these investigations will be
two shear wave components will be oriented (polarized) reviewed later.
parallel (or sub-parallel), and perpendicular (or sub- In Chapter 10 concerning the phenomenon of atten-
perpendicular) to the present most permeable fracture uation, the inverse trends of velocity and attenuation
set directions, that may themselves be parallel (or sub- magnitudes were seen. High velocities only occur where
parallel) to the present major horizontal stress is the logical attenuation is low or Qseis is high. Links to rock mass
extension from crack-scale to joint or fracture scale. But qualities Q and Q c through deformation moduli were
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 411
also cited, i.e. high velocities only occur where rock qual- Let us examine some orders of magnitudes to get a ‘feel’
ities Q and Q c are high. Q seis was likened, numerically, for this actually rather ambiguous geophysics parameter:
to the rock engineering static deformation modulus in
the first kilometre (when expressed in GPa), and to the 1) Microcracks: Assume 106 microcracks of radius 100
Q c value itself at extreme depth, since both seem to microns in a 10 10 10 cm rock sample. This
depend on the degree of jointing, clay-content, and rock gives e 106 (104)3/(101)3 0.001. If the
hardness, despite the micro-displacements involved in ‘microcracks’ were of 1 mm size, the crack density
seismic loading. would be 1.0. The ‘crustal range’ is contained within
Crampin and Lovell made the interesting observa- these ‘extremes’. (The microcracks would need to be
tion that the reciprocal relationship between velocity 330 to 465
m to lie in the mid-range of e 0.01
and attenuation (e.g. Crampin, 1981) was one of the to 0.05) with the above frequency.
reasons why the leading split shear wave was such a sta- 2) Fractures (or joints): Assume 10 joints of 1 m radius
ble phenomenon; because it was travelling in the fast in a 10 m3 block of rock in situ. We have: e 10
direction and was less attenuated than the slower split 13/10 1.0. (This represents a well-connected
shear wave. The oriented rock mass quality Q o described rock mass if for instance there were on average 3.3
by Barton, 2002, also has its maximum value in this joints in each principal direction of the 2.15 m ‘cube’.
same direction, i.e. sub-parallel to dominant structure, If there was only one aligned set, the spacing would
due mainly to higher RQD in this direction. (The use be close to 20 cm, if two conjugate sets, the spacing
of oriented RQD, termed RQDo, gives Q the directional of each would approximate 40 cm. This fracture
dependency Q o, together with the changed Jr/Ja ratio density is significantly less than much of the jointed
representing the frictional strength of the joints across chalk at Ekofisk, as we shall see later. If there was
the sampling direction. See Appendix A for description only one such joint per 1000 m3 (10 m on a side),
of these terms). the ‘crack density would be the same as our more
Crampin and Lovell, 1991, concluded their ‘10-year extreme microcrack example with e 0.001. (We
review’ by claiming that ‘progress in understanding shear- would need 10 to 50 joints of 1 m radius per 10 m
wave propagation is the most fundamental advance in cube to lie in the mid-range of e 0.01 to 0.05).
seismology for some decades’. They also speculated on 3) Fault swarm: Assume 10 medium-sized faults of
the future uses of shear-wave splitting, including moni- 464.5 m radius in 1 km3. In this case e 10
toring of hydrocarbon production and monitoring the 464.53/109 1.0. If we veer to the other extreme,
stability of major civil engineering works in rock. The we would require only one minor fault of 100 m
former is now much used. radius in 1 km3 to give e 0.001. (We would need
10 to 50 minor 100 m faults per 1 km3 to lie in the
mid-range of e 0.01 to 0.05)
15.3 Crack density and EDA
To a non-geophysicist, it is difficult at first viewing,
The geophysicist’s crack density is defined as: to see why so much seismic interpretation is related to
this parameter when it is so ambiguous. To check again:
Na 3 (15.1) 1) microcracks. e 107 (104)3/(101)3 0.01 (ten
e
V million @ 100 m/10 cm cube)
2) fracture e 10 13/103 0.01 (ten @ 1 m/10 m
where a is the crack radius, cubed due to the argument cube)
that this relates to the energy of elastic deformation asso- 3) minor fault e 10 1003/10003 0.01 (ten @
ciated with the crack. (O’Connell and Budansky, 1974). 100 m/1 km3)
N is the number of such cracks in volume V. According
to the authors Leary et al., 1990, crack density is often These three very unequal scenarios with their equal
in the range of e 0.01 to 0.05 in widely different geo- ‘crack density’ would inevitably have totally different
logical and tectonic regions. This opinion seems to stem mechanical and fluid-conducting properties. Yet sur-
from the articles of Crampin, several of which will be prisingly, they are supposed to generate equal shear wave
reviewed here. anisotropy, as we shall see.
412 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
The Leary et al., 1990 review of the 1988 Chapman focussed on this scale of EDA for many years, while
conference (and 3rd International Workshop on Seismic others have now demonstrated dispersive effects caused
Anisotropy) papers on ‘Seismic Anisotropy of the Earth’s by fractures of entirely different dimensions, using dou-
Crust’, gave a useful broad-brush reflection of some of the ble-porosity or triple-porosity poroelastic models, with
earlier opinions on fracture and crack induced anisotropy pore-microcrack-fracture-fluid interaction.
and its measurement, prior to the great advances in data The ‘problem’ is that the delayed, approximately
acquisition and computer processing, that occurred orthogonal shear-wave arrivals are also consistent with
mostly during the 1990s, that has given ‘anisotropy’ a cen- a feasible density of aligned vertical microcracks. How-
tral role in earthquake interpretation and fractured reser- ever, the relative stiffness of microcracks, having much
voir exploration and subsequent production monitoring. higher aspect ratios than inter-locked fractures or joints,
Aligned fracturing may be detected and monitored means that they cannot respond in the same way as frac-
over a huge range of length scales, using polarized shear tures, to a given change in fluid pressure – at least
waves. Dimensions may range from crustal dimensions according to classic geophysics teaching. Furthermore
of 10–100 km, through 1–1000 m reservoir scale frac- there is the crack density definition, which is a source of
tures and faulting, to millimetre and micron-sized micro- confusion (for non-geophysicists).
cracks. The potential of fluid-filled microcracks to react
to crustal stress and strain led Crampin et al., 1984 to
propose the ‘extensive-dilatancy-anisotropy’ (EDA) con- 15.3.1 A discussion of ‘criticality’
cept. The EDA hypothesis is that crustal fluids prop due to microcracks
open a population of high-compliance voids or inclu-
sions that are nevertheless capable of remaining open According to Crampin, 1993b, several oil companies
against the least principal stress. The implication of 3D were already reporting shear wave splitting in almost all
principal stress anisotropy at depth is that EDA cracks their three-component reflection surveys in sedimentary
will tend to be aligned in a vertical plane, striking par- basins. Furthermore, perhaps contrary to Crampin’s
allel to the major horizontal stress. With this configura- expectations, the splitting, as he observed, was assumed
tion, Crampin 1978 had reasoned that a microcracked to be due to large fractures within fractured reservoirs.
but otherwise isotropic crust was transversely isotropic, Shear wave splitting was also visible in reflections from
with a horizontal symmetry axis. layers above the reservoirs, apparently suggesting to
Shear waves polarized parallel to the microcracks, Crampin that exclusive dependence of splitting on large
and also travelling parallel to them, hardly sense the fractures seemed unlikely.
presence of the cracks, and travel at almost the wave In fact as we will see later in this chapter, shear wave
speed of the unfractured matrix. However, the shear splitting is also seen to follow the saucer-shaped subsid-
waves travelling in this same parallel-to-structure direc- ence bowl far above a compacting North Sea jointed
tion, with polarizations normal to the microcracks, chalk reservoir, with correlation to the exact location of
sense the reduced shear stiffness caused by the cracks increased sea depths. Joint-stretch in the overburden
and are slowed, in a similar manner to shear waves that seems likely to be the cause, but if unconsolidated sedi-
might be travelling along the (perpendicular) axis of sym- ments were the actual source of the splitting/polariza-
metry. As a result of the differential wave speeds, the tion, microcracks or even macro-cracks in the sediments
shear waves travelling parallel to the aligned microfrac- would need to be invoked to explain the polarization
tures, with their two different polarizations, separate in match to the subsidence bowl.
time in proportion to the length of travel path and the It is not quite clear why, but Crampin, 1993a was of
density of the crack population. The majority of polar- the opinion that fluid-filled microcracks were the most
ized shear wave observations show the fast wave polar- compliant elements of the rock mass. If this opinion
ized parallel or sub-parallel to the accepted local or was because of the assumption that larger scale (and
regional maximum stress field. lower aspect-ratio) fractures and joints would be closed
EDA can in principle refer to a wide range of crack at depth, then indeed the usually less compliant microc-
sizes, including fluid-conducting fractures. However, racks could remain as perhaps the most compliant ele-
it seems that because many of the observed seismic ment of the rock mass. But here we run into difficulties
properties can be simulated by propagation through concerning the interpretation of 4D repeated surveys
distributions of microcracks, Crampin appears to have over producing reservoirs.
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 413
Rock physics provides evidence of effective stress sen- pavements, where the pavements are characterized by mas-
sitivity of e.g. S-waves, P- and S-wave attenuation, and sive jointing and the rock cannot be considered as intact.’
of their anisotropy and dispersive nature. (Chapter 13).
In a later article, Crampin, 2000 relates e 0.055 to
When changes of oil saturation in producing parts of a
‘fracture criticality’, and states that ‘almost all rocks are
reservoir are monitored, or water/oil front progression
(then) marginally close to the ‘critical percolation thresh-
is monitored (see examples in Chapter 14), it is surely
old in a stressed fluid-saturated solid, when shear strength
the fractures that are the primary targets for the diagnos-
is lost and fracturing occurs’. It has to be emphasised that
tic seismic waves. Do the pore-to-microcrack responses
these are foreign concepts to rock engineers: extensively
to production-caused pore pressure, occur fast enough to
jointed rock masses with far higher crack densities have
be ‘in-step’ with the responses in the probably more com-
perfectly adequate strength to tolerate e.g. tunnelling.
pliant fractures and joints? After all, the fractures have
Rock stress and joint roughness helps retain both
far higher permeability in general, than the matrix. As we
strength and permeability. If there are two or three joint
have seen in the earlier critique of ‘crack density’, this
sets contributing to ‘e 0.055’, there is actually little
parameter does not seem to help in answering this ques-
cause for concern about ‘loss of shear strength’, or ‘dis-
tion, because of its basic ambiguity.
persion of fluid’. Three joints of 52 cm diameter, inter-
In his paper ‘Arguments for EDA’, Crampin, 1993a
secting (or avoiding each other) in a 1 m3 block of rock
also addressed the meaning of the typical 1% to 5% dif-
also gives e 0.055. This would be a rather stable rock
ferential shear-wave anisotropy, reportedly measured in
mass compared to near-surface experiences. When blast-
a wide range of rock types, but as we shall see, there are
ing one would see most of the remaining ‘half-pipes’ of
many exceptions in fractured areas. Crampin considered
the blast holes, but with occasional ‘block-corner’ over-
that the 1% to 5% was also equivalent to the generally
break beyond the half-pipes.
limited range of effective crack densities, which he
If the same 1 m3 block was (almost) divided into eight
assumed were usually 0.01 e 0.05. Crampin noted
component smaller cubes by three typical, near-surface,
that the percentage of differential shear wave anisotropy
mutually perpendicular joints, each of 1 m diameter, the
was usually about e 100, for a Vp/Vs ratio of about
crack density would have increased to: e 3 0.53/1
1.7 (1.732 was quoted).
0.375. We regularly construct tunnels in such rock, and
Crampin, 1993a avoided mentioning specific rock-vol-
if stress and joint roughness are adequate, and there is
ume dimensions regarding crack density (e) in the follow-
no clay, there may be no need for immediate rock sup-
ing paragraph, which will be quoted in full, as it reveals
port of the exposed perimeter of such a tunnel. That
an unexpected way of viewing rock mass stability and the
the tunnel may leak is a different problem. It does not
fluid-bearing nature of rock masses, which is difficult to
signal ‘criticality’, rather ‘normality’. In a reservoir,
match with rock mechanics and hydraulics experiences.
‘leakage’ is desirable when in the right direction.
After all, where will the fluid go, and where will the
‘A crack density of e 0.05 (shear-wave anisotropy
rock blocks go when surrounded by neighbouring fluid
about 5%) is equivalent to a crack of diameter 0.7 in each
and neighbouring rock blocks at 3 km depth? They will
unit cube. A crack density of e 0.1 has a crack diameter
continue to contribute their coupled roles in supporting
of 0.93 in each unit cube (check: e 1 0.4653/1
the weight of the over-lying 3 km of rock, and they will
0.100), and this is clearly near the critical crack density at
continue to provide (limited) void-space for oil storage,
which an intact rock fragments, as very close cracks begin to
and allow percolation towards producing wells. There is
coalesce to form through-going fractures. Thus the upper
surely nothing critical about this, just normality.
limit of crack densities (e 0.05, with occasional excur-
sions to 0.1) is probably due to the limit of the number of
fractures for an intact rock mass to remain intact. If this 15.3.2 Temporal changes in
limit is exceeded the rock mass fragments and the pore fluid polarization in Cornwall HDR
would disperse and, once dispersed, the cracks would tend to
close and crack-healing occur which would lead to a lower An interesting phenomenon was observed by shear-wave
crack density of open cracks. The only other occasion when splitting when monitoring the Cornwall hot-dry-rock
substantially larger crack densities (up to e 0.4) have HDR project. Crampin and Booth, 1989 reportedly
been claimed for field observations are reported by Crampin found that there were 7° to 10° rotations in the polariza-
et al., (1980a) for observations on the surface of limestone tion directions as a result of deep-well injection of (cold)
414 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 15.2 (a) The Cornwall joint-shearing mechanism visualized by Barton, 1986 as a result of cold water injection and effective stress
reduction in a joint set not perfectly aligned parallel to the major stress, and under a differential (shear) stress. (b) An exagger-
ated diagram of (conjugate, or single-set) joint shearing, showing the possibility of opposite rotation of the rock-to-rock contacts
(R), and open (O) fluid-filled sections during shearing of the usually non-planar joints needed to give joint permeability in reser-
voirs. This shearing-mechanism could possibly be the source of polarization rotation, both here and elsewhere, where ‘deviation’
with respect to H max has been noted.
water into the jointed and (possibly) microcracked gran- mechanism. Was the dilation considered to be a normal
ite, which was also AE monitored to several kilometres expansion of the apertures, or was there sufficient,
depth, during the pumping. Batchelor and Pine, 1986. inclined, differential stress, for shearing to occur as a
They considered that this consistent change in polar- result of the pumping? The answer would have a direct
ization was a stable, reliable and significant result. effect on how the stress field was modified.
Although the title of the Crampin and Booth paper Figure 15.2a, illustrates an alternative interpretation of
suggests an ‘explanation’ that could have been consistent the Cornwall polarization rotation of 7° to 10°, referred
with the writer’s joint-shear-dilation hypothesis (Barton, to above. The jointing at depth was under some shear
1986, see below), Crampin 1993a actually suggests the stress, as it was not aligned parallel to the major horizon-
following mechanisms: ‘The results suggest that before the tal stress. With cold water injection there is both contrac-
dilation of the incipient joints by pumping, the fluid-filled tion and effective normal stress reduction, allowing for
EDA cracks are aligned parallel to the in-situ stress field. some slight shearing that is likely to be part of the source
After the joints have been dilated by pumping and the of microseismic ‘clouds’ that propagated to greater depths
stress field modified, the EDA cracks close to the joints are down the presumably dilating, slightly shearing jointing.
realigned parallel to the joints.’ (Batchelor and Pine, 1984 and Barton, 1986). The
There follows a reference to opening and closing of hypothesis that slight joint shearing can lead to polariza-
microcracks and sub-critical crack growth, that seem tion rotation is illustrated in Figure 15.2b. The details of
not to relate directly to any well explained joint-dilation this mechanism are described in Chapter 16.
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 415
(after equant porosity, and before joint or fracture poros- The ‘90°-flips’ explanation shown in Figure 15.4 sup-
ity) is supposedly able to develop in any rock, presumably poses that the assumed high (actually extreme, and surely
because of the over-looked resistance of the intervening impossible?) pore pressure causes the faster split shear-
crystals/grains of perhaps 50 to 150 GPa Young’s modu- waves that were previously parallel to H max to do a
lus, that obviously will resist such assumed expansion. 90°-flip and become the slower wave parallel to h min.
How could such a lateral volume increase, and there- It is not explained, nor is it clear in any way, how a pore
fore stress increase, from countless trillions of expanding, pressure can build up to beyond h min without dissipa-
aligned microcracks be absorbed in a rock mass without tion due to hydraulic fracturing, nor how the pore pres-
a general reversal of the H max and h min directions? sure could thereafter even approach H max.
Surely an occasional mechanism such as this is the A possible 90°-flip would appear to be possible on
actual cause of ‘90°-flips’ in the polarization, as occa- occasion with extreme H max loading, causing the usually
sionally observed/suspected in earthquake source zones. unlikely and untenable lateral expansion of aligned
(Crampin et al., 2002, Crampin and Peacock, 2005). microcracks, as depicted in Figure 15.3. What seems to
The hypothesised extreme fluid pressures that sup- be a geotechnically very unlikely process (the EPA model)
posedly can exceed h min, and even approach H max in perhaps has merit in just such earthquake-related cases
magnitude (Figure 15.4, after Crampin et al., 2002), are of ‘axial-overload’.
surely geotechnical impossibilities? If the conceptual,
hexagonal, vertical microcracks of the APE model (Figure
15.3) were miraculously present in e.g. a soft mudstone, 15.4 Theory relating joint
then, and only then, could such an aspect-ratio expansion compliances with shear
be envisaged, with or without the help of high pore pres- wave splitting
sure. They would be likely to cause a ‘90°-flip in polariza-
tion’, due to the resistance of the surrounding material. The geophysicists’ progression from seismic propagation
in isotropic media, to anisotropic layered media to trans-
versely isotropic layered media containing one set of
vertical fractures (a joint set), later increased to two sets
of perpendicular fractures, and subsequently to non-
orthogonal vertical sets, and later still to non-vertical sets,
has resulted in a progression of theoretical papers in the
geophysics literature, containing, inevitably, an increasing
content and complexity of 6 6 compliance and stiff-
ness matrices.
Here we will summarize an intermediate stage in this
progression, from Schoenberg and Sayers, 1995, by way
of introducing, as simply as possible, some necessary
theoretical aspects. These authors addressed the problem
of how the presence of a single joint or fracture set would
affect the elastic moduli of the fractured rock, since it is
the elastic moduli and the density that determine the
behaviour of seismic waves, assuming a linear, loss-free,
elastic behaviour.
Figure 15.4 Crampin et al., 2002 explanations for ‘90°-flips’
In simplest possible terms, appropriate to the non-
in polarization, as apparently observed above small
earthquakes in Iceland. Their model supposes high
mathematical treatment in this book, the effective elastic
fluid-pressures within 1 or 2 MPa of a ‘critical stress’. compliance tensor Sijkl of a rock containing fractures, is
This figure shows modelled variations of shear-wave designed to relate the average strain ij over a representa-
anisotropy with increasing fluid pressure, for five dif- tive volume V, to the average stress components ij. One
ferent sets of principal axes of stress. They presume that therefore can write:
anisotropy becomes negative for pore-fluid pressures
close to H max. (Inset shows five assumptions for ‘sh,
sH, and sv’). ij Sijkl ij (15.2)
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 417
The compliance matrix that includes the effect of a set expressed as (ZT
b)/(1 ZT
b). In other words there
of vertical fractures, has to include the excess compliances is no ZN term, which requires dipping fractures, or
caused by the additional presence of the fractures. The non-vertical wave propagation for ZN to be mobilized.
authors assumed that this could be simply expressed as (In the compliance matrix the S55 term was simply
the sum (S) of the compliance of the isotropic back- 1/
b ZT).
ground rock (Sb) and the excess compliance matrix asso-
ciated with the fractures (Sf ). The latter is composed of
the effects of a fracture-normal compliance ZN, and of 15.4.1 An unrealistic rock simulant
a fracture-shear compliance ZT related with linear slip suggests equality between
deformation. Based on the assumptions made, the single ZN and ZT
set of vertical fractures produces an unusually simple
compliance matrix: Schoenberg and Sayers, 1995 followed their vertical frac-
ture set compliance matrix treatment, by citing the results
of shear compliance (ZT) and normal compliance (ZN )
ZN 0 0 0 0 0 interpretation from loaded, roughened Lucite (‘Plexiglas’)
0 0 0 0 0 0 plates used ‘to simulate a fractured medium’, reported
S(f) 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 (15.3) by Hsu and Schoenberg, 1993. Schoenberg and Sayers
0 0 0 0 0
apparently derive their assumption that ZN ZT for
1 0 0 0 ZT 0 the case of dry (gas saturated) cracks from this labora-
0 0 0 0 0 ZT
tory work.
(It is argued in Chapter 16 that interlocked rock joints
usually have quite different magnitudes of normal and
From this matrix, Schoenberg and Sayers, 1995 shear stiffness, with the expectation that at least some
developed the 6 6 compliance matrix (S) for the com- of these differences remain when considering micro-
bined transversely isotropic fractured medium, involving displacement and the (presumed) elastic response of
the various combinations of Lamé constants ( and
) joints to dynamic wave loading. However, this is at pre-
shown in Chapters 1 and 14. The simple addition of sent a subject under debate and therefore controversial).
the three fracture compliance terms (ZN, ZT and ZT) Hsu and Schoenberg, 1993 interpreted the normal and
was made in the same (1,1 5,5 and 6,6) locations in the shear compliances from the results of static and dynamic
combined compliance matrix. They then inverted this loading tests on numerous (60 or 200), roughened Lucite
to form the elastic stiffness matrix to represent the com- (‘Plexiglas’) plates, loaded normally. Their extremely close
bined isotropic back-ground and vertically fractured spacing (0.7 mm) and their continuity means that frac-
medium. They noted that this stiffness matrix was ture densities were actually in the ‘impossible’ range of
of exactly the same form as that developed previously by 7.5 to 25, up to three orders of magnitude too high to
Crampin, 1984 for the case of an isotropic medium represent fractured (or microcracked) rock.
containing a vertical array of ‘penny-shaped’ fractures, Table 15.1 indicates that these artificial-material tests
although Crampin also had second-order terms for frac- were taken to quite high normal stress levels in relation
ture density. to the assumed strength of Lucite. One can imagine
Of importance to the shear-wave splitting context of this that under the highest loads, something approaching a
chapter, are the stiffness matrix terms relating to the
fast shear wave propagating parallel to the fractures, Table 15.1 Shear and normal compliance differences obtained from
given as the C44 term, and the slow shear wave propa- normally-loaded Lucite plates with rough surfaces.
gating perpendicular to the fractures, given by the C55 Schoenberg and Sayers, 1995. Derived from Hsu and
term. For the case of the vertically propagating waves Schoenberg, 1993.
through the vertical fractures, there is no fracture com- Stress (MPa) (ZT ZN)/(ZT ZN)
pliance term in C44, only the Lamé constant
or
b for
the background rock. (This was inverted in the case of 6 0.1736
S44 in the compliance matrix, as 1/
or 1/
b). 12 0.1177
18 0.0332
For the case of the slow shear wave, the C55 term
24 () 0.0035
was given as
b(1-T), with T (limits: 0 T 1)
418 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
empirical modelling, the mechanisms involved in clos- The same will apply to the fractured or jointed
ing and shearing are entirely different, and are mod- medium of much larger scale, where horizontal stress
elled in entirely different ways as a result. Some of this anisotropy will often have caused the alignment of the
difference would seem likely to remain at the micro- natural joints or fractures. (We have termed the natural
scale of dynamic wave loading. features: rock joints in most of this book, to distinguish
The question is whether heavily loaded, roughened them from artificially induced fractures, as developed
Lucite plates can be accepted as realistic models for a set around boreholes or tunnels or mine openings, or
of stressed rock fractures. Clearly they should not be fracturing induced by MHF stimulation of tight reser-
accepted, or accepted only with great caution, in view voirs. This preferred terminology is following the rec-
of the non-brittle ‘plastic’ behaviour of Lucite. It is ommendation of ISRM, 1978 and seems logical in
therefore urged that one should re-evaluate the rele- view of the number of artificial (man-made) fractures
vance of the ‘ZT /ZN 1.0’ theory, and adopt, in the that have to be described in these shared, rock engineer-
first instance, data from tests on actual rock joints, for ing disciplines.
example those described by Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1990 At the larger scale, Sayers, 2002b, deduced that ZT
(see later), or those derived (implicitly) from Chaudry, ZN, when analysing the results of the Chaudry, 1995
1995 and King et al., 1995 polyaxial tests. The latter polyaxial tests on 41 41 41 mm cubes of sandstone,
studied principal stress-developed rock fractures in highly which had a fracture-development cycle. (See descrip-
stressed cubes of isotropic sandstone (see Chapter 13). tions of these interesting tests in Chapter 13). This
Even though both these data sets are likely of too small compliance inequality is of course consistent with the
scale, with respective dimensions of 52 mm and 41 mm, experience of Ks Kn, concerning the pseudo-static
they are extremely likely to be closer to relevant reservoir shear and normal stiffnesses of joints and fractures, where
jointing than artificial Lucite surfaces. stiffness is the rough inverse of compliance. The mag-
nitude of Kn proves to be less than, but quite close to
1/ZN in good quality (unweathered) hard rock, while in
15.4.2 Subsequent inequality of ZN the shearing direction, Ks 1/ZT, sometimes 1/ZT
and ZT (see Chapters 13 and 16).
Figure 15.6 Two conjugate sets of fractures with dips of and –. Figure 15.7 A cross-discipline example of unequal conjugate joint-
This model was used by Sayers, 2002b to investigate ing used to represent a high-porosity section of the
shear wave splitting phenomena when incident shear Ekofisk reservoir, modelled by the distinct element
waves were no longer parallel to vertical fracturing. code UDEC-BB, with non-linear, effective stress and
size-dependent shear and normal stiffnesses. Barton
oil should be distinguishable by respectively greater and et al., 1986.
less shear wave anisotropy, as the stiffening effect of the
oil makes the fracture normal stiffness less contrasted to in 1985, and inspection of jointing in the Lagerdorf chalk
the back-ground medium. For dipping joints or frac- quarry in German, also supports the notion of a possible
tures, there proves to be a significant decrease in shear dominant set when conjugate jointing is present. Figure
wave anisotropy if the fluid has a higher bulk modulus, 15.7 illustrates a specific realization of jointing that was
making the normal stiffness of the fractures greater. The simulated when modelling the local-scale (1 1 m,
average of the two shear wave velocities is therefore also 2D) compaction mechanism principles, in this massive
increased. 30 km3 North Sea chalk reservoir. The behaviour of the
Bakulin et al., 2001, also pointed out that both geo- joints was based on measured values of wall strength
physical and geological data acquired over naturally (JCS) and roughness (JRC), which give pseudo-static
jointed reservoirs often revealed the presence of multi- values of both normal and shear stiffness (the latter may
ple sub-vertical fracture sets, which made the effective be significantly lower than the dynamic values). In rock
medium monoclinic. They developed a model for hand- mechanics modelling the non-linearity of these param-
ling two sets of unequal, and non-orthogonal vertical eters is also an issue, with extreme stiffening of Kn at
joint sets, which yielded the azimuths and compliances high stress, and less stiffening of Ks with stress, which in
of both sets of joints, as well as the P- and S-wave veloci- pseudo-static loading is also scale (block-size) depend-
ties of the assumed isotropic background medium. From ent (Barton and Bandis, 1982).
a second model, consisting of a single set of micro- Sayers 2002b, again claimed that the ratio of ZN/ZT
corrugated joints, they stated that monoclinic symmetry (or BN/BT in his terminology) was approximately equal
stemmed this time from coupling between the normal to 1.0 for the case of ‘gas-filled open fractures’. This was
and tangential ‘slip’. This coupling caused shear wave possibly based on Hsu and Schoenberg, 1993 results for
splitting dependence on the fluid content of the loading tests on ‘roughened plates of Lucite’, to quite
fractures. high normal stress levels in relation to the strength of the
Experience from local core logging and photography Lucite. If so, the result should be regarded with great cau-
of jointed core from the Ekofisk reservoir by the writer tion, as highly-stressed, roughened Lucite plates, with
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 421
three-orders of magnitude too high crack densities, surely 15.4.4 Discussion of scale effects
bear little similarity to normally-stressed, interlocked and stiffness
joints in brittle rock, as discussed earlier.
The presence of a joint-filling fluid with non-zero In Chapter 16 we will see the inequality of the pseudo-
bulk modulus in place of gas would, as suggested by static shear and normal stiffness (Ks Kn) of virtually
Sayers, 2002b cause a lower value of ZN/ZT (or BN/BT), all joints (and filled discontinuities), and the likelihood of
but not it is suggested, just lower in relation to the changing ratios of Kn/Ks as pore pressure changes affect
above artificially high ratio of 1.0, but rather in relation the effective normal stress. These joint stiffnesses have been
to a ratio of ZN/ZT that was already significantly lower used in rock mechanics finite element modelling since
than 1.0, as seems intuitively likely due to the different the late 1960s, (Goodman and Duncan, 1968), and finite
mechanisms involved (namely ‘closure’ in the case of difference distinct element (DEM) modelling since the
ZN, and ‘slip’ in the case of ZT. (See Figure 15.5). 1970s (Cundall, 1971). The important question is
Interesting supportive field data was cited by Sayers, whether geophysicists will be able to apply the accumu-
2002b, concerning the differences in observed velocities lated knowledge from these macro-displacement,
and shear wave splitting intensity, when in the presence inversed equivalents of the geophysicists’ micro-strain
of gas as opposed to oil. (This will be reviewed later in compliances.
this chapter). We may recall that with non-vertical frac- If the stiffnesses and compliances of these two discip-
tures and with vertically propagating waves, both the lines can be related, despite the probable different orders
shear and normal compliances are assumed to be involved of magnitude of dynamic and ‘static’ deformations
in the shear wave splitting process. The field data from involved, then the more researched parameters Kn and Ks
Oman (Guest et al., 1998, van der Kolk et al., 2001) for could perhaps give shear wave splitting ‘even more infor-
a fractured (supposedly nearly vertically fractured) car- mation’ than presently assumed, since one often sees
bonate reservoir showed higher shear wave anisotropy equal normal and shear compliances assumed in papers
(due to a lower qS2) over the gas cap volume, than where describing shear wave splitting analyses, implying that
there was oil. As pointed out by van der Kolk et al., information may be limited at present, at the less access-
2001, this in situ fractured media result is in disagreement ible dynamic micro-scale of displacements.
with the prediction of Gassmann’s theory for porous Major stress-aligned, fluid-filled or sediment-filled
media, in which the shear modulus should be inde- inclusions, (and cracks, joints or fractures) are the diverse
pendent of the fluid. The shear modulus of the matrix sources of mechanical anisotropy that can be presumed
governs the fast shear wave, with no ZN or ZT influence. to be common to all rocks. They may be the guaranteed
If the in situ fractures were actually not perfectly ver- sources of pseudo-static normal to shear stiffness ratios
tical, as seems to be implied by Sayers, 2002b, then the considerably in excess of 1, most likely from about 5 to
normal compliance would also be involved in the inten- 50 as shown later in this chapter, and reinforced in
sity of the shear wave splitting. Because the normal Chapter 16. They alone actually guarantee anisotropic
compliance is reduced in the presence of a fluid with behaviour in the ‘static’ (macro-deformation or macro-
non-zero bulk modulus (i.e. oil), the ratio of ZN/ZT (or strain) regime.
BN/BT) would reduce. According to Sayers, this should The fact that the same (but inverted) units for compli-
cause a significant decrease in shear wave splitting and ance and stiffness are used by the different (‘static’ and
an increase in shear wave velocity with the increased dynamic) professions, is some guarantee that deform-
fluid bulk modulus, and therefore stiffened fractures. ation, like ‘squirt’, is taking place, however small this
Without attempting to describe complex details, it may be.
may be pointed out from recent work by Gurevich, The question that remains to be answered is whether,
2003, that the compliance matrix for a fluid-saturated, for instance, the ratio of these compliances or inverted
porous-and-fractured medium is not equivalent to the dynamic stiffnesses for application in situ, can be in any
compliance matrix of any solid medium with a single way based on dynamic tests on three joints of about
set of parallel fractures. This is due to the wave-induced 50 mm diameter, as tested in important work at Berkeley
(micro) flow of fluids between pores and fractures. (Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1990), to be reviewed next, or
Such attenuating (micro) flow is now being modelled whether there could be some hidden relation to the much
with double-porosity poro-elastic models, which are more common and easier pseudo-static tests on e.g. at
reviewed later in this chapter. least 200 samples of 100 mm length (as tested by
422 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Table 15.2 Estimates of dynamic normal and dynamic shear stiffnesses derived by fitting to recorded response spectra, selected from Pyrak-
Nolte et al., 1990 data sets. Note the stiffer water-saturated behaviour. The seismic quality Qp values for these two jointed
samples are also appended. (The unit MPa/
m is suggested to aid interpretation. Note that the stiffnesses are high to very high,
with 1 MPa/
m 1000 MPa/mm).
2.9 15.0 (Qp 9) 35.0 (Qp 17) 4.0 (Qp 7) 9.5 (Qp 9)
10 – 80.0 11.5 20.0
20 – (Qp 24) 100.0 (Qp 36) 20.0 (Qp 14) 25.0 (Qp 30)
70 120.0 – 32.0 59.0
Note: Qs values were generally larger than the above Qp values: see Table 10.3, Chapter 10.
Table 15.3 Kn(dyn)/Ks(dyn) ratios for sample E 30, which was of intermediate stiffness
compared to E 32 and E 35. Sample diameter was also 52 mm. Derived
from Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1990 data sets.
1.4 2.2
2.9 1.6
6.0 1.6
10.0 1.3
20.0 2.0
33.0 2.7
stiffness tends to be low when very small sample sizes are Sayers, 1995, from dynamic tests on dry, roughened
used. There is a lot of data from near-surface rock engi- ‘Plexiglas’ plates.
neering projects where sample size is 600–1000 mm, and Dynamic stiffness ratios for a joint of intermediate
laboratory tests tend also to be in a higher 100–300 mm stiffness (E30) were also reported by Pyrak-Nolte et al.,
range compared to the high stress tests on (inevitably) 1990. This is given separately in Table 15.3.
smaller samples. Some of this data is reviewed in Chapter It may be noted from the above tables that the range
16. Note the lack of any tendency for Kn(dyn) Ks(dyn), or of Kn(dyn)/Ks(dyn) ratios for these three small jointed sam-
its inverse ZN ZT, as deduced by Schoenberg and ples was 1.3 to 4.3 with a mean of 2.5. This means that
424 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Table 15.4 Comparison of static and dynamic normal stiffness data for the Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1987a jointed sample E 35, which was the
most deformable sample (possibly due to greater roughness). These dynamic stiffnesses were determined by curve matching.
the ratio of the inversed compliances ZN/ZT for these The aluminium results are therefore quite different
52 mm diameter samples ranges from 0.2 to 0.8, with a from dynamic rock joint behaviour. The actual magni-
mean of 0.4. The remaining question is what relevance tudes of dynamic normal and shear stiffness were some-
this convenient ‘core-sized’ data has to in situ reservoirs what higher than for the (obviously rougher) rock joints
in general, with a typical spread of jointed block sizes tested by Pyrak-Nolte, for instance 22.5 and
from perhaps 200 mm to 5,000 mm, and mostly sedi- 25.0 1012 Pa/m, in the case of the normal stress of
mentary rock as opposed to Stripa ‘granite’, or hard 13.2 MPa. (In alternative units these translate to 22500
quartz monzonite, which had Estatic 60 GPa, and and 25000 MPa/mm, or 22.5 and 25.0 MPa/
m, i.e.
Vp 4.9–6.1 km/s over a stress range of 84 MPa, very stiff behaviour, perhaps due to ‘asperity-weld’.
(Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1987b).
Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1987a reported an earlier set of
(dry) dynamic/static normal stiffness measurements, 15.5.1 Discussion of stiffness
performed on one of the same jointed samples (E 35). In data gaps and discipline
view of the relative scarcity of such dynamic/static data bridging needs
for rock joints in the literature, this is reproduced in
Table 15.4. In comparison with the above static and dynamics data
Units of stiffness more familiar in rock mechanics for one joint sample in igneous rock, we will see in
(MPa/mm) are also given in this table, as this unit is Chapter 16 some rock mechanics data from Bandis,
easier to visualize in practical terms (e.g. 100 MPa for 1980, with numerous static normal stiffness data for
0.1 mm closure) than that used in geophysics, where rock joints in limestone, sandstone and siltstone (and
the inverse compliance is also typically reported in ‘com- other non-sedimentary rocks). We will see Kn (static)
plex’ units of 1012 m.Pa1 (with ‘m’ sometimes omit- values varying from 250 MPa/mm at 10 MPa normal
ted altogether). It is even more ‘practical’ to consider the stress, to 31500 MPa/mm at 40 MPa normal stress.
unit MPa/
m for the first static stiffness listed in this (Priv. comm. Bandis, 2005). The lowest value was for a
table. One thereby comes much closer to the elastic, pre- rough, weathered joint (JRC 15, JCS 44 MPa) in
sumably sub-micron, dynamic wave pulse effects on limestone, the latter a smoother joint (JRC 7.6, JCS
micro-closure, and on micro-fluid movement during 160 MPa) in almost unweathered limestone. Unstressed
squirt-flow attenuation. apertures, prior to standard stress-cycling to achieve an
In connection with the above ratios of Kn(dyn)/Ks(dyn), approximation to in situ (consolidated) conditions, were
it may be of interest to refer to the equivalent data about 0.5 and 0.2 mm respectively.
for artificial surfaces in aluminium, reported by Pyrak- Concerning shear stiffness, which is of relevance when
Nolte et al., 1992, based on interface wave experi- discussing the possible magnitude of shear compliance in
ments. An aluminium cylinder of 293 mm diameter shear wave splitting, we will see in Chapter 16 a whole
was sawn in two, planed smooth, and then sandblasted range of possible static shear stiffnesses that are seen to be
with 300
m grit. This artificial, planar-but-roughened inversely related with the sample size. The extent to
interface, which can perhaps be likened to the roughened which dynamic shear compliances are related (much more
‘Plexiglas’ surfaces studied by Hsu and Schoenberg, weakly, but perhaps directly) to sample size, seems to be
1993, showed predicted (curve-fitting-based) ratios of one of the remaining unsolved areas in this important
Kn(dyn)/Ks(dyn) ranging from 0.90 at 13.2 MPa, to 0.47 area of seismic detection of anisotropy, and the subse-
at 32.9 MPa normal stress. quent goal of interpretation of permeability.
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 425
Concerning one of the three ‘bridges’ discussed above, the 15.6 Normal and shear compliance
three joints in Stripa ‘granite’ (quartz monzonite) that theories for resolving fluid type
were so extensively tested and modelled by Pyrak-Nolte et
al., 1990, and Pyrak-Nolte, 1996, (see also Chapter 13 Interest in fracture-induced seismic anisotropy has rap-
review), gave interesting evidence of a strong connection idly evolved from the earlier estimation of ‘only’ fracture
between the normal stiffness (termed ‘fracture specific orientation, (with an assumed indication of major hori-
stiffness’ by the author), and the permeability, as recorded zontal stress), to fracture intensity, and the attempted
by flow rate per unit head, during ‘sector-to-sector’ flow prediction of fluid saturation and permeability
across the otherwise sealed joint perimeters. Figure 15.9 anisotropy. To make this advance, the sensitivity of frac-
shows the strong relationship between flow rate per unit ture compliance to fluids has to be understood. There
head (proportional to permeability), and the joint normal are several models addressing this important question.
stiffness, which changes due to the effect of normal stress, The authors Liu et al., 2000, investigated various
as illustrated in Figure 15.8. possible representations of fractures, for use in dynamic
The data shows that joints that support less flow modelling of fractured reservoirs. These consisted of an
obviously have higher stiffness, due also to the effect of in-plane distribution of small cracks, an in-plane distribu-
normal stress. The author suggested that the joint stiff- tion of contacts, and a thin layer with material infill. They
ness was inversely related to the cube root of the flow, were able to derive specific expressions for the fracture
and that fluid flow and the seismic response of a joint compliances ZN and ZT . Their different models indicated
could therefore be inter-related through the normal strong sensitivity of the ratio ZN/ZT to the bulk modulus
stiffness of the joint in question. of the fracture infill material, with the most rapid change
Pyrak-Nolte also found that the joints that attenu- in the compliance ratio (and values closer to 1.0) occurring
ated seismic waves most at a given stress level, also sup- when the infill bulk modulus approached zero, such as for
ported more flow, which is logical. This implies an gas-filled fractures. However with realistically small frac-
implicit link between the permeability and the rock ture aspect ratios (i.e. 0.001), much lower values than
quality Q-value and more specifically between the per- 1 were suggested, as shown in Figure 15.10.
meability and the modulus of deformation, when not Liu et al., 2000, and Liu and Li, 2001 presented equa-
reduced by clay, since Qp and the pseudo-static modulus tions for the compliance ratio (ZN/ZT), which incorp-
of deformation M (or Emass), expressed in GPa, were orated the aspect ratio of cracks, and the ratio of bulk
seen to display some remarkable, empirical similarities moduli for fluid and matrix. One of their equations,
in Chapters 10 and 13. based on earlier work by Schoenberg and Hudson,
426 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a)
Figure 15.10 Liu et al., 2000 model of in-plane small cracks, for
estimation of the ratio ZN/ZT versus the normalized
bulk modulus ( f) of the fracture infill, via compon-
ents of Hudson’s models. The matrix was a so-called
Poisson’s solid with equal Lamé constants (bulk and
shear moduli
).
1 (b)
ZN 7 5 a c k f
1 (15.4) Figure 15.11 (a) A fracture compliance based prediction of fluid
ZT 8 2 c c k
type (brine, heavy oil or gas) based on fracture aspect
ratios and on the ratio of fluid and matrix bulk mod-
uli. Liu and Li, 2001. (b) Laboratory evidence for the
where ac and cc are the ‘long and short axes of the ele-
importance of fluid (dry or saturated) on the ratio
mental cracks in the fracture planes’, which they also ZN/ZT as a function of stress, from Pyrak-Nolte et al.,
refer to as the aspect ratios, and kf and k are the bulk 1990.
moduli of the fluid and matrix.
Figure 15.11a suggests, as does the above equation,
that ZN and ZT are zero (i.e. stiffnesses Kn and Ks are compaction due to pore collapse, fractures would truly
infinite, or very high) when a fracture is ‘closed’. Of be of infinite stiffness, since effectively absorbed in the
course if the fracture is no longer present this is logical, matrix collapse. Based on the different bulk moduli of
but not if stresses are merely high and contact areas are gas, brine and heavy oil, Liu and Li, 2001 allocated dif-
high, but significantly less than 100%. Such might be ferent ZN versus ZT ‘regions’ in Figure 15.11a.
typical for reservoir fractures in weaker materials. As partial support for the predicted rends, Liu and Li,
Perhaps for the highest-porosity chalk, showing general 2001, cite the dynamic stiffness data from Pyrak-Nolte
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 427
et al., 1990, and invert the ratios (see Tables 15.2 and and Lubbe, 2004, the following two equations each
15.3) to give the ZN/ZT versus normal stress trends had a small error in the first and second terms in brack-
reproduced in Figure 15.11b. They note the increased ets. In place of the 2000 versions with (4/ ) (/%a)
ratio of ZN/ZT from the saturated to the dry state. and (8/ ) (/%a), the equations are as follows:
Converting this figure to rock mechanics termin-
ology, the dynamic stiffness ratios Kn/Ks are predicted 2
2 (r w ) 2
1
4
to vary from about 4 to 45 with increasing stress (when Bn 1 2 1
rw
a
saturated), and from about 2 to 4 with increasing stress
(when dry). + ( 4/3)
(15.5)
The authors also referred to the Lucite-plate samples
tested by Hsu and Schoenberg, in which honey-
saturated (sic) tests showed even greater sensitivity to 2
1
the dry and saturated states, and surprisingly close mag- 2 w 2
1
8
1 2 ( r )
nitudes of ZN and ZT (ZN/ZT close to 1.0) when their Bt r w
a 2
2
samples were dry, as reviewed earlier. As we have seen, 3
the ‘intense fracturing’ (more like thin inter-bed stud-
2 (15.6)
ies) created by the Hsu and Schoenberg, 1993 tests on (
)
either 60 or 200 (!) 0.7 mm thick, roughened (10
m)
Lucite plates, created an extreme crack density (almost
without its equal) of 7.5 to 25, up to three orders of Here, , are the P-wave, S-wave velocities,
is the
magnitude greater than in situ microcracking or frac- rigidity of the rock, rw is the proportion of the fault sur-
turing. Possibly this factor is partly to blame for the face area that is estimated to consist of welded contact
unrealistic ZN ZT result, that has permeated into (assumed 0.2), a is the mean radius of the contact
several geophysics publications. areas,
and +are the rigidity and bulk modulus of the
fault fill, and is the mean aperture of the fault.
For purposes of comparison, one may first invert
15.6.1 In situ compliances in a these presumed micro-deformation magnitudes of geo-
fault zone inferred from physics, to the much more easily understood ‘physical’
seismic Q macro-deformation units of rock mechanics, namely
shear and normal stiffnesses of Kn 20,000 MPa/mm
The low value of seismic Q for a fault zone (or possibly (and 20 MPa/
m), and Ks 1 MPa/mm. These by
several faults) encountered in a well in the North Sea chance, or due to more inter-related micro-and-macro
(Qseis averaging 45), described by Worthington and physical processes at larger scale and at lower frequency,
Hudson, 2000, represented an abrupt increase in attenu- are similar to the values one may need to use on different
ation, relative to the Triassic and Lower Jurassic age occasions in rock mechanics pseudo-static modelling.
sandstones, siltstones and claystones that were predom- Heavily stressed rock joints, perhaps equivalent to
inantly encountered in the well. the ‘welded’ portions of the modelled fault or faults,
Worthington and Hudson modelled the effects of a have normal stiffnesses, as we shall see in Chapter 16,
down-going P-wave between 1000 and 2000 m depth, that are of this high magnitude, while clay-filled dis-
by assuming that one or up to several faults, intersected continuities will tend to have much lower values for
the transmission path. They used a theoretical compli- obvious reasons of low frictional strength. The low val-
ance model developed by Hudson et al., 1997, to demon- ues of shear stiffness that are implied by the authors’
strate the need for a very large but (to rock mechanics modelling, are in fact very reasonable values for blocks
thinking), realistic inequality of the shear and normal within faults of large dimension, that are assumed to
compliances, suggesting the need for ZN (or Bn) 4.4 dominate in large scale deformation processes, such as
1014 m.Pa1, and ZT (or Bt) 1.1 109 m.Pa1. overburden subsidence over compacting reservoirs.
The equations used to estimate these compliances are For example, Barton et al., 1986 and Barton, 2002b,
quite complicated, and are reproduced here to empha- describe (‘static’) Ks as low as 102 MPa/mm, needed to
sise the geophysical ‘way of thinking’ regarding micro- realistically model large scale discontinua in the Ekofisk
deformation compliances. (According to Worthington reservoir subsidence, thereby obtaining a better match
428 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
to reality than continuum models. Such low values were of data for the pseudo-static values, it may well prove
selected from a Barton, 1982 assembly of large-scale shear useful to ‘bridge-the-gap’ between the disciplines and
stiffness data (see Chapter 16). The extremely compliant ‘quantify’ () and (). This will be attempted.
values of pseudo-static shear stiffness were due to the
assumed large effective ‘block sizes’ of the major
15.7 Shear wave splitting
deforming elements of a conservatively estimated
from earthquakes
150 km3 deforming volume of overburden. (The 300 m
thick pear-shape reservoir in jointed chalk, in area
Monitoring shear waves caused by the effects of earth-
roughly 9 14 km, has a depth of roughly 3 km).
quakes requires a certain consideration of the geometry
The approx. 1.0 MPa/mm, for the dynamic shear stiff-
of the situation. There is a so-called shear wave window,
ness derived by Worthington and Hudson for the sub-
which is the area on the earth’s surface above the earth-
North Sea fault, is equivalent to a static shear stiffness
quake, where ray-paths subtend angles of incidence less
under 20 25 MPa effective stress (1.5 km gives about
than about 35°. This derives from the requirement of
37 15 22 MPa effective stress) of roughly 10 m
angles of incidence less than sin1(Vp/Vs). (Nuttli
effective block sizes. (See Figure 16.14 in Chapter 16).
and Whitmore, 1962.) For a Poisson’s ratio of 0.25, is
An empirical expression for the macro-deformation,
about 35°. Outside this window the shear-wave wave-
pseudo-static shear stiffness, used in rock mechanics, is
forms are severely distorted.
given in Chapter 16, and is evaluated with various input
Crampin and Peacock, 2005 mention the added dis-
data assumptions, including the effect of saturated or dry
tortion if recordings are made on irregular topography.
conditions. In principle, the simple empirical equation for
They also mention the ‘helpful’ surface effect that a low
shear stiffness, from Barton and Choubey, 1977, is based
velocity layer may effectively widen the shear-wave
on the peak shear strength equation divided by the dis-
window by refracting the upcoming shear-waves
placement to peak. In other words a constant gradient of
towards vertical incidence. The effective window may
load versus shear deformation is assumed. In the case
then be as much as (2 x) 45° to 50°.
of normal stiffness, the empirical hyperbolic equation
The polarizations of the leading, faster, split shear-
of Bandis, 1980, also given in Bandis et al., 1983, gives
waves within the shear-wave window above many
the basis for normal stiffness estimation.
recorded earthquakes are typically observed to be scat-
Both these stiffness equations are components of the
tered by 10° to 20° about a direction parallel to
Barton-Bandis constitutive model, and utilise the rele-
the direction of maximum horizontal compression.
vant joint wall roughness coefficient JRC, and the joint
(Crampin and Booth, 1985). There can be many rea-
wall strength JCS, as measured or estimated input data.
sons for this scatter besides general heterogeneity with a
In the case of shear stiffness, the residual friction angle
‘mixed’ geology along the path length. Furthermore,
r is also needed. In the case of faults, we may consider
and unfortunately, the location of the main source of
JRC 0 (zero effective roughness), and r may be as
shear wave splitting is not known, which is why in-hole
low as 10° to 20°, depending on the mineralogy of the
instrumentation at up to several kilometres depth is so
clay or possible ‘shale-smear’. (For a comprehensive
attractive (see Chapter 10), to remove the attenuating
review of the sometimes very low in situ pseudo-static
near-surface layers, which perhaps could also be the
shear strengths of clay-filled discontinuities, often tested
source of somewhat differently oriented structure
at large scale at dam sites, but at low to moderate stress
and/or major principal stress.
levels, see Barton, 1973b).
A return to the important themes of dynamic compli-
ance and pseudo-static stiffness will be found in 15.7.1 Shear-wave splitting in the
Chapter 16, to better explore the similarities and dis- New Madrid seismic zone
similarities, as the case may be. At this stage of compari-
son one can assume that the pseudo-static values of Rowlands et al., 1993, using a network of more than
stiffness are lower (in the normal direction), and much thirty three-component digitally recording seismom-
lower (in the shear direction) than the equivalent eters in the New Madrid seismic zone in the central
dynamic values of stiffness. In view of the extreme lack USA, recorded shear-wave splitting, which they attributed
of present data for the dynamic values, and the wealth to EDA cracks. A compressed summary of the seismic
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 429
zone, an example of shear-wave splitting, and of the split ML 4 San Andreas fault earthquake; time delays at
shear-wave polarizations, together with the velocity Station MM (7 ms/km) were roughly twice those at
structure through the local crust is given in Figure 15.12. station VC (4 ms/km). The authors concluded that
The majority of the seismic events were between 3 and the relatively greater shear wave splitting observed at
15 km depth, mostly in the Precambrian basement. The station MM suggested that the fluid-filled fractures
shear waves propagating upwards encountered three within the fault zone were more extensive than in the
high-to-low velocity interfaces and one low-to-high surrounding crust, which is logical.
interface. The aligned polarizations lay in the ENE- The fault parallel polarization of the leading split
WSW direction (average N62°E), reportedly coincident shear wave at station MM was taken by the authors to
with the direction of the regional maximum horizontal indicate that either the stress was highly irregular in the
stress documented by Zoback and his colleagues. immediate vicinity of the fault, or that the fault-related
This good correlation suggested to the authors that the fractures were aligned by fault shearing rather than by
anisotropy causing the shear-wave splitting was likely to the regional principal stress.
be caused by the presence of fluid-filled, stress-aligned ver- The Liu et al., 1993, analyses were performed with
tical extensive dilation anisotropy (EDA) cracks. The time co-authors’ data, also recorded between January 1989
delays (120 to 180 ms) and associated shear wave travel and July 1990. All the earthquakes during which shear
times (3.8 to 4.6 s) suggested a shear wave anisotropy over waves were clearly visible above the P-wave coda,
the whole path of 3 to 4%, consistent with a Crampin, showed evidence of shear-wave splitting. In a few cases,
1993a, review of these ubiquitous phenomena. only one of the anisotropic shear-wave polarizations
Rowlands et al., 1993, found evidence that the was recorded, due to attenuation of the slower compo-
anisotropy causing the polarization alignments may have nent. The dominant frequency was 20 Hz, yielding
been present only in the top 5 km, rather than evenly elliptical motion. Various different polarization align-
distributed. They also reported that the basal Palaeozoic ments of some stations (Figure 15.13b) were thought to
deposits (Vp 4.83 km/s, see table in Figure 15.12) be possible due to local topography, or due to changes
were considered to be fractured, while the thick shale for- in angle of incidence due to refraction across hard rock-
mation might have introduced a thin-layer anisotropy. to-sediment interfaces.
A marginal decrease in the time delay following the
Ml 4 earthquake of May 1989, followed by an irreg-
15.7.2 Shear-wave splitting at ular increase was noted from stations MM and VC.
Parkfield seismic Similar decreases in time delay at the time of other larger
monitoring array earthquakes (M 3.5, M 6.0) were cited. The aver-
age time delay at MM on the fault zone was about twice
Liu et al., 1993 also confirmed shear-wave splitting at a as large as those at station VC 5 km away, on the south-
majority of the recording stations at the Parkfield bore- west block of the SAF. A greater density of microcracks
hole seismic network along the San Andreas fault zone, and fractures in the fault zone was cited, and change of
obtained during 18 months of recordings from previous stress affecting the geometry of these fluid-filled fea-
campaigns by co-authors Evans, Booth and Crampin, tures was assumed as a possible cause for the temporal
reported in 1984 and 1985, but recorded earlier than changes.
this. At three of the stations, distant 1 to 5 km from the A migration of focal depth for about 100 days after
fault, the polarizations were consistently normal or sub- the Ml 4 event was first cited as a possible cause of
normal to the fault strike and parallel to the direction of the decrease in time delay. However, for earthquakes
the regional maximum horizontal stress. with focal depths above 7 km depth, there was a pro-
At station MM, immediately adjacent or within the nounced increase in time delays. So the conclusion was
fault zone (see Figure 15.13, reproduced from Liu et al., drawn that the anisotropy of the fault zone was concen-
1993), first motion (qS1) was polarized parallel to the trated above 7 km.
fault strike, i.e. in this case perpendicular to the regional Since the polarizations at VC, VR and ED (Figure
maximum principal stress of about N30°E. 15.13b) were approximately perpendicular to the SAF,
There was some evidence of temporal variation of the and parallel to the regional principal stress direction
shear wave time delays in connection with a magnitude (N30°E), they were considered to be consistent with
430 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a) (b)
Vp Vs
(c)
(d)
Figure 15.12 A compressed summary of Rowlands et al., 1993, measurements and analyses of shear-wave splitting at the New Madrid seis-
mic zone. (a) seismic map, (b) shear-wave polarization examples, (c) table showing velocity structure and geology, (d) a shear
wave splitting example (focal depth 9.1 km, epicentral distance 5.0 km. Traces on left are the original, 3 seconds duration.
Traces on right are the horizontal components rotated into the fast and slow split shear-wave polarizations.
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 431
(a)
(b)
Figure 15.13 (a) San Andreas fault and associated shallow thrust faults, with Parkfield high resolution seismic network (HRSN).
(b) Epicentres of local small events within the shear-wave window. (Star in SE corner was an Ml 4 event at 8.3 km depth.)
Lower hemispheres show polarizations of leading split shear-waves, beneath 7 of 9 stations. Liu et al., 1993.
432 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 15.16 Correlation of time delay changes with timing of seismic events in Iceland. The inclined lines are least-squares estimates of
time-delay increases, which end with each of the larger events. Volti and Crampin, 2003.
nine-point moving average, and ending when an earth- publications, implies that even hand-specimens ‘of almost
quake or large eruption takes place. all rocks’, would be pervaded by tens to hundreds of
The arrows indicate the time of these events, with millions of microcracks, since the (radius)3 term with
date and epicentral distance. The bottom diagram shows suitably small microcracks (e.g. 10 or 100
m) guar-
the magnitudes of earthquakes greater than M 2, antees completely unrealistic numbers of microcracks
within 20 km of this recording station. to generate, for example, e 0.045 (according to
It was Crampin’s opinion that the changes observed Crampin a typical maximum crack density), as needed
in shear-wave splitting, both before the earthquakes for generating the typical maximum 4.5% shear-wave
and volcanic eruptions, were due to changes in the rock anisotropy.
mass, rather than associated with changes in the imme- In fact, as we shall see, there are reported crack dens-
diate source zones. Crampin claimed that the shear- ities and shear wave anisotropies far higher than suggested
wave splitting showed ‘that almost all in-situ crack by Crampin, when measuring shear wave polarization
distributions verge on fracture-criticality’. In the opinion through jointed or fractured reservoirs. When the crack
of the writer, the Iceland data is of great interest because density calculation is applied to the often observed scale of
of the extreme sensitivity of quite different scales of several meters (in wells and deep tunnels), quite reason-
‘crack’, namely joints and natural fractures, to minute able numbers of larger fractures or joints are predicted,
changes of effective stress and/or fluid pressure. and these features with their extremely low aspect ratios
As argued previously, this claim that almost all in-situ are, according to fundamental principles of geophysics
crack distributions verge on fracture-criticality does not and rock mechanics, surely more compliant than the
appear valid, if one assesses that the greatly expanding microcracks apparently favoured by Crampin.
microcracks in the APE model (Figure 15.3) is an improb- At great depth, as stresses are more isotropic and very
able model for rock masses. The crack density definition is high, there may be no microcracks or open fractures to
ambiguous, and as applied by Crampin in numerous speak of, as they may be completely closed. It is then
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 435
Figure 15.17 Left-hand diagrams: Stable sliding of several millimetres on normally loaded (6 MPa) planar-but-roughened surfaces in Stripa
‘granite’ (quartz monzonite), caused a marked reduction (up to 50%) in the shear-wave amplitude. Right-hand diagrams: Stable
sliding under a normal stress of about 10 MPa, followed by stick-slip effects, showed cyclic reduction of the shear-wave ampli-
tude in abrupt steps for each slip event. The lower diagram shows an expanded view of the ‘continuous’ sliding, showing actual
(but inaudible to AE) faster-slip episodes, which also caused quite rapid reductions of shear wave amplitude. Chen et al., 1993.
that the ambiguous, undefined location of the source The authors noted that the reduced shear-wave
depth of the shear wave splitting comes into play, and amplitude was probably associated with reductions in
one can assume with some confidence that the source (specific) shear stiffness of the joint or joints undergo-
of the splitting will tend to be shallower than perhaps ing shear. As shown by Boitnott et al., 1992, and as also
desired, where conditions of anisotropy are more modelled with the ‘JRC-mobilized’ concept of the
favourable for shear-wave splitting. Barton-Bandis joint constitutive model (Barton, 1982:
see Chapter 16), there is likely to be an ‘invisible’ shear-
ing of micron-size, prior to measurable sliding events,
15.7.6 Effects of shearing on
which could be the reason for the precursory shear-
stiffness and shear
wave amplitude reduction noted by the authors. This
wave amplitude
reduction is registered before sliding is detected, and
will logically occur before any dilation is registered,
In relation to the possible use of shear waves in detect-
with the eventual mobilization of roughness in the
ing earthquake precursors, it is interesting to note Chen
‘sliding-up’ phase, when peak strength is approached.
et al., 1993 investigations of the amplitude of shear waves
under the influence of stable sliding and stick-slip.
There were strong indications of reduced shear wave
amplitude, both under stable sliding, and during stick- 15.7.7 Shear-wave splitting at
slip events, with build-up of amplitude when ‘stuck’ a geothermal field
and rapid reductions in amplitude just before and dur-
ing slip. Figure 15.17 shows some key results. There was Shear-wave splitting at one of the largest geothermal
reportedly no change in velocity during the stick-slip sites in the world, the Cerro Prieto Geothermal Field
process, which could help to explain why Vp/Vs reduc- (CPGF), was described by González and Munguía,
tions prior to some earthquakes are not necessarily reli- 2003. Data from both weak and strong-motion earth-
able precursors for all cases. quakes was used, with seismic recording at about a dozen
436 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
stations, in and surrounding the production zone of the 200 m recording depth (that was assumed to have caused
CPGF. Eight of their seismic stations showed that the the shear wave splitting), was actually poor, resemblance
faster shear waves were polarized in a range of directions to dynamic moduli of deformation (expressed in GPa)
from N 14°W to N 17° E. At the four remaining sta- would be a more appropriate suggested approximation.
tions the polarization trends were between N 25° E and The authors cited microcrack alignment and their
N 67° E. For the entire area N-S was the best average. response to in situ stress as the reason for the anisotropy.
Surprisingly, in view of the need for joint connectivity However, based on the scale-dependence of dispersion
at a geothermal site, the authors followed the EDA con- seen in recent dynamic poroelastic matrix-with-fractures
vention, and assumed that it was microcracking that modelling, reviewed later in this chapter, it would seem
caused most of the shear-wave splitting. So when there that the anisotropy is more likely to be caused by
was variation, they assumed that variation of stress direc- preferential sub-vertical joint set anisotropy, which gives
tion was responsible, rather than for instance variation of anisotropy at the low seismic frequencies, as opposed to
sheared conjugate joint set directions. One of the areas microcrack anisotropy that is dominant from 1 kHz.
of deviation corresponded to the epicentre of a swarm At higher frequencies, there is insufficient time in each
of seismic activity, which would also have suggested cycle of wave motion to allow significant movement of
shearing of larger structural features. fluid, giving a relatively unrelaxed state with less atten-
In the production zone of the field, the widest spread uation, as we shall see in the model of Chapman, 2003.
of orientation (up to 90° variation according to their
equal area rose diagrams), and trending to the west, was
actually registered, suggesting to the writer something 15.7.9 Shear-wave splitting under
that might resemble conjugate joint shearing, as illus- the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
trated in Figure 15.2. Good connectivity in a produc-
tion zone, satisfying a ‘constant’ N-S average maximum An interesting combination of shear-wave splitting
stress direction, can readily be provided by conjugate analysis from local earthquakes, and P-wave anisotropy
jointing, preferably with some non-planarity if high measurement with controlled sources, was used by
permeability is to be generated due to slight dilation. Barclay and Toomey, 2003, to interpret the anisotropy
See the extensive discussion of this topic in Chapter 16. at a 35° N sector of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, under an
ocean depth mostly in excess of 2 km. The anisotropy
was attributed to a shallow distribution of vertical,
15.7.8 Shear wave splitting during fluid-filled cracks, aligned parallel to the trend of the
after-shocks of the Chi-Chi axial valley. (Figure 15.18a). The vertical cracks give rise
earthquake in Taiwan to so-called hexagonal anisotropy, with a horizontal
symmetry axis normal to the crack planes.
Before concentrating on reservoir measurements, it is use- Most of the shear wave delay was attributed to the
ful to record the following earthquake after-shock moni- shallowest 500 m (seismic layer 2A: see Chapter 11).
toring result from Taiwan. Seismic velocity and Qseis Here the shear-wave anisotropy was from 8 to 30% in
anisotropy were recorded in the case of near-surface mon- this highly fissured layer. The authors considered that
itoring of after-shocks, following the destructive Chi-Chi isolated fluid-filled cracks at depths from 500 m to 3 km
earthquake in Taiwan, in 1999. Seismograms recorded at were too tight to be detected by the P-wave portion of
a 200 m deep station gave clear indication of upgoing their survey, but may have contributed to the shear-wave
split shear-waves with fast and slow components, indicat- delays. The authors’ analyses were restricted to shear-
ing 8% velocity anisotropy below the top 200 m. waves arriving within the shear-wave window (0° to
The authors Liu et al., 2005, estimated Qseis values in sin1 Vp/Vs). The average value of Vp/Vs was given as
the 2–15 Hz frequency band, and found values of 61 to 2.9 for seismic layer 2A (the shallowest 400 m).
68 in the fast direction, and 43–52 in the slow direction. The authors reported that the time delays ranged
As commented upon many times, such values closely from 35 to 180 ms, with an average delay of 90 ms. This
resemble possible deformation moduli (M, expressed in was reportedly similar to other studies with micro-
GPa), which can be readily estimated by the joint- earthquakes (e.g. 100–300 ms in Iceland, 100–230 ms
property-based rock mass quality Q. (M 10 Qc1/3, see in Hawaii, 10–125 ms at the San Andreas Fault). The
Figure 15.33.) If the rock quality immediately below the axial valley floor was reportedly heavily fractured and
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 437
Figure 15.18 (a) Bathymetric contours along a Mid-Atlantic Ridge axial valley at 35°N, showing rose diagrams of the fast polarizations. Each
rose histogram has been normalized to the size of its most populated (azimuthal) bin. Solid circles denote the 65 earthquakes.
Squares denote the six OBS instruments, which were spaced 4 km apart, covering an area of approximately 18 10 km. (1830
air gun shots were recorded during the first day, followed by micro-earthquake recording for 43 days.) Fault scarp (lineations)
are also shown. (b) Examples of the three-component seismograms before and after rotation to the fast and slow directions. (c)
Selected examples of shear-wave splitting in horizontal particle motions, with sampling points every 7.81 ms. The open circles
are the origins. Each trace is 203 ms long. Selected from Barclay and Toomey, 2003.
438 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 15.21 Split shear waves S1 (or qS1) and S2 (or qS2 )
from polarization, due to stress aligned fracturing.
The three-component wave fields were generated
by far-offset (60° or 120°) P-waves. Stenin et al.,
2002.
(H max). Fractures perpendicular to this direction would be thinking of changes in the frequency of
could also be ‘open’ if partially filled with mineral synk- microcracks in the top tens to hundreds of meters. A
inematic, or post-kinematic cements. They emphasised common experience is also that the near-surface joint
that sealed fractures parallel to H max were numerous. It orientations do reflect the major horizontal stress direc-
was suggested, from experiences in both compressional tion, and consistency with permeability tensor princi-
and extensional provinces, with production data ranging pal directions may also be expected, as demonstrated by
from 2,400 to 6,400 m depth, that the divergence 3D hydrotomography by Quadros et al., 1999.
between H max and ‘open’ fractures demonstrably con- A convenient example of much higher crack densities
tributing to flow, was ‘from a few degrees to 90 degrees’. (e N.a3/V) than apparently detected in the earthquake
studies of Crampin and others will be given here, to
introduce the alternative viewpoint that crack density
15.8.3 Crack density and shearing may be more appropriately applied to describe the fre-
of conjugate sets at Ekofisk quency of jointing or fractures that typically compose the
might enhance splitting fluid-bearing, tangible, visible structure making up the
fractured reservoir, as opposed to a focus on microc-
In earlier parts of this chapter concerning shear-wave racks. Following Leary et al., 1990, that a given number
splitting, the approximate rule-of-thumb relation of crack populations Ni of radii ai, will give a total crack
between crack density and shear wave anisotropy was density that is the sum of the densities ei, we can con-
quoted from the paper ‘Arguments for EDA’, by sider the crack density for producing parts of the Ekofisk
Crampin, 1993a. Crampin addressed the meaning of reservoir in the North Sea.
the typical 1% to 5% differential shear-wave anisotropy, Phillips Petroleum geologist’s core logging (H. Farrell,
reportedly measured in a wide range of rock types. He pers. comm. 1985), of conjugate steeply-dipping joint-
considered that the 1% to 5% was also equivalent to ing in the porous, highly productive sections of the
the generally limited range of effective crack densities, reservoir, indicated about 10 to 12 dominant (1 m
which he assumed were usually in the range 0.01 e long) set no. 1 joints crossing a ‘1 m window’, with oppos-
0.05. Crampin noted that the percentage of differential itely dipping set no. 2 joints showing about 4 to 6 shorter
shear wave anisotropy was usually about e 100, for a joints (30–50 cm) in this same volume. In this very real
Vp/Vs ratio of about 1.7 (1.732 was quoted). case, with obviously the desirable fluid flowing towards
One may speculate whether these apparently lower the producing wells, we can estimate a much larger
crack densities implied by many earthquake studies, are crack density than apparently suggested by earthquake
a direct reflection of the sampling of ‘average rock’ studies (reportedly 0.015–0.045, Crampin, 1993a).
(mostly imprinted on the shear-waves closer to the sur- A mid-range (2D) representation of the above joint
face), and logically derived from low seismic Q and description could be estimated roughly as follows:
seismicity-prone provinces (see Chapter 10). In con-
trast, crack densities interpreted in fractured reservoirs 11 0.53 5 0.23
from split shear-wave data, may represent a ‘biased sam- ∑ e e1 e 2
1.0
1.4
ple’, i.e. may be caused by a rock mass that is more
jointed or fractured than the norm at this depth. The rock mass depicted in 2D in both Figures 15.7 and
In connection with near-surface crack density influences, 15.25, is far from ‘intact’, but it tolerated an original effec-
it is of interest to note the common experience referred tive vertical stress of the order of v 62
to by Crampin, 1993a for relatively large time delays 48 14 MPa, with a lower effective horizontal stress.
between split shear-waves to be set up in the top tens to During the first 20 years of production this effective ver-
hundreds of meters. The variations that can occur near tical stress had built up to about 38 MPa, due to the
the surface have been termed natural directivity or ND. 24 MPa pore pressure reduction prior to large-scale water-
To an engineering geologist, this phenomenon would flooding (which was followed by 6 m jack-up of all plat-
probably imply increased occurrence of jointing, and to forms, and final relocation of central platforms). In a sense
a rock mechanic with some geophysics interpretation the ‘fragmentation’ worries of Crampin at high crack den-
added, the larger time delays would also be expected to be sities was seemingly being demonstrated, but in fact it was
related to the reducing normal and shear stiffnesses of the the matrix pore-space that was collapsing in the highest
near-surface jointing. Neither profession, it is suggested, porosity chalks, supplemented by a shearing mechanism.
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 443
0.33 GPa, showed maximum shearing of 3.9 mm, with production, due to the low matrix permeability of the
an average of approximately 0.39 mm for all the joints. respective chalks, despite their high porosity.
Later modelling by Gutierrez, with a higher pore pressure Leary et al., 1990 referred to exceptional 2.44 km/s and
reduction of 24 MPa, showed up to 10 mm maximum 1.83 km/s fast and slow shear-wave velocities interpreted
joint shear. Presumably such deforming features would parallel and perpendicular to the inferred alignment of
be seismically visible in practice (i.e. a strong source of fractures, in an oil-bearing stratum in the same Austin
shear wave splitting), just as the reproduced direct shear chalk. The shear-wave velocity anisotropy reported by
tests on rough fractures (Barton, 1973) shown in Figure
15.26 are ‘visible’, due to the dilation that is caused.
Water flooding may have stimulated this shearing
mechanism due to intuitive, preferential weakening at
highly stressed joint-wall contacts, prior to water-
softening of the less permeable matrix. (Barton,
2002b). However, the Ekofisk rock mass does not ‘frag-
ment’ or suffer ‘dispersion’ of pore fluid because of high
crack density, although the weakening effect of the
water is tending to cause ‘rubble-isation’ of the matrix-
plus-joints, but this is outside the scenario envisaged by
Crampin, 1993a. The oil undoubtedly flows more eas-
ily towards the producing wells in response to the com-
paction drive and due to the originally well-developed
crack-density-determined connectivity and resulting per-
meability. Loss of matrix (and joint) strength due to
water-saturation, gives an additional production effect.
The authors Saenger and Shapiro, 2002 used an
explicit finite difference scheme to model elastic waves in
their variously ‘cracked’ models. Interestingly, consider-
ing the above independently estimated crack density
e 1.4 for the Ekofisk conjugate jointing, derived by
the writer from a geologist’s description of the jointing, is
the fact that Saenger and Shapiro find a value of e 1.43
to represent the critical crack density. They liken this level
of crack density to a medium with ‘only finite sized pieces
of solid, and there is no continuum through which an elas-
tic wave can propagate’. To one from a different back-
ground (rock mechanics), this would almost seem like an
unintended definition of the typical near-surface jointed
rock masses through which we are frequently performing
seismic refraction, core drilling, and driving tunnels,
with frequent need for rock support.
From another chalk reservoir, in Texas, relative levels of
shear-wave anisotropy detected by VSP above the Austin
Chalk reportedly correlated with production (Crampin,
1993a), as one would certainly expect at Ekofisk. A ten-
dency for near-surface layers to reflect this same
anisotropy was also noted for the Austin Chalk. Dim-
ming of the amplitudes of the slow shear-wave, (due to
greater attenuation i.e. lower Qseis), correlated with frac- Figure 15.26 Reconstruction of the measured shear-dilation path
tured zones, which were verified by horizontal drilling. from direct shear tests of rough tension fractures. n
The detection of the fractured zones was vital for good 2 and n 6 depict stress level. Barton, 1973a.
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 445
Johnston, 1986 of about 30%, would have implied a Horne et al., 1997 described each anisotropic zone
crack density of the order of 0.3, based on the Crampin using three parameters: the crack density, the aspect
‘100e’ relation, which presumably requires modifica- ratio and the crack content, and a variety of advanced
tion if there are more than one joint or fracture set con- operations which we need not be concerned with in
tributing to the crack density. The ratio Vp/Vs , and the this simplified review. The authors’ results supported
relative levels of compliance of the contributing joints earlier studies that also concluded that the observed
(not directly mentioned by Crampin due to microcrack anisotropy at the CBTF well was likely to be due to a
focus), will also alter this ‘100x’ relation. sub-vertical fracture set dipping approximately 18°
If the crack density is contributed to by two sets of (to the SE). They showed that the fracture dip could
oppositely dipping conjugate joints, then following be obtained from the shear-wave anisotropy when
Sayers, 2002b, we can expect both shear and normal using opposite-azimuth VSP. The authors’ representa-
compliance contributions (from both sets), to the slow- tion of the velocity anisotropy structures of qP, qS1
ness of the slow shear-wave, and presumably therefore a and qS2 wave forms for the case of vertical cracks (or
lesser need for an extreme (interpreted) crack density to joints) and 20° dipping cracks (or joints) is shown in
‘explain’ a high value of shear-wave anisotropy. Figure 15.28.
In this last case reviewed we saw how the use of
opposed-azimuth VSP could be used to interpret the dip
15.8.4 Links between shear wave
anisotropy and permeability
Figure 15.30 A seismic interpretation that shows complex stratigraphic and structural relationships (London-Brabant Massif, North Sea).
Seismic azimuthal anisotropy analysis offers potential for resolving major fracture set azimuths within the faulted blocks.
MacBeth and Li, 1999.
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 15.32 (a) Outcrop jointing, (b) assumed velocity structure, (c) polarization of shear-wave arrivals. Arrowheads show actual dominant
fracture strike. Liu et al., 1993.
surface, some looseness in relation to greater depth). If the uniaxial strength of the limestone was e.g.
(See Appendix A for full Q-system rating tables.) 100 MPa, then Qc (Q c/100) would be 1 to 3,
which is mutually consistent with the measured veloc-
ity of about 4 km/s.
45 90 2 0.66 A simple approach is to check along the ‘4 km/s diag-
Q 1.3 2.6
9 2 2.5 onal’ in the simplified near-surface (nominal 25 m
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 449
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 15.33 (a) Rock mass quality Qc-Vp-depth gradients, (b) Qc-Vp-depth-porosity-modulus, (c) simplified Q-Vp-c chart (nominal
25 m depth). Based on Barton, 1995 and Barton, 2002a. Note: support pressure in b) refers to tunnels.
450 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
depth) model shown in Figure 15.33c. Note that in the between seismic anisotropy and productivity. He used
area of Q 2 to 3, the implied uniaxial compressive VSP walk-away data that was shot at two North Caucasus
strength is around 100 MPa, which appears realistic for a oil fields. Due to the usual low permeability of clay rocks,
limestone. If in reality the rock was closer to say chalk, hydrocarbon reservoirs in argillaceous rocks are not
then higher matrix porosity, lower uniaxial strength, and commercially viable unless they are strongly fractured.
slightly less jointing than assumed above (giving a higher Prior to the commercial use of shear-wave splitting,
rock quality Q-value, could still be invoked to derive a primarily since the early 1990s, argillaceous reservoirs
suitable P-wave velocity of about 4 km/s. were reportedly found almost accidentally, while drilling
Great azimuthal consistency is shown by this Liu et al., towards prospects in other rock units.
1993 data set, due perhaps to the shallow depth, which Slater, 1997 investigated the azimuthal anisotropy to
allows the ‘open’ joints or fractures to indeed follow the check if the strong azimuthal variation in productivity
conventional concept with likely parallelism with the was caused by variations in fracture intensity. In one of
H max direction. As pointed out earlier, and analysed in the reservoirs, walk-away VSP at two of the wells indi-
more detail in Chapter 16, such parallelism may be com- cated velocities increasing as the direction of propaga-
promised at reservoir depths in less competent rock than tion moved away from the vertical direction. The
limestone, due to effective normal stress induced joint reservoirs were in layered clays.
‘closure’. A (conjugate) shearing mechanism might then In Figure 15.20, introducing the topic of shear wave
be required for sufficient ‘openness’ of the conducting splitting, a schematic of the walk-away VSP was shown,
joints. Alternatively, suitable amounts of mineral filling from Slater 1997. Shear wave splitting and polarization
for ‘bridging’ might be needed, neither too much ( seal- was occurring in the near-surface anisotropic zone, caused
ing), nor too little ( stress-closure). by sub-vertical fractures. Also indicated is the increased
A shear wave polarization component (from e.g. two time delay between the fast and slow qS1 and qS2 split
similar conjugate joint sets) that was still roughly consis- shear waves. Later in this chapter, we will see many more
tent with the h max direction, might be assumed from examples of these phenomena, and also see models capa-
much deeper sets of perpendicular break-out analysis, from ble of simulating the squirt-flow causes of dispersion or
caliper logs. But here there would be the possibility of a frequency dependence at different fracture-size scales.
lot of ‘noise’ in the data, possibly from joint-induced Slater, 1997, examined the typical transverse isotropy
break-out at other angles, more consistent with the possi- of the lower strata in these clay reservoirs, which display
ble conjugate, partly sheared (minor-faulted) jointing. In isotropy about a vertical axis of symmetry as shown in
addition to this possible ‘anomaly’ in relation to conven- Figure 15.34. The VSP analyses demonstrated strong
tional thinking, there is also the possible ‘rotation effect’ increases in velocity when the direction of propagation
caused by the joint shearing per se, giving different orien- moved away from the vertical direction.
tation for the fluid-bearing (O) and stress-bearing (R) The very low velocities calculated from VSP at wells
parts of a non-planar, shearing joint (Figure 15.2b). 85 and 87 at one of the Caucasan oil fields are shown in
The above aspects will be addressed in more detail in Figure 15.35. The layered sandstones, limestones and
Chapter 16, where important supporting case records will clays, and the Maicop Clay, do not follow the rock qual-
be found for the ‘shearing anomaly’. It is possible that par- ity Qc-depth-Vp trends shown elsewhere in this book,
allelism of one conducting set of joints to h max is in fact except in the top few hundred metres where azimuthal
the anomaly, when no longer close to the surface, in view anisotropy indicates jointing that would tend to show
of the stress-induced joint closure phenomenon, unless closure with depth as in the Qc-Vp-depth model of
the reservoir rock is rather strong, like limestone, or a Figure 15.33. Perhaps below this anisotropic zone, the
hard sandstone but not chalk, or poorly cemented sands, change to clay, and the reported high pore pressures
which would have sufficient matrix flow to make shear cause under-compaction, despite depth increase. A lack
wave splitting a less relevant mechanism. of fit with the writer’s Q-Vp-depth-soft-porosity model
would then be logical, unless a correction for over-
pressure was made, and an ‘apparent depth’ estimated.
15.8.6 Shear-wave splitting in An important finding from careful analysis of much
argillaceous rocks earlier multi-offset VSP in the Paris sedimentary basin,
indicated non-parallel shear wave polarizations at dif-
In a doctorate study at the University of Edinburgh, ferent azimuths and offsets. Polarization by sub-parallel
Slater, 1997, also investigated if there was a relationship cracks or fractures was not sufficient to explain these
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 451
Figure 15.35 Very low shear wave and P-wave velocities at two wells, as interpreted from VSP. The geological description of the 0.75 km of
overburden is also seen. There appears to be over-pressure in the Maikop Clays. Slater, 1997. Alternatively, the reduced sensi-
tivity to effective stress may be due to low pore compressibility for the clays. Holt et al. 2005.
in the North Sea. This baseline was subsequently com- According to Barkved et al., 2004 (with ‘Ekofisk-
pared with a monitoring survey acquired in December author’ Van Dok as one of the co-authors), the reasons
2003. In each case, seabed cables were used to acquire data for the small changes detected by the S-waves ‘had yet to
with a wide range of azimuths. (Van Dok et al., 2004). be understood’. The small-scale joint-shearing mechanism
With ‘only’ about 3 108 m3 of oil out of a total of identified in distinct element (UDEC-BB) studies for
about 1.1 109 m3 produced by 2003, and production the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (Barton et al.,
expected to 2050, it is clear that the ‘belated’ application 1985, 1986), that was discussed earlier, was later ‘con-
of shear-wave technology still has an important role to firmed’ by slickensided conjugate joint faces, in core
play. From each survey, converted PS-waves were recovered from subsequent wells (post 1985) for water-
analysed to determine the principal directions of fast flooding and production.
and slow shear-waves. At every sensor location, According to Phillips Petroleum Co. geologists this
recorded traces were binned (collected) into 10° slickensiding had not previously been noted, and nor
azimuth sectors, and then stacked, giving 36 traces of was it noted in the older jointed cores made available to
each component at every receiver location. Even this NGI for laboratory direct shear and coupled shear-
limited time-lapse of 15 months indicated some small flow-temperature (CSFT) tests. The shear mechanism
changes in the direction of the fast shear wave, and in the may seem surprising in view of the 1D-strain (‘roller-
difference between fast and slow shear velocities. The boundaries’) boundary condition, since a 9 14 km
differences were not consistent across the field. reservoir of 300 m thickness can hardly expand laterally
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 453
Figure 15.38 Shear wave splitting analysed from AE events from siltstones in the Valhall field caprock. Event A exhibits the expected maxi-
mum attenuation of the slow wave S2. Event B exhibits maximum attenuation of the fast wave S1. Carter and Kendall, 2005.
microseismic stick-slip events close to the top of the reser- NE-SW strike (the dominant direction), or NW-SE
voir. Perhaps these ongoing bed-slip events were influ- strike. Note the consistent dip signs on both drawings,
encing the steep or vertical bed-limited jointing, giving despite the ‘vertical or sub-vertical’ assumption. These
stimulus to qS1 to qS2 reversals. The phenomenon dips, even if minimal, seem to be important for using
might possibly be related to the ‘90°-flips’ discussed earl- shear waves to distinguish between gas and oil in the frac-
ier in this chapter, which were suspected by the writer as tures, following Sayers, 2002b.
due to principal effective stress ‘flips’. Extensional and shear fractures were noted in each of
the principal strike directions. The dominant NE-SW
extensional set were continuous over hundreds of meters,
15.8.9 Shear-wave splitting and were responsible for the dominant permeability
and fluid identification at direction, as established by tracer tests. Along the crest of
the Natih field the shell-shaped 6 10 km antiform, which terminates
at a major fault zone, the bed-curvature being increased,
A series of interesting papers were published concerning there was evidence of the NW-SE striking extensional set
a large scale 3D shear-wave experiment performed over also participating in the fluid-flow network.
the 1 km deep fractured carbonate (chalky limestones) The scope of the nine-component three-dimensional
Natih field in Oman. The structure of the field was (9C3D) survey/experiment was impressive, with 10,800
described as ‘not very complex’ by Potters et al.,1999. 3C geophones, up to 1000 vibrator positions per day, and
The matrix permeability was a very low 1 to 30 mD. 22 million traces recorded on 2,000 tapes during the
Hard shales overlie the 300 m of carbonates, and these 32 days, and 28 km2 of field work. The survey basic
Fiqa shales exhibited some interesting anomalies as we grid size was only 25 25 m. Shear-wave anisotropy
shall see. The fractures in the carbonates were nearly exceeding 15% was registered over about half of the
vertical (a detail that seems to be important if both field. The average well flow rate in areas of large time
shear and normal compliances are to be involved, fol- delay was higher than that in areas with low S-wave
lowing Sayers 2002b, reviewed earlier). However the anisotropy, but significantly the local fracture swarms
authors of the two reports reviewed did not emphasise giving individual wells high productivity were too small
this aspect. to be detected seismically. Potters et al., 1999 suggested
Outcrop mapping included fractures too large to be that the absence of strong seismic anisotropy did not
generally detected by core or FMS analysis, meaning that however preclude the presence of fractured zones.
vertical wells were the usual poor samplers of typical Recalling the earlier critique of fracture density in this
sub-vertical structure. The outcrop, of necessity 50 km chapter, it is encouraging to note the authors’ reference to
distant, had joint character as shown in Figure 15.39a the ‘well-known ambiguity that a given amount of shear
(scale not given by Van der Kolk et al., 2001), but pos- anisotropy can be caused by an infinite number of combina-
sibly the same as the ‘1 m’ scale given for the reservoir in tions of fracture densities and sizes. Since different combina-
Figure 15.39b. The two fracture or joint sets had either tions have different rheological (and flow) properties, this
456 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 15.40 An effective medium BOSK model prediction of the shear-wave splitting magnitude for a set of 1 m long and 10 m long fractures,
as a function of fracture porosity, i.e. directly related to aperture. Van der Kolk et al., 2001. Note splitting % (Vs1 Vs2)
Vs1 100.
observed phenomena at the Natih field. This model since they effectively define two different aspect ratios,
was based on a combination of the work of Budianski therefore influencing the assumed squirt-flow losses and
and O’Connell from the 1970s concerning the elastic the assumed stiffness.
moduli and visco-elastic properties of cracked fluid- The e E inequality* is therefore a potential source of
saturated solids, together with extensions for arbitrary error for the case of effective medium modelling of rough-
crack orientation statistics from Sayers and Kachanov walled, tightly compressed (i.e. deeply buried) cracks,
in the 1990s. They termed the combined model the joints or fractures, when using only one aspect ratio.
BOSK theory. With this model, ‘squirt’ losses were also The crest of the Natih reservoir structure, with its
accounted for between the pores and fractures. This higher (50% or more) shear-wave splitting had higher
model correctly predicted that the slow shear-waves, local fracture densities than the flanks, but this was not a
polarized perpendicular to the fractures, were more sufficient reason for this higher value. Using the BOSK
influenced by the fluid type occupying the fractures, theory, van der Kolk et al., 2001 were able to investigate
than were the compressional-waves. (Classic Gassmann, the effect of fluid viscosity (causing dispersive, frequency-
1951 theory anticipates a sharp reduction in the P-wave dependent behaviour). Figure 15.41a shows the modelled
velocity in the presence of gas in porous media, and effect of gas replacing brine on the vertical P- and S-wave
supposes that the S-wave velocity is relatively unaffected velocities, as a function of fracture density.
by the type of fluid). The modelling results indicated that with a fracture
Figure 15.40 shows a BOSK model prediction of the porosity of 0.025%, the shear wave splitting was about
degree of shear-wave splitting as a function of fracture 50% higher in gas-filled, compared to brine-filled frac-
porosity, for a fixed fracture density of 0.2 (where e tures. With lower fracture densities than 0.15, the ‘classic
N a3/V). To avoid the ambiguity of e, discussed at length
earlier in this chapter in connection with EDA, the
authors specified reservoir-like fracture lengths of a) 1 m * The two joint apertures will frequently differ by a factor of
and b) 10 m in these two BOSK realizations. Note that about 2 to 5, most for higher roughness JRC, and highest
there are subtle differences only where fracture porosity is normal stress level. This inequality was demonstrated at the
extremely small. The fracture porosity at Natih was about Technical University of Trondheim. Heimli, 1972, used a
0.1%. It is noted that the BOSK model, as for many other pre-instrumented intact core, subsequently split axially, so
effective medium models, (to be briefly reviewed soon), that different experimentally set values of E 0.05, 0.1,
0.2 mm could be known with certainty. These were
apparently makes no distinction between the mechanical
subsequently compared to the smaller hydraulic apertures (e)
(E actual) assumed crack aperture and the hydraulic
back-calculated from flow tests. The e E inequality has
aperture (e). In jointed rock (E) actually controls stiffness since been confirmed many times, and is explained by wall
and deformation moduli. In rock mechanics, we do not roughness effects, eventually quantified by JRC. See Figures
often use the crack aspect ratio. On the other hand, (e) 16.6 and 16.7 in the next chapter. Data sets for (e) and (E)
controls the intrinsic permeability, given as (e)2/12, and and an empirical JRC-based model are shown. (Barton, 1972,
both apertures (e and E) probably influence attenuation, Barton et al., 1985, Barton and Quadros, 1997).
458 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
century, for the dual reasons of rock engineering and civil subsequently replaced by simply deformable, then fully
engineering needs, and due to the relative accessibility of deformable blocks in UDEC, with the ability to model
input data, specifically from drill core, shallow exploration dynamic loading, micro- or macro-deformations, and
adits, and extensive use of shallow refraction seismic, plus fluid flow within the joints, but not in the matrix,
sampling from within tunnels during construction. This where only pore pressures were modelled. Here we see
has been a ‘constant’ for many decades, although descrip- one of the limitations, which of course is no longer there
tion (and use) of the joint properties has improved dramat- when only modelling flow in (un-jointed) porous media.
ically, with perhaps less isotropic continuum modelling UDEC first had Mohr Coulomb linear joint strengths
than previously. and linear stiffnesses, then a Cundall continuously yield-
In contrast, geophysics data acquisition abilities ing law, followed by non-linear shear strength and stress
(and quantities of data) have exploded in just the last dependent shear and normal stiffnesses, following the
decade or two, with digital recording of increasingly com- block-size-sensitive Barton-Bandis constitutive model, in
plex 3D 4C receiver arrays, both on-land and especially which most of the input data can be derived from simple
off-shore. This development continues unabated. There is index tests performed on drill-core, giving joint parame-
now an enormously increased need for realistic numerical ters JRC, JCS, and r. Block-size determined the scaling
models for geophysical interpretation, particularly in the of these two joint roughness and compressive strength
area of structural anisotropy, fractures sizes and properties, parameters, and the core-logged Q-value gave a stress-
and the frequency dependence of their seismic responses. dependent deformation modulus. As we have seen in Part
I, (and in Figure 15.33) the P-wave velocity from shallow
refraction seismic could be used to estimate the static
15.9.1 A brief survey of rock deformation modulus, and to extrapolate or interpolate
mechanics pseudo-static such data from borehole to borehole.
models of jointed rock This non-linear 2D model was termed UDEC-BB.
Flow and fluid pressures were modelled by converting
By way of an extremely brief history, one can mention the the physical joint apertures (E) developed at any time
finite element modelling with joint elements that was during the modelled joint deformation, into the (usu-
developed at the end of the 1960s and promoted for rock ally) smaller hydraulic apertures (e), using a linear-
engineering use by Goodman et al., 1968 and others. laminar flow assumption with joint permeability given
These authors, and Goodman, 1970 were perhaps the by k e2/12. The conversion between (E) and (e) was
first to define the (pseudo-static) joint normal and shear found to depend on roughness JRC (Figure 16.7).
stiffnesses needed for input to their 1D joint-slip elements Subsequently 3DEC was developed by Cundall,
for discontinuous finite element modelling. The deforma- together with colleagues at Itasca, giving the ability to
tion and stability of slopes, dam foundations and tunnels model three-dimensional assemblages of jointed,
were the primary focus in rock engineering, and fluid deformable blocks, with any desired moduli and joint or
flow and effective stress analyses were of course required fault properties. Linear strength and stiffness laws were
too. These early 2D FEM models had deformable joint followed for the joint sets and faults, to reduce calculation
elements requiring linear estimates of normal and shear time. More recently, the pore space defined by the com-
stiffness and of course frictional and eventual cohesive plex, three-dimensionally deforming, intersecting joint
strength. Three dimensional FEM modelling, for exam- sets was fully defined, allowing flow modelling and
ple for dam-and-foundation interaction studies, with dynamic effective stress modelling to be performed, also
more limited numbers of (major) joint and fault planes in three dimensions. Of course there are more dedicated
was also performed during the 1970s and subsequently, 3D fracture flow models like FRACMAN (Dershowitz/
but was obviously very time-consuming. Golders) and NAPSAC (AEA Harwell), but these are
In the early 1970s Cundall, 1971 developed a 2D finite lacking comprehensive joint deformation modelling.
difference distinct element model for randomly or regu- There are now several numerical models in use in
larly jointed rock masses, making it easier to model rock mechanics for also modelling rock failure or crack-
large assemblages of blocks, with the ability, if required, to ing of the matrix blocks, caused by over-stress. These
follow large deformations by tracking edge and corner can accommodate a more limited number of pre-existing
contacts. Initial rigid block calculations in
DEC were joints. Prominent among these are the particle flow codes
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 461
of Cundall (PFC2D and PFC3D), and the non-linear 15.9.2.1 Schoenberg slip interface concept
fracture mechanics code of Shen (FRACOD). The lat- Schoenberg 1980 modelled elastic wave behaviour using
ter in particular, seems capable of realistic modelling of linear slip interfaces. These allow reflection, transmission,
log-spiral type break-out around tunnels or boreholes, conversion, and delay to take place at the modelled inter-
without recourse to ‘manual’ degradation of cohesion, face, with the magnitudes depending on the specific stiff-
and mobilization of friction, as needed when using an ness, the frequency content, and the angle of incidence.
inappropriate ‘c tan ’ formulation. This linear Mohr The assumption is that when an elastic wave propagates
Coulomb law is acceptable, or at least much used, for across a fracture, there is a displacement discontinuity
particulate clays and sand modelling in soil mechanics, that is linearly related to the normal or shear force gener-
and is reasonable for pre-existing planar joints, though ated. The seismic particle displacement is discontinuous,
probably best for faults. It is incorrect for previously while the seismic stresses are assumed to be continuous.
intact hard rock, where ‘c then tan ’ is a more correct In the linear slip model, the displacement discontinuity
formulation than ‘c tan ’, due to the widely differ- vector u was assumed to be linearly related to the trac-
ent strains involved in cohesive failure of a brittle tion t as follows:
material and subsequent frictional sliding along the fail-
ure surfaces. (See discussion by Barton, 2004b).
ZT 0 0
u 0 ZN 0 t (15.7)
0 0 ZT
15.9.2 A very brief review of slip-
interface, fracture network
and poro-elastic crack
In geophysics it became customary to talk of fracture
models
compliances, with inverted nomenclature and units (e.g.
MPa/mm for stiffnesses, and m.Pa1 for compliances).
Concerning the dynamic modelling of cracked rock in
Naturally, the compliances or stiffnesses used in geo-
geophysics, we can quote Tod, 2002 who is a prominent
physics refer to the dynamic properties of the joints or
new contributor to this field: ‘There are many theories
fractures, which generally have somewhat greater stiff-
available in the literature, resulting from a range of theoret-
ness (or lower compliance) than the pseudo-static values
ical backgrounds that provide a description of an effective
commonly used in rock mechanics modelling. These
medium appropriate to describing the properties of a matrix
differences have been mentioned many times, and will
material permeated with cracks on a length scale far less than
be quantified further in Chapter 16.
the wavelength of seismic waves. While many of these theories
agree qualitatively and are capable of describing a number of
observed features, each has its particular shortcomings.’
For the modelling of cracks in geophysics, we will not 15.9.2.2 Hudson effective medium concept
go further back in history than to mention Schoenberg Hudson, 1980, in contrast to Schoenberg, utilised a
1980, and Hudson, 1980. These classic developments ‘method of smoothing’ for the effect of modelled cracks,
assumed, for greater simplicity (there was enough math- which was capable of representing the elastic parameters
ematics without fluids), that there was no exchange of of a ‘cracked’ material, in the form of an effective
fluid, either between the fractures or cracks themselves, medium. This allowed calculation of the effect of inci-
or between these and the rock matrix. The importance dent dynamic waves of long wavelength. Subsequently,
of fluid had of course been known for a long time, and Hudson et al., 1996 extended the model to allow for
was modelled within the pore space by Gassman 1951 the cracks to be connected via the porosity of a rock
and within the cracks by O’Connel and Budiansky, matrix. In this extended case, cracks could be deformed
1977, and by many others since then. Thomsen, 1995, by an incident wave in a manner that depended on
showed how seismic anisotropy was enhanced by trans- their aspect ratio and on their orientation with respect
fer of fluid between fractures and equant porosity, with to the incident wave. Clearly the modelling of intrinsic
perfect pressure equalization at very low frequency, and attenuation mechanisms such as squirt flow, and its fre-
reduced equalization at higher frequencies, giving the quency dependence, was transformed by this extended
‘unrelaxed’ behaviour modes. capability.
462 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 15.45 Three examples of the nucleating branching fracture networks, showing their changing attenuation and frequency depend-
ence. Source wavelets of 30 Hz applied at centre of each model. Vlastos et al., 2003a. Reproduced by kind permission.
with no hysteresis, and no stress history, in obvious but does not include squirt or intrinsic attenuation
contrast to the larger-deformation modelling of the losses. Nevertheless, scattering attenuation is also found
rock mechanics UDEC-BB code. to be frequency dependent, showing Qseismic values as
low as 1/0.6 1.7 for case (b) in Figure 15.45.
In the numerical fracture models illustrated in Figure
15.9.2.4 Vlastos-Narteau automaton model 15.45, background values of Vp and Vs were 3.3 km/s
Interesting new developments in modelling capabilities and 2.0 km/s respectively. Density was 2.2 kg/m3.
in geophysics were also demonstrated by Vlastos et al., Vlastos et al., 2002 and Vlastos et al., 2003a used what are
2002 and Vlastos et al., 2003a. The first authors considered by the writer to be unrealistically equal normal
Vlastos and Narteau, utilised the 2D finite difference and shear compliances (ZN ZT 5.6 1010 GPa1:
method termed the multi-scale ‘cellular automaton presumably GPa1.m?), which (may) correspond to rock
model’ developed by Narteau, 2001 to study progres- mechanics normal and shear stiffnesses (Kn and Ks) of
sive changes of attenuation in nucleating, growing, about 1.8 MPa/mm. In general terms, due to the higher
branching and coalescing arrays of fractures. They stud- dynamic modulus of rock masses, it is likely that the
ied the effects of scattering attenuation in what evolves, micro-deformation, dynamic compliances should be
through shear fracturing, into an anisotropically frac- much lower (i.e. much stiffer in rock mechanics termi-
tured network, with fractures of increasing length and nology) than the macro-deformation values typically
reduced frequency as shear localization develops. measured in ‘static’ loading tests on joints, as frequently
Examples of the successive stages of fracturing that performed in rock mechanics, and the shear compliance
can be generated are shown in Figure 15.45. These are should perhaps be higher (i.e. the shear stiffness lower).
successive ‘snapshots’ generated by a particular realization Presumably with rock mechanics experiences of e.g.
of this dynamic network model. Ks/Kn 1/10 or an approximated Z/ZN 10, even
In the seismic attenuation modelling described by the greater attenuation, and greater anisotropy would have
authors, only the scattering attenuation component is been indicated. Clearly there is promise for future links
modelled. This is related to the structural hetero- between fracture frequency, fracture character and seis-
geneities (i.e., the growth and coalescence of fractures), mic attenuation measurements.
464 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 15.46 ‘Snapshots’ of the anisotropic, elliptical, pore pressure propagation with time, in the Vlastos et al., 2003b, fractured network model.
Reproduced by kind permission.
Vlastos et al., 2005 presented a more comprehensive into a simulated 2560 2560 m model. They show
version of the Narteau ‘stochastic-deterministic’ frac- interesting ‘snapshots’ of the anisotropic, elliptical pore
ture network modelling, with a 12-stage evolution of pressure progression that develops with time.
fracturing. Application of the spectral ratio method to Figure 15.46 reproduced in grey-scale, shows the pore
the scattering attenuation, resulted in increasing then pressure development 10, 40, 70, and 100 hours after the
declining attenuation, giving seismic Q values reducing start of injection. They explained that the ellipticity of the
from 100 to 7 to 2.5 (with the maximum density of pore pressure field, besides being due to the presence of
fracturing), and increasing again through 6, 10 and 100 fracturing, was due to assuming a diffusivity along the
as the fractures were fewer and longer, as typified by fractures, many orders of magnitude greater than the
stage c) of Figure 15.45. background.
It is clear that the wide variety of fracture-scale lengths As the authors pointed out, injection decreased the
illustrated in the most well-connected networks were effective stress, thereby increasing the compliance (or
within the so-called ‘percolation threshold’, and were reducing the stiffness) of the modelled fractures. On this
largely responsible for the low Q seis values in these ‘cen- occasion a Schoenberg, 2002, non-linear compliance
tral’ models, typified by case b) in Figure 15.45. formulation was used. An increased fracture opening
Vlastos et al., 2003b, with co-authors from BGS and and/or pore throat size, could have effectively decreased
the universities of Berkeley, Edinburgh and Cergy- the stiffness of the rock and rock mass in terms of squirt
Pontoise in France, and Lin et al., 2004, used a 2D fluid flow, thereby reducing velocities and increasing intrin-
flow model and a pre-existing, anisotropically fractured sic attenuation.
numerical network, similar to the above, to study the The authors came to the surprising conclusion that
seismic signatures of a central (borehole) fluid injection the P-waves were not sensitive to pore pressure changes,
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 465
as opposed to the S-waves and coda waves that showed 15.9.2.5 Chapman triple-porosity poro-elastic
high sensitivity. Could the reasons for this be found in model
their assumptions for compliances, in relation to rock Chapman, 2002 and 2003, developed a dual-porosity
mechanics experiences of the approximate inverse: the poro-elastic model, based on the following important
stiffnesses? The authors reportedly set compliances as observation that typical laboratory samples, clearly
follows (but presumably the unit should be Pa1.m, as unfractured, nevertheless display dispersion, anisotropy,
otherwise the stiffnesses would be many orders of mag- stress sensitivity, and dependence on fluid type and
nitude too high): degree of saturation, as we have seen in numerous con-
texts in earlier chapters. Chapman’s argument for develop-
At zero stress: Z(To) 5.681 109 GPa1 ing his new model was that, when the fractures or
cracks were removed from preceding models, a linear-
Z(No) 2.8409 1010 GPa1 elastic material remained, contrary to observation.
Chapman et al., 2001 contrasted his more recent
If we assume a typing error, and intended units of poro-elastic double (actually triple) -porosity model
Pa1.m, then rock mechanics stiffnesses, if they had with the anisotropic poro-elastic model of Zatsepin and
been equal to the inverse, would have been: Crampin, 1997. Although the driving process of this
earlier model was the migration of fluid along inter-
Ks 0.176 MPa/mm crack pressure gradients (and subsequent preferential
crack closing), the calculation of the induced velocity
Kn 3.52 MPa/mm changes actually relied on crack models which assumed
that fluid could not move at the time scale of a seismic
These give a recognizable ratio Kn/Ks of 20. However, wave. As pointed out, this could be a good approxima-
the equivalent Kn value, as will be seen Chapter 16, is tion for high frequency laboratory ultrasonic experi-
exceptionally low, and the shear stiffness also low. Both ments, but not for low frequency e.g. 100 Hz field data.
are representative of an effective normal stress of per- The restriction that fluid should not move also ruled
haps less than 0.1 MPa. This could be the explanation out the (correct) modelling of attenuation.
of the lack of P-wave sensitivity to pore pressure Chapman had earlier presented a poroelastic theory
change, since the modelled rock mass was, perhaps that modelled the effects of squirt flow at the grain
inadvertently, given the equivalent of a high confining scale, which gave a good match to experimental data.
stress. At ‘infinite’ stress, the authors used Z(To)/5 (i.e. Chapman’s new theory combined two or more length
Ks 5) and Z(No)/2 (i.e. Kn 2), changes that would scales explicitly: the grain scale and a set of fractures of
be greatly exceeded in rock mechanics terms, when the any desired characteristic length (e.g. stress-aligned
original stiffnesses were so low, due to the assumed low dominant jointing of many potential scales: 0.01, 0.1, 1,
stress. 10 metres). He termed the latter ‘meso-scale’ anisotropic
Real rock joints display strongly non-linear pseudo- fractures. Naturally, he also modelled the all-important
static stiffness at lower stress levels, when subjected to interaction between this meso-scale and the grain-scale
mechanical loading causing macro-deformation. Further- equant matrix porosity and ellipsoidal microcracks.
more, near-surface rock masses clearly display a strong Because there may be three or more scales involved, it
dependence of P-wave velocity on effective stress level has been termed a ‘triple-porosity’ model in this book.
(and therefore pore pressure), at least in the first several An important feature introduced by the inclusion of
hundreds of metres, and sometimes to depths of one or fractures was that dispersion occurred at lower frequency
even two kilometres if the rock has high modulus, or ranges than those over which the micro-structure
if there is over-pressure. The rock quality Qc -Vp - dispersion occurred. He found that the larger the size of
porosity – depth relations which are empirically based the fractures, the lower was the relevant frequency band.
(e.g. Figure 15.33 and Chapter 15), confirm the relevance Figure 15.47 gives a clear demonstration of the abil-
of low Kn at low stress, with a strong stiffening at high ity of this model of equant porosity with elliptical
stress. So the authors’ conclusion regarding Vp not sen- microcracks (first without meso-scale fractures), to
sitive to pore pressure changes, may inadvertently be a model frequency dependent velocities (dispersion) in the
function of the ‘equivalent-to-low-stress’ input data, and case of an isotropic model without fractures. Figure
the application of high (fracture-closing) stress levels. 15.47 a and b, show that the dispersion is predicted
466 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
†
On the subject of modelling P-wave anisotropy in the
case of perfectly aligned fractures, Willis and Rao, 2005
Figure 15.47 (a) (b) Chapman model of dispersion with no meso-
pointed out that a P-wave can be cancelled out due to the
fractures. (c) dispersion and anisotropy when 10 cm
time delay of the wave, when travelling between two
fractures are added. Chapman, 2003.
fractures, thus creating a significant notch (or even a null) in
the spectral ratios of reflected seismic traces. This happens
when the P-wave length is about twice the fracture spacing.
over a limited frequency band, roughly between 1 kHz However, they also suggest that the frequency location of the
and 100 kHz. The particular model had moduli of notches themselves could be used to determine the fracture
17.5 GPa, density 2300 kg/m3, a microcrack density of spacing and losses, due to scattering attenuation from the
0.1 and 10% porosity. fractures.
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 467
(b)
(a) (c)
Figure 15.48 (a) Visualization of Chapman’s model of connected equant pores, microcracks and fractures with low aspect ratios, (b) S-wave
anisotropy with 10% porosity, and ellipsoidal microcracks and fractures of various sizes, giving a crack density of 0.1. (c) simi-
lar to (b) but with 0% porosity, and 0.02 crack density, which caused reduced attenuation, and reduced S-wave anisotropy.
Chapman, 2003.
all attenuated, with (1000/Q) in the range 18 to 24 roughness (JRC), the usual inequality: E e occurs,
(approx.), i.e. QqP and QqS values in the range 42 to 56, with e E only when roughness is absent, and JRC 1.
which is typical for Qp and Qs of moderately fractured In reality, a chosen aspect ratio will have less permeabil-
rock closer to the surface (see Chapter 10). ity than assumed, due to joint roughness.
This brings one to the interesting question of stress Because of varying degrees of roughness for most
sensitivity. By setting smaller aspect ratios for the meso- joint types, and the usual inequality of these two
fractures compared to the microcracks, one can in some apertures, dispersion will likely begin at lower frequen-
way mimic the effect of higher stress, and thereby cause cies than might be modelled; there will be extra resist-
less attenuation (higher Qseis), as the fluid cannot ‘squirt’ ance for fluid flow (in relation to the modelled aspect
or flow so easily, in response to the passage of the seis- ratio), as roughness increases. Yet it will contain the
mic waves. assumed volume of fluid. The significant inequality of
Setting a certain aspect ratio is like creating a phys- E and e is demonstrated in the explanation of some
ical aperture (E), whereas the assumed permeability of rock mass ‘groutability’ terminology, in Figure 15.49,
this crack of ‘fixed’ aspect ratio is actually a function of and by UDEC-BB modelling of tunnels, in Figure
its hydraulic aperture (e). Because of joint or fracture 15.50.
468 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 15.49 Physical demonstration of joint aperture concepts (E) and (e) regarding groutability. Barton and Quadros, 2003.
15.9.2.6 Maultzsch-Chapman fracture size where a crack radius, and N/V is a number per unit
estimation volume ( ‘number density’).
Maultzsch et al., 2003, with colleague Chapman from the This means, as they point out in Figure 15.51a, that
Edinburgh BGS Anisotropy Project, broached the ques- the same crack density can be caused by a few large frac-
tion that seems to represent an important ambiguity in tures or many small cracks. For instance, a fracture dens-
many earlier models in geophysics, namely how best to ity of 0.05 means that N/V (where e Na3/V) can be
interpret the commonly used ‘crack density’ formula: expressed in many different ways, such as:
Na 3 a) 50 1 mm cracks/1 cm cube
e ga 3 or e (15.8)
V b) 5 1 cm cracks/10 cm cube
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 469
Figure 15.50 The inequality of physical aperture (E) and hydraulic aperture (e), demonstrated in a distinct element UDEC-BB model of
tunnels in Oslo. Makurat and Barton, 1988, NGI contract report. Makurat et al., 1990a.
‡
The first two terms of the rock mass quality Q-estimate are one for rock mass stability and inter-connectivity to fluids. It is
step simpler than estimating m1 for each set, as above. For tempered by the next pair of parameters Jr/Ja, which closely
RQD, one records the percentage of core pieces longer than represent the coefficient of friction, with contrasting
10 cm, dividing this by the rating (Jn), for the number of joint contributions from joint roughness and clay filling, in the first
sets (see Appendix A). These first terms in the Q-value estimate instance for the least favourable joint set. The combined value
(RQD/Jn), give a close approximation to relative block size, and Q RQD/Jn Jr/Ja, often termed Q-prime, clearly has
the degree of freedom for block movement. This is fundamental strong links to seismic attenuation and anisotropy.
470 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(b) (a)
Figure 15.61 Modelled wave speeds and attenuation as a function of frequency, using the SeisRox model, for (a) an isotropic medium with
random pores, (b) communicating pores and oriented vertical cracks in a transversely isotropic medium with horizontal sym-
metry axis. Johansen, pers. comm., 2005.
shows the empirical link between P-wave velocity from equivalent (dynamic) ‘imaginary part of stiffness’ of
refraction seismic, and the static deformation modulus M 6 GPa, following Johansen et al., 2004, would (falsely)
(as opposed to the dynamic value obviously just referred). give a low Qc estimate of about 0.2 (‘very poor rock qual-
The relationship has ‘common ground’, namely, the rock ity’) if one temporarily ignored the Edynamic Mstatic
quality Q or Qc value, which can however be dispensed norm, and used the empirical link M 10 Qc1/3 shown
with, when the proposed direct link from seismic Vp and in Figure 15.33b.
static modulus (M) is used (Barton, 2002a).
It may be noted, for purpose of comparison, that the
above 2.0 to 4.5 km/s range of velocities, with their equiv- 15.9.5 Numerical modelling of
alent (dynamic) ‘real part of stiffness’ of 5 to 50 GPa, have dynamic joint stiffness effects
a predicted static moduli (M) range of 3 GPa to 22 GPa,
respectively. The maximum attenuation (1/Q) scale value In the foregoing double-porosity models we have wit-
of 0.20, giving the particularly low Qseis value of 5, and an nessed the use of crack representation by aspect ratios.
Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes 477
(a)
(b)
Figure 15.62 The stiffness matrices showing the velocity components modelled in Figure 15.61. Johansen, pers. comm., 2005.
Important insight into the influence of (dynamic) joint cross-hole seismic at frequencies of several kHz. Monsen
stiffness and joint spacing effects on seismic dispersion is first explored the influence of single fractures, and assumed
provided by the modelling of Monsen, 2001. The motiv- dynamic normal stiffness values (100, 1,000 and
ation for his study was the interpretation of high fre- 10,000 MPa/mm) equivalent to widely different normal
quency investigations of rock masses, in which the wave stress levels, from e.g. close to surface to kilometre depths,
length may be less than the joint spacing, for instance in as this range indicates (see Chapter 16).
478 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Porosity (%) 15
Permeability (mDa) 50
Clay content (%) 15
Viscosity (cP) 1
Fluid density (kg/m3) 1000
Fluid velocity (m/s) 1500
Aspect ratio quartz-related pores 0.15
Aspect ratio clay-related pores 0.027
Aspect ratio cracks 0.01
Crack density 0.1
Effective density (kg/m3) 2383
(a)
Figure 15.64 An illustration of wave propagation differences between intact and realistically jointed (but 2D) models, with dynamic nor-
mal and shear stiffness input estimates appropriate to the dynamic wave form. Note the multiple effects of (vertical) wave
transmission through the layered and jointed medium: i.e. the delay, the amplitude reduction (i.e. attenuation), the velocity
reduction and the frequency reduction. (Monsen, 2005 priv. comm).
illustrated, the dynamic stiffnesses assumed were within Snow, 1968, and is utilised for grouting predictions in
the range studied by Monsen, 2001. There is at present rock engineering (e.g. Figure 15.49).
no matrix flow modelling in UDEC. Brown et al., 2002 assumed that both the fracture
permeability tensor and the fracture compliance tensor
would ‘diagonalise’ in the same principal coordinate
15.9.6 A ‘sugar cube’ model system. The model predictions for P-wave and S-wave
representation phase velocities, contrasting the matrix velocity with
the effect of either a drained or brine-filled fracture net-
A practical ‘sugar-cube’ model with three orthogonal work is shown in Figure 15.65.
joint or fracture sets was proposed by Brown et al., 2002, The authors noted that when the compliance of the
as a means of integrating seismic data to production data. fractures was large, as in the field, where fractures tend
The authors combined the ideas of Oda, Kachanov, to be weaker, the effect of fluid changes on the velocity
Schoenberg and Sayers to produce the rather obvious rep- would tend to be dominated by effective stiffness
resentation of a multiply-jointed rock mass, where three, increases due to e.g. brine saturation compared to
more or less mutually perpendicular joint sets is almost a drained or gas filled. The authors drew parallels to the
rule rather than an exception. Such a representation for Natih field experiences described by van der Kolk et al.,
the permeability of rock masses at dam sites was used by 2001, which were reviewed earlier in this chapter.
480 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
This final chapter is designed to act as a cross-discipline set of ‘perfectly’ aligned, or partially aligned, sets of cracks,
reference point between rock mechanics and engineering fractures (or rock joint analogues) was seen. The mathe-
geological behaviour in the ‘static’ world of slow-and- matical complexity of multiple sets clearly presents numer-
macro deformation processes, and the geophysicists ical problems, but no doubt such will be solved in due
‘dynamic’ world of fast-and-micro deformation and atten- time, as it was, with simpler boundary conditions, in rock
uation processes. That there are important links between mechanics, due to the need for modelling hydraulically
the two in terms of joint or fracture compliance and its communicating, deforming, multiple joint sets, but with-
inversion: stiffness, and in terms of rock quality, deform- out the dynamic interaction with grain-size pore space.
ation modulus, and seismic quality, has been established The deliberate addition in Figure 16.1, of a secondary
in various contexts in the chapters of Part II. In particular, ‘crack set’ to the Tod, 2002 conceptual model of a variably
this last chapter attempts to extend current thinking oriented single set of cracks, fractures or joints, is to
regarding fractured reservoirs, ‘open’ joints, and assumed emphasise the obvious: that fractured (or jointed) reser-
H max parallelism, to also embrace the possibility, even voirs often have at least two sets of joints or fractures,
probability, that multiple-joint-sets and shear-dilation- that can assist in the drainage of the matrix towards the
conductivity coupling are needed, due to the inevitable wells. Primary drainage pathways are usually considered
tendency for joints in less competent rocks to close at
reservoir depths, even when under the influence of ‘only’
h min. Shear wave splitting and polarization from two sets
of conjugate (or H max straddling) joints can also appear
to satisfy ‘open joints were parallel to H max’ assumptions.
The important improvement would be that rock mechan-
ics theory is not violated, when assuming that unsheared
joints in weaker reservoir rocks can be conductors, when
actually under high levels of effective stress. Shearing to
great depth has been verified in other areas of the earth-
sciences, and the need for adoption in the geophysical
interpretation of petroleum reservoirs is discussed, with
simple joint-model illustrations. The ‘critical shearing
crust’ is interpreted here in terms of the non-linear Barton-
Bandis shear strength and coupled behaviour constitutive
model. An evaluation of the importance of joint rough-
ness at several scales, and the need for dilation-corrected
stress transformation in the earth sciences is also treated.
to be along the set that approximates the H maximum Numerical discrete element modelling of these three
direction, as we have seen, with some variations, in the categories of jointed structures, was performed by
shear wave splitting analyses reviewed in the last chapter. Chryssanthakis et al., 1991, with UDEC-BB, incorp-
This conventional assumption may be modified how- orating the Barton-Bandis non-linear and scale-depend-
ever, if the rock is weak and porous, since conducting ent joint behaviour laws, to confirm this type of rock
joints might be too tightly closed, or not exist, at depths mass stress-deformation behaviour. Type A and Type C
of kilometres, unless there was shearing. This aspect has can be considered typical of many reservoir jointing
dominated the selection of material for this chapter. scenarios (greatly simplified), with sedimentary bed-
In case of significant non-alignment of the present-day limited jointing in Type A, often with a vertical major
H maximum direction with the dominant set (or sets) of principal stress, but with an intermediate horizontal
joints, then shear-dilation-conductivity coupling becomes principal stress that could cause fracture-set alignment.
a potential mechanism for effective reservoir drainage Type C, representing conjugate jointing, is of tectonic
from matrix-to-joints-to-producing well. The range of origin, as for instance in the anticlinal Ekofisk reservoir
effective block sizes illustrated in Figure 14.1 (1, 2 and 3 in jointed chalk. The deformation, joint-shear and prin-
are examples) will then also come into consideration, cipal-stress plots from this numerical modelling are
since block size will determine how much shear-dilation- shown in Figure 16.3.
permeability coupling has been possible, especially with The one-dimensional application of the Barton-Bandis
elevated pore pressure. normal closure modelling, shown in Figure 16.4, from
Scaling of the small-scale roughness JRCo to effective Barton et al., 1985, follows the multiple load-unload con-
roughness JRCn for the appropriate block size, follow- solidation cycles performed on numerous natural rock
ing the Barton-Bandis constitutive model, suggests that joints by Bandis, 1980. In the discrete element UDEC-
case 3 with the largest block size, can have presented the BB modelling performed in rock mechanics analyses of
lowest shear stiffness (and shear strength) to the historic e.g. slopes, tunnels and caverns for civil engineering use,
anisotropic stress that may have caused shearing in the we automatically follow the ‘fourth cycle’ which is
past. A sheared-joint situation would presumably tend assumed to approximate the ‘undisturbed’ in situ condi-
to enhance the velocity anisotropy (both for azimuthal tion. There is naturally an exaggerated hysteresis (and
P-waves, and for split shear-waves). closure) in the first cycle of a stress-closure test on a sam-
A cross-disciplinary reference to the (macro- pled ( disturbed) joint. In the context of the micro-
deformation) hyperbolic normal-closure behaviour of displacements experienced by joints with the passage of
rock joints, and to the scale effect on shear strength caused seismic waves, it is clearly the consolidated state one is
by relative block-size, are key items in this ‘sheared-earth’ concerned with.
thinking. These macro-deformation aspects of jointed Hatchell and Bourne 2005, have recently highlighted
rock behaviour are shown at the top of Figure 16.2, taken the importance of hysteresis in the interpretation of time-
from Bandis et al., 1983, and 1981. This macro-deforma- lapse time shifts surrounding depleting, compacting
tion behaviour is shown here, in view of the influence it reservoirs. Depletion induced time shifts have opposite
could have on the micro-deformation compliances of joints sign inside and outside the reservoir. Laboratory testing of
that were ‘lying close’ to the respective rock mass stiffness velocity-effective pressure needs to also be focussed on
curves. Of course their will be differences between the unloading and on strain behaviour.
inverted magnitudes of dynamic compliance and ‘static’ Models that use linear slip theory, following earlier
stiffness, but differences may be minor when rock quality Schoenberg work, and therefore require fracture com-
is reasonably high. pliances rather than aspect ratios, are gaining ground in
The assumed stress-deformation behaviour of three cat- geophysics, as we have seen from some of the modelling
egories of rock mass, as visualised by Barton, 1986, are reviewed in Chapter 15. Here we will consider a remark
shown below the normal-closure (N) and shear- by Gurevich, 2002, who describes the theoretical con-
displacement (S) components, in Figure 16.2c, and in struction of a poro-elastic model with aligned fractures
Table 16.1. There is large scale, up to 8 m3 biaxial flat-jack that obey linear-slip theory, and are characterized by
loading, and uniaxial plate-loading verification of these ‘excess’ normal and tangential fracture compliances,
three categories of non-linear and hysteretic behaviour. following Schoenberg and Sayers, 1995. Gurevich com-
(The linear load-deformation line in case B appears to be mented on the fact that several authors had expressed,
due to two partly opposed non-linear mechanisms). intuitively, the likelihood of a link between normal and
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 485
Figure 16.2 a) Non-linear, hysteretic normal-closure behaviour of rock joints. b) Shear strength dependency on block size, also showing
strong non-linearity and two reasons for strong shear stiffness scale effects. c) Conceptual pressure-deformation curves due to N
and S components, or their combination. From top left: Bandis et al., 1983, Bandis et al., 1981, and Barton, 1986.
* Under conditions of one-dimensional strain the relative magnitudes of these differences in behaviour will be
reduced. Reduction in pore pressure, and compaction of the matrix, would allow a Type C mechanism
in a compacting reservoir to develop further, as for instance in the Ekofisk reservoir.
tangential fracture compliances and the porosity of the implied linkage to porosity, since the term JCS, the
host medium. joint wall compressive strength, and its ratio with effec-
From the rock mechanics world of inverted compli- tive normal stress (JCS/n) is an important component
ance, i.e. stiffness (where Kn and Ks stand for normal of the equation for shear stiffness and peak shear strength
and shear stiffness in units of MPa/mm), there is also an (Barton and Choubey, 1977), and of the hyperbolic
486 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
equation for normal stiffness (Bandis, 1980). The value been mineralization at some time, as shown in the
of JCS is obtained from rock mechanics index testing, photographs (Figure 16.5, a and b) of a wave-cut plat-
using a Schmidt (L-) impact hammer, the rebound of form in dolomite, from Kimmeridge Bay in Southern
which (10 to 95% approx.) can be linked to uniaxial England. Note the complete cementation of all joint sets
compression strength c (or UCS), also using rock in Figure 16.5c, which probably removes the need for a
density, following Miller, 1965. Clearly porosity will roughness and wall-strength based classification method.
therefore affect this conversion of rebound to JCS
(or to matrix UCS). Hence the connection to stiffness,
and therefore perhaps compliance. 16.2 Aspects of fluid flow in
The Schmidt hammer is used as this is almost deforming rock joints
the only way to record the reduced strength of the
few millimetres of (eventually weathered, or altered) Several recent workshops have focussed strongly on seis-
joint walls. In other words JCS c, unless there has mic anisotropy, suggesting an active recognition of the
Figure 16.3 Distinct element modelling with UDEC-BB code, with the Barton-Bandis joint behaviour sub-routine, demonstrates the rela-
tive magnitudes of the shear and normal deformation components. Top: deformation, Centre: joint shearing, Bottom: princi-
pal stresses. Chryssanthakis et al., 1991.
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 487
over-riding importance of dominant fracture sets (or (Makurat et al., 1990), and first used for extensive studies
joint sets in engineering geology terms) for drainage of of the conjugate joints (or fractures) in the Ekofisk chalk,
reservoirs. This is particularly important where matrix to investigate oil and brine flow under normal and shear
permeabilities are low, yet storage in the form of porosity, deformation, also with the effect of elevated temperature.
obviously high enough for commercial development, Various aspects of this work with laboratory-scale testing
sometimes to an exceptional degree. The Ekofisk field in of reservoir joints and reservoir-scale deformation mod-
the North Sea, is expected to have at least 80 years of pro- elling in the chalk were described by Barton et al., 1986.
duction from this well jointed reservoir. Although dispersive (frequency-dependent) attenu-
ation and velocity are dynamic concepts, involving micro-
responses in the interior of any rock joint, it seems
16.2.1 Coupled stress-flow intuitively likely that the macro-responses of joints to
behaviour under normal coupled deformation and flow can represent
closure ‘end-members’ for the dynamic loading and squirt
attenuation concepts of geophysicists.
Coupled stress-flow-deformation joint behaviour has The normal and shear compliances (units of m.GPa1)
long been of concern in rock mechanics, where there is presently utilised in geophysics, have their rock mechan-
a ‘standard’ test called the coupled shear flow test ics inverse values, termed normal and shear stiffness (units
(CSFT), developed by Makurat at NGI, in Norway, of GPa/m). Their (inverted) magnitudes are remarkably
similar, especially in the case of Kn, suggesting some yet
to be determined relationship, albeit perhaps in an
‘end-member’ role.
Under normal closure (i.e. the perpendicular incident
wave case), the hydraulic aperture (e) of a rock joint, as
measured in a (macro) flow test, is related to the larger
(mean) physical aperture (E) by the roughness-related
empirical equation (Barton et al., 1985):
E2
e ≈ (16.1)
JRC 2.5
Figure 16.6 Mismatch of (e) and (E) due to joint or fracture roughness. Barton and Quadros, 1997, (updated from Barton et al., 1985)
Figure 16.7 An empirical model for the mismatch of E and e, from Barton et al., 1985.
(and some gouge production). The following empirical The JRCmobilized concept of joint or fracture shear strength
relation was found to apply: mobilization is explained with a low stress example in
1 (16.2) Figure 16.10. The early mobilization of friction, fol-
e E 2 JRCmob lowed later by dilation and roughness mobilization and
490 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 16.9 Data points are from CSFT (coupled shear-flow tests)
by Olsson, in Olsson and Barton, 2001, showing ‘per-
pendicular’ trends in relation to the E-e-JRC model, due
to shearing and gouge formation. The ‘sloping-to-the-
right’ curves are relevant to shear behaviour, and are sim-
ilar to trends shown by Esaki et al., 1995. In other words
shearing, dilation, and possible gouge formation causes
data to climb the curves (for JRCmob), shown to the left.
Figure 16.8 A cubic-network approach to near-surface permeability
at dam sites (after Snow, 1968), with the addition of
aperture differentiation and roughness discrimination
by Barton, 1986.
clearly be affected by minor (or larger) amounts of (pre-)
shearing. Figure 16.11 shows a set of experimental data
(solid black points), from a self-weight, very low stress
final roughness degradation, was quantified by Barton, ‘CSFT’ from Maini and Hocking, 1977. The ‘twin’
1982, and forms an important basis for the shear-part of curves in the other three diagrams were obtained using
the Barton-Bandis constitutive model. the shear, dilation and flow coupling given by the Barton-
Note the location of ‘dilation begins’, corresponding to Bandis model, based on the JRCmob concept shown in
the initial mobilization of roughness. In the ‘roughness Figure 16.10. Note the large change of measured and
destroyed’ post-peak area there is a physical reduction in modelled permeability due to slight dilation, for the case
JRC, in other words retesting would show a reduced of these very planar (low JRC) cleavage joints.
peak strength for the joint in question. The early mobil- A more recent coupled shear-flow test performed at
ization of friction (prior to dilation), can be envisaged as higher stress by Olsson, using controlled normal stiffness
a potential contributor to the intrinsic frictional attenu- loading in a large direct shear box apparatus (see Olsson
ation mechanism, but would presumably involve and Barton, 2001), is shown in Figure 16.12. The term
(almost) recoverable micro-slip. ‘krm’ in the individual figures stands for applied normal
The other part of intrinsic attenuation involving stiffness, with ‘krm 0 kN/mm’ representing a conven-
fluid flow: potential viscous shearing, or ‘squirt’, will tional, constant normal load, zero-stiffness test.
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 491
A CSFT test by Makurat (Makurat et al., 1990) is Figure 16.11 An early coupled shear flow test by Maini (in Maini
shown in Figure 16.13. This was selected as it shows that and Hocking, 1977), and an attempt to match this
with gouge production caused by shearing damage, there by estimating the shear-induced increase in joint
will be a discrepancy between the dilation-based perme- aperture due to full application of the dilation effect,
ability modelling (assuming full application of the dila- using the Barton-Bandis model. (Barton, 1982).
tion-enhanced aperture), and the experimental result. The
measured permeability increase with shearing was less than
expected from the measured dilation, due to gouge pro-
duction compromising the effect of the increased aperture. 2 mm of shear) but with reduced rate at larger shear
In two of the above cases, the theoretical effect of the deformation.
modelled dilation on permeability is shown. In the low From the point of view of attenuation potential in
stress case (Figure 16.11), a reasonably good match to the the reservoir situation, the presence of ‘open’ fractures
dramatic, two-orders-of-magnitude increase in per- caused by limited shear, may be an important additional
meability with less than 0.6 mm of shear is suggested. The effect for dynamically induced (micro) fluid flow, and
tests by Olsson (Figure 16.12) show a smaller, but signif- squirt losses, during the passage of a wave front. Sheared
icant increase (e.g. one order of magnitude increase with fractures may represent some of the ‘open’ fractures
492 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
cycle as depicted in Figure 16.16, shows much lower It is clear from inspection of data in Figure 16.17,
initial stiffness and much larger hysteresis. Lower nor- and elsewhere, that these average third cycle, initial
mal stiffness is also seen following shearing, due to a normal stiffness values of roughly 30 to 120 MPa/mm,
certain mismatch of the previously interlocking rough- correspond to effective normal stresses in the lowest
ness. The reduced contact area causes the reduced stiff-
ness, with typically 1⁄2 to 1⁄8 reduction, depending on stress
level (Bandis et al. 1983). Adverse effects on the dynamic
compliances ZN and ZT are likely too.
The contrasting normal stiffnesses from first, second
and third cycles of loading for fresh joints in hard rock are
shown in Figure 16.17. Corresponding curves for joints
in weaker rocks or weathered rocks are markedly less
steep, and show much more hysteresis on the first cycle.
The relative effects of different rock types on normal
stiffness including the weaker sandstones, siltstones
and limestones are illustrated in Figure 16.18, from
Bandis, 1980. Here we see the total (rock joint)
deformation Vt.
possible range of perhaps 0 to 1 MPa, and at the same 16.3.2 Normal stiffness at elevated
time correspond to the pre-consolidated condition, since normal stress levels
measured after three load-unload cycles.
From 0 to 5 MPa, there is a rapid rise of the average
(pseudo-static) normal stiffnesses to between 250 and
500 MPa/mm, and between 0 and 10 MPa, 400 to
800 MPa/mm is more common for the average normal
stiffness of the fresher joints, and about 200 MPa/mm for
the (JCS 40–50 MPa) joints in weaker rock. The
average normal stiffnesses between 0 and 50 MPa are of
the order of 2,000 to 3,000 MPa/mm for the hardest
joints.
However, considering local or incremental stiffnesses,
at tens of MPa stress levels (such as 10 to 40 MPa), nor-
mal stiffnesses for these unweathered hard joints with
high JCS may rise to tens of thousands, but may only rise
to about 1,000–2,000 MPa/mm in the case of the weaker
rocks (e.g. with JCS 40–50 MPa).
Before proceeding to a detailed treatment of possible
Figure 16.18 Comparative total deformation (Vt rock
joint) for different rock types, based on the most
stiffness ratios, we will present normal stiffness data
deforming first cycle of loading. Bandis, 1980. kindly prepared by Bandis from his 1980 doctoral studies
in the University of Leeds. This can be compared, where
Table 16.2 Bandis, 1980 data for Kni (3 cycles) and maximum closure Vm (3 cycles).
SLATE
Fresh 175 3 35.0 .039 181.1 .027 266.2 .027
Mod. weathered 142 1 13.1 .106 69.0 .046 235.5 .039
Weathered 77 3 12.7 .331 32.6 .146 63.6 .118
DOLERITE
Fresh 167–182 2 24.2 .101 67.1 .053 111.2 .067
Weathered 60–76 3 10.8 .484 50.0 .150 80.4 .109
LIMESTONE
Fresh to slightly 152–170 11 18.8 .091 85.3 .042 117.9 .030
weathered
Mod. weathered 94–120 5 30.1 .116 51.7 .060 98.9 .040
Weathered 35–53 5 8.5 .373 44.2 .115 56.9 .079
SILTSTONE
Fresh 105 5 18.9 .135 43.9 .072 53.5 .063
Mod. weathered 67 2 10.8 .310 20.8 .205 22.9 .184
Weathered 44 3 10.4 .514 27.8 .104 35.0 .113
SANDSTONE
Fresh to slightly 68–95 8 12.8 .170 23.4 .075 37.2 .054
weathered
Mod. weathered 64–58 9 9.3 .240 17.9 .101 26.7 .089
Weathered 22 4 3.1 .469 11.3 .131 15.6 .080
496 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
possible with data in Table 16.4 from Pyrak-Nolte sandstone and siltstone displayed normal stiffnesses of
et al., 1990 that was reviewed in Chapter 15. between 200 and 900 MPa/mm at normal stress levels of
To conserve space in Table 16.3 normal stiffness values 10 and 25 MPa.
for weathered joints are excluded, in view of their lesser Several of the pseudo-static values of normal stiffness
relevance for reservoir conditions. A rough (JRC 15), from the tests of Bandis, 1980 shown in Table 16.3 had
weathered (JCS 44 MPa) joint in limestone showed Kn higher values of pseudo-static normal stiffness than the
values of 250, 1,275 and 2,550 MPa/mm at normal dynamic normal stiffnesses of this more deformable joint
stress levels of 10, 25 and 40 MPa. More planar in quartz monzonite. Another series of tests by Pyrak-
(JRC 6), weathered joints (JCS 25–45 MPa) in Nolte and co-workers, using a stiffer (E 32) sample, and
Table 16.3 Normal stiffnesses in (MPa/mm) measured by Bandis, 1980 in pseudo-static loading. Aperture (a) represents the approximate
unstressed aperture prior to testing. (Bandis, 2005 pers. comm.)
Normal F SW F MW F
Stress JRC 10 JRC 7.6 JRC 12 JRC 7.5 JRC 9
JCS 160 MPa JCS 160 MPa JCS 68 MPa JCS 44 MPa JCS 105 MPa
a 0.25 mm a 0.2 mm a 0.25 mm a 0.25 mm a 0.15 mm
(MPa) (MPa/mm) (MPa/mm) (MPa/mm) (MPa/mm) (MPa/mm)
10 1,200 850 470 350 350
25 6,300 10,500 12,750 12,750 3,100
40 15,750 31,500 – – –
Table 16.4 Comparison of static and dynamic normal stiffness data for the Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1987b jointed sample E 35, of 52 mm
diameter, which was the most deformable of three joint samples, possibly due to greater roughness.
Table 16.5 Selected dynamic normal and dynamic shear stiffnesses from tests on two joints in quartz monzonite. Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1990.
the same E 35 sample as above, provided both dry and Table 16.6 Ratio of dynamic Kn/dynamic Ks for the three Pyrak-
saturated results. These are repeated in Table 16.5 in Nolte et al., 1990 joint samples in quartz monzonite.
compatible (MPa/mm) units, for ready comparison. The authors’ data set is partially incomplete. All
samples were of 52 mm diameter.
Due to equipment capacity limitations, when Bandis, 2.9 1.6 4.3 2.1
1980 tested both the normal and shear stiffnesses of the 10 1.3 – 2.4
same joint sample, involving tests in a shear box rather 20 2.0 – 3.2
33 2.7 – –
than in a high-capacity loading frame, significantly
70 – 2.2 4.3
lower levels of normal stress than any of the above were
applied. Values of Ks ranging from 1 to 7 MPa/mm were
obtained, where normal stress values were in the range
of approx. 1 to 5 MPa, for the 100 mm long samples.
It seems reasonably certain that Ks static is likely to be 16.4.1 Frequency dependence of
some orders of magnitude lower than Ks dynamic at fracture normal stiffness
comparable normal stress levels. Future testing to develop
an improved data base is obviously required. Significantly The dynamic stiffness data for the three joints reported
we do not yet seem to know the effect of in situ block by Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1990, were acquired over a lim-
sizes on Ks dynamic. Block size has a dramatic, and well ited ultrasonic frequency range (mostly 0.1 to 1 MHz).
documented reducing effect on Ks static (e.g. Barton, Different aspects of these tests were reviewed in Chapters
1972, Bandis et al., 1981, Barton, 1982), as also seen in 10 and 15, and have been summarised in part in this
Figures 16.14 and 16.15. chapter, for comparison with static data. An important
When the ratio of Kn/Ks (both static) could be com- ‘detail’ is the fact that the dynamic stiffness, showing
pared directly on the same 100 mm long samples, roughly four to eight times greater magnitude than the
mostly at the low normal stress of 1 MPa, Bandis found static values for the ‘soft’ joint in Table 16.4, is actually
that the ratio varied from extremes of 5.7 (dolerite) to dependent on the frequency.
132 (slate), but with most ratios of Kn/Ks in the narrow Pyrak-Nolte and Nolte, 1992 addressed this import-
range of 11 to 15. ant aspect, suggesting that the frequency-dependence
Table 16.6 gives the ratios of Kn(dyn)/Ks(dyn) for the may be a simple consequence of the fracture or joint-
dry samples listed in the Table 16.5. Note that the wall geometry. They referred to a ratio of dynamic/static
ratios of dynamic stiffness are for 52 mm diameter speci- normal stiffness ‘of typically three’, and likened this
mens. Under pseudo-static testing, the size of sample ratio to the difference of the dynamic to static moduli.
plays a significant role in reducing the shear stiffness, As we have seen in Part I, the ratio is rock quality
thereby increasing the ratio Kn/Ks to much larger values dependent, and the Table 16.4 result for the more
than the range given in Table 16.6. Under dynamic deformable joint (E 35), is consistent with this picture:
testing this appears not to be the case. the ‘softer’ the joints, the greater will be the difference.
It may be noted from the above tables that the range This applies to an even greater extent if the shear stiff-
of Kn(dyn)/Ks(dyn) ratios for these three, 52 mm diameter ness of the joints is also involved in the respective static
jointed samples in quartz monzonite was only from 1.3 and dynamic loading directions.
to 4.3 with a mean of 2.5. This means that the ratio of Pyrak-Nolte and Nolte 1992 applied the displacement-
the inverted compliances ZN/ZT for these small samples discontinuity theory of Schoenberg, involving assump-
ranges from 0.2 to 0.8, with a mean of 0.4. The remain- tions of discontinuous displacement, but continuous stress
ing question is what relevance this convenient ‘core- across the fractures. An assumption of inverse propor-
sized’ data has to in situ reservoirs in general, with a tionality between the discontinuity displacement and
typical spread of jointed block sizes from perhaps the specific stiffness of the fracture is also involved. The
200 mm to 5,000 mm, and mostly sedimentary rock as authors assumed that the different parts of any given
opposed to Stripa ‘granite’, or hard quartz monzonite. fracture in intimate interlock due to normal stress, will
498 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
most likely to be in the following very approximate One could suggest, based on the above, that joints (or
ranges, based on data reviewed earlier: ‘meso-scale’ fractures) should be more seismically visible
than stress-aligned microcracks, or the ‘extensive dilatancy
1) 1 to 10 MPa: 100 mm size: Kn/Ks (200–800)/ anisotropy’ (EDA), if visibility depended on compliance
(10) 20–80 contrasts, unless for some reason macro-deformation stiff-
2) 1 to 10 MPa: 1 m size: Kn/Ks (200–800)/ ness ratios (Kn/Ks) have no influence as ‘starting points’ for
(2) 100–400 the micro-deformation dynamic compliance ratios
3) 10 to 40 MPa: 100 mm size: Kn/Ks (1000– (ZN/ZT). In good quality rock when Estatic is close to
20000)/(10–25) 100–800 Edynamic, there should in fact be close correspondence of
4) 10 to 40 MPa: 1 m size: Kn/Ks (1000–20000)/ Kn(static) and 1/ZN (dynamic), but apparently from what
(2–4) 500–5000 we have seen thus far, there may not be good correspon-
(Italics implies uncertainty in incremental, high stress, dence of Ks(static) and 1/ZT (dynamic), unless block size
normal stiffnesses) and frequency have influence.
static E-modulus or rock mass deformation modulus, site, i.e. crossing the basalt columns, which was probably
expressed as GPa is striking: see Figure 13.60. related to low levels of horizontal stress at this shallow
By using the upgoing or downgoing waves between test tunnel site: see Figure 13.61).
borehole source and receivers, Lubbe and Worthington Examination of Figure 16.19 and Tables 16.4 and
were able to estimate (dynamic) fracture normal com- 16.5 in fact shows the stiffer end of the above range of
pliances within the range of 2.5 1013 to in situ data to be the same as the ‘softer’ E 35 sample of
3.5 10 12 m/Pa. These we can invert to dynamic Pyrak-Nolte, when tested at only 2.9 MPa normal
normal stiffnesses in the range 4000 to 286 MPa/mm, stress, while the least stiff in situ result of 286 MPa/mm,
or reversing the order and adopting a more ‘friendly’ is obviously closer to Bandis, 1980 static Kn data shown
unit, between 0,3 to 4 MPa/
m. Assuming an average in Table 16.3.
of two continuous fractures per meter from 5 to 20 m Lubbe and Worthington considered that the vertical
depth, between all three boreholes, they estimated a fractures at the quarry (Figure 16.20) appeared to be
mean fracture compliance of 1.25 1012, which stiffer than the measured bedding planes, resulting in
converts to 800 MPa/mm in more easily understood horizontal velocities that were close to those for the
rock engineering units. Later in the paper a ‘reasonably unfractured rock. There appears to the writer the possi-
robust average’ of 1000 MPa/mm was suggested, fol- bility that the quite high horizontal P-wave velocities of
lowing some numerical scoping. typically 5.3 to 6.2 km/s could be due a horizontal stress
As they pointed out, their compliances were an order concentration beneath the floor of the quarry. If so, this
of magnitude higher (therefore the stiffnesses lower) would give an ‘equivalent depth’ correction to the empir-
than obtained from laboratory experiments at higher ical Qc – M – Vp relationships shown in Figure 13.59,
stress and on smaller and stiffer samples. However, they thereby ‘not requiring’ so high Qc values. This would
referred to other field data showing low Kn(dynamic) actually be more in line with the quite jointed appear-
values of only 500 MPa/mm (dynamic compli- ance of the quarry seen in Figure 16.20, where a rock
ance 2 10 12 m/Pa), for columnar joints in mass Q-value of about the following magnitude would
basalt, as interpreted by Myer et al., 1995 from normally be expected (see Appendix A for ratings):
Hanford Basalt cross-hole tests performed by King et al.,
1986. (In Chapter 13 we also noted a very low seismic 90 2 0.66
Q 13 (E Mass 24 Gpa)
Q in the same horizontal measurement direction at this 9 1 1
Figure 16.20 Oxford University Earth Sciences Department website photograph of the Carboniferous limestone quarry near Bristol that
was used for careful in situ investigations of normal compliance. (Lubbe et al., 2005). Note dipping bedding planes and sub-
vertical joints, presumably seldom sampled by the vertical boreholes in the floor of the quarry. The cross-hole seismic was per-
formed between three vertical holes spaced at 7 m. These are in the foreground. (www.earth.ox.ac.uk)
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 501
The authors also discussed shear compliances at the discontinuity theory of Schoenberg, 1980, values of Kn
end of their paper, referring to Worthington and (dynamic) ranging from 22,220 to 200,000 MPa/mm
Hudson, 2000, fault studies. ‘Values of shear compli- were derived, when inverted from the reported
ance of the order of 1010 to 10 9 m/Pa can be pre- 4.5 1014 to 0.5 10 14 m/Pa compliance units.
dicted and tentatively compared to field observations’. These dynamic stiffnesses are similar, to somewhat
These can be inverted to in situ fault-related dynamic stiffer, than the Pyrak-Nolte data for natural joints of
normal stiffnesses of only 10 and 1 MPa/mm, giving a 52 mm size reviewed earlier. Lubbe, 2005 found that
somewhat closer match to the scale-dependent static the ratio of normal to tangential compliance for the
shear stiffnesses plotted in Figure 16.14 and calculated 50 mm diameter ‘fractured’ samples, was approximately
in Figure 16.15. Such in situ, modelling-based esti- 0.4 in the case of smoother surfaces, and increased from
mates would be about one order of magnitude stiffer in 0.3 to 0.8 in the case of corrugated surfaces that experi-
relation to the static stiffness values for in situ block enced ‘asperity-crushing’ beyond 30 to 40 MPa normal
sizes of say 10 m, assuming ‘in situ’ effective stress levels stress. The ratio of 0.4 for the smoother surfaces is the
above and below a nominal 10 MPa. If on the other same as the mean value reported by Pyrak-Nolte et al.,
hand, in situ block sizes were only 0.5 m, as feasible in 1990 from their tests on 52 mm joint samples, as
the neighbourhood of a fault, such ‘soft’ dynamic val- reviewed in Chapter 15.
ues (also obtained at lower seismic exploration frequen- Lubbe et al., 2005 reported details concerning the type
cies), would match static values very closely. of artificial fractures that were prepared for these tests.
Samples were either cut with a ‘fine-toothed’ diamond
saw and then polished, or, in the case of just the Jurassic
16.4.4 Investigation of normal and limestone, samples were cut and grooved to produce a
shear compliances on ‘corrugated fracture interface’ with specific voids and con-
artificial surfaces in tact areas. The two ‘fracture’ types, which were all tested
limestones dry, are shown in Figures 16.21 and 16.22, together with
the respective, and contrasting, compliance-normal stress
Lubbe and Worthington, 2005 also referred to Lubbe, behaviour. In these figures we have added stiffness scales
2005 laboratory data for artificial fractures machined on the right-hand axes, to aid comparison with the labora-
from Jurassic and Carboniferous limestones, tested dry tory stiffness data reviewed earlier in this chapter.
under 5 to 60 MPa normal stress, at ultrasonic frequen- The Jurassic limestone samples had porosities of
cies between 0.6 and 1.0 MHz. Using the displacement approximately 13%, while the Carboniferous limestone
Figure 16.21 a) Samples of Jurassic (J) and Carboniferous (C) limestone, with ‘fractures’ prepared with a fine-toothed diamond saw. b) Shear and
normal compliance versus normal stress, with inversion to dynamic stiffnesses shown on the right-hand axis. Lubbe et al., 2006.
502 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
samples had porosities of only 2.4%. Densities were It seems, also from earlier review of the Perspex plates
2710 and 2660 kg/m3 respectively. model of Hsu and Schoenberg, 1993, and of a cut ‘frac-
The lower stiffnesses seen in the case of the corru- ture’ in aluminium, that the less ‘rock-joint-like’ the
gated fracture surface, giving artificial (initial) limits to sample, the more likely it is that the ratio of ZN/ZT will
contact areas, has some resemblance to the reduced approach 1.0. In the case of the above grooved lime-
(static) normal stiffnesses recorded by Bandis, 1980 for stone interfaces, the ratio rose markedly, towards 0.8,
slightly sheared joints, shown in Figure 16.16 (see ‘mis- beyond a stress level of 40 MPa.
match’ result). A marked acceleration in the axial short- In the rock mechanics world of pseudo-static testing,
ening of the sample was noted by the authors between including laboratory and field scales of blocks, the more
stress levels of 30 and 40 MPa, which also corresponded ‘rock-mass-like’ the sample becomes (i.e. when moving
with the increment of dynamic normal stiffness seen in into the in situ environment), the higher the ratio of
Figure 16.22. It is also consistent that a decrement of Kn/Ks. If this behaviour has a certain influence, even only
dynamic shear stiffness should also occur at this same minor, on exploration seismic behaviour, (at orders of
stress level, resembling a ‘roughness-destroyed’ portion magnitude lower frequency than all the laboratory
of pseudo-static shearing simulation (the JRCmobilized compliance testing reviewed in this book), then a lower
concept), shown in Figure 16.10. ratio of ZN/ZT would be expected, far from the neigh-
The authors discussed the marked difference of com- bourhood of 1.0, as seen in many laboratory-based or
pliance behaviour exhibited by their two types of artifi- modelling-based geophysics publications.
cial fracture. The ‘grooved’ sample showed a steady Concerning the actual effect of water saturation com-
reduction in both normal and shear stiffness up to 30 or pared to the dry state, which we could tentatively
40 MPa, exactly the reverse of the stiffening behaviour extrapolate to the hydrocarbon equivalent of ‘brine-
of the sample that actually had a more ‘natural’ contact saturated compared to gas’, we will see later in this
area development. They proposed, very reasonably, that chapter that both the pseudo-static Kn and Ks magni-
a gradual weakening (of the asperities) was occurring in tudes will reduce somewhat when water saturated.
the grooved case. They also reported a layer of pow- Devoid of any attenuation in the form of fluid-changed
dered rock development beyond 40 MPa. Finally they scattering or squirt losses, these reductions can simply
doubted that the theoretical use of the ZN/ZT compli- be explained (and quantified) by reduced JCS (joint
ance ratio was justified, as an indicator of potential fluid wall strength) with moisture for the case of a reduced
saturation (and fluid type), as reviewed and also doubted Kn, and reduced JCS and r (residual friction angle),
in Chapter 15 (see Figure 15.11). for the case of a reduced Ks.
Figure 16.22 a) Samples of Jurassic (J) limestone, with ‘fractures’ prepared by cutting and grooving, to produce a ‘corrugated fracture inter-
face’. b) Shear and normal compliance versus normal stress, with inversion to dynamic stiffnesses shown on the right-hand
axis. Lubbe et al., 2006.
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 503
Although the micro-displacement phenomena mobil- numbered 1, 3 and 5 extending from ultrasonic to sonic
ized by dynamic waves may not be fully affected by such to cross-hole frequencies, represented Lubbe’s D.Phil.
pseudo-static reductions in stiffness, there is of course contribution to this important compliance-size trend.
increasing evidence and logic, in reduced dynamic stiff- We will summarise the differently numbered data sets,
nesses in the case of weakened joint or fracture surfaces. and also convert compliance units to dynamic stiffness
After all, such reductions will also tend to reduce Estatic units, for easier reference to both pseudo-static and
(or M), and Edynamic, assuming that frequencies are not dynamic test data, where the ‘Pa/m’ format (or
too high to prevent micro-flows of fluid. MPa/mm) is used, instead of the geophysicists’ some-
what cumbersome ‘m/Pa’, with the need of multiplica-
tion by a very small number like 1012.
16.4.5 The Worthington-Lubbe-
Hudson range of compliances 1. Laboratory compliance tests, using artificial 50 mm
diameter surfaces in Jurassic and Carboniferous
Lubbe, 2005 considered that the main conclusion from limestone. The vertical bar bounds the 5 to 60 MPa
his research on compliance, could be summarised in normal stress range. The complete range of both
Figure 16.23. This was kindly provided for reproduc- normal and shear compliances was 0.5 1014 to
tion in this book. The careful three-author title to this 4.5 10 14 m/Pa, or 200,000 to 22,220 MPa/mm
sub-section is due to the joint contribution of these (equivalent to a very stiff-sounding 200 to
researchers, and is also based on the figure’s earlier 22.2 MPa/
m). See Figures 16.21 for the differen-
appearance in Worthington and Lubbe, 2004. The data tiation of ZN and ZT results. (Data from the
‘grooved’ samples: Figure 16.22, are not incorpo-
rated in Figure 16.23).
Kn (dyn) (MPa/mm)
Normal or tangential fracture compliance (m/Pa)
10-9 6
1 2. The compliance interpretations of Pyrak-Nolte et al.,
1990 for dynamic tests on three natural joints in
10 quartz monzonite, of 52 mm diameter. Normal
10-10
stress levels ranged from 1.4 to 85 MPa. Compli-
100 ances ranged from 5.3 1013 (the lowest ZT
10 -11
4
5
value) to 10 14 m/Pa (the highest ZN value). In
2
3 1000 stiffness units, these correspond to 1,900 MPa/mm
1.4 MPa
to 100,000 MPa/mm (or 1.9 to 100 MPa/
m).
10-12 3. This sonic-log based field data was from the
10,000
1
5 MPa Carboniferous limestone quarry at Tytherington,
60 MPa 85 MPa
100,000
depicted in Figure 16.20. The approx. 23 kHz
10-14
10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 compressional wireline measurements were analysed
CORE LOG XHOLE
Log fracture dimension scale (m)
SEISMIC
by Lubbe, first using a ZN ZT assumption and
the theories of Schoenberg, 1980 and Pyrak-Nolte
Figure 16.23 Scaling of fracture compliance from laboratory and et al., 1987b. Allowance for a 20° variation in frac-
field data. The data numbered 1, 3 and 5 was pro- ture dips resulted in an estimate of ZN 4.8
duced by Lubbe from compliance measurements on (2.6) 1013 m/Pa, or 2,080 MPa/mm (range
artificial fracture surfaces in limestone, reviewed 4,405 to 1,350 MPa/mm). Lubbe also used the
above, from the limestone quarry data reviewed ear- Schoenberg and Sayers, 1995 excess compliance the-
lier, and from a highly fractured shale-rich field site. ory, using the vertical velocity reduction accorded
The latter two included sonic logging and cross-hole
to fracturing (500 m/s) to give a 2.5 1013
interpretations, assuming a given mean bedding-
ZN 5.0 1013 m/Pa estimate of normal com-
plane fracture spacing. The other data are explained
in the numbered text that follows. The horizontal
pliance. This range converts to a Kn (dynamic)
axis of the figure was diagrammatic, since ‘it is not range of 4,000 to 2,000 MPa/m respectively. Lubbe
possible to measure any parameter that accurately used a third calculation method, dispensing with
represents the size of the fracture’. (Worthington the ZN ZT assumption, and basing his estimates
and Lubbe, 2004, Lubbe, 2005, Figure 7.1 and on Hudson and Crampin theories to interpret the
Lubbe, 2005 pers. comm.). 10% P-wave anisotropy as an assumed 0.035
504 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
fracture density for the horizontal ‘open’ joints. This 10.67). The shear compliance estimate was
resulted in a similar 2.6 1013 ZN 5.2 1.1 109 m/Pa, or a dynamic shear stiffness of
1013 m/Pa, or 3,850 to 1,920 MPa/mm 0.9 MPa/mm. The theories of Hudson and
dynamic normal stiffness. As one may note from Schoenberg were used to derive a range of possible
the location of these larger scale, lower frequency low stiffnesses, as reviewed in Chapters 10 and 15.
data in Figure 16.23, only the low stress laboratory The frequency band was 10 to 150 Hz.
ultrasonic data lies in the same magnitude bracket. 7. Finally, the dotted black line in Figure 16.23 was
4. The data point labelled ‘4’ in Figure 16.23 was the based on the theoretical prediction by Hudson et al.,
Myer et al., 1995 normal compliance estimate for 1997 for tangential compliance. For fault-like fea-
Hanford Basalt columnar jointing, derived from tures it also applied to normal compliance if the
cross-hole measurements. The normal compliance ‘fracture’ was filled with weak material, assuming a
estimate was 2 1012 m/Pa, or a dynamic normal 10% area in ‘welded contact’. Lubbe, 2005 therefore
stiffness of 500 MPa/mm. (In Worthington et al., considered that the internal consistency of this spread
2001, the respective values are 5 10 12 m/Pa, or of data demonstrated that compliance increased with
200 MPa/mm). Both are of similar magnitude to the assumed scale of the fractures, dynamic stiffness
the laboratory (100 mm) scale pseudo-static Kn thereby reducing with size. The experience from
data obtained at higher (10 MPa) stress, as meas- pseudo-static testing, and also from structural-geo-
ured by Bandis, 1980 (see Table 16.3). logical logic, obviously supports such a thesis, and
5. The vertical bar labelled ‘5’ in Figure 16.23 is from has long been a part of shear stiffness prediction in
a highly fractured shale-rich field site called relation to block size, since Barton, 1972.
Reskajeage, where Lubbe, 2005 again used Hudson
and Crampin theories to relate a 22% P-wave Lubbe, 2005, perhaps incorrectly, felt that the very
anisotropy to a 0.07 fracture density. Normal com- low interpreted shear compliance for the North Sea
pliance estimated for single fractures were as fault zone might be highlighting ‘the theoretical possi-
follows: 6.6 1013 ZN 8.3 1013 m/Pa, bility of ZN/ZT being close to zero’, since he considered
which converts to a dynamic normal stiffness range that the normal compliance of a fracture at 2 km depth
of 1,510 to 1,208 MPa/mm. A second method of ‘would be vanishingly small’. Clearly this is an exagger-
estimation, again involving the ZN ZT assump- ation, as the effective stress at 2 km depth in a petrol-
tion and Schoenberg and Pyrak-Nolte theories, eum reservoir may be ‘only’ 20–25 MPa. However, the
resulted in the following range of compliances: important point was emphasised that the ratio ZN/ZT
1.9 1012 ZN 2.4 10 12 m/Pa, meaning could be very small, thereby indirectly linking the dynamic
dynamic normal stiffnesses ranging from 525 to behaviour to the pseudo-static behaviour. In sub-
410 MPa/m. Thirdly, Lubbe, 2005 followed the section 16.4.2, potential pseudo-static ratios of Kn/Ks
methodology of Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1990 and Myer for typical 1 m in situ block sizes were derived, ranging
et al., 1995, modelling the observed attenuation from 100–5000. These are large ratios, but they are finite.
from the P-wave transmission amplitudes in a ZN/ZT never vanishes, as perhaps implied in Figure
highly anisotropic ‘open’ fractured zone, deriving a 15.10, at very small aspect ratios. That ZN/ZT becomes
normal compliance of 4.5 1013 m/Pa, or a very small at large scale is however easy to understand.
dynamic normal stiffness of 2,230 MPa/mm, both Worthington and Lubbe, 2004 presented a slightly dif-
reportedly consistent with cross-hole travel time ferent version of Figure 16.23, describing their analysis of
data. Lubbe remarked that the Reskajeage compli- a cross-hole tomography investigation in Cornwall,
ances were higher (and stiffnesses therefore lower) which was published by Herwanger et al., 2004. They
than at the limestone quarry site, due to the greater estimated the compliance contribution of a dominant,
continuity of hydraulically conducting ‘open’ dipping fractures zone, which showed velocities with a
fractures. range of about 3.0 to 4.5 km/s, and an estimated frac-
6. The data point labelled ‘6’ in Figure 16.23 was ture density of 0.07. Using the Schoenberg and Sayers,
from Worthington and Hudson, 2000 and related 1995 excess compliance concept, they estimated total
to a computed shear compliance estimated for a values of ZN and ZT for the fracture zone of
major fault zone from 1 to 2 km depth, intersecting 6.5 1012 and 7.0 1012 m/Pa. Due to a hetero-
a North Sea well at an angle of 50°. (see Figure geneous distribution of fracture frequency in the zone,
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 505
Clay-filling Ks Kn Ratio
Thickness (mm) MPa/mm MPa/mm Kn/Ks
While addressing the subject of likely large-scale com- Figure 16.24 General trends from in situ tests at dam sites, concern-
pliances and dynamic stiffnesses, civil engineering con- ing the (pseudo-static) shear stiffness of normal-and-
tributions to the subject of pseudo-static stiffnesses of shear loaded rock joints and clay-filled discontinuities,
clay-filled (i.e. major) discontinuities can be cited, from as a function of effective normal stresses in the near-
Brazilian dam foundation testing. Table 16.7 shows surface range of 0.1 to about 4 MPa. I) Rough unfilled
macro-deformation normal and shear loading tests joints, or with thin clay film, peak 1 mm. II) Joints
from the 1970s, reported by Infanti and Kanji, 1978. without filling, or with thin clay film, peak
1.0–2.5 mm. III) Filled joints (thickness up to
The applied effective normal stress levels were from
12 mm) with peak 2.5–5.0 mm. IV) Smooth joints
only 0.5 to 2.5 MPa, representing ‘near-surface’ condi-
with fillings 20 mm, and peak 20 mm. Infanti
tions in a geophysics perspective. and Kanji, 1990.
A much more comprehensive assembly of shear stiff-
ness data from in situ testing at Brazilian, and other
dam sites was subsequently reported by the same injection or pumping could be monitored by so-called
authors, in Infanti and Kanji, 1990. The general trends ‘Pac-ex’ combined double-packer-extensometer units
for their extensive shear stiffness data are summarised in installed in boreholes intersecting the fracture zones.
Figure 16.24. Note the dominance of values of shear Interpretation of the normal-deformation effective-stress
stiffness of less than 1 MPa/mm, but at stress levels that change allowed estimation of large scale pseudo-static
are an order of magnitude less than reservoir effective normal stiffness from measurements in a total of ten
stresses. Much of the data range corresponds to the boreholes, with numerous measurements concentrated
black-discs shown at 0.7 m size in Figure 16.14. in ‘Fracture zone 2’, which was a major dipping feature
An interesting coupled-process investigation of large intersected over hundreds of meters extent at the URL.
scale fracture zones at the Underground Research The data sets describing the in situ normal stiffnesses
Laboratory (URL) in Manitoba, based on extensive were extensive, due to the range of normal stress levels
borehole-based measurements, was reported by Martin measured in different locations adjacent to and within the
et al., 1990. Hydraulic pressure changes caused by fracture zone, and due to the fact that the pore pressure
506 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
could be altered at will. In a so-called cataclastic and on a planar fracture actually caused normal incidence
very permeable section of FZ 2, where the effective P:S conversion. This led Schoenberg and Nakagawa,
stress was determined to be as low as 0.2 to 2 MPa, the 2002 to demonstrate that linear slip theory and off-
measured normal stiffnesses ranged from only 2 to diagonal terms in the Schoenberg fracture compliance
6 MPa/mm. Elsewhere, where effective normal stresses matrix, could be used to relate the dynamic traction on
were as high as 20 MPa, the normal stiffness ranged the experimental fracture with the dynamic displace-
between about 20 and 500 MPa/mm. Flow-rate inter- ment discontinuity across the fracture.
preted hydraulic apertures were as large as 400
m in the They found that due to an applied shear stress, a frac-
cataclastic zone, and as small as approx 20, 40 and ture compliance matrix had a single off-diagonal term
60
m where normal stiffnesses and stresses were an that coupled the normal component of dynamic stress
order of magnitude, or more, higher. Reasonably good with the tangential component of displacement, and
correspondence to Barton-Bandis coupled modelling vice versa. The off-diagonal component (ZN V) appeared
was reported by the authors. from their laboratory tests to be linearly related to the
The low values of normal and shear stiffness reviewed shear stress component.
here, represent very attenuating, heavily fractured, and In a partly related field, where joint stiffnesses are of
sometimes clay-bearing rock masses. In terms of attenu- concern for the modelling of deformation in rock
ation (1/Q) they would represent cases of complete masses as a result of, for example, tunnel or slope excav-
energy loss, not per cycle, but in just part of a cycle, i.e. ation, we generally assume a linear initial shear stress-
below the traditionally defined Qseis 2 ‘limit’. displacement relation. If the joints are displaced in shear
As shown earlier in this chapter, ratios of pseudo-static (as depicted in Figure 16.16 – see ‘mismatch’), there will
Kn/Ks perhaps of several hundred to several thousand, are tend to be a linear relation between normal stiffness and
suggested if clay-free fracturing or jointing is to be normal stress, following Bandis, 1980 and Bandis et al.,
represented. But with a dominance of clay-filling due to 1983. Perhaps from these physical results we can
faulting as above, ratios of Kn/Ks perhaps as low as about approximate the off-diagonal response referred to above.
5, and therefore ratios of ZN/ZT as high as about 0.2, An example of the Barton-Bandis shear strength-
would be suggested. (Refer also to the discussion on fault- displacement-dilation modelling of joints or fractures of
scale stiffnesses given in Chapter 15, section 15.6.1). different sizes, is shown in Figure 16.25. One may note
Of course it is not known whether the existing ‘static’ the modelling of a delayed dilation as block size increases.
stress-deformation conditions acting on the joints or frac- Each of the responses to shear stress are scale-defined. The
tures in question, could be considered to have signifi- likelihood of minor cross-jointing in situ, to thereby
cant influence on the stiffer dynamic micro-displacement define blocks of a certain size, will be found to give differ-
‘excursions’. Such cyclic excursions presumably will ent macro-shear stiffnesses, due to the ‘double-effect’ of
tend to occur with suitably increased gradient, above scale on both peak shear strength and displacement to
the existing in situ stress-deformation gradient (or load- peak; the latter also tending to determine the initial slope.
ing path). When this is already ‘soft’ due to clay-filling, The extent to which this ‘macro-deformation’ behav-
higher (dynamic) compliances seem reasonable to iour will ‘steer’ dynamic micro-deformation behaviour
expect. Interestingly, Lubbe, 2005 refers to Japanese is of course uncertain, but the scale effect seems unlikely
work concerning faults under high stress that were to be totally ignored. As a corollary, why should small
assumed to potentially suffer inelastic behaviour in the laboratory samples give more ‘correct’ values of compli-
solid wall-rock material, during transmission of elastic ance and stiffness than in situ block sizes? Possibly the
waves within the shallow sub-surface. ‘Reverse’ stiffen- Worthington-Lubbe-Hudson data shown in Figure
ing, as in the grooved sample of Lubbe (Figure 16.22) 16.23 is tending to resolve this dilemma.
could then affect the compliance/stiffness response. In view of the Nakagawa laboratory observation that
application of shear stress causes P:S conversion on a
fracture, one may speculate whether the ‘open’ fractures
16.4.7 Shear stress application may that are the dream of well production, are also under
apparently affect compliance sufficient shear stress through limited mis-alignment
with major principal stress, that the shear wave splitting
Nakagawa performed an interesting laboratory test which phenomenon is also affected in an equivalent manner
demonstrated that the application of static shear stress to the above wave conversion.
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 507
Figure 16.27 Large-scale (1 m) laboratory-determined roughness The back-calculation of JRC from tilt tests or direct
profiles, and their JRCn values as determined from shear test, and the JRC-labelled profiles in Figure 16.26
self-weight tilt testing, from Bakhtar and Barton, 1984. are based on this method of estimating r . Since mois-
ture generally reduces both JCS and r, there are
inevitable consequences of saturation both on the shear
stiffness (which is given by JRC, JCS and r), and on
16.5.2 Joint wall compression the normal stiffness (which is given by JRC and JCS).
strength (JCS) Barton, 1973a and Barton and Choubey, 1977, gave
extensive reviews of the effects of saturation on b, r,
The joint wall compression strength (JCS) is known to and c. One of the first sources of data for these reviews
generally reduce with water saturation compared to the was Horn and Deere, 1962, who showed that massive
dry state. This is because of the much researched effect crystal structures such as quartz and calcite may cause
of moisture on the uniaxial compressive strength (c), the ‘coefficient of friction’ (flat, artificial surfaces, i.e. b
and on the Point load tensile strength (I50), which in the context of these tests) to increase with saturation,
emanates from the late 1960s. When correctly per- while layer-lattice structures such as mica and chlorite
formed, JCS measurement by Schmidt hammer is per- caused the ‘coefficient of friction’ (b) to reduce.
formed on clamped, water saturated joint samples, Barton, 1973a, tabulated numerous test results from
specifically to record eventual moisture-reduced wall the dry and saturated states for the three categories 1) b
strength, with JCS c in general, as illustrated in (or r) 2) c (or t: the tensile strength), and 3) the over-
Figure 16.5a. all shear strength (which incorporates effects on
It will be noted from the peak shear strength criterion b, r and JCS). Rock types included sandstones, silt-
of Barton-Choubey (for laboratory scale estimation), stones, limestones, chalk, and shale, and several igneous
and from the Barton-Bandis (larger scale) version, to be rocks such as granites, basalts, dolerites, porphyries, meta-
given as equation 16.5, that when JRCo or JRCn are morphic gneisses and slates. This review showed that:
zero, due to complete planarity and smoothness (but
without complications of work-hardened polishing), the 1. b may typically range from 26° to 34°, while r
ratio JCS/n no longer influences the shear strength. can be several degrees less, depending on the degree
This assumes of course that the remaining value of shear of weathering (since r R). In general terms,
strength (n tan r) correctly captures the essence of r moisture (‘wet’ compared to ‘dry’) caused from 0°
for the rock concerned. This is the function of the fol- to 4° (generally 1° to 3°) reduction in b and r,
lowing ratio r/R. since pure crystal structures (massive/layer-lattice)
510 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 16.28 Diagrammatic illustration of joint characterization methods, from Barton, 1999a. a) The left column illustrates direct shear box
testing, where shear force T is designed to act ‘in-line’ in practice, to avoid over-turning moments. Note shear strength-dis-
placement-dilation and shear strength envelope results for three hypothetical joint samples. b) The second column illustrates
self-weight tilt tests, performed on the joints for back-analysis of JRC, and performed on (un-polished) core sticks or sand-
blasted flat-sawn surfaces (both unweathered) for input of b to the empirical equation for estimating r. c) The third column
shows Schmidt hammer tests for estimating JCS and c, and for input of the degree-of-weathering ratio r5/R5 (see worked exam-
ple showing use of highest 50% in each case) for input to the r estimation. d) The fourth and final column illustrates ampli-
tude/length (a/L) measurement, and ‘comb’ roughness profiling, with respective application in the a/L diagram for JRCn
estimation, or for JRCo profile-matching at laboratory scale, using Figure 16.26. e) At the bottom of three of the columns, the
statistical distribution of each of the key joint strength-and-stiffness parameters is illustrated, together with a reminder of the
likely scale-effects on JRC, JCS and the uniaxial compressive strength c. The core photograph is a fine example of contrasting
JRC values from an inter-locked joint and a minor fault in welded tuff, with respective JRCo values of about 15 and 1.
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 511
Table 16.8 Examples of the effect of water saturation compared to Barton, 1982 for derivation of the following empirical
dry conditions, on the basic friction angles of flat, equations, two of which were derived in Bandis et al.,
unweathered rock surfaces. From review by Barton, 1981 from Bandis, 1980 scale-effect experiments).
1973a.
examples are given in the Table 16.8 extract from peak ≈ (16.6)
500 L n
Barton, 1973a.
2. In general terms moisture (‘wet’ compared to ‘dry’) (peak, Ln in metres)
caused from 10% to 50% (generally 20 to 40%)
reduction in uniaxial strength (c or UCS), and a D ) Large -scale joint roughness
similar reduction in point load or tensile strength
L 0.02 JRCo
(t). (Water injection into a reservoir like chalk can JRCn ≈ JRCo n (16.7)
therefore have serious consequences – which may L o
be overridingly positive especially if planned for).
Water saturation causes reduced UCS, reduced JCS,
E) Large -scale joint wall strength
reduced b and reduced r, therefore reduced joint
normal stiffness, reduced joint shear stiffness and L 0.03 JRCo
JCSn ≈ JCSo n (16.8)
reduced peak and residual shear strength. L o
We can illustrate the above effects of the dry or saturated Thus according to the expected effects of moisture
state on shear stiffness, by evaluating examples. (See on two of the three strength components, there is a
512 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Table 16.9 Barton-Bandis modelling of the possible effects of water saturation on the shear stiffness of joints sampled at two different scales.
0.038 0.038
500 500
2. JCSn ≈ 70 47.6 MPa 2. JCSn ≈ 50 34.0 MPa
100 100
1
6.2 3
3. peak ≈ 0.001 ≈ 2 . 3 mm (0. 0 023 m) 3. peak (assume unchanged)
0.5
47.6 34.0
4. i)
peak 10 tan 6.2 log 30) 6.8 MPa 4. i)
peak 10 tan 6.2 log
10 10 27 ) 5.8 MPa
47.6 34.0
ii)
peak 20 tan 6.2 log ii)
peak 20 tan 6.2 log
20
30) 12.7 MPa
20 27 ) 10.8 MPa
6.8 5.8
5. i) K s ≈ ≈ 3.0 MPa/mm at n 10 MPa 5. i) K s ≈ ≈ 2.5 MPa/mm at n 10 MPa
2.3 2.3
12.7 10.8
ii) K s ≈ ≈ 5.5 MPa/mm at n 20 MPa ii) K s ≈ ≈ 4.7 MPa/mm at n 20 MPa
2.3 2.3
Table 16.10 Barton-Bandis modelling of the adverse effect of significantly affected as a result of the assumed reduc-
water saturation on the conducting apertures of a tion in wall strength JCS due to moisture.
joint at two different normal stresses. The incremental normal stiffnesses can easily rise by a fac-
n 10 MPa n 20 MPa tor of 10 to 100 when joints in weaker rock are ‘imaged’ at
an effective normal stress of 10 or 20 MPa, as may apply in
1. JCSo dry 70 MPa e 5.1
m e 1.6
m
a reservoir. As we also saw earlier, from Bandis normal stiff-
E 30.3
m E 16.8
m
2. JCSo wet 50 MPa e 3.9
m e 1.2
m
ness testing, Kn can rise to 103 or 104 MPa/mm if effective
E 26.5
m E 14.4
m stresses become close in magnitude to the saturation-
reduced JCS values. This is logical, since the joints in ques-
tion will be almost closed. Thus, fluid saturated joints in
moderate 13 to 15% reduction in shear stiffness from weaker rocks may have very high ratios of Kn/Ks. We will
the dry to saturated cases, in the examples in Table return to this theme of ‘almost closed’ joints in greater
16.9, in which moderate assumptions for effects of sat- detail later.
uration have been made. Concerning the anisotropic shear wave splitting and
A similar exercise for normal stiffness is more easily polarization into the fast qS1 and slower qS2 wave
performed using the BB numerical model. A cursory speeds, the former parallel and the latter perpendicular
application shows that the initial normal stiffnesses to the dominant joint or fracture sets, one may assume
(where Kni is the stress-closure gradient at very low that it is the relative low value of KS (or the high value
stress), are in the region of 28 to 32 MPa/mm with the of shear compliance ZT), rather than the high value of
above input data. Normal stiffness rises by a factor of at Kn, that is most responsible for shear wave splitting. It
least thirty at 20 MPa normal stress, on cycle #1. would also appear reasonable to assume that very tight
With the foregoing assumptions for input data (JCSo (low-permeability) joints, with high normal stiffness,
dry 70 MPa, JCSo wet 50 MPa, it is found from BB will tend to give faster qS2 wave speeds. Shear-wave
modelling that the initial (first load cycle) normal stiff- anisotropy, and attenuation anisotropy might therefore
nesses are relatively little affected by the dry: wet con- tend to be increased. Theoretical treatment in this area
dition. However, the final apertures, being so small, are of ‘compliance-anisotropy’ was given in Chapter 15.
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 513
Figure 16.30 Three of the axially jointed core from the block test Figure 16.32 Hydraulic aperture (e) versus normal (applied) stress
permeability test holes, with as-recorded roughness for the first ambient temperature, biaxial load-unload
profiles, correct tilt angles at shear failure (70.1°, cycle. Note apertures before and after drilling of the
72.1° and 69.8°) and back-calculated JRCn rough- flat-jack slots. Hardin et al., 1981. (See normal stiff-
ness coefficients of 8.0, 8.3 and 7.9 at the given ness calculation, and possible normal compliance
length scales. Barton, 1982. interpretation, in text.)
Figure 16.31 The main boundary-stress-temperature test paths, for the HMT heated block test. Hardin et al., 1981.
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 515
0–3.5–0 MPa ‘dress-rehearsal’ test cycle, the first ambi- end of the roughness and strength scales for petroleum
ent 0 to 6.9 to 0 MPa biaxial test is shown, with 1 2, reservoir rocks, and perhaps relate best to the stronger
n 6.9 MPa and
0 MPa. carbonates. The uniaxial strength of the present igneous
rock was however, ‘too high’. The JCS c mismatch
was due to slight alteration of the rough joint walls.
16.6.1 Normal stiffness estimation
The typical increasing normal stiffness seen from 16.6.2 Thermal over-closure of
n 3.45 to 6.9 MPa, mirrors laboratory testing. If joints and some implications
one had assumed e E, then the normal stiffness in this
increment would have been 3.45/(34.4 – 30.0) When temperature was applied in the above block test,
103 MPa/mm 784 MPa/mm. However, the phys- unexpected over-closure of the diagonal test joint was
ical apertures can be estimated to have reduced from experienced. Figure 16.33 shows a three-parameter
144.8
m to 135.2
m, making E 9.6
m. This (coupled-process) plot of (e) versus (n) versus tempera-
estimate is based on JRCo 13 and application of the ture (°C), and the following result.
empirical model e E2/JRCo2.5, shown in Figure 16.7. The added joint closure means that this cooled (sam-
The interpreted normal stiffness is then about pled), unloaded joint is displaying an apparent reduction
360 MPa/mm, which is exactly in line with Kn labora- in normal stiffness. This will be estimated shortly. In the
tory test results reviewed earlier in this chapter. reality of e.g. a warm-shallow, or hot-deep petroleum
If we make the assumption that the rock quality was reservoir, joints are likely to be better interlocked than
sufficiently high for Estatic Edynamic, this Kn value of when we unload and cool them for (initial) laboratory
360 MPa/mm would imply, by inversion, a normal testing. In fact it would be better to keep them hot
compliance ZN of about 0.0028 m/GPa, or 2.8
1012 m/Pa. In fact the rock mass quality was very good,
as the following estimation of Q-parameters shows (see
Appendix A for ratings).
100 3 1
Q ≈ 67 Q c Q c
9 1 0.5 100
200
Q c ≈ 67 ≈ 130 (‘very good’)
100
Table 16.11 Effect of temperature on joint (hydraulic) apertures enough to explain the need for several load-unload-load
at the heated block test. cycles to move beyond the strong hysteresis ‘always’
Test No. 11 12 13 16 experienced on the first load cycle, as emphasised by
Barton, 1971, Bandis, 1980 and Bandis et al., 1983, and
n (MPa) 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 demonstrated in Figures 16.17.
e (
m) 30.0 18.3 12.9 9.1
To illustrate the order of magnitude involved, from the
Temp°C 12° 41° 55° 74°
above coupled HMT block test, one may utilise the ambi-
Note: water viscosities corrected for T°C, before calculating (e). ent Kn value of approximately 360 MPa/mm as a starting
point. This value was established under ambient condi-
tions, with a final stress increment of 3.5 to 6.9 MPa,
before testing, and test them hot too, to get the most therefore reaching the same stress level as applied in the
relevant response, whether for simulating in situ normal heated part of the test. The constant 6.9 MPa was carefully
stiffness, or dynamic compliance. The key parameter monitored during heating of the block, to avoid thermal
affected by thermal-closure is the thermal expansion expansion-caused increases in flat-jack pressure. The suc-
coefficient. Joints must be included, and tested hot. cessive reductions of conducting aperture were from
The explanation for this phenomenon was assumed 30
m to 18.3
m to 12.9
m to 9.1
m, for tempera-
to be quite simple (Barton, 1982). Namely that the joint ture increases from 12°C to 41°C to 55°C and finally to
in question, and perhaps the huge majority of joints 74°C. The process took about 1 month: in geophysics ter-
developed in the crust, were formed at variously elevated minology about 107 Hz.
temperatures. They were thereby given a primeval ‘finger- As shown earlier, if one had assumed e E, then the
print’ of 3D-roughness, which was influenced by all the normal stiffness in the previous ambient increment
minerals (or grains) forming the joint walls. When would have been equal to 3.45 MPa/(34.4 –
cooled, various subtle changes would occur, causing 30.0)
m 103 780 MPa/mm. But since E
reduced fit. 14.0
m, based on JRCo 13 and the empirical model
In the case of igneous rocks, many of the earliest joint- E2 e2. JRCo2.5, the interpreted ambient normal stiff-
ing episodes would be at the cool side of the brittle- ness was about 360 MPa/mm, which was in line with
ductile transition. When such a joint, any joint, is (ambient) Kn test results reviewed earlier in this chapter.
encountered today, (e.g. at shallow depth in a mine, or The estimations of thermally-changed (static) normal
if drilled at depth and bought to the surface causing stiffnesses (and therefore potentially changed dynamic
unloading and further cooling?), the 3D roughness fin- compliances) are set out in Table 16.12, for transparency.
ger-print, though very recognisable, would be subtly The assumption is made, for purposes of calculation,
altered in its finer details. These details (very important that each thermally-induced reduction in aperture
at the micron-scale) would be a combination of: occurred at the end of the last load increment. The suc-
cessive closures are therefore allowed to have an accu-
a) a slight expansion from (anisotropic?) stress relief mulative effect on normal stiffness, as if each test started
when sampled from depth at 12°C and 3.45 MPa normal stress. In fact, since a
b) a sampling damage, but neglected for sake of strict definition of stiffness is stress increase divided by
simplicity aperture reduction, one could claim that the joint had
c) a general thermal contraction effect, but this might ‘zero’ stiffness, since no stress increment (rather a ther-
allow the equally altered finger-prints from each mal increment) was applied.
wall to still fit perfectly If this (almost reversible) thermal over-closure phe-
d) locally inhomogeneous contraction superimposed nomenon is of general application in the case of the less
on c), due to non-equality of the thermal contrac- planar jointing, it implies that when the joint in question
tion coefficients of the constituent minerals and is ‘sampled at depth’ by seismic anisotropy determina-
grains along the joint walls tion, in the familiar warmth of a petroleum reservoir, the
elevated stress and temperature will likely result in lower
Factors a) and d) are good reasons for less than ‘per- compliance, due to its previously imprinted greater stiff-
fect fit’ of the primeval joint walls in a testing situation, ness. However, the present temperature at depth is
when initially testing at ambient temperature. Factors a) unlikely to be the same as the temperature when the joint
and b) alone, without temperature considerations, are was formed.
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 517
Table 16.12 Estimation of thermally-induced, apparent reductions of (static) normal stiffness, from the heated block test.
For Kn estimation assume each test starts at 12°C and 3.45 MPa, and ends at the specific elevated temperature.
The joint will also be open to changes bought about strength in relation to 1:1 control samples, in the case
by the partial cooling caused by e.g. water flooding. The of rough tension fractures which remained ‘over-closed’
above mechanisms suggest a ‘better than expected’ aper- following removal of the pre-stress. This caused diffi-
ture and permeability enhancement as a result of water culties with over-stable modelled rock slopes, in 40,000-
flooding. Efforts to reduce the natural warming of this block tension fracture models. Barton, 2004b, discussed
water on the way down the injection well, could be this phenomenon as being due to ‘JRC at right angles’,
beneficial too, but avoidance of matrix contraction and (i.e. an effective JRC in a perpendicular sense relative to
oil-bypass (unstable fingering) might be a contrary the joint plane). This causes effective locking of asperi-
requirement. ties, if roughness is sufficient, and the stress reduction
This hydrothermomechanical HTM coupling ‘detail’ significant. When JRC is sufficiently low, such as less
(in fact a quite important experimental detail), has not than 10, possibly only less than 6, the phenomenon is
yet been absorbed into numerical modelling. It has not not expected (refer to Figure 16.26 100 mm roughness
even been coded in the Barton-Bandis joint model, profiles in this context).
mainly because data is presently limited, as the phe- The writer has experience of a very rough tension frac-
nomenon is little known, researched, or acknowledged ture, generated to make a sample for demonstrating tilt
in the rock mechanics (modelling) community. Barton testing, actually tolerating a tilt angle of 180°, i.e. going
and Makurat, 2006 have addressed the problem once from horizontal (no shear, pure normal stress from the
more, in an attempt to bring over-closure (in rock self weight of a carefully placed upper half of the block)
mechanics) into focus, as it has been in soil mechanics to 90° (vertical) to 180° (upside-down). In other words
for decades, but regarding a somewhat different mech- even the small pre-stress from self weight loading,
anism (i.e. hard, over-consolidated clays, with their amounting to about 0.02 MPa, was sufficient to give an
altered matrix properties due to unloading from higher apparent tensile strength to the fracture, due to asperity
historic effective stress levels.). inter-lock.
Barton, 1973, discussed similar experiences reported
by a colleague at Imperial College, who registered an
16.6.3 Mechanical over-closure error when preparing a direct shear test. An over-closure
episode prior to shear testing (M. de Freitas, pers. com.
There is another unresearched aspect, which may have 1970) caused a jointed sample to be too strong to shear,
application to shear wave splitting phenomena (and even though the normal stress was already reduced to the
assumed anisotropy), and that is mechanical over-closure. correct level. The sample required mechanical wedging
Rough joints or fractures that are historically loaded to to open it, when extracted from the over-loaded DST
a higher effective normal stress, and later sheared (or apparatus.
shear-wave loaded) under today’s lower effective normal
stress, (due for example to an episode of over-pressure),
will have a higher shear strength, a higher shear stiff- 16.7 Consequences of shear stress
ness, and a higher normal stiffness, than if convention- on polarization and permeability
ally tested at 1:1 n levels.
Over-consolidation ratios of 4:1 and 8:1 were shown In Chapters 14 and 15, when addressing P-wave and
by Barton, 1973, to cause several degrees higher frictional S-wave anisotropy in reservoirs, several case records were
518 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 16.37 Interlocked and sheared joints in ‘wavy’ columnar basalt, demonstrating the role of asperities and dilation on aperture distri-
bution. Columbia River Basalts, Washington State, USA. See Plate 12.
joint in basalt, from the Columbia River basalt sequence stress (n), and the maximum tensile stress was 13 times
in the Western USA, shown in Figure 16.37. higher than n. Apertures were mostly ‘closed’, or
On the basis of such rock stress related phenomena, ‘opened’ to about 2 mm. (There appears to be a ‘mm for
one may then pose the following questions to geo- m’ misprint in diagram d, where 103 m and 106 m
physics theoreticians. In the case illustrated by the shear- should be the two approximate extremes).
ing joint model of Gutierrez, will shear wave splitting Finally, to round off this present discussion of the pos-
occur more readily where the principal stresses ‘plunge’ into sible consequences of an actual local stress-discontinuity at
another direction (as at the stress-transferring asperities), joint surfaces, especially when under shear stress, one may
or will shear wave splitting be able to occur across the 1 consider the inter-bedded bituminous shale and dolomite
stress discontinuity, as generally seen in Figure 16.36, due ‘Kimmeridge clay’ source rocks depicted in Figure 16.39a
to the general presence of a ‘fluid-filled’ lense between these and b. The views are taken looking upwards from the base
same locations? of the 10 m high cliffs at Kimmeridge Bay in Dorset.
A painstaking ‘diagnostic’ of the simulated shearing Although a certain consistency can be noted in the
joint was performed by Gutierrez. This is shown in orientation of the two (actually up to three) sub-vertical
Figure 16.38. In the diagrams we see the following dis- joint sets in the harder dolomite beds, it is easy to imag-
tributed phenomena, along the 100 mm long simulated ine the relative complexity of the joint stress distribu-
rock joint: tions, in view of the stress discontinuity trend discussed
above. Interpretation of shear wave splitting in such a
a) individual contact lengths (mm) for 0, 1 and 2 mm
fractured reservoir environment, perhaps with non-
shear
aligned horizontal stress anisotropy, can be imagined as
b) individual contact angles for 0, 1 and 2 mm shear
somewhat demanding.
c) stress to strength (n/JCS) ratios for 0, 1 and 2 mm
shear
d) contact apertures for 0, 1 an)d 2 mm shear 16.7.2 The strength-deformation
components of jointed rock
There is probably a correlation of high stress to masses
strength ratios where there are small contact lengths and
high contact angles. The highest (compressive) stress The potential for shear-wave splitting as a means of mon-
concentration was 38 times the applied (average) normal itoring temporal changes in the geometry of the aligned,
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 521
Figure 16.38 Numerical diagnostic of the sheared UDEC joint, showing contact lengths, contact angles, contact apertures and stress ratios,
with 0 or 0.5 mm, 1.0 mm and 2 mm of shearing. Gutierrez and Barton, 1994.
Figure 16.39 Vertical view through the inter-bedded bituminous shales and dolomite bed, in Kimmeridge Bay, showing a) complex,
b) ordered sub-vertical joint patterns. Dorset coast, S. England. See Plate 13.
522 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 16.40 Depiction of the effect of block size on the shear strength components of joints, from Bandis 1980, and Bandis et al., 1981.
fluid-filled features responsible for the splitting, can be Evidence for this was obtained from acoustic emission
further visualised by reference to cases where shear monitoring, which showed migration of micro-shearing
deformation occurs in the course of production from a to successively greater depths, when attempting to estab-
petroleum reservoir. Due to the usual non-planarity of lish hydraulic connection between wells, for extraction of
joints (despite their obvious depiction as straight lines or thermal energy. A schematic of such a case was illustrated
planes in the literature), there will usually be non- in Chapter 15, Figure 15.2a, and temporal effects on
linear normal stress-closure-opening behaviour, and non- shear-wave anisotropy were documented.
linear shear-dilation behaviour, Some of the details of The representative block size, given by the number of
joint behaviour need to be explored further, if stress joint sets and their spacing and orientation, plus the
anisotropy causes shearing during production, and if seis- surface character and length of the joints, combined
mic monitoring is to be used for diagnosing the effects with the effective normal stress levels acting on each set,
of new production measures. collectively contribute to the possible response of a rock
There is the potential for shearing when producing mass to shearing, when under the influence of an
from conjugately jointed reservoirs when a vertical anisotropic, and non-aligned principal stress field.
principal stress roughly intersects the two steeply dip- Figure 16.40, from Bandis, 1980, shows the dramatic
ping sets of conjugate joints in the reservoir (cf. Ekofisk, potential effect of the individual block size, on shear
as described in Barton et al., 1986). This case will be strength, and displacement to peak, especially when
discussed later in this chapter. joint roughness is significant.
The potential for shear also exists when water flood- Barton and Choubey, 1977, had anticipated the effect
ing into a jointed reservoir with non-aligned, anisotropic of block size on displacement to peak (peak), as shown
principal stress, for enhancing production. A related conceptually in Figure 16.41. Despite identical JRCn
case is the injection of cold water into a geothermal for joints AA and BB, the altered block size was
reservoir, to establish hydraulic connection to wells on expected to reduce peak. Clearly the bulk modulus of
the far side of the reservoir. the second case would nevertheless be lower than for
In the first case a gradual but major reduction in pore the massive rock mass, as there are so many more joints
pressure (at least 20 to 24 MPa, prior to water-flooding) involved in the deformation process.
had caused an equivalent effective stress increase, fol- Confusingly perhaps, it may be the ‘better quality’
lowing some 15 years of production. The porous chalk rock masses, with wider joint spacing, and with greater
matrix apparently contracted sufficiently to make space joint continuity, that could be most prone to (previous)
for down-dip shearing, despite one-dimensional com- shearing deformation along the joint sets, when under
paction, (see Figure 15.25). the influence of a non-aligned, anisotropic, (differential)
In the second case the injection caused an increase in stress field, caused by some historic tectonic adjustments,
pore pressure, and sufficient reduction in effective normal of which there is no shortage.
stress for the unequal principal stresses (70 and 30 MPa, A heavily fractured rock mass, though obviously with
Pine and Bachelor, 1984) to cause slight shearing. lower (bulk) modulus, may resist significant shearing
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 523
Peak strength
of jointed mass
(a)
(b)
Figure 16.42 a) A comparison of the shear strength of interlocked assemblies of tension-fractured, idealised, model rock masses, with 250,
1000 or 4000 blocks. b) The respective differential stress-versus-strain curves in the 1 and 2 directions for the same models.
Note entirely different behaviour of the most heavily fractured model with 4000 blocks, due to greater freedom for (micro)
block-rotation. Barton and Hansteen, 1979.
friction angle) are shown contributing to peak shear amounts of predicted dilation, with the given input
strength in Figure 16.43. Estimated peak dilation angles are data assumptions, are shown in the middle diagrams. In
also shown on each strength envelope, at appropriate nor- the lowest of the three sets of predicted behaviour
mal stress levels. Clearly as shearing continues beyond curves, the theoretical maximum change in permeabil-
peak, rates and angles of dilation will steadily reduce. ity with the shear-induced dilation is shown. Here,
However the joint (minor fault?) aperture has probably gouge production (and partial joint blocking) is
accumulated some vital void space for fluid conduction, ignored. Note the assumption of an initial hydraulic
minus areas of contact with crushed material and finer aperture (eo) of 25
m in each case.
gouge causing local blockage, as we saw in Figure 16.13. The dilation curves show how the initial physical
Barton-Bandis modelling of individual joint responses aperture (Eo) changes. The sum of Eo E (E1) is
as either block size or normal stress changes are shown in converted to eo e (e1) to estimate permeability
Figure 16.44, from Barton et al., 1985. The relative from the assumed cubic law K e2/12.
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 525
Figure 16.44 Barton-Bandis models of shear strength-displacement-dilation-permeability coupling. Curves generated by Bakhtar with a
programmable calculator. (Barton et al., 1985.) The permeability estimate is the theoretical, dilation-produced maximum,
devoid of considerations of gouge production. The latter requires a modified treatment of roughness for (E) to (e) conversion,
using JRCmobilized, as shown by Olsson and Barton, 2001. (See Figure 16.9).
The oppositely rotated rock-to-rock contact areas 16.7.5 The apertures expected of
with their extremely high stress, are less likely planes for highly stressed ‘open’ joints
reflection. So if the lenses were fluid-filled, an apparent
rotation between the reflectiveness to S-wave and the As introduction to the question of ‘open’ fractures and
squirt attenuation source areas might be the result, in their orientation, we refer to another case record of reser-
relation to the mean plane of reference, some 10°–20° voir seismic anisotropy investigation, this time involving
between the two. a large (43 square mile) 3D full-azimuth, full-offset
Previous figures in this chapter showed that shear P-wave survey in a fractured carbonate gas field in Texas,
strengths, shear displacements, dilations and shear stiff- as described by Lynn et al., 2000. The deep target forma-
nesses, were each affected adversely by increasing block tions were carbonate and chalk formations at 14,000 to
size. (Barton and Bandis, 1982). Due to reductions of 15,500 ft (about 4,280 to 4,730 m). The faster P-wave
effective roughness JRC and wall strength JCS, and velocity direction was parallel to the strike of the local
increased displacement to peak, each caused by larger structure, and interpreted as also parallel to the local max-
block size, the in situ (pseudo-static) joint shear stiff- imum horizontal stress direction. As the authors state:
ness even at 10 to 20 MPa effective normal stress, may ‘The interpreted open fractures are those approximately par-
be close to 1 MPa/mm for the case of say 2 m in situ allel to the local maximum horizontal stress, and are con-
block sizes. Such a low pseudo-static stiffness is two or sidered to be the fluid-flow pathways or permeable conduits’.
more orders of magnitude softer than the ‘Hudson com- Clearly, at four-and-a-half km depth, one is far
pliance’ diagonal (Figure 16.23). Is this also significant? removed from the near-surface, where H max oriented
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 527
(a)
(b)
Figure 16.48 a) Normal stress-conducting aperture behaviour from CSFT tests in natural joints in tuff, ignimbrite, granite, sandstones, shale
and chalk. b) Mean behaviour for each rock type, using power-law extrapolation. Makurat, 1996, Makurat pers. comm. 2006.
P, for the case of a stiffer elliptical crack of aspect ratio in which Ks bulk modulus of solid material (e.g.
(), under hydrostatic stress (Walsh, 1965) is: about 40 GPa for clean sandstones), and Poisson’s
ratio of solid material (0.17 for clean sandstones). The
closure pressure for a microcrack of aspect ratio 103 is
1 2 (16.10) then approximately 40 MPa. Using this theory, King
P 3K s
2 (1 2 ) and Marsden, 2002, had assumed that microcracks with
530 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(c)
(d)
Figure 16.48 c) Normalised stress-to-strength ratio (n/JCS) versus conducting aperture plots, which emphasises the different rock strength
magnitudes. d) Power-law fit to mean data for a given rock type, with extrapolation to higher stress-to-strength levels.
Makurat, 1996, Makurat pers. comm. 2006.
smaller aspect ratios would not be open at applied effect- break down, as rock joints with some wall roughness
ive stresses greater than 40 MPa. appear not to close completely (Bandis et al., 1983).
If up-scaling is performed to much longer cracks and The normal stiffness merely becomes extremely high,
discontinuous joints, with aspect ratios of e.g. 105 or but complete closure is virtually prevented by asperity
less, the above theory for ‘elliptical’ cracks will presumably roughness, like a joint roughness coefficient JRCo that
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 531
Figure 16.49 BB normal closure-permeability and shear dilation-permeability modelling. Case A ‘sandstone’ with JRC 5, JCS 25 MPa,
r 27° and c 30 MPa. Note extremely small apertures and low permeability in the left-side plots ( normal closure) and
the marked dilation and rapid permeability enhancement in the right-side plots ( shear).
is acting at right-angles. However, we would be reaching would shear wave splitting and recognisable fast and
micron size (e.g. 1 to 5
m or less) in such cases, unless slow wave speed anisotropy have been registered by the
previous shearing had occurred. geophysicists?
It would appear that the ‘conventional wisdom’ of
the most conducting joints being parallel or sub-paral-
lel to the major stress direction, which is clearly proved 16.7.6 Modelling apertures with
in the near-surface, by means of three-dimensional per- the BB model
meability testing (e.g. Quadros et al., 1999), needs to
be re-assessed in the context of petroleum reservoirs, in In order to investigate this further, the stress-closure
weaker sedimentary rocks at great depth. Will a joint (n – E) and stress-permeability (n – K) cycles
set with apertures of a few microns or less, really satisfy resulting from Barton-Bandis modelling of three hypo-
the description ‘open joints’, and will they cause shear thetical, but realistic joint characteristics were investi-
wave splitting when they have such a high area in con- gated. The input data assumptions are listed in Table
tact as is necessary for h minimum of 10, 20 or 16.13, and Figures 16.49 to 16.51 and Table 16.14
30 MPa to be transferred across their relatively weak show selected results of this parameter study.
joint walls? If the ‘open’ apertures are actually mainly The first two of these BB modelling figures shows
‘tape-worm-like’ channels, within ‘closed’ joint planes, that the modelling of both cases originates from an initial
532 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 16.50 BB normal closure-permeability and shear dilation-permeability modelling. Case B ‘carbonate’ (low roughness) with JRC 5,
JCS 50 MPa, r 33° and c 60 MPa. Note extremely small apertures and low permeability in the left-side plots ( normal
closure) and the marked dilation and rapid permeability enhancement in the right-side plots ( shear).
Figure 16.51 BB normal closure-permeability and shear dilation-permeability modelling. Case C ‘carbonate’ (high roughness) with JRC 10,
JCS 50 MPa, r 33° and c 60 MPa. Note improved apertures and permeability in the left-side plots ( normal clo-
sure) and the stronger dilation and rapid permeability enhancement in the right-side plots ( shear).
0.85 for the coefficient of friction). Before review- shear strength envelopes, both for rock joints, for frac-
ing their flow or no-flow data, we will look at the actual tured triaxial samples at high stress, and for intact rock
non-linearity of shear strength, in all its forms. Their itself, Barton, 1976 assembled and analysed a large
data on conducting joints and fractures fits the Byerlee number of test data from the literature. The following
‘band’ of shear strength, but the fit can be improved by contrasting sets of (non-linear) shear strength data,
considering non-linear friction. consist of high pressure triaxial shearing of (small)
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 537
Figure 16.55 a) Triaxial, high stress and b) direct shear (low stress) data for induced fractures and joints respectively. Scale effect curves are
estimates only. Barton, 1990b. Adapted from Barton, 1976 with additional data from Byerlee, 1978.
The general strengthening-by-confinement that we in weaker sedimentary rock, due to their limited toler-
have seen in the above shear strength envelopes, will obvi- ance of very high confinement, before ‘state change’,
ously apply strongly in the case of deep wells in hard crys- such as pore collapse (in chalks), or general porosity
talline rock, both for the intact rock, and for the faulted reduction. (Refer to Figures 12.22 and 12.23 for the
discontinuities or sheared joints. We will address this case of sandstones). These medium weak rocks would
aspect again when reviewing deep permeability data. obviously not support 20 to 50 MPa effective stresses,
Strengthening-by-confinement is likely to be of only and mostly maintain porosity, without some strengthen-
moderate strength in the case of hydrocarbon reservoirs ing due to confinement.
Figure 16.56 Schematic representation of the non-linearity of strength envelopes for various ‘earthscience’ materials, showing a comparison of the
empirically derived roughness (X) and strength/stress (Y) ratios. Barton, 1999a.
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 539
24
2000
1800 23
12
1600
DIFFERENTIAL STRESS σ1σ3 MN/m2
1400 14
21
1200
20
1000 22 16 17
19
800 3σ 3
15 σ1
13 AL
IC
R IT TE
600 9 C STA
7
8
400
11
6 5
4
200 10
1
3
2
100 200 300 400 500
(a) (b)
Figure 16.61 Distinctive pole populations of joints or fractures that were conductive, and those that were not, from analysis of Cajon Pass
Scientific Drillhole results. Colleen Barton et al., 1995.
lower than some of their data. Note the lower friction near San Bernadino in California. The hydraulically
coefficients of the saw-cut surfaces, which resemble active fractures were located by temperature anomalies,
minor faults at residual strength. and mapped by televiewer, to an accuracy of 1.0 m
from each temperature anomaly.
The above authors had noted break-out direction
16.9 Critically stressed open anomalies over large depth intervals, in relation to the
fractures that indicate perpendicular-to-H max direction norm. These proved
conductivity to be associated with slip on joints (or minor faults).
Their plots of normalised mobilization of friction:
A significant contribution to our understanding of the (
/v) versus (n – Pp)/v shown in Figure 16.62 are a
geomechanics acting at deeper levels below the earth’s convincing demonstration of the importance of shear
surface, was made by Zoback and Colleen Barton and co- stress (rather than just minimum normal stress) for
workers, regarding the delineation of fracture directions explaining the ‘openness’ of joints, and therefore their
that appear to be conducting directions, and those that conductive capacity.
do not. The ‘simple’ yes or no concerning conducting One may speculate that in such granites and granodior-
directions is fundamental evidence, also for geophysi- ites, the values of JRC and JCS that one might typically
cists and petroleum engineers. estimate, would probably be high enough even for joints
Here we will review several cases that support the phil- that were under h min normal stress, to be marginally con-
osophy of ‘open’ joints actually often being those that are ductive. However, shearing-enhanced permeability would
under a significant state of shear stress, rather than being obviously greatly dominate in signal strength, as apertures
parallel or sub-parallel to H max and without shear stress. would be very small in the case of the ‘closed’ joints.
Authors in geophysics and even those working in the Such a proposition can be tested. A quick 1-D
petroleum industry, who are each dependent on ‘open’ Barton-Bandis modelling, starting with equation 16.11,
joints: both for shear wave anisotropy, and for petroleum with JRCn 5 or 10, JCSn 100 MPa, and an effec-
production, appear to have favoured the ‘parallel to H max’ tive normal stress of 75 MPa suggests conducting aper-
model. tures as small as 2.5 and 15
m. Apertures appear to
Figure 16.61 shows the differentiation of fracture reach such ‘residual’ levels after a few tens of MPa, due
orientations a) for those that were hydraulically conduc- to the combined effect (in this crystalline rock case), of
tive, and b) for those that were hydraulically non-con- high wall strength and significant joint wall roughness.
ductive. These different populations were recorded by Comprehensive supplemental data to the above deep
Colleen Barton et al., 1995 in the Cajon Pass Scientific borehole interpretation was more recently reported by
Drillhole, which was drilled to 3.5 km depth into gran- Townend and Zoback, 2000, and Zoback and Townend,
ites and granodiorites, 4 km from the San Andreas Fault 2001. These very extensive data sets are reproduced in
542 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure 16.62 Mohr stress representation of the shear and normal stress components, acting on the Cajon Pass fractures, (i.e. sheared joints or minor
clay-free faults?), according to their conductive or non-conductive characteristics. Note authors’ friction coefficient limits, as per
Byerlee, 1978, (
0.6 to 1.0). These could apparently be extended/modified to 0.4 to 0.9 in practice. Colleen Barton et al., 1995.
Figure 16.63 Normal and shear stresses for fractures identified as hydraulically conducting (closed symbols) or non-conducting (open sym-
bols). Cajon Pass (triangles), Long Valley (circles), Nevada Test Site (squares). Townend and Zoback, 2000, with data also from
Colleen Barton et al., 1995. (Zoback, 2006 pers. comm., by kind permission.) See Plates 14, and 15.
Figure 16.64 Normal and shear stresses for fractures identified as hydraulically conducting or non-conducting, using borehole imaging.
Cajon Pass (red diamonds and dots), Nevada Test Site (green circles and dots), Long Valley (yellow triangles and dots), KTB
(Germany – blue squares and dots). Inset shows
/n for combined data set. Zoback and Townend, 2001, with data from
Ito and Zoback, 2000, and from Colleen Barton et al., 1995. (Zoback, 2006 pers. comm., by kind permission.)
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 543
S1 Pf
( )
2
2 1
(16.14)
S3 Pf
(b)
The authors Townend and Zoback, 2000, and Figure 16.65 a) Differential stress versus effective mean stress and
Zoback and Townend 2001, do not give specific explan- b) maximum effective stress versus minimum effective
ations for the likely reasons for the above ranges of friction stress, for six sets of deep borehole data. See Townend
coefficient (notably 0.6 and 1.0). As interpreted, these and Zoback, 2000, and Zoback and Townend, 2001,
and other referred authors who are the sources for
are the levels of mobilized friction tolerated by the
the various data sets.
analysed joint planes, at the time of analysis. A man-
made change of pore pressure would not change the
differential stress, but would change the effective mean It is notable that the Cajon Pass rocks showed consist-
stress or the effective normal stress, thereby altering the ently high values of (resistance to)
1. As shown
shear resistance of the joint planes in question, and earlier in this chapter, it is likely, in the case of joints
their friction coefficients, in view of non-linearity and fractures, that this is due to the interaction of a
with stress. moderate to high roughness JRCn, medium to high r
544 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(say 30° approx.), and tolerable stress/strength ratios Table 16.16 Estimates of potential tolerance of mobilized frictional
n/JCSn. The high strength rock will give high values strength, to explore the meaning of
1 for e.g.
of JCSn, or more specifically: high confined strengths Cajon Pass data from Zoback and Townend, 2001.
(1 – 3), if joint walls had minimal alteration. Case A (minor alteration of Case B (hard unaltered joint
We can ‘assemble’ estimates of input data for applica- joint walls) walls)
tion in the high-stress, large block-size, version of the
JRCn 8, JRCn 10, (1 – 3)n
Barton-Bandis criterion (Barton and Bandis, 1990):
JCSn 200 MPa, r 29° 400 MPa, r 31°
n 30 MPa
0.72 n 30 MPa
0.91
( 1 3 ) n 60 MPa
0.65 n 60 MPa
0.82
n tan JRCn log n
r
(16.15)
n
Substitution of 500 MPa or 600 MPa for (1 – 3)n in
where (1 – 3)n is an estimate of the confined strength the Case B example in Table 16.16, again at effective
of the rock, with assumed absence of alteration along stresses of 30 and 60 MPa respectively, would raise the
the joint or fracture walls. If there was alteration and Case B estimates of peak
from 0.91 to 0.94 (with
reduced wall strength, one would expect a less ‘con- 600 MPa), or from 0.82 to 0.87 (with 500 MPa). Here
fined’ estimate of JCSn, i.e. of magnitude (1 – 3)n we have ignored the inevitable small size of the samples
for the triaxially confined intact rock. Of course in situ, used to generate the Figure 16.57 data (down to approx.
the rock is poly-axially confined. 10 mm size cylinders), and have therefore assumed lim-
The following assumptions will be made to explore if ited scale effects at these intensely high pressures.
the toleration of transformed shear and normal stress in
a ratio as high as 1, i.e.
1, can be ‘explained’ with 16.9.1 The JRC contribution at
a representative range of parameter values, as follows: different scales and
deformations
JRCn 8 or 10 r 29°–31°
JCSn 200 MPa or (1 – 3)n 400 MPa n 30–60 MPa
The only other conceivable contributor to higher shear
This is an effective stress range similar to the easily strength values might appear to be roughness JRCn.
estimated vertical effective stress at (hydrostatically However, with block sizes of 0.5, 1.0, or even 5.0 m,
saturated) depths of 2 and 4 km, assuming a simple the empirical scaling laws would demand quite excep-
average crystalline rock density of 2500 kg/m3 (i.e. tional JRCo values for the small-scale roughness, and
2 2.5 – 2 : 30 MPa, 4 2.5 – 4 : 60 MPa). As will frankly, little possibility that ‘the critical shearing crust’
be demonstrated, unless in situ block sizes around the was ever mobilized. The optimistic value of JRCn 10,
analysed wells are quite small, in fact significantly less applied in Case B in Table 16.16, is already actually ‘too
than 0.5 m, then impossibly high, lab-scale JRCo values high’, since it implies JRCo values (for nominal 100 mm
would be needed to generate mobilized friction as high scale), as high as 20 or 21, even when the assumed in
as
1. One would need to greatly exceed the ‘JRCo situ block size round the analysed wells is limited to
limit’ (about 20), illustrated in Figure 16.26. 0.5 m. This is shown, by regression, from the inverse
As one may note from the estimates in Table 16.16, a application of the previously described block-size scal-
range of
0.65 to 0.9 (approx.) can be reasonably ing of roughness:
‘explained’, but specifically from peak shear strength esti-
L 0.02 JRCo
mation. If we engage in further analysis of maximum JRCo ≈ JRCn n (16.16)
possible confined strengths (1 – 3)n by looking at L o
more of the available triaxial strength data (Figure
16.57), we see the possibility of even higher strengths The standard set of ten JRCo values and their rough-
than 400 MPa at appropriate depths to our example, if ness profiles, from Barton and Choubey, 1977 were
the rock is very strong under triaxial conditions. reproduced in Figure 16.26. The ten selected samples
(Unfortunately for the ‘parallel to H max model’ weaker were mostly granite, aplite and gneiss, plus basalt, horn-
reservoir rocks do not have such benefits from confin- fels, slate and calcareous shale. The roughest sample no. 10
ing stress.). was an artificial tension fracture in a weak soapstone.
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 545
Figure 16.67 Extensive test data review of displacement-to-peak (peak), from a wide variety of sample/block sizes, from laboratory and
in situ direct shear tests. Barton, 1982.
As can be seen, the larger the modelled block size the undulating, too much dilation would prevent further
‘later’ this dilation and assumed permeability enhance- shear, due to a massive build-up of normal stress.
ment occurs. When there is faulting, or hydrothermal alteration,
In view of the need for combined shear stress and with clay-filled or clay-coated discontinuities present in
permeability, to qualify for registration in the mobi- the immediate vicinity, the relevance of the parameters
lized-friction-with-flow diagrams (Figures 16.61 to JRCn and JCSn in the Barton-Bandis joint constitutive
16.65), the joints need to be sheared, but they actually equation appear, at least at first sight, to be limited.
do not need to be sheared very far. If they are rough and The reality may be no remaining roughness of note
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 547
n tan ( r i ) c (16.17)
(JCS 25 MPa and 50 MPa), and seen the dramatic data acquisition accuracy of each set of measurements.
closure of aperture that was predicted to occur if these There are many possible sources of error (Lynn, 2005,
joints were consolidated/closed by 10 or 20 MPa or pers. comm.), so this is uncertain.
higher effective normal stress, representing an assumed The logic and data of Zoback and Colleen Barton
range of (effective) h min, acting on sub-vertical joints and Townend and their colleagues regarding the prob-
or fractures in the reservoir. ability of shearing is surely incontrovertible. Although
Although down to a certain depth, an increased JCSn we perceived certain difficulties with
as high as 1.0 at
could be assumed, by utilising a confined compressive several kilometres depth, the ‘critical-shearing crust’
strength (1 – 3)n for the joint walls, it has been phenomenon was easy to verify on a local scale, using
demonstrated with triaxial test data that this increase is for instance non-linear shear strength and Barton-
limited in the case of weaker porous rocks. It may not Bandis coupled behaviour modelling.
be sufficient to explain ‘normal-closure’ apertures more Although presented by these authors in the context of
than a few microns, according to modelling predic- mostly multiple-kilometre deep boreholes in predomi-
tions. This is especially so if roughness is limited. nantly crystalline rock, it is the opinion of the writer that
With the advent of improved digital data acquisition, it is the petroleum industry that will have the greatest
and strong interest in the use of shear waves for inter- benefit of recognising the possibility (and sometimes
preting reservoir fracturing, it has become increasingly the necessity), of a shearing mechanism, often conjugate
important to correctly interpret what a certain level of in form. At Ekofisk in the North Sea, a model-predicted,
anisotropy and attenuation at a certain frequency means, and subsequently core-sampled confirmation of a con-
when analysing the fast and slow shear waves qS1 and jugate shearing mechanism (causing slickensided joints),
qS2. How far the industry has come in accepting the was probably fundamental for the two sets of 60° dip-
need for a shearing mechanism interpretation on some ping joints to be able to continue to drain the porous,
occasions, or a non-aligned set of fractures, or that two low permeability chalk matrix. (Nowadays there is an
intersecting fracture sets are actually the source of the additional component of compaction drive, due to water
measured components, is difficult to judge, even from weakening of the matrix and joints)
most recent publications. There would probably have been no development at
We should probably consider five possibilities: Ekofisk if there had been just one set of joints parallel to
H max. They would have been closed before discovery
● H max-aligned ‘open’ joints due to sufficient wall (i.e. therefore never discovered), and ‘further closed’ by
strength and roughness a 20 to 24 MPa increase in effective normal stress, (prior
● H max-aligned ‘open’ joints due to hard-mineral to water flooding), if an obstinate owner had decided for
‘bridging-but-not-blocking’ development. Of course other solutions (MHF and prop-
● ‘open’ joints at some angular deviation from the pants) would perhaps have been found effective.
H max direction So the details of fracturing, in terms of number of
● apparently ‘H max-aligned-open-joint-set’ that actu- joint or fracture sets, may be important for production,
ally is two conjugate sets and therefore ideally should be detectable by seismic
● a generally non-planar joint wall topography in all interpretation. In addition, there is the simultaneous
cases importance of the non-planarity of most joints and frac-
tures. At one extreme, one has the cleavage joints in
The third and fourth of these cases will be addressed slates that give ‘billiard-table’ planarity and smoothness,
here. In the handful of cases reviewed in earlier chap- and clearly have no place in explaining petroleum pro-
ters, the anisotropic P-waves, or the polarized, split duction. They would ‘fail to produce’ on two counts:
qS-waves do indeed orient themselves in approximately their apertures would be too minute when acted on by
the ‘correct’ (conventional) direction in relation to the reservoir levels of effective normal stress, and in a ‘shear-
calliper-logged-perpendicular-to-break-out assumption ing earth’ scenario, where they would have difficulty tol-
for the H max orientation. However, we noted, e.g. erating
0.4 when wet, they would nevertheless not
from Lynn et al., 1999, and Maultzsch et al., 2003 data, dilate when sheared. So permeability would be unlikely
that the line-up of assumed fracturing and assumed on both counts. At the other extreme there could be
major stress directions was not ‘perfect’. In fact there marked non-planarity of the one or two key joint sets, as
could be 10° to 20° discrepancies, if one can rely on the illustrated in the next figures.
550 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
(a) 1
( 1 3 ) sin 2 ( d n mob ) (16.21)
2
1 1
n ( 1 3 ) ( 1 3 ) cos 2 ( d n mob )
2 2
(16.22)
1 JCS
where d n mob JRCmob log n (16.23)
2 n
Great care was taken in minimising side friction (S1 and only 13.16/18.79 0.70, the strength of the joint
S2 symbols in the figure), using double flatjacks and was too high for shearing more than a fraction of a
a thin Teflon sandwich separated by a fluid film of millimetre, i.e. pre-peak. Both these changes (
p, nq) in
molybdenum disulphide grease. the ‘actual’ compared to the ‘assumed’ boundary stresses
554 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
are also illustrated by the contrasting stress paths shown A long way beyond the peak singularity (where the
in Figure 16.75b. They help to explain the dangerous strength and dilation angle are maxima), there will be
burst of one of the real-life flat-jacks at 28 MPa pres- little need of a correction for dilation. So for mature
sure, nearly causing injury, and displacing pictures sections of faults one can apply the standard transfor-
around the laboratory walls due to the high pressure oil mation with almost no error, whereas in newer regions
burst. Only two of the surfaces illustrated in Figure of faulting, a roughness/dilation estimate may well be
16.27 could be sheared easily. required for more correct interpretation. Research in this
Since these experimental difficulties, further descrip- area, starting in the laboratory, is urgently needed.
tions and analysis of the problem have been given by
Barton, 1986, and Barton, 1999a, including convincing
evidence from the analysis of a large series of biaxial 16.12 Estimating shallow crustal
hydraulic-jack based shear box tests, where the applied permeability from a modified
loads S1 and S2 had to be resolved into the assumed com- rock quality Q-water
ponents
and n acting on the 45°/45° oriented joint
planes in the centre of the shear box. (This is not Townend and Zoback, 2000, and Zoback and Townend,
required in a standard shear box, with perpendicular and 2001, argued convincingly for acceptance of a ‘critical
parallel application of forces in the principal planes). crust’ concept, with hydrostatic rather than lithostatic-
The main author of these biaxial shear box tests was related pore pressure throughout the brittle depth of
convinced that the JRC-JCS criterion of Barton and the crust. Their analyses of deep well data were
Choubey, 1977 needed to be modified. In fact the con- reviewed earlier in connection with the importance of
sistent ‘error’ in relation to a 1:1 gradient between ‘pre- the mobilized ratio of shear and normal effective stress,
dicted’ and ‘measured’ (as compared to an almost as a strong indicator of water-conducting fractures.
perfect 1:1 relation in standard shear boxes), was caused From the JRCmobilized concept we argued that perme-
by unintended neglect of a dilation adjustment in the ability enhancement could even be with pre-peak shear
classic transformation equations, as described above. displacements of just millimetre size. However the
On the basis of the above, Barton, 1999a argued that sometimes high ratios of resisted
(
/n) of up to 1.0
‘classic’ stress transformation in all potentially dilating obviously suggests a close-to-peak condition, since we
geotechnical materials (e.g. rock joints, rock-fill, dense showed that it is difficult to construct such high in situ
sand, over-consolidated clay), may need to be con- full-scale shear strengths. Post-peak seems unlikely in the
sidered as violation of the St. Venant principle of case of the highest values of resisted
, while the values
co-axial stress and strain. below 0.6 to 0.7, implying mobilized friction angles less
One may speculate that the earlier referred Cajon than 31°–35°, could well be representing post-peak
Pass analysis of Zoback and Townend, indicating in this strengths, or minor faulting. Clearly even lower values
case, a tolerance of
1, could also be subject to the of
of 0.4 to 0.5 (i.e. mobilized friction angles of only
possible need of a mobilized dilation correction, since 22° to 27°), as seen in Figures 16.62 to 16.65, have to be
this research borehole is located in the tectonically minor faulting, but without the ‘complication’ of sealing
active San Andreas fault area, with the possibility of a gouge, since they were also recorded as conducting
more tectonized ‘broken’ rock mass with smaller block- features, by the relevant authors.
sizes and perhaps rougher joints. As demonstrated earl- Zoback and Townend also assembled the deep bore-
ier in this chapter, it was extremely difficult to justify hole permeability measurements that are reproduced in
such high tolerance of shear stress, using all known Figure 16.76. In the case of the KTB hole in Germany,
means of maximizing shear strength. permeability test intervals varied between a few tens of
The dn mobilized equation 16.23, means that one must metres to 3.5 km, with bulk permeabilities between about
consider roughness (and therefore block-size), and the 5 1015 to 1017 m2, or approximately 5 108 to
magnitude of shear displacement. This is because the 1010 m/s if the water was close to 20°C.
magnitude of JRCmobilized depends numerically, upon In a shallower series of tests (1 km depth) at the
the degree of shear displacement. So the mobilized dila- Monticello reservoir, Zoback and Hickman, 1982, (with
tion angle will depend on the present displacement, in data also shown in Figure 16.76), reported permeabilities
relation to the initial, usually interlocked condition of ranging from 1015 to 1016 m2, or 108 to 109 m/s.
the joint. Thermal models of borehole temperature suggested
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 555
L ≈ 1 Qc (16.24)
Figure 16.77 The jointed rock mass quality Q-diagram, showing potential integration of the UCS-normalised Q c value, Vp, Emass and
Lugeon value. (1 Lugeon 107 m/s). (See Chapter 9).
scale, Below the 1 m scale, values reduced to intact Table 16.17 Some suggested inter-relations between rock mass
matrix values of 1012 m/s as a minimum. quality, P-wave seismic velocity, and permeability. Note
The above six orders of magnitude corresponds to that ‘faulted rock’ qualities, with Q 0.1, implying
clay-filled (and probably sealed) discontinuities, have
the full range of permeabilities shown in Figure 16.77.
been excluded.
The simple (too simple) correlations between rock
quality, velocity and permeability, presently represented Extremely/
in Figure 16.77, are reproduced in Table 16.17. very poor Poor Good Very good
In Figure 16.78 two sets of equations are shown in Qc 0.1 1 10 100
the table above the figure. The uppermost set of equa- Lugeon 10 1 0.1 0.01
tions correspond to the L 1/Q c inverse relation dis- K (m/s) 106 107 108 109 (approx.)
cussed above, and show the standard ‘definition’ of rock Vp 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 (km/s)
mass quality Q, here normalised by the UCS of the
rock. The lower part of the table shows recent work by
that the friction-based Jr/Ja ratio has been inverted to
the writer for rationalizing the permeability – Q-value
Ja/Jr to allow improved consistency where clay-filling is
linkage, which has inconsistencies where clay-filled joints
concerned. With clay-filling on dominant jointing,
or discontinuities are concerned. One may note from
Qwater now increases, and the inverse permeability
the following:
reduces. A further step to enable general stress or depth
dependent permeability to be modelled, is normaliza-
RQD J J tion by 100/JCS; i.e. when the joint wall compression
Q water a w (16.25)
Jn Jr SRF strength is less than 100 MPa, there will be an increase
Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism 557
Figure 16.78 The permeability-depth trends that are predicted by the QH2O modification of the rock quality Q formula. The trends are pre-
liminary, but show the potential for a comprehensive rock mass description method to give a first estimate of possible permea-
bility values.
Figure 16.79 a) An example of a massive rock mass with rock quality Q 1000 and a deformation modulus in excess of 100 GPa. A very low
attenuation is implied. b) The fault-collapse blocking the tunnel on the right would give almost the lowest rock quality
Q 0.001, and a modulus of deformation lower than 1 GPa. It is perhaps ‘off-the-scale’ regarding the conventional definition of
Qseis, and would need to be under stress to allow spectral analysis of measurable amplitudes. Its Q-value would then be higher too.
See Plate 16.
(Quite low permeability due to limited jointing and a particularly difficult tunnelling project. The different
high stress level, which cancels out the conducting effect qualities are typified rather well by the need for a cable
of hard, rough joint walls. Near-surface, significant per- car to reach the top of ‘Q 1000’ rock, while a boat
meability). was needed for hazardous tunnel inspections of several
similar ‘Q 0.001’ fault zones, due to the flooded
Example 3.
state of the tunnel between each fault blockage.
Negligibly jointed, low permeability, massive rock at
As we have seen in several chapters the seismic Q val-
5 km depth (here we extrapolate beyond the curves of
ues, the inverse of attenuation, might have similar num-
Figure 16.78, and base the estimate on the equations).
bers, remarkably, as these pseudo-static moduli (when
expressed in GPa) namely 100 and 1.
regular Q-value 100 4 1 While permeability might be even lower than
1 1 0.5
800, i.e ‘extremely good quality’ 0.001 Lugeon in the Sugar Loaf (i.e. 1010 m/s,
or 1017 m2), roughly corresponding to the Figure
100 1 1 100
Q H2 O 25 16.77 prediction, the fault zone quality of 0.001 would
1 4 0.5 200 be very unlikely to give 104 m/s or 1011 m2 close to
2
K ≈ 5 5.5 1011 m/s the surface, as implied in Figure 16.77, because a lot of
1000 25 5000 3 sealing clay is obviously present. If devoid of clay, Q
could remain quite low, and permeability quite high.
(extremely low permeability due to lack of jointing and Application of ‘QH2O’ from Figure 16.78 to this
high stress level) faulted case, with an assumed 0.1 MPa strength-of-clay
By way of illustrating rock mass Q-values and their JCS estimate near-surface, and 1 MPa at 1000 m, would
extreme range, and also rounding off this wide review give a predicted range of permeability of about
of ‘the rock beneath our feet’, a pair of contrasting rock 106 m/s at the surface – i.e. wet conditions, while at
conditions are illustrated in Figure 16.79. By chance 1000 m depth, a value closer to 109 m/s would be sug-
both are from Brazil, one a famous landmark, the other gested. These estimates appear reasonable.
17 Conclusions
Introduction PART I
In a great range of applications stretching from tectono- Chapter 1 Shallow seismic refraction
physicists’ interest in microcracks, frequency depend- and importance of
ent attenuation and earthquake source mechanisms, civil rock type
engineers’ concerns with low modulus dam foundations,
petroleum engineers’ interest in shear-wave anisotropy 1.1
and the permeability of fractured reservoirs, or tunnelling
engineers’ concerns with the approaching difficulties of a Many geophysicists insist that obtaining high-resolution
low velocity regional fault zone, the common use of seis- images from ground level to just 50 m depth is still one
mic measurements unites many fields of earth science. of the major challenges of modern geophysics. This
The richly illustrated material in this book has been happens to be the layer of the subsurface closest to most
assembled as a result of an interest in a variety of civil, of our civil engineering endeavours, from tunnels, to
mining, petroleum, geophysics and earth science fields. dams, to the foundations for high buildings.
The common denominator has been rock mass and rock
joint behaviour and their impact on the seismic inter-
pretation of the sub-surface.
1.2
The geophysics of the sub-surface and the rock
mechanics of jointed media often focus on related aspects
Shallow refraction seismic measurements – using first
of the same infinitely variable material. Yet different scales
arrival, compressional P-wave velocities close to the sur-
and different frequencies have caused these disciplines to
face can give a remarkable picture of near surface con-
have a mostly separate development, with limited cross-
ditions due to some fortuitous interactions of physical
referencing in the multitude of journals. Bridging this
phenomena. Weathering and the usual lack of significant
void in some strategic locations is the major objective of
stress near the surface has allowed joint systems, shear
this book. Two of the strongest bridges will be seismic
zones and faults to be exaggerated in both their extent
quality and rock quality, and fracture compliance and stiff-
and severity. Stress levels are low enough to allow joints
ness, as applying in particular to fractured reservoirs.
and discontinuities to be seismically visible due to their
Part I of this book is mostly focussed on civil engi-
measurable apertures. Acoustic closure occurs at greater
neering, and the links between seismic interpretation of
depths than those usually penetrated by conventional
rock conditions at laboratory and field-scale, and their
hammer seismic, unless rock strengths are rather low.
impact on rock quality interpretations for tunnels, deep
foundations, dams, planned nuclear waste repositories,
and mines.
Part II of this book focuses on greater depths, greater 1.3
scales, and more subtle geophysical detail, as befits this
rapidly developing field. The chapters of Part II treat atten- Micro-fractures and rock joints are sensitive to stress levels.
uation and anisotropy in detail, and topics range from the The more closed state of the discontinuities that are per-
use of shear wave splitting to interpret anisotropic frac- pendicular to the major stress, and the more open state of
tured hydrocarbon reservoirs, to the interpretation of those that are parallel will give the rock mass anisotropic
mid-ocean spreading-ridges, and crustal conditions as stiffness. The rock mass will therefore frequently dis-
interpreted between earthquake source zones and the play anisotropic seismic velocities. Hydraulic conduc-
near-surface. tivities and deformation moduli that show anisotropic
560 Conclusions
distributions should therefore be easily detected by scale of quality from about 0.001 (for major, clay-filled
near-surface seismic refraction measurements. fault zones) through 1.0 (for well-jointed rock) to 1000
(for massive, unjointed bodies of rock). Static rock mass
deformation moduli might vary from 0.1 GPa, through
1.4 10 GPa to 100 GPa for the same range of qualities, more
exact values depending on the strength and porosity of
The intimate interaction of the dynamic Poisson’s ratio the rock material, and on the level of stress or depth.
and the compressional P-waves and transverse S-waves, Qrock also has relationship to the seismic-frequency
gives strong correlation with the physical condition of based magnitude of Vp, with 0.5, 3.5 and 6.5 km/s cor-
sediments, due to the propagation of P-waves in fluids responding, roughly, to the above rock mass qualities,
and the lack of propagation of S-waves due to the absence when measured near-surface.
of shear strength in fluids. Soft, saturated sediments that
display Poisson’s ratios of almost 0.5 have negligible S-
wave velocities and large ratios of Vp/Vs as a result. This 1.8
ratio eventually falls to below 2.0 as Poisson’s ratio falls
and lithification occurs, as seen at greater depth. Shear The Q symbol is also used by geophysicists as a mea-
zones or faults display high values of Poisson’s ratio and sure of the attenuation or energy loss when seismic
higher ratios of Vp/Vs for similar reasons, despite the rel- waves propagate through a medium. Low energy stor-
atively low value of Vp in such zones. age and high energy loss per cycle, signifying low Qseismic
values and high attenuation (equal to the inverse
Q1seis ), will obviously correspond to low rock quality
1.5 Q-values, and vice versa, suggesting potential correla-
tion between these two Q symbols. As will be shown in
Shear-waves offer better vertical resolution than com- Part II, correlation may be most valid through a ‘shared
pressional-waves in shallow, unconsolidated sediments. earth’ parameter: the stress-dependent rock mass defor-
Shear-wave velocities in such cases are only a fraction of mation modulus.
the compressional-wave velocities. This results in very
small wavelengths, despite the fact that the dominant
frequency of shear wave data is generally lower than for 1.9
compressional waves. To obtain the same level of reso-
lution with P-waves, energy of very high dominant fre- The seismic refraction method has some important limi-
quency has to be generated, and this is correspondingly tations. Horizontal or sub-horizontal ray paths record only
more attenuated in the low seismic Q sub-surface. the upper part of each seismic layer. A thin high-speed
layer can mask underlying material, while a low-velocity
intermediate layer will not be recognised for similar rea-
1.6 sons. Depth calculations to underlying refractors will then
be erroneous. Hidden low velocity zones can be detected
Shear-waves are not attenuated at the water table, and by up-hole shooting from a borehole to the seismic
are little affected by changes in fluid saturation. They spread (i.e. reversed VSP), and of course by inspection
may therefore more easily detect lithological changes with and index testing of core, if boreholes are available.
correspondingly less ambiguous velocity contrasts. Under
conditions of full water saturation, P-wave velocity con-
trasts between similar lithologies may be small, whereas 1.10
shear-wave velocities may reflect true lithological changes.
The overburden at typical shallow refraction sites for
civil engineering projects may not present uniform con-
1.7 ditions. Even a simple site may contain velocity anom-
alies, which reduce the image quality. The time horizons
Rock mass quality can be described by the Q-value suffer push-down beneath slow-velocity anomalies, and
(here frequently termed Qrock), which is a logarithmic pull-up beneath fast velocity anomalies.
Conclusions 561
such effects. Weathering, and frost damage near the may be mainly a result of coring damage caused by the
surface, may accentuate these velocity reductions in sus- release of anisotropic stresses. Stress dependent behav-
ceptible materials, if left unprotected or insufficiently iour is particularly pronounced at low stresses compared
supported. Velocity will then tend to decrease over to the higher virgin stress. Above the previous stress
time, signifying reduced resistance to shear stress. state, the sensitivity to stress change is less. There is lit-
tle or no stress dependence when no cracks are formed
in the recovery process, or when the rock is loaded or
Chapter 3 Effects of anisotropy on Vp unloaded near the original stress state. In a limited
stress regime around the original stress state, the rock
3.1 matrix may behave as a linear elastic material.
3.4 4.1
It has been suggested that stress dependent velocity caused Traditional cross-hole or between-adit velocity mea-
by microcracks seen in cores taken from great depth, surements at dam sites gives only average velocities for
Conclusions 563
use in extrapolation of deformation measurements. Cross- mine pillars, or through rock masses under high in situ
hole seismic tomography allows both the width and stresses, a clear effect of rock stress on seismic velocity is
location of low velocity zones to be estimated, and has demonstrated. In hard jointed rocks near the surface,
revolutionized sub-surface seismic measurements for the P-wave velocity may increase by 1 or even 2 km/s as
tunnels, caverns, deep foundations (and petroleum a result of a stress increase of only 5 MPa, and this may
reservoir monitoring: see Part II). occur where there is no rock mass quality improve-
ment. In soft jointed rock, acoustic closure may mask
the subsequent effects of a stress increase, unless higher
4.2
stress causes compaction of the pore space. Care needs to
be taken in the interpretation of higher velocities meas-
Severe topographic changes and gradational weathering in
ured at depth. These may or may not be associated with
mountainous terrain, make the use of conventional travel-
improved rock quality at depth.
time refraction seismic hard to use, as long geophone
arrays may receive shortest path direct waves earlier than
the refracted head waves. Gradational, progressive weather- 4.6
ing, rather than distinct layering, causes less clear develop-
ment of head waves. The use of tomographic inversion When the cross-hole tomography method is used to image
techniques for tunnels through steep terrain, is therefore highly stressed and burst prone areas in mining, steep
an attractive alternative, and may include tunnel to surface velocity gradients may be found associated with such
imaging, where fault zones are expected. zones. Attenuation tomograms that change with time as
mining advances, may be due to high stress anomalies,
4.3 stress release phenomena, changes of joint aperture and
stress induced fracturing. High shear stresses may be pres-
There is an apparent decrease in the velocity of high veloc- ent where steep velocity gradients occur. Seismic velocity
ity layers with increasing separation of boreholes. The high tomography can also be used to follow the effects of loos-
frequency direct first arrival received at small borehole sep- ening and void formation caused by blasting.
arations may be replaced by a long dispersed wave-form
at the largest separations. Attenuation of the higher fre- 4.7
quency, higher velocity part of the wave at increasing dis-
tance may occur in strongly attenuating rock masses. P-wave amplitude and S-wave frequency measurements in
the laboratory have shown superior sensitivity to stress
4.4 change and to the effects of joint frequency change,
as compared to P-wave velocity. Amplitude attenuation
When comparing cross-hole and downhole velocity meas- tomography and pulse broadening tomography may
urements, the downhole sonic probe is considered to give therefore correlate better with variable geology or variable
a smaller-scale, and usually higher velocity magnitudes structure when in situ stresses are very high, or where
than the averaged cross-hole result. However, the small- deep mining is involved.
scale excavation damage zone (EDZ) that may accom-
pany a borehole in incompetent rock, may be the reason
Chapter 5 Relationships between
for sometimes measuring lower local velocities at the
rock quality, depth and
small scale. Cross-hole measurement generally shows a
seismic velocity
smoothed, average behaviour. While general trends are
similar, the details between the cross-hole and sonic logs
5.1
differ, due to the change of scale and sampling location.
The simplicity of first arrival P-wave velocities from
4.5 shallow refraction seismic, and the easy access for core
drilling have stimulated various correlations between
When seismic velocity tomography is performed at dif- Vp, RQD, joint frequency and the rock mass quality
ferent scales around loaded rock samples, across loaded Q-value. For hard, low porosity rock a useful rule-of-thumb
564 Conclusions
is that Vp 3.5 log Q km/s, where Q is the rock both RQD and Qrock typically increase rapidly in the first
mass quality (range of Q 0.001 to 1000). tens of meters, making a reliable depth correction prob-
lematic, since the three variables quality, depth, and veloc-
ity are often all changing at once. Sensitivity of velocity
5.2 to stress is greatest in these first few MPa of stress
increase. The velocity-depth relation is non-linear, and
When rock has a uniaxial strength (c) significantly has a steep gradient. Velocity increase with depth can
lower (or higher) than the nominal 100 MPa for hard occur in harder rock masses, even when rock mass qual-
rocks, the Q-value needs to be modified to Qc Q ity (Q-value, RQD, or joint spacing) remains constant.
c/100 in the above Vp–Q relationship. When rock
matrix porosity (n) is significantly more than the nominal
1% for hard rocks, Vp must be corrected by a porosity- 5.6
related reduction in velocity. When depth is significantly
greater than the nominal 25 m for shallow refraction seis- A measured 20 metres deep profile of weathered granites,
mic, a depth or stress related increase in velocity occurs, showing improvement with depth of all the indices of
which can also be estimated in the case of rock masses quality (hardness, RQD, density, etc.), demonstrated a
dominated by ‘soft’ porosity, or jointing. A non-linear very large increase in Vp from 1.0 to 4.5 km/s. The asso-
correlation of Vp with static deformation modulus has ciated velocity-depth gradient of 175 s1 emphasises the
also been developed, which can be utilised both with, or potential value of rock quality description. Velocity-depth
without, knowledge of the rock mass quality Q. gradients as high as 80 s1 in the upper 20 m, and as high
as 40 s1 over the first 50 m were recorded at a cavern site
in jointed gneiss with only slight weathering. Unusually,
5.3 the rock quality parameters: RQD, F m1 and Q, did
not improve at this site between 5 m and 60 m depth. A
Data from sites in chalk, chalk marl, sandstones, mud- maximum velocity rise of some 2 km/s (3.5 to 5.5 km/s)
stones, shales and tuff have been used to develop empiri- occurred in the depth range 10 to 60 metres, in which
cal Qc – velocity – depth corrections, which are non-linear horizontal stresses were interpreted from stress measure-
in the case of depth or stress level, but nearly linear in the ments to have increased by 2 MPa to 4 MPa, depending
case of porosity. on direction relative to h min and H max.
5.4
5.7
For near-surface measurements in harder rocks, the ratio
Fracture zone widths in the upper tens of meters tend
of P-wave velocities Vfield/Vlab., when squared, has often
to be larger if the velocity outside the fracture zone is
proved to be numerically close to the value of RQD (with
also low. Narrowest zones tend to have lowest internal
RQD expressed as a ratio rather than a percentage). RQD
velocities, and highest external velocities. There is com-
is defined as the % of core that has core sticks 10 cm
monly a reduction of the widths of low velocity zones
long. It applies to a given core run, or to selected struc-
with increased depth.
tural domains, or to specific rock types, or to cycles of
rock types, where there is some continuity. Since stress
can ‘acoustically close’ joints in weaker rock, joint fre-
5.8
quency as reflected in RQD may then prove to have little
correlation with the velocity. This is where other seismic
When apertures are less than approx. 0.04 mm (or
attributes than P-wave velocity become important.
40
m), the frequency of such fractures appears to have
little influence on the P-wave velocity. This is implied
5.5 by experiments with ‘line-samples’ in the form of multi-
ple-jointed columns of carefully machined rock cylinders.
Increasing depth will usually cause both the vertical Seismic surveys underground also suggest that apertures
and horizontal stress to increase. Besides stress increase, need to be considerably wider than 40
m, for fracture
Conclusions 565
or joint frequency (F m1) to influence the velocity to about 1 to 10 m, typical of the weathered zone. At
ratio Vjointed/Vintact. 0.25 MPa normal stress, equivalent to about 10 m depth,
conditions varying from no gouge to 2 mm of gouge,
may give S-wave velocity reductions of as much as 50%.
5.9
high and the pores, cracks and joints are almost closed, 6.6
the static and dynamic moduli are likely to be of almost
equal magnitude in the common direction of loading. Since seismic velocity also senses the effects of higher
joint stiffnesses, modulus can apparently be estimated
from the empirical relation M 10(Vp0.5)/3 GPa, even
without reference to the rock mass quality Q c which is
6.3 common to both. Where seismic ‘closure’ in relation to
Vp measurement occurs at shallower depth in weak
The modulus of elasticity (Ee) is traditionally obtained rock, the above relation may cease to track the assumed,
from the gradient of the unloading curves, which tend to continued increase in moduli. One may then revert to
have elastic character due to the frequently nearly closed the Qc value and apply the appropriate porosity ()
state of the stress-deformation loops. When unloading and depth () adjustments, in order to predict the con-
from higher stress levels, as when back-analysing shaft or tinued, assumed modulus increase.
cavern deformation, higher values of both Ed and Ee are
indicated. The rock mass becomes stiffer both in load-
ing and unloading, due to the increased degree of joint 6.7
closure as depth or stress increases.
Deformability data have been measured at dam sites in
weathered or soft rocks with uniaxial strengths ranging
6.4 as low as 2 MPa, and at sites with extremely hard rocks
with uniaxial strengths as high as 300 MPa. These rela-
The total deformation measured at the highest load level, tively shallow civil engineering sites may have in situ
after several load-unload cycles, is the usual basis for the P-wave velocities ranging from about 0.5 up to 5.5 km/s.
calculation of Ed. The applied stress level is usually based Corresponding ranges of Ee may be from about 0.5 to
on the size and type of dam, or other structure to be 80 GPa, and ranges of Ed may be from about 0.1 to
located on the particular rock foundation. Clearly, this 50 GPa. At intermediate rock strengths and intermedi-
limits the range of stress over which these parameters have ate velocities of 3 to 4 km/s, Ed and Ee values tend to be
typically been investigated. However, back-analysis of from about 5 to 10 GPa and 10 to 20 GPa respectively.
tunnels and caverns and deeper shaft deformations, and Porous rock, such as weaker limestones, results both in
higher pressure testing for large bridge foundations, has lower velocities and in lower moduli.
extended the near-surface range of stress.
6.8
mass quality estimate. Such data are then the source of moduli Ed values as low as 5 to 10 GPa. The most likely
tentative rock mass strength (c mass) estimation. The fol- explanation is that the large scale deformation modulus
lowing selected sets of (smoothed) data reflect the poten- test, as practised at dam sites (plate load, flatjack or occa-
tial linkages: Vp 2.3, 3.7, 4.0 km/s, Ed (or D) 1, 3, sionally pressure chamber) is nearly always registering an
15 GPa, c mass (uniaxial-loading) 4, 20, 50 MPa. excavation disturbed zone (EDZ) in a loading direction
parallel to the (unloaded) radial stress (r) direction.
In contrast, the velocity measurement may be averaging
6.10 velocities over a larger volume, and may be recording
velocities parallel to the (tangential stress) direction,
It has been recognised in soil engineering that strain lev- or perhaps axially along the test adit wall. The tangential
els associated with normal foundation designs are rather stress is a much higher, maximum local principal stress,
small, for example, 0.01 to 0.1%, and therefore stiff- compared to the minimum radial stress, which approaches
nesses may be successfully described by the correlations zero, due to the effect of excavating the test adit. The
obtained from in situ seismic measurements. Such meas- axial direction would have intermediate stress levels, and
urements have the advantage of registering the stiffness presumably intermediate velocities as a result.
of the ground at in situ stress levels and in the undis-
turbed condition. When a tunnel or test adit is con-
structed at considerable depth in rock, the excavation Chapter 7 Excavation disturbed
disturbed zone (EDZ) effect will alter the above condi- zones and their seismic
tions in a complex way, to a degree that depends on rock properties
quality and the care with which the excavation of the
access adit and block test site has been performed. 7.1
6.12 7.3
Quite high P-wave velocities, such as 4.5 to 5.5 km/s are A larger scale version of stress relief at a gorge, which
sometimes reported together with static deformation cuts through massive, bedded limestones, had an outer
568 Conclusions
layer of 5 m thickness with a velocity of 2.9 km/s, background stresses are more isotropic. Illustrative mean
while deeper into the walls of the gorge, the velocity was results for the three zones may be Vp 3.5, 5.5 and
5.5 km/s. The potentially greater effect of weathering in 4.5 km/s respectively. Least effects on Vp tend to be seen
nature may be thwarted by lack of multiple joint direc- when tunnelling in saturated massive rock at greater (but
tions and permeability enhancement. Slope ‘EDZ’ may pre stress-fracturing) depths, and greatest effects on Vp are
exceed the EDZ associated with tunnelling, due to the seen in drained or dry jointed rock at shallower depth.
longer and more effective influence of surface weather- The hazardous stress fractured zones of tangentially-
ing, including frost damage. strained and radially-loosened or dynamically loosening
rock, would show lowest velocities if measurements could
be achieved.
7.4
result of excavation, giving the strongest reductions in AE events clustered both where tangential stresses were
velocity of 55% to 65%. The seismic quality factor Qseis highest and where seismic velocity (Vp) gradients were
increased in the vertical direction, in the same direction as steepest. The acoustic emission results confirmed that
the highest velocities recorded where there was least EDZ rock failure was initiating just inside the tunnel wall,
effect. Qseis in the horizontal direction remained low (5 to orthogonal to the 1 direction. Relatively decreased veloc-
8), in the same direction that showed the maximum ities were seen in the two regions that were under tensile
EDZ-reduced velocity, with VP declining from 5.5 or tangential stress. Calculated P-wave velocities showed
6.0 km/s to 3.5 km/s at the tunnel wall. quite strong anisotropy in the massive granite, caused
by the principal stress anisotropy given in the previous
paragraph.
7.10
7.11 7.14
The effects of highly anisotropic, sub-horizontal stresses At the Äspö hard rock laboratory (HRL) in Sweden, seis-
at URL were studied in a unique test tunnel excavated by mic tomography investigations were performed to com-
line drilling and reaming, followed by mechanical break- pare the depth of excavation damage zones in immediately
out to avoid blast damage. Principal stresses of approxi- adjacent drill-and-blast and TBM sections of tunnel.
mately 60, 45 and 15 MPa, caused classic ‘break-out’ Principal stresses at the ZEDEX (zone of excavation dis-
resembling that in a borehole. The isotropic-elastic theo- turbance experiment) were approximately 32, 17 and
retical tangential stresses of 165 MPa (31 3) at 11 10 MPa. There was only a small EDZ effect on Vp and Vs,
o’clock in the roof and 5 o’clock in the floor (with due to the high stresses and the partly discontinuous joint-
33 – 1 15 MPa in the side walls), caused promi- ing. P-wave velocities were mostly in the region of 6.0 to
nent V-shaped notches of rock failure. The stress-related 6.3 km/s, with small reductions of velocity in a thin ‘skin’
disturbance was measured directly in 1 m deep boreholes next to the walls. The reductions of velocity were recorded
using a micro-velocity probe with 10 cm separation of in the first 0.25 m into the TBM tunnel walls, and up to
the transducers. 1 metre into the walls of the drill-and-blasted tunnels.
7.12 7.15
Acoustic emission (AE) was recorded during careful EDZ effects around the tunnel were only just detectable
(mine-by) extension of the 420 m deep test tunnel. The by seismic velocity, due to the good quality of the rock
570 Conclusions
7.16 8.1
A drift in the Stripa mine in Sweden, used for borehole Seismic velocity measurements performed from the sur-
heater tests, showed increased seismic velocities between face prior to tunnelling need careful interpretation due
drained monitoring holes in the jointed quartz mon- to the common experiences of enhanced weathering,
zonite, during heating of the rock mass. The initial enhanced fault width and more open jointing experienced
increase in velocity with temperature was linear and var- near the surface. Anisotropic stresses, and anisotropic fab-
ied from 2 to 4 m/s/°C. This was the presumed result ric or structure or bedding, plus hidden lower velocity
of thermally induced joint and micro-crack closure. layers, add to the potential pitfalls when attempting to
Increased P-wave velocities were recorded in directions anticipate rock mass conditions at tunnel depth. The
consistent with a thermally-induced stress increase. An degree of saturation where measurements were made,
initial stress anisotropy giving low stress in the same direc- compared to tunnel depth conditions is also important.
tion as the subsequent thermal stress increase tended to
enhance the Vp response. Greatest response was seen when
8.2
degrees of saturation were also low.
Seismic refraction profiles with appropriate azimuth,
and borehole dip and dip-directions that also take due
7.17 regard of structure and stress anisotropy can improve
the quality of the sub-surface investigation. The use of
A long period of cooling (350 days) generally returned only vertical boreholes drilled where there is predomi-
seismic velocities to values lower than before the heating, nantly vertical structure is a guaranteed way to obtain
suggesting permanent changes, probably connected with poor sub-surface information, if this is only to be based
the hysteresis effect of joint closure and opening. Upon on core and borehole wall inspection. The application
cooling, the less rough, interlocked joints may have of geophysics helps to recover some of the lost informa-
‘sprung-open’ more than their closed neighbours, to avoid tion from representative core samples, especially if high-
tensile stress development. This would cause a reduction frequency cross-hole surveys are performed.
in seismic velocity if the open joint or joints crossed the
path of the seismic array. A velocity anomaly at about
3 m depth was smoothed-out by the heating but returned 8.3
when the rock was cooled. A significant quantity of water
expelled during the heating signified a general closing The common experience of improved rock quality and
of the joints. increased Vp at depth may be checked at intervals by
Conclusions 571
appropriate core-drilling. In the local absence of core, a for. This may mask the actual presence of a serious fault
sensible interpretation of the usual effect of depth on Vp that could better be identified by shear waves or atten-
values can be made using QVp correlation, where Q is uation measurement.
the rock mass quality. In very general terms at hard rock
sites, a ten-fold improvement of Q-value, combined with
8.7
a 1 km/s additional depth effect on VP might be expected
at a 50 m deep tunnel. So a near-surface Q-value of 1.0
An early example of the use of geophysical surveys in tun-
interpreted from shallow seismic refraction, where VP was
nels was the Straight Creek pilot bore of 4.0 m diameter,
3.5 km/s, might see VP increased to 5.5 km/s at 50 m
driven in the 1960’s at 200–500 m depth through granite,
depth, but with the Q-value equal to 10 at tunnel depth,
diorite, gneiss, migmatite and schist, under the continen-
rather than Q 100 as implied by a nearer-the-surface
tal divide in Colorado, USA. Deep layer velocities were
VP of 5.5 km/s.
measured at five seismic spreads: 5.18 km/s, 5.1 km/s,
4.8–6.1 km/s, 4.2 km/s and 6.0 km/s. Much lower shallow
8.4 layer velocities, representing loosening effects were respec-
tively 3.0 km/s, 2.3–2.7 km/s, 2.3–3.1 km/s, 1.3–1.6 km/s
There is evidence to suggest that not only rock over- (worst case, class 5) and 2.3 km/s. These extremely low
burden depth, but also water depths are important, in EDZ velocities proved, in retrospect, to be more related to
the case of undrained sub-aqueous tunnels that prove the insurmountable problems in the 12 m main bore,
to be completely dry, due to low permeability over-lying which took several year to complete. There was possibly
rock masses such as phyllites. In such cases the total insufficient appreciation of the effect of stress on the seis-
stress caused by rock load and water load may give a mic velocities at that time. There is also the possibility of
false impression of rock quality at tunnel depth, to the adverse interaction when there are twin tunnel tubes, with
extent of 1 to 2 km/s. ‘plastic zone’ overlap (or log-spiral shear-zone overlap) in
faulted or weak rock zones, a problem of relevance when
assessing risk in too-close twin-bore TBM tunnelling,
8.5 where conditions are unfavourable.
Seismic velocity measurements performed while tun-
nelling have been shown to correlate in approximate 8.8
terms with speed of tunnelling, support needs, and tun-
nel cost. Probe drilling and sonic logging of the holes Comprehensive geological and velocity classification of
can be utilised for ahead-of-the-event information on rock conditions at numerous rail tunnels in Japan from
rock and hydrogeological conditions. If multiple probe the 1970’s demonstrate the value of velocity-tunnel-
holes are drilled, then cross-hole tomography can be support correlation. Recommendations were based on
performed to add to the tunnel contractor’s prepared- 70 case records from 30 m2 and 60 m2 tunnels. For rock-
ness for difficult zones. This has resulted in the choice type and geological Classes 1 to 6, with their associated
of ground-freezing for safer penetration of dangerous high to low P-wave velocities, tunnel support loads ranged
and/or environmentally sensitive sub-urban fault zones. from 1 to 30 tons/m2, the spacing of the steel arch sup-
port ranged from 1.5 to 0.75 m, and the final concrete
thickness ranged from 0.3 to 0.9 m. Today, we could
8.6 place an equivalent velocity scale below the rock mass Q-
value, which is used for recommending shotcrete thick-
Velocity measurements should be made sufficiently far ness and bolt spacing.
ahead of the tunnel face, at least two to three diameters,
such that additional stress concentration effects are
avoided. Interpretation of local effective stress condi- 8.9
tions will be needed when evaluating results of the
velocity measurements, using VpQ correlation. A When attempting to add a rock mass Q-value scale
‘false’ rock quality, due to a higher P-wave velocity may to such velocity-rock-support recommendations, the
be interpreted, if depth of measurement is not accounted geological part of the classification is particularly
572 Conclusions
important, in view of the porosity, strength and depth empirical model can be applied to make these assess-
corrections to the VP Qc empirical model. Young, ments, where Qc Q c/100.
weak, porous rocks may have RQD 0, and incur
unfavourable SRF values due to adverse strength to stress
ratios in the tunnelling situation. These two factors may 8.12
alter the correlation of support-type-and-degree with the
velocity, unless the velocity is EDZ-based, rather than that Despite the above pitfalls concerning the meaning of
obtained from the fully confined (pre-tunnel) situation. velocity when different porosities and rock strengths are
involved, tunnel refraction seismic and tunnel boring
machine (TBM) progress indicate a quite linear inverse
relationship between the penetration rate (PR in m/hr,
8.10
with uninterrupted boring), and P-wave velocity. This
is also partly matched by an inverse PR and Schmidt-
Sub-sea tunnelling experiences, with velocity-rock sup-
hammer rebound trend. Respective values might be as fol-
port correlation, have revealed several cases of medium
lows: VP 4 km/s, 2 km/s: PR 2 m/hr, 4 m/hr:
and low-velocity zones actually creating greater tunnelling
Schmidt-hammer rebound 40, 20. (Inverse correlation
difficulties than the velocities would suggest, implying an
to possible Q-values of 30 and 0.3 are also implied, as in
artificially elevated velocity in relation to rock quality. The
the QTBM model). Harder, higher velocity rock signifies
tunnelling situation changes the stress level in relation to
tougher boring (i.e. lower PR), but the weekly mean
the pre-tunnelling confining stress. Based on sub-sea tun-
advance rates (AR) might be 1 m/hr and 0.5 m/hr respec-
nelling experiences, Norwegian studies have shown sup-
tively, due to the reduced tunnel support needs. While
port costs rising from 50% to at least 75% of total costs,
tunnel support quantities are roughly proportional to
when the P-wave velocity reduces from 5.5 to 4.5 km/s.
log10 Q, PR may be inversely proportional to log10 Q.
It is likely that these are ‘depth-enhanced’ velocities, since
uncritically applied Q-values would be 100 (no support)
and 10 (light support) respectively, which are unrealistic
8.13
when referring to significant support costs.
Sonic logging of probe holes, made by fast percussion
drilling at from 2 to even 5 m per minute, can give
8.11 advance information on seismic velocity if the holes are
sonically logged. This can be used for subsequent rock
High velocities of typically 5 to 6 km/s may dominate quality class and tunnel support class estimation. The cho-
in refraction seismic studies at relatively unweathered sen excavation mode, and support components such as
hard rock sites. The much smaller number of tectonic bolted steel arches, rock bolts and mesh, or shotcrete, can
zones (shear zones, faults), dykes and joint swarms with then be immediately available, and applied with appropri-
velocities from about 2.5 to 3.5 km/s are what cause the ate timing, behind the advancing TBM tunnel face.
construction problems, especially when high inflows of
water occur. In weaker, porous rock, velocities in the
range 2.5 to 3.5 km/s may signify excellent stability. 8.14
The contrast from back-ground velocities is clearly the
measure of the stability problem, not the velocity per A seismic velocity probe ahead of a tunnel will not see
se. The hard rock velocities may signify rock quality the difference between a TBM tunnel and the drill-
Q-values of 30–300 (very/extremely good), and and-blast tunnel. However, if refraction seismic mea-
0.1–1.0 (very poor) respectively, clearly reflecting the surements are performed along the wall of a TBM
reduction of quality, and need for local, heavy tunnel tunnel, the values of Vp obtained may tend to be higher
support. The weak, porous rock velocities could signify than in the equivalent drill-and-blasted tunnel for at
Q-values as high as 10–100 at nominal 25 m depth, if least three reasons. There is a reduced level and depth of
corrections for 10% matrix porosity and UCS of damage in the wall of a TBM tunnel. Higher tangential
10 MPa were included in the assessment. The VP Qc stresses are acting closer to the TBM tunnel wall. There
Conclusions 573
will be a tendency for lower permeability and less Chapter 9 Relationships between
drainage around the TBM tunnel, which, for reasons of Vp, Lugeon value,
more complete saturation might also increase the seis- permeability, and grouting
mic velocity. On the other hand, there may be a reduced in jointed rock
value of effective stress as a result of the same reduction
in permeability. 9.1
9.3
8.17
Since sub-vertical jointing may dominate in the same way
Velocities measured at depths of hundreds of meters or that horizontal stress anisotropy may dominate, the per-
more, using in-tunnel refraction or cross-hole tomogra- meability anisotropy will tend to be related to azimuth. At
phy, may bear little resemblance to the major tunnelling great depth, this model may be compromised by joint
difficulties sometimes experienced when tunnelling. Face closure, and a shear mechanism may be needed to explain
collapse in a Vp 4 km/s rock mass is ‘illogical’, without the maintenance of (anisotropic) permeability.
allowing for the depth or stress effect that may mask, in
velocity terms, the true low quality. A 300 m overburden
at such a collapse location, suggests a near-surface Vp of 9.4
about 2.5 km/s, using the Q-Vp-depth model. This would
be relevant to a serious fault zone, or extremely poor rock, The void space in a rock mass that is responsible for great-
and therefore more consistent with eventual collapse. est permeability, specifically the joints and any outwash
574 Conclusions
channels caused by weathering or soluble minerals, can showed a very broad transmissivity range of 102 to
usually be injected with cement, micro-cements, or ultra- 1014 m2/s. Corresponding P-wave velocities ranged
fine cements. Seismic measurements, principally in dam from 3.2 to 5.5 km/s, Vp/Vs from 2.45 to 1.72,
foundations, show remarkable increases in P-wave veloci- dynamic E-modulus from 0 to 60 GPa, and dynamic
ties as a result of successful grouting, when permeabilities Poisson’s ratio from 0.41 to 0.28.
are also favourably reduced. Part of the increase in veloc-
ity and resulting reduction in deformability may be due
to the post-stressing effect of high pressure grouting,
9.8
which also may set in a stressed state.
At the Chinnor Tunnel in chalk marl in southern
England, very low seismic velocities in the range 0.6 to
9.5 1.0 km/s were registered for badly fractured/jointed areas
of the chalk marl. Quoted permeabilities were 104 to
Most effective grouting can be expected in the joint set 106 m/s in these areas. Assuming that 1 Lugeon
having greatest permeability and least magnitude of the 107 m/s then the very high Lugeon values of 1000 to 10
effective normal stress. This set will thereby show great- imply Qc values of 0.001 to 0.1. These low Qc values can
est increase in seismic velocity as a result of the grouting. be converted to ‘tunnel support’ Q values of 0.02 to 2
A rotation of the permeability tensor to a lesser magni- (‘extremely poor’ to ‘fair’), by assuming a mean c value of
tude can also be expected as a result of the grouting, and 5 MPa for the chalk marl. This range of Q-values is in line
velocity anisotropy is likely to be reduced. Several of with expectations for the heavily jointed rock mass at
these aspects have been demonstrated using multiple Chinnor.
borehole 3D permeability testing in Brazil.
9.9
9.6
It has been confirmed from comparison with data from
The inter-related physical nature of rock mass quality carefully documented block tests performed in the USA,
(Q), deformation modulus (M), seismic velocity (Vp) that the parameters Q, Vp, M and L are inter-related, and
and permeability (L) means that rock masses can be that the inclusion of the Lugeon value in this inter-rela-
represented by type curves in nomograms linking these tion is justified, if care is taken to eliminate irrelevant
parameters. Although only approximate, such type curves non-deforming, channel flow cases, and to eliminate cases
serve to distinguish typical properties of massive rock, where clay sealing of the joints is occurring. Depth or
jointed rock, porous jointed rock, and fault zones. The stress level, also plays an important role in these mutual
mass properties of each will also be affected by depth inter-relationships.
and by matrix properties such as uniaxial compressive
strength and porosity.
9.10
effective Q-values. Reduced tunnel deformation, reduced to the relaxed or unrelaxed state caused by low or high
support needs, increased modulus of deformation, and frequency.
increased seismic velocity are each implied, and seem to
be supported by the experience of trouble-free tunnel
advance following effective, high pressure pre-grouting. 10.3
The short period of each wave cycle, and the relatively low
PART II levels of dynamic stress, are generally assumed to cause
sub-micron size reversible micro deformations and flows.
Chapter 10 Seismic quality Q and There are those who have denied the early assumption of
attenuation at many friction as an intrinsic attenuation mechanism in the
scales earth, but this supposition was partly based on dynamic
sub micro-strain work with intact bars of dynamically
10.1 excited rock. Frictional losses in situ, due to the presence
of joints and fractures, plus their contribution to losses by
Attenuation can be simply defined as the loss of energy scattering, are now widely cited, and by various authors,
per cycle divided by the maximum energy per cycle in the when working outside the common intact-medium labo-
same rock volume. The wave amplitude versus frequency ratory limits. Important here is the fact that when the
diagram indicates that frequency determines the maxi- effect of single joints or aligned fractures are inverted
mum wave amplitude. The inverse of attenuation, the from seismic data, the respective contributions of the
seismic quality Q, shows high values when there is little dynamic stiffnesses of the joints to the wave amplitude
attenuation, and low values when rock conditions and and to shear-wave anisotropy, are found to have recognis-
near-surface location causes strong attenuation. The stan- able magnitudes and the same units (Pa/m) as when
dard definition: E/E 2/Q suggests a minimum the- working with pseudo-static loading tests. The latter obvi-
oretical value of seismic Q of about 6, but lower values are ously mobilize friction due to their contribution to fric-
reported, including possibly erroneous negative values. tional strength.
Several methods can be used to estimate seismic Q, which
can have the forms Q p and Q s when derived from P-wave
or S-wave spectral analysis, or Q c when derived from the 10.4
tail of an earthquake seismogram, termed the coda, to
sample the deep hypocentral region. Review of a large body of laboratory data for seismic
Q has indicated a close approximation to the pseudo-
static Young’s modulus (Estatic) and it’s increase with con-
10.2 fining stress and sample stiffness. This was noted when
substituting a non-linear seismic Q scale next to numer-
Knopoff’s paper ‘Q’ from 1964 with long lists of seismic ous sets of experimental data that showed only a linear
Q values for solids like steel, glass, lead and celluloid 1/Q attenuation scale. Laboratory studies frequently
(5000, 490, 36 and 7), suggest that relative stiffness may show seismic Q increasing from about 10–20 to about
be involved in some way. It was originally thought that 50–100, as confining pressure is increased from near zero
seismic Q was independent of frequency. However, rock to 10, 20, 40, or 70 MPa . Seismic Q magnitudes have
with microcracks, joints or fractures, and with different great similarity to the variation of Estatic with confining
fluid saturation levels, is now known to cause frequency- pressure, if seismic Q is expressed as if it were GPa.
dependent attenuation. Attenuation losses occur due to
wave scattering from heterogeneities like joints, faults and
rock boundaries, and due to intrinsic losses such as matrix 10.5
anelasticity, friction at grain boundaries, across microc-
racks and across joints and fractures, related heat loss, fluid Intact rock samples loaded to failure show consistently
‘squirt’ from fractures to microcracks to pores, and gas increasing seismic Q when measured in the loading direc-
pocket squeezing when partly saturated. The viscous fluid tion, as does Estatic, and the same samples show reducing
related losses are particularly dependent on frequency due values of seismic Q when measured in the perpendicular
Conclusions 577
10.6
10.9
In situ seismic interpretations of seismic Q have revealed
a certain tendency for higher seismic Q when the rock
In sedimentary, finely layered rock sequences, greater
mass quality Q-value was also expected to be higher.
sophistication in broad-band recording has demon-
These commonly used quality parameters are differenti-
strated a more complex Qseis-deformability response
ated as respectively Qseis and Qrock. The widely used Qrock
than the above, with seismic Qp indicating that different
value, varies from about 1 to 1000 for heavily jointed to
values are obtained from ultrasonic 500–900 kHz testing
massive almost joint free rock masses. It is composed of
of core (mean 27.0), sonic 8–24 kHz testing in boreholes
three ratios. The first ratio is RQD (% of core
(mean 10.4), cross-hole 200–2300 Hz testing (mean
pieces 100 mm length) divided by the number of joint
15.7) to VSP 30–280 Hz testing from surface to bore-
sets Jn. The second ratio Jr/Ja describes roughness and
hole (mean 31.3). The rock mass was a finely layered sat-
alteration, and gives the friction coefficient, which
urated sequence of limestones, sandstones, siltstones and
includes the effect of clay-filling. Finally the estimated
mudstones. The overall range of Qp from the different
water pressure (or tunnel inflow) and the stress/strength
frequencies and depths was approximately 5 to 40. This
ratio are evaluated. Qrock RQD/Jn Jr/Ja Jw/SRF.
remains in a potentially familiar range, if expressed in
The maximum range of Qrock is from 0.001 for fault
rock mechanics deformation modulus units of GPa.
zones to 1000 for massive joint-free rock masses. Qrock
provides quick estimates of seismic Vp, deformation
modulus and permeability, and also indicates tunnel sup-
port needs in rock engineering projects. 10.10
Qo, and has been used to describe deep crustal attenua- inter-bedding is found to be quite attenuating, with good
tion across continents and in component plates, orogenic differentiation between shale, limestone and clay. A major,
belts and major sedimentary basins. Comparing South dipping fault zone in a North Sea reservoir, between 1 km
and North America on this scale, one sees lower Qo in the and 2 km depth, was interpreted from down-going P-
Andean Belt (250–450), and in the Basin and Range waves as having a seismic Qp value as low as 45. Analytical
province west of the Rocky Mountains (250–300). By modelling suggested a strong inequality between the high
comparison, there are broad regions of very high Qo span- dynamic shear compliance, and the more conventional
ning the central Brazilian Shield and Amazonian Basins lower normal compliance. Low pseudo-static shear stiffness
(700–1100), and in the eastern region in the USA below for fault-scale structures is also a necessary input to
the Great Lakes. numerical distinct element models, where realistic subsi-
dence modelling is to match steep subsidence bowls, in
situations where continuum modelling fails to match
10.17 such measurements.
Higher values of Qo reportedly reflect the length of time
since the last major tectonic activity. Low Qo regions are 10.20
typical of seismically active regions with higher upper
mantle temperatures, or the presence of deep hydrother- In Chapter 13, there are numerous further sets of seis-
mal fluids, and variable amounts of fluids in major faults. mic Q data from laboratory-scale testing, in which the
Younger sediments cause local reductions of Qo due to velocity and attenuation data are given side-by-side.
their contained fluids, while older sedimentary rocks Tests at reservoir confining stress levels and with numer-
which have lost fluid, are less attenuating. A shallow sed- ous fluids (brine, gas, oil) will also be found. The rock
iment model for explaining shallow and lateral variation physics data also extends into velocity and attenuation
of attenuation shows Qseis values of 30, 50, 75 and 100 testing of the effects of bedding, foliation and induced
for sandstones and shales from 0–100 m, 100–300 m, fracturing, and the anisotropy caused by these features.
300–600 m and 600 m. Units of GPa are again sug- In Chapter 15, the treatment of poro-elastic modelling
gested in broad terms. also addresses the dispersive and anisotropic nature of
seismic Q, as caused by the coupled dynamic behaviour
10.18 of hydraulically connected equant pores, microcracks
and aligned sets of fractures of various sizes
Seismic Q has become increasingly important in hydro-
carbon exploration due to the improved sensitivity to
degree of saturation of the ratio Qs/Qp compared to the Chapter 11 Velocity structure of the
velocity ratio Vp/Vs. The presence of low seismic Q in earth’s crust
petroleum reservoirs can reflect the presence of over-pres-
sure, of fracturing, and oil. Values of seismic Q as low as 11.1
10 to 40 at more than 4 km depth are good indications of
favourable properties, likewise are pay-zones with over- The uppermost 5 km of the crust shows a rapid increase in
pressured gas giving seismic Q as low as 10 to 40, when deformation modulus and density, as pore space and
the remainder of the sequence shows seismic Q between joints are closed. However, the thermal expansion partly
about 50 and 130. balances the increase in seismic velocity, and P-wave veloc-
ities above about 6.5 km/s do not appear to be common
here. The crust usually varies from 20 to 60 km in thick-
10.19 ness beneath continents, while the oceanic crust is much
thinner, and is usually about 6 to 7 km thick, beneath an
In reservoirs where cross-well tomography is performed, average water depth of 4.5 km. The typical crustal P-wave
there is a possibility of improved definition of the struc- velocity range is 6.0 to 6.8 km/s. In the upper 5 km, and
tures, due to the high frequency and multiple ray-path excluding sedimentary rock with Vp 5 km/s, the most
coverage. Transversely isotropic ‘layer-cake’ sedimentary typical range of velocity is 6.0 to 6.2 km/s.
580 Conclusions
11.3
11.7
Continental-scale velocity-depth profiles show strong
visual resemblance to near-surface refraction seismic pro- Early laboratory testing of oceanic basement rocks from
files to 50 m depth in place of 50 km depth. A uniform deep drilling in the mid-Atlantic ridge highlighted the
subtraction of about 2 km/s velocity, and a scale reduction discrepancy between laboratory seismic properties and
of 1:1000 gives an almost indistinguishable result from in situ, bulk velocities obtained from seismic refraction.
the laterally-varying and depth-varying shallow refraction Confining pressures of 20, 50, and even 200 MPa
seismic obtained at a rock engineering site. were used in early on-board velocity measurements.
Laboratory velocities of 5.5 to 6.5 km/s were typically
obtained with 50 MPa confining pressure. The compa-
11.4 rable, shallow depth refraction-seismic inferred veloc-
ity-depth profiles showed only 2.5 to 3.5 km/s in situ
For many years, sub-oceanic marine seismic refraction velocities, an apparent discrepancy of about 3 km/s rel-
profiles were interpreted as a small number of layers ative to the intact rock, but in fact, some of this differ-
(Layer 2 to 2 km, Layer 3 to 7 km), separated by planar ence was due to the excessively high confining pressures
interfaces, with a constant velocity assumption for each applied to the intact samples.
layer. Homogeneous layering assumptions from the 1960s
were first replaced by much finer layering (2A, 2B, 2C and
3A and 3B), and then in the mid-1970s by continuous 11.8
gradients in velocity. The first geophysical downhole sonic
logging data for oceanic crustal material was near a portion It was subsequently realised that it must be the rapidly
of the mid-Atlantic ridge in a leg of the Deep Sea Drilling increasing (from zero) effective stresses, not the assumed
Project. Velocities were typically from 1.5 to 4.8 km/s in external ocean-depth loads, that were acting on the shal-
the upper 200 m of oceanic Layer 2A. Interpreted porosi- low sub-ocean crust, that was causing the rapid increase in
ties of 13 to 41% were unexpectedly high. velocity with depth. In other words, the velocity gradients
were similar to what is found at the earth’s surface, with
rock and (effective) fluid loads both increasing from zero.
11.5 The theory of effective stress was apparently late in being
adopted in this hostile sub-ocean environment.
The reasons for high porosities were interpreted as being
due to a combination of sediments, rubble, and solid
basalt in contrast to the compact nature of basalt sam- 11.9
ples used in laboratory tests, which often showed Vp
between 5.5 and 6 km/s and porosities from only about 2 Increasing effective stress from the ocean floor was respon-
to 8%. Open fractures and voids were assumed to exist sible for about 4 s1 velocity-depth gradients, together
Conclusions 581
with presumed 4 to 5% per 100 m porosity reduction, as interspersed by a majority of permeable and therefore
seen in the first 200 to 300 m of sub-sea layer 2A. The dif- low effective-stress-loaded permeable blocks.
ferences between in situ velocity measurements in the
shallow oceanic crust and the higher matrix velocities
measured at suitable (low) effective stress levels, was not 11.13
only caused by moderate changes to the matrix porosity,
but also by low aspect ratio jointing and fracturing, which The Vp-Q-value-porosity-depth model uses a plotting
was more stress-sensitive. format that can readily be compared with the oceanic
crust fracture zone data of Layer 2A and 2B. Strong
similarity with oceanic data is seen, probably because
11.10 the rock quality Q-value specifically represents the ‘soft
porosity’ or jointing, and models the effect on velocity
Very high velocity gradients, similar to the above, are of gradual joint closure with depth. The very steep
typically experienced at the earth’s surface because the Vp-depth gradients typically seen close to the ocean floor,
rock quality Q-value, as well as the effective stress, are in the first few hundreds of meters of the new crust, can
both increasing rapidly with depth. We may have a be analysed with this near-surface based empirical
near-surface Q 0.1 followed rapidly by Q 1 and method, which was developed from near-surface civil
then Q 10, suggesting nominal ‘near-surface’ theo- engineering projects. ‘Curve-jumping’ is needed to
retical increases in Vp from 2.5 to 3.5 to 4.5 km/s, with explain the supposedly ‘anomalously high’ gradients
the additional effect of increasing depth and therefore through Layers 2A and 2B. These can be modelled by
increasing effective stress. This dual effect requires ‘curve assuming increased Q-values for deeper, older material.
jumping’ in the Q-Vp-depth relation.
11.14
11.11 East Pacific rise studies were made by many of the
researchers known for their mid-Atlantic ridge studies. A
A direct measurement of Upper Oceanic Crust P-wave linear velocity-depth gradient in the upper 500 to 800 m
attenuation was described in 1990, using seafloor of young (0 to 4 m.y.) oceanic crust on the flanks of the
hydrophones and large explosive sources. The site was East Pacific Rise was initially assumed, and an average
on 0.4 m.y. old crust, and had a seafloor velocity of gradient of between 3.0 and 3.5 s1 for the upper 0.5 to
2.7 km/s, which increased uniformly to 5.6 km/s at 0.8 km of oceanic crust was estimated, with seabed veloc-
680 m depth. Gradients as high as 4.6 s1 near the sur- ities ranging from as little as 1.9 to 2.7 km/s. The evi-
face and 4.1 s1 at greater depth were estimated. Values dence of very low velocities in the upper-most oceanic
of seismic Qp varied from 4 to 275, but mostly clus- crust was consistent with visual and photographic evi-
tered between about 10 and 20 in the upper 100 m, dence from submersibles, of pervasive fracturing in mid-
similar again to expected deformation moduli in GPa. ocean ridge crustal regions, where the basalt layer was
exposed. Low velocities were also consistent with drilling
and logging results that showed high porosity.
11.12
of the variables confronting those researching the variable such very high seismic Q values appear here at ‘shallow’
structure of mid-ocean crusts. It was theorised that young (rock) depth compared to generally greater rock depths
120 ka material with Vp 2.5 km/s, must have a porosity on-land. With a thin, warm sub-ocean crust, permeabil-
of between 24 and 34%. Slower Vp 2.2 km/s zero-age ity may be compromised at relatively shallower depths
crust was theorised to have a porosity of between 26 than under tectonically deformed continental crust.
and 43%.
11.19
11.16
Age effect reviews for both mid-Atlantic Ridge and
At the beginning of the 1980s, a sub-ocean Deep Sea Pacific Rise data show that most of the age-dependent
Drilling Project borehole in the Costa Rica Ridge area, increase in seismic velocity occurs ‘rapidly’ with velocities
made it possible to correlate core, usually of low % recov- nearly doubling in less than 10 million years. Layer 2A
ery, with downhole sonic logs, borehole televiewer logs, appears to persist as a low velocity capping of the ocean
and permeability test results. This was first performed to crust, even when more than 15 m.y. old. The trend for
a depth of 1 km, through layers 2A, 2B and 2C. In the increased velocities as age increases is clearly shown by the
0–100 m, 100–650 m and 650–1000 m depth zones, P- statistics. A velocity plateau, averaging about 4.3 km/s is
wave velocities were a ‘familiar’ 3.7, 4.8 and 5.6 km/s, and indicated, beyond about 7 m.y. There is a clear link
permeabilities were likewise a ‘familiar’ 106–107, between hydrothermal alteration and seismic velocity
108–109 and 109–1010 m/s. Based on vertical bore- increase, due to deposition of minerals first in the
hole logging, which would be biased against vertical struc- thinnest cracks and joints. Hydrothermal void filling
ture, the upper 50 metres was found to contain numerous causes a simultaneous increase in velocity and reduction
horizontal to sub-horizontal fractures, thick basalt flow in hydraulic conductivity, therefore reducing heat flow to
units, and thin interbeds of pillow structures. the ocean floor.
11.17
11.20
Large scale three-dimensional tomography was performed
on the East Pacific Rise sub-ocean crust at the end of the In regions with significant sediment cover, the previously
80’s, at the location of a fast spreading ridge. This was open seawater convection cooling system is hindered, and
characterised by a sharp upper-crustal to mid-crustal temperatures rise, thereby accelerating the formation of
velocity inversion some 1.5 to 2 km below the seafloor. secondary minerals and porosity sealing. The on-axis, zero
This was presumed to be the roof of an axial magma lense, age upper crustal permeability has been deduced to be
with an assumed few percent of melt. Contours of seismic about 6 105 m/s, decreasing to about 7 107 m/s
Q at 4 km depth, showed values of Qseis of 25 and 33 within 6 m.y. Seismic velocities for crust of the same age
nearest the ‘magma’, and values of 50 and 100 at 2 to 3 km are about 2.2 km/s and 4.0 km/s. Permeability may reduce
off-ridge distances, in older crust. Values of Qseis as low as to about 107 m/s or less, by the time the crust is old
8 and 10 have been measured at the Costa Rica Ridge enough to have reached the approx. 4.3 km/s ‘plateau’.
area, caused by local faulting or similar features at 1⁄2 and
1 km depth in the much referred Hole 504B.
11.21
tensors, when conducting multiple-borehole 3D hydroto- pore pressure for conversion of the three principal stresses
mography before and after grouting have been docu- to effective stresses. The appropriate selection of wellbore
mented. ‘temporary support’ in the form of mud pressure, using
variable mud weight, determines the state of the bore-
hole wall in the different lithologies, prior to setting and
11.22 cementing the casing.
12.1
12.4
Hydrocarbon-bearing rocks rely on pore-space and
permeability for the possibility of having recoverable It is important to consider the components and modifiers
reserves that can be produced at a well. The necessary of the most fundamental of reservoir parameters, namely
migration of the hydrocarbons from source rocks into the effective stress magnitude. The rock stress and its varia-
potential entrapment structures, without escape to the tions with direction, depth and location, and the pore
atmosphere, adds to the adverse statistics of hydrocarbon pressure and sometimes over-pressure which are influ-
discoveries. Too close to the surface the sealing properties enced by compaction and also by fluid type, are the major
of shale, salt or clay-smear in faults, may have been com- boundary conditions. Their relative magnitudes affect
promised by lack of plasticity and too high permeability. both the laboratory test simulations, the drilling pro-
Too deep, the pore space and permeability of the reser- gramme, the production planning, and the reservoir pro-
voir may be compromised, giving a reduced reserve and duction and depletion, possibly for 80 years or more in
the need for permeability enhancement and gradient a large reservoir.
enhancement, or a decision for non-development.
12.5
12.2
To prevent hydraulic fracturing by high mud-weights,
Besides reservoir access for production testing, a drill- which are needed where there is overpressure, casing will
hole is used for sonic logging and selected side-wall and be set to protect the overlying units from fracturing. A
regular core recovery, to better define the properties of the change from a pressure-depth axis, to mud-weight-depth
different lithologies, seals and reservoir rocks. Rock reacts format is preferred by drillers, who speak of mud-weight
to the drilling of boreholes with a complex interaction of in lb/gal, and try to steer this between the pore pressure
rock stress and strength magnitudes, plus the anisotropies gradient and the fracture-gradient. Resistivity, velocity,
of each, and is affected by the necessary subtraction of and density depth-trends will each suffer various degrees
584 Conclusions
of deviation from the norm, when there is over-pressure minimum of the three principal rock stress magnitudes in
that changes the effective stress. the shale or salt will therefore often exceed the minimum
stress in the reservoir sandstone by up to several MPa. This
is desirable for hydrocarbon containment, and also for
12.6 vertically limiting massive hydraulic fracture treatments.
Rocks such as granite, limestones, stronger sandstones
The fluid pressure at a well is the sum of normal hydro- and stronger shales (which are thereby poor seals), toler-
static pressure, plus over-pressure, plus a buoyancy effect ate differential stress much better than weaker shales and
caused by the reduced density of any petroleum that is almost plastic salt rocks.
present. Since over-pressure and the presence of petroleum
products both increase the pore pressure, the effective
12.10
stress will also be reduced, which will have the effect of
causing a reduction in velocity.
Shale or salt may, if encountered at sufficient depth during
drilling, require the support of an active mud-weight to
prevent creep or squeezing. The drillers choice of mud-
12.7
weight, or the setting of protective casing, becomes critical
where support of the well is needed adjacent to a reservoir
Over-pressure commonly occurs where low permeability
rock like sandstone or fractured limestone or chalk, which
layers such as shale prevent fluid from escaping as rapidly
would tend to have a minimum rock stress less than that of
as pore space compacts. Excess pressure in relation to
these weaker, sealing ‘plastic’ layers. The reservoir horizons
hydrostatic then builds up as newly deposited sediments
could potentially fracture, or have a permeable joint under
cause squeezing of the trapped pore fluids, which could
lower normal stress than the mud-weight needed to keep
be water, oil or gas or two or three of these close together.
the plastic materials from squeezing and jamming the
Models for basin-evolution show that pore pressure
drill-string. Invasion of mud or lost circulation, into any
effects are seismically visible when the effective pressure is
reservoir horizon is obviously very undesirable.
typically less than about 15 MPa, A small % conversion of
live oil to gas is sufficient to make the pore pressure equal
to the confining pressure. The large changes of predicted 12.11
velocity are caused by the fact that the dry rock moduli
are strongly affected by low effective pressures. As one approaches the surface, inter-bedded rock types
resembling reservoir sequences, show the reverse of
the previously discussed differential stress intolerance,
12.8 because the weaker rocks are no longer ‘over-stressed’.
Furthermore, because of their lower deformation moduli,
Minimum rock stress estimation by mini-hydrofracing, if they attract lower stresses from a given horizontal stress
not possible in an open-hole situation, is done by seating field. Hydraulic fracturing tests therefore may give indica-
the double-packers on either side of shaped-charge perfo- tions of low Ko ratios (h min/v) in the weaker materials
rations of the casing. This is done in the reservoir intervals, like shale and siltstone, and higher values in sandstones
and also in the cap-rock interval, to determine the mini- and limestones.
mum stress difference. Interbedded ‘brittle’ layers like
sandstone, and ‘plastic’ layers like shale or salt, will usually
exhibit different minimum principal stress levels. This 12.12
may be an additional reason for oscillating sonic log
records in such interbedded strata. This reversal of Ko trends at a certain depth (it was meas-
ured from 100–150 m depth, but might apply from 0 to
500 m), may have implications when comparing stress-
12.9 induced velocity anisotropy and sonic log velocity ‘oscil-
lation’ near-surface and at greater depth. This reversed
Shale and salt-rocks may have insufficient shear strength behaviour also needs to be considered when evaluating
to tolerate a significant principal stress difference. The the applicability of shallow borehole seismic testing to
Conclusions 585
reservoir holes perhaps an order of magnitude deeper, temporary support costs by under-supporting, using for
with corresponding reversed Ko behaviour. There may example a constant single layer of sprayed concrete, where
also be consequences for the relative magnitudes of two layers were actually needed locally.
attenuation, as both lower Ko and lower stress levels near
the surface, will tend to enhance attenuation. Thus Qp
and Qs values must be expected to be lower, and exhibit 12.16
more anisotropy near-surface than at depth.
Due to the smaller size of wells and the use of mud for
hole support, the recognition of the behavioural data that
12.13 can be extracted from anisotropic stress effects on small-
scale EDZ round wells, may possibly not be used in the
The hydrocarbon reservoir exploration and production petroleum industry, to the extent it can be used in tunnel
industry has long been aware that borehole deformation engineering. Borehole ellipticity, a much-used historical
and failure modes are an important ‘complication’ con- indicator of the minimum horizontal stress axis, is the
cerning the interpretation of sonic-logging of wells. surface expression of effects behind the ellipticity. In tun-
There are now acoustic dipole and monopole shear- nels it is easy to see the effects of structure-induced
wave producing logging devices that can be used in a wedge release, or stress-fractured ‘lenses’ of rock. It is also
logging while drilling LWD mode, that acquire responses possible to install multiple-position borehole extensome-
from more than one hundred wave forms, some tens of ters (MPBX), in tunnels and in vertical shafts, to meas-
meters behind the drill-bit, in order to delineate forma- ure the anisotropic radial-distribution of deformation,
tion fracturing response, and virgin conditions further thereby giving deformation moduli as a function of
from the walls of the wells, before additional ‘alteration’ direction. Velocity variations and permeability variations
has occurred from stress and/or mud-filtrate invasion, as a function of position and radial depth around a tun-
as often seen in subsequent wireline logging, when the nel or shaft, can also be determined, thereby relating
drill-string is removed. these parameters to eventual stress anisotropy.
12.14 12.17
There are possibilities for local velocity (and seismic Q) There is a strong likelihood that mini-EDZ in the weaker,
enhancement due to tangential (and diametrically-oppo- less well mud-supported zones, have reduced, radial-
site) stress increase in the case of competent rock like dependent velocity, due to failure and deformation in the
limestones, or low porosity sandstones. In the case of over-stressed zones. Stronger inter-beds could show an
over-stressed, fractured (‘dog-eared’) sections of rock, and opposite trend due to tangential stress enhancement of
especially in the case of incompetent rocks like shales, the velocities. Mini-EDZ that might penetrate several
reduction of velocity (and of seismic Q) will occur locally, diameters can be detected, and circumvented by deeper
due to the mini-EDZ (excavation disturbed zone) that sensing, shear-wave based, dipole logging tools. The prob-
form as a result of drilling and possible over-stressing. able discontinuum caused by log-spiral shearing is often
referred to only as ‘shale alteration’. Fabric and jointing
and bedding planes, may also affect the progress rates for
12.15 mud-filtrate invasion. The geomechanics of borehole
deformation and over-stress, and its coupled MHT effect
The mini-EDZ may mean the development of a log-spi- on permeability, mud-filtration, and LWD-to-wireline
rally sheared discontinuum, based on physical and numer- logging differences, can be quantified in approximate
ical modelling results, where the starting point was a terms.
continuum. Stress reduction in the radial direction, which
may be azimuthally varying, will tend to locally reduce the
velocity, and thereby also the seismic Q. It is impossible to 12.19
support each lithology with the ideal mud-weight, so
some suffer the consequences, just as occurs in weak zones Deeper penetration of mini-EDZ, representing ‘shale
in a tunnel where the contractor might be trying to reduce alteration’, may be the reason for a serious potential
586 Conclusions
contrast in logging results, when comparing the 1–2 followed by frictional mobilization at larger strain. In
weeks later result of wireline logging, with the few modified Mohr-Coulomb terms it is a case of ‘c then tan
hours delay represented by LWD, or logging while ’, not ‘c plus tan ’. Numerical models that are pro-
drilling. More recent shear-wave anisotropy based log- grammed, or manually-steered, to dissipate cohesion
ging, is capable of imaging a volume of up to several while mobilizing friction, are capable of matching physi-
borehole diameters away from the wall, therefore cally observed behaviour. Non-linear fracture mechanics
beyond the stress-related fracturing and mud-filtrate boundary-element based modelling seems to mirror real-
invasion or ‘shale alteration’, thereby giving presumed ity extremely well, with log-spiral type fracture develop-
‘virgin’ formation attributes as well. ment that dissipates over-stress.
12.20 12.23
Variable azimuth drilling in test blocks under 3D stress Different degrees of ‘log-spiral-type’ shear failure are
states, gives failure modes that cannot be obtained when demonstrated, depending on the ‘disturbance’ to the
loading a test block with a pre-drilled hole. Deep log-spi- isotropic stress distributions, caused by different amounts
ral shear failure surfaces have been demonstrated in weak of jointing or fissuring close to the hole. These geologi-
cemented-sand blocks, when the major principal stress cal features dissipate some of the highest, near-wall tan-
was about eight to ten times higher than the uniaxial gential stresses seen in elastic isotropic analyses. When
strength, with the minor and intermediate principal modelling medium strong brittle rock, principal
stresses of 60% or 80% of the maximum. This level of stresses of only about 35–40% of the uniaxial strengths
over-stress is easily reached in deep wells in relation to are needed to start fracturing in the form of initial ‘dog-
shale and salt rocks. earing’. A brittle sandstone of 50 MPa UCS would be
acted on by an equivalent ratio of strength to stress
beyond about 1200–1300 m depth, with standard den-
12.21 sity and pore pressure assumptions, considering a
H max value no larger than the vertical effective stress.
With extreme weakness, the failure mode may be non- The existence of dog-earing may provide more informa-
dilatant, and actually contracting-with-shear, or even flow, tion about formation properties than the simple registra-
in the case of clay-rich materials. There are distinctive dif- tion of stress-induced ellipticity in a four-arm calliper log.
ferences between stress-induced failure of hard dilatant
brittle rocks, giving extensional splitting and subsequent
crushing or comminution of the rock in the sharp ends of 12.24
diametrically opposite ‘V-shaped’ corners. In the case of
failure in intermediate strength and less dilatant rocks, the Due to the influence of deformation of ‘soft’ as opposed to
traditional ‘dog-earing’ takes on a different shape resem- ‘hard’ porosity, a borehole for hydrocarbon exploration
bling localized log-spiral shear failure surfaces. Each of that penetrates variably jointed and faulted ground, will
these modes can be demonstrated in physical simulations, actually experience variable small amounts of deformation,
and with suitable choice of numerical model, though not due to different degrees of joint closure, joint opening,
with conventional rock failure criteria. and joint shearing. There will also be the pseudo-elastic
response, due to both loading (at the diametrically-oppo-
site max locations) and potential unloading (at the dia-
12.22 metrically-opposite min locations) of the matrix as well
as the joints, the latter usually dissipating some of the the-
The actual modes of physical behaviour experienced by oretical (isotropic, elastic) peaks of maximum and mini-
boreholes and tunnels, are unlikely to be predictable mum tangential stress. This process will occur even with a
when modelling with conventional Mohr-Coulomb type constant mud-weight, since the mud – unlike rock bolts
(c tan ) shear strength criteria, because intact rock in a tunnel – cannot prevent joint movements of unequal
tends to fail first by loss of continuity at small strain, magnitude at different points around the opening,
caused by loss of local tensile or cohesive strength, although the mud may help to make them very small.
Conclusions 587
12.27 12.30
Dipole transmitter tools are designed to generate flex- The fact that shear wave anisotropy allows the investiga-
ural waves. Flexural waves are shear waves that are tion of a volume of the formation up to several diameters
polarized into fast and slow directions, and penetrate from the borehole axis, means that it can sense jointing,
several hole-diameters into the formation, thereby reveal- and stress-induced fracturing, that are missed by conven-
ing potential stress-induced ‘alteration’, and/or drilling tional logging tools. This means that it is particularly use-
mud-induced alteration. The need for these tools con- ful for registering the additional jointing and fracturing
firms many of the foregoing suspicions that what we that tends to be present on either side of a fault.
have termed mini-EDZ, are indeed a source of concern
in certain formations, and more importantly, that these
‘alteration zones’ can be detected and seismically classi- 12.31
fied. The shear-wave analysis can also be used when
characterizing the formation beyond the damage zone. LWD with dipole shear-wave anisotropy analysis is
available almost in real-time, some hours behind the
drill-bit. It has proved very useful when applied to
12.28 drilling of horizontal well sections, designed to intersect
a maximum amount of structure. Simultaneously one
The ‘altered zone’ around the borehole may continue to can avoid the less favourable parallel to H max hole
develop during the week or so that may separate the two direction. Early warning is also given while drilling in
types of logging. The later wireline log may be influenced formations with rapidly changing pore pressure. LWD
588 Conclusions
13.3 13.6
Age-depth relationships derived from well analysis in Theoretical modelling of porous rock behaviour has
sandstone-shale units have a certain grouping of veloci- been used on many occasions for examining the numer-
ties with age, due to variations of porosity and the ous factors affecting seismic velocities. Theoretical for-
resulting densities. Hard porosity in the form of pores mulations by Toksöz were used to represent the solid
tends to decrease with age and depth, while soft poros- matrix, and the assumed spherical to oblate pores, using
ity in the form of joints tends to increase with age due to widely varying aspect ratios to match numerous labora-
tectonic influences, but reduces strongly with depth. tory data. Small aspect ratios, or flatter voids, caused the
Only the hard porosity has a significant effect on density. greatest reductions to elastic moduli and velocities. The
A relatively ordered density-Vp trend for chalk, lime- properties of the saturating fluid (gas, oil or water) were
stone and dolomite is often seen, and reflects the simple found to produce greater effects on the compressional
mineralogy. Frequently widely scattered density-Vp data velocities than on the shear velocities. The P-wave veloci-
for sandstones is evidence of the variable mineralogy of ties were predicted to be higher, and of course were meas-
‘sandstones’, with 10–15% variation in density possible ured as higher, when the rock was saturated with water,
for the same velocity, particularly in the case of tight gas than when dry or gas-saturated.
sandstones. In contrast to these variations, Vp-Vs trends
are consistently uniform, as befits characterisation by
seismic waves. 13.7
no immiscible gas, when of lower porosity, when under- greater drop in velocity (e.g. 5 km/s to 3 km/s) as clay con-
pressured, when at greater depth, when consisting of tent rises to 30% or more in a simultaneously increasingly
rounded pores, when frozen, when at low or moderately porous sandstone. The relative effects of clay content at
high temperature. frequencies of 10 Hz to 1 kHz (as used in seismic explo-
ration) or frequencies of 10 to 20 kHz (as used in borehole
logging), when imaging in situ sandstones, is less clear, due
to potential effects of anisotropy. The complex nature of
13.9 permeability, which depends on porosity, pore size distri-
bution, inter-connectedness of the pores, and tortuosity,
Water-flooding, and four dimensional seismic monitor- means that permeability may be severely compromised by
ing of its effects, relies on the strong dependence of increasing clay content. Variable clay content also typi-
velocity on temperature, and on the significant influence cally occurs in bedding-parallel layers, making for strongly
of the relative hydrocarbon and brine saturations. Both anisotropic permeabilities.
the matrix, but especially the joints, will also sense the
reduced effective stress, caused by the injection pressure
and by the matrix shrinkage caused by cooling. 13.13
13.20
13.16
The development of attenuation as a means of improved
At high frequencies, pressure equilibrium cannot occur characterization of reservoir rocks is due to the disper-
because the pore fluid relaxation time is greater than the sive, frequency-dependent nature of seismic Q, and the
seismic wave period. Pore fluid in thin compliant pores is greater sensitivity of the ratio of Qs /Qp to fluid and par-
then effectively trapped, and it therefore reinforces the tial saturation than Vp/Vs. The expected reduction in Vp
otherwise compliant pore spaces, resulting in higher by reduced brine saturation and increased gas saturation
apparent modulus and velocity. in sandstones is matched initially, by greater attenuation
with Qp reducing from e.g. 30 to 10. At the far end of
the saturation scale, when samples become ‘room dry’ or
13.17 reach 100% saturation with nitrogen, the attenuation
reduces sharply, and Qp may reach a value of 50. This
Poisson’s ratios are anomalously high in cases of over-pres- is related to the eventual absence of squirt flow with
sure, where effective stress can approach the fracturing increased dryness.
(negative) side of the usual lithostatic and pore pressure
gradients. The aspect ratio of the cracks and pores and the
nature of the saturating fluid determine the magnitude of 13.21
(). Rocks containing mainly stiff, equi-dimensional
pores do not show major variations of () with effective Ultrasonic (0.1 to 1.0 MHz) laboratory tests on dry
stress. In saturated rocks the compliant pores become and water- or brine- saturated Berea sandstone of 16%
stiffened in relation to high frequency waves, so () porosity, have been used on numerous occasions for
changes less as effective stress increases. However, at low investigating how velocity and attenuation vary with
effective stress, when pore pressures are very high, the ‘differential’ pressure (confining minus pore pressure).
effective stress sensitivity is marked, and () increases. The P-wave velocities of this sandstone, when dry and
592 Conclusions
when brine-saturated, usually rise rapidly over the first 10 mechanisms. The saturated rocks always show much
to 20 MPa, eventually reaching a plateau with little stress stronger attenuation (lower Qp ) than the dry samples.
sensitivity. At high differential pressure such as 50 MPa, The effective stress level has greatest influence on attenua-
equivalent to reservoir conditions, there may be little dif- tion when samples are brine-saturated and at the lowest
ference between the dry and brine-saturated values of Vp. levels of effective stress. The behavioural contrast of Qp
By comparison Qp and Qs rise more consistently, even up compared to Vp, with the former’s greater sensitivity to
to high stress levels. They show less attenuation in the dry effective stress level, and to frequency, confirms the
or methane saturated states, than in the case of brine sat- importance of attenuation as an excellent diagnostic at
uration, where squirt losses can occur. reservoir stress levels.
13.22 13.25
Qs is often larger than Qp in the case of the dry and Differentiation of Qp values, has also been suggested as a
methane-saturated sandstone. In the case of brine satura- way of distinguishing gas and condensate from oil and
tion, there is a consistently wide separation of Qp and Qs water in sandstone reservoirs. In perfectly dry rocks, Qp is
(Qp Qs). This represents an important means of track- very high. In fully liquid saturated rocks Qp is at an inter-
ing water-gas fronts during production. The increase of mediate level. In partially saturated rocks Qp is low.
Qp from e.g. 10 to 20 at low effective stress, to values as Magnitudes of Qp for sandstone reservoirs, based on well
high as 60 to 80 to 100 at effective pressures of 50 MPa log (i.e. sonic frequencies), are usually in the following
bears a strong resemblance to deformation modulus ranges: gas and gas-condensate bearing sandstone
increases. A lower range of increase seen with brine satu- 5 Qp 30, oil bearing sandstones 8 Qp 100,
ration, might be due to the weakening effect of brine. water bearing sandstones 9 Qp 100. The low Qp
values may be caused by low effective stress in the case of
over-pressure (or by fracturing). These ranges are remark-
13.23 ably similar to laboratory ultrasonic data, when a range of
effective stresses are applied.
Tests with higher porosity sandstones (range 20–25%)
tested in dry or brine-saturated states, in triaxial compres-
sion, over an effective stress range from 2.5 and 40 MPa, 13.26
using a range of frequencies (400 to 2000 kHz), show
important additional trends when the effect of frequency Classic Biot theory that accounts well for attenuation
is shown together with the effect of stress level. The in clay-free sandstones, fails by an order of magnitude
greater sensitivity of Qp than Vp as effective stress levels to account for the attenuation effect of clay content.
rise is seen as before. However the effect of increasing fre- Strong clay-related attenuation is assumed to be due to
quency shows negative velocity dispersion for the dry sam- viscous interaction between the clay particles and the
ples, meaning velocity decreasing with increasing pore fluid. Permeabilities are also strongly dependent on
frequency, while in marked contrast, the attenuation clay-content. The measurement of attenuation of com-
increases (Qp reduces), as the third to fourth power of fre- pressional waves in sandstones under confining pressures
quency. This is assumed to be evidence of scattering of 40 MPa at ultrasonic frequencies (0.5–1.5 MHz,
within the pore spaces between the grains. shows that intra-pore clay content is important in caus-
ing attenuation, and in modifying the permeability. Qp
may be as low as 10 with clay contents 10%, rising
13.24 up to several hundred when clay content is 1%.
sandstones and siltstones increases from a few percent to as low as 4 to 5, and 3 to 6, at near-surface sites, using
nearly 80%. This is attributed to ‘clay squirt flow’. This seismic frequencies. There is potential for strong squirt
mechanism may also be important at both seismic and flow attenuation with passage of low frequency seismic
sonic frequencies, in the case of larger scale geologic fea- waves, in dual porosity systems such as jointed limestones.
tures such as inter-bedded permeable and impermeable Smaller magnitudes of Qseis may be expected, due to the
layers. contrasting moduli at the different scales, with reduced
differences at higher stress levels.
13.28
13.31
Different rock types such as siltstones, sandstones and
limestones may also show a significant range of instanta- A degree of correlation is noticed between seismic Q and
neous sample deformation as a result of applying high the ‘static’ modulus of deformation, expressed in GPa
confining pressures. Their deformation moduli are clearly and readily estimated from rock quality Q. This modu-
different. Differences between rock types will be accentu- lus is stress- or depth-dependent, and may range from
ated when bedding and jointing is also present, causing about 1 to 150 GPa in the upper 1 kilometre, but most
increased attenuation, and greater sensitivity to effective frequently from 5 to 100 GPa. The components of the
stress. This sensitivity may even apply to velocities, which rock quality Q-value reflect many potential attenua-
tend to show much less sensitivity to confining pressure tion-causing factors, e.g. RQD/Jn for scattering due to
than seismic Q when samples are without jointing. relative block size, Jr/Ja concerning the frictional and con-
ductive properties of the joints that are expected to be rel-
13.29 evant for squirt flow, including loss mechanisms in clay,
Jw as a direct link to permeability, and SRF related to
Dual porosity limestone specimens, with micro-pores increased attenuation where stress is low, and reduced
and inter-particle macro-pores, show a weak trend for attenuation where stress is high.
higher attenuation and lower seismic Q when perme-
ability and total porosity are also larger. For example a
Qp of 10 roughly correlates with 1–10 mD, while a Qp 13.32
of 100 roughly correlates with 0.01–0.1 mD. Both dis-
tributions of ‘pore’ size are important. The attenuation Over-pressured zones due to rapid sedimentation of
can be shown to be the sum of Biot-type fluid flow and alternating sands and shaly sediments present a potential
squirt flow to/from the larger, moderately intercon- hazard when drilling, due to the risk of shallow water
nected inter-granular pores, which may contribute as flows (SWF). Effective stresses and compaction of sedi-
much as 90% of the total porosity. This permeability- ments can be minimal, and progressive instability during
Qp trend is expected to strengthen when the small-scale drilling at a new well can potentially engulf neighbour-
‘dual porosity’ also has the contribution of in situ jointing ing wells, also at depths up to a kilometre. Due to very low
or fracturing. A requisite number of joint sets for con- values of shear wave velocity at low effective stresses in
nectivity, and well-intersection for verification, are nec- sands, there is an exponential increase in the ratio of Vp/Vs
essary boundary conditions. to values beyond 5 and 10, and even beyond 100. Poisson’s
ratios increase rapidly to just below 0.5. There is high
attenuation of the shear waves at the lowest pressures, as
13.30 the sand is close to a state of suspension. Distinguishing
between unstable sand and sandstone is very clear using
Ultrasonic data (0.7–0.85 MHz) for small ‘intact’ dual- the ratio of Qp/Qs plotted versus (Vp/Vs)2.
porosity limestone samples has uncertain relevance for
geophysicists interpreting propagation through dual-
porosity porous and jointed limestones in the field, at the 13.33
lower frequencies used in seismic and sonic log surveys
(50 Hz to 30 kHz range). Dual-porosity chalk, with higher Saturated shales tested under over-pressured conditions,
porosity than limestone, has indicated Qp and Qs values show anisotropic velocity and attenuation in ultrasonic
594 Conclusions
laboratory testing. Velocities can be 30–40% higher par- in the direction perpendicular to the stress-induced
allel to bedding, where attenuation is also least. There is fracturing.
a general increase in seismic Qp and Qs with increasing
differential pressure. Relative proportions of Biot ‘fluid-
past-frame’ attenuation, and local squirt flow attenua- 13.36
tion are different in the plane parallel to the layering,
and in the plane perpendicular to the layering. There is The coupled stress-permeability-velocity behaviour of
a strong link between the rock framework, the pore smooth-planar and rough-undulating fractures is differ-
geometry and connectivity, and therefore of the ent. Rough fractures closing due to stress increase con-
response of pore fluid to the propagation of seismic tribute to increased velocity, but suffer less than expected
waves in specific directions. reduction in permeability. The reason for the different
behaviour of the rough fractures compared to the
smooth, may be that E (physical aperture) e (hydraulic
13.34 aperture), for the case of rough, high JRC fractures (or
joints), while E e for smooth fractures (or joints). This
The surface roughness of joints or fractures may help to would mean faster physical closure than hydraulic closure
maintain some permeability, even at higher confining for rough joints, thereby potentially explaining the
pressures, corresponding to depths of several kilometres. stronger velocity response and the weaker permeability
Permeability parallel to jointing or fracturing may then response to stress increase.
be much higher than that parallel to eventual sedimen-
tary layering. The additional possibility of pre-peak-
strength conjugate shearing of such joint sets, due to 13.37
anisotropic stress, would allow relative maintenance of
joint permeability despite high effective stresses. Elastic Reservoir-scale 4D seismic monitoring in fractured reser-
property anisotropy, and hydraulic anisotropy may be voirs is most sensitive to production-induced changes at
closely related in terms of symmetry directions, when the lower effective stress levels. The velocity and particularly
two mechanisms share the same cause, such as layering or the attenuation, are relatively sensitive indicators of small
jointing. permeability changes. By the nature of jointed reservoirs,
there are unlikely to be commercially viable hydrocarbon-
bearing fractures or joints with very low surface roughness
13.35 JRC values, as joint closure under stress would preclude
both permeability and ‘storage’, if such was needed due to
High pressure polyaxial loading frames have been used to low porosity matrix. Minerally ‘frozen’ stylolites in lime-
study the seismic signature differences between unfrac- stone and chalk are a special case, being both exceptionally
tured matrix and fractured matrix. Parallel fracturing has ‘rough’, and insensitive to stress change, in comparison to
been developed in the same specimen by holding the min- rough, interlocking joints which show greatest stress sensi-
imum principal stress very low and increasing 1 and tivity, and greatest apertures (E and e).
2 in unison, to high levels. Velocity increasing steadily
parallel to the high biaxial loading direction, contrasts
with the fall in velocity in the perpendicular direction, 13.38
when fracturing initiates. Subsequent reloading of the
fractured sample demonstrates stronger stress-velocity A simple empirical method is suggested for linking seis-
dependence perpendicular to the fractures than parallel. mic Q values, specifically Qp, with hydraulic and rock
Perpendicular to the fracturing direction, seismic Q val- engineering properties. This is based on the fact that Qseis
ues change from 40 to 30 as a result of fracturing, and invariably resembles the static E-modulus in the case of
reduce to 10 with unloading, actually resembling poten- intact samples, and the static deformation modulus in
tial deformation modulus behaviour, when expressed the case of jointed or fractured rock and rock masses.
as GPa. Low permeability sandstones start to develop when Qseis magnitudes are expressed in GPa. Despite the
measurable permeability when velocities start to reduce dynamic micro-strain basis for spectral analysis estimation
Conclusions 595
of Qseis, the magnitude of Qseis and its increase with often resulting in several MPa greater minimum stress
effective stress, does not so closely resemble the dynamic in the shale, which is frequently a fluid barrier for the
micro-strain based deformation properties such as Edyn hydrocarbon-bearing sandstone.
as one might expect. It has been found that Qseis cubed
and inverted gives first-order estimates of intrinsic per-
meability, and velocity and compression strength com- 14.3
bined (both reflecting stiffness), give independent
first-order estimates of Qseis. Fine layering of alternating porous and impermeable strata
is obviously one of the basic sedimentary systems that con-
tribute to the existence of potential reservoir rocks in sedi-
Chapter 14 P-waves for mentary basins. Fine layering of sedimentary strata means
characterizing fractured that the dominant wavelength of a seismic or sonic pulse
reservoirs is long compared to the thickness of individual layers. The
medium will nevertheless exhibit effective (and real)
14.1 anisotropy, with a vertical symmetry axis in the case of
horizontal layering. In the presence of hydrocarbons this
There was very early recognition in petroleum explo- layered medium may show substantial attenuation and
ration, of velocity increase with depth, and early recogni- velocity dispersion, which will be compounded with the
tion of a quite systematic trend linking velocity to the additional presence of jointing or fracturing. With mod-
geological age, in combination with the present depth of ern seismic techniques a new exploration concept has
occurrence. The greatest rate of velocity increase was gradually developed, exploring not just for the presence of
found to occur at shallow depth in the oldest units, reservoir rock containing hydrocarbons, but exploring for
which is fundamental early proof of the importance of the presence of permeable joint-sets and their principal
dual porosity. The likelihood of more joints in the stiffer, direction.
older units means that these units are more sensitive to
stress change. However, with only Vp as a dynamic indi-
cator of conditions, acoustic closure represents a limit to 14.4
the stress-sensitivity of velocity, especially for the case of
weaker, younger reservoir rocks. A ‘thin bed’ is considered to be 3/8 of a wave length, the
limit for a discrete reflection both from the top and bot-
tom of the bed. Wave scattering, attenuation and disper-
14.2 sion occur when the ordered heterogeneities have scale
lengths of about 0.3–0.01 of the wavelength, while the
An early analysis of almost 300 kilometres of well sec- smallest scale of ordered heterogeneity, less than 0.01
tions, in 500 petroleum well surveys, mostly from the of the wavelengths, may be the cause of most of the
USA, and mostly for mixed shale and sandstone sec- azimuthal and offset dependent velocity. Conventional
tions, indicated an average P-wave velocity discrepancy seismic wavelengths are much longer than the scale
of only about 110 m/s in velocity between these two, lengths of either of the features that govern dual-porosity
the sandstone having the highest velocity by this small flow in a reservoir.
average margin. The similarity of velocities for these
mechanically and hydraulically dissimilar units, is a
reminder of the potential ‘non-uniqueness’ of P-wave 14.5
velocity, and the need for alternative interpretation meth-
ods, such as attenuation, and impedence, to distinguish Strong P-wave velocity anisotropy is observed in every
the different lithologies and their fluid-bearing signa- geologic environment, with the possible exception of
tures. The closeness of the in situ velocities for shale and basins under primary deposition and burial. P-wave
sandstone, also seen in rock physics experiments on the azimuthal anisotropy, previously ignored and left to the
matrix of both rocks, is surprising, in view of the greater research and technology specialists, is now known to be
tolerance of the stronger sandstone to stress anisotropy, one of the most significant properties of the acquired
596 Conclusions
seismic data. In the marine environment, fully populated Qseis/Vp ratios could therefore be used to delineate the dif-
offsets in each azimuth bin are less common than on land, ference between unconsolidated sands and jointed sand-
but even narrow azimuth data gives an opportunity to see stones, and between weak plastic shales, and the less
the effects of azimuthal anisotropy. As time goes by more desirable fissured/jointed, or indurated variety.
and more reservoirs are being re-classified as severely het-
erogeneous, as well as fractured and anisotropic.
14.9
14.13
14.16
A finely inter-bedded mix of facies as above, may tend to
create a ‘weighted’ response in standard logging. Sonic log- There is also a growing trend to instrument selected petro-
ging (8–24 kHz) gave the lowest Qp with a mean Qp of 10 leum wells on a permanent basis, especially offshore, so
and a range of about 6–14. A Qp range estimated from the that 4D seismic can be used relatively more easily, to mon-
measured velocity range of 3–4 km/s, using the Vp-UCS- itor changes bought about by different water-flood and
modulus method, would be about 5 to 12. The somewhat production practices. Rock physics principles are used to
lower frequencies of cross-hole logging (0.2–2.3 kHz), assist in the interpretation of measured changes in veloc-
gave a mean Qp of 15.7 and a range of 12 to 20. The low- ity, amplitude and attenuation. In-well 3D accelerometer
est frequency VSP (30–280 Hz), giving presumably the installations were applied in the late 1980’s for permanent
poorest definition of the fine inter-layering, gave a mean installations in deep holes adjacent to the San Andreas
Qp of 31.3 and a range of 25 to 45. fault in California, where the benefit of avoiding near-sur-
face attenuation were recognised.
14.14 14.17
Since sedimentary rocks containing hydrocarbons have It is commonly assumed that there is strong correlation
proved to be neither isotropic nor homogeneous, but het- between directionality of reservoir flow and the local,
erogeneous and anisotropic, the seismic wavelength at presentday orientation of the maximum horizontal
which the measurement is made, determines what seis- stress. Oriented four-arm calliper logs typically show a
mic attributes can be measured, and whether the rock long axis that is oriented parallel to the minimum hori-
looks homogeneous and isotropic or heterogeneous and zontal stress direction, if there is stress-induced break-out.
anisotropic. All seismic data are now known to vary with However there may be geomechanics-based reasons for
offset from the well (in VSP) and with azimuth. Besides carefully evaluating this commonly held viewpoint from
detecting azimuthal velocity anisotropy due to aligned case to case. Rock strength, joint or fracture roughness,
fracturing or stress, one can now acquire spatial resolu- joint closure under stress, and possible shear-displacement
tion of variable structure, azimuthal resolution of attenu- modes need also to be considered. Fractures perpendicular
ation, and resolution of temporal changes, which may to the H max direction can also be ‘open’ if partially filled
598 Conclusions
with mineral cements, and for this same reason, sealed fluctuations. In addition, minimum rock stress will tend
fractures parallel to H max are also numerous. to be residing in the weaker beds (i.e. shale) at shallow
depth, while residing in the stiffer beds (i.e. sandstone) at
depths where shale is more plastic, and therefore has a
14.18
higher h min. Stress concentrations around wells will
cause a magnification of tangential stress, in the same
The common assumption that the direction of H max is
direction as major principal stress, and diminution of tan-
the direction of ‘open’ cracks or fractures also overlooks
gential stress in the perpendicular direction. If these stress
the possibility that two sets of joints or fractures can be
concentration effects are strong enough in relation to rock
involved in limited conjugate shear-displacement. With
strength, shear failure surfaces may develop, first giving
one set dominant, the orientation ‘discrepancy’ often
break-out, subsequently a possible log-spiral-sheared dis-
reported, regarding the direction of ‘open’ fractures in
continuum close to the well.
relation to H max, can be better explained. Dominant
directions of fracturing can also be images of the result-
ing dominant strike of conjugate, steeply dipping sets, in
14.22
the case of domal structures.
Seismic attenuation has come to be recognised as poten-
14.19 tially very sensitive to reservoir properties. This is because
of its sensitivity to fractures, joints or bedding planes, and
A further potential source for minor angular discrepancies, in turn, due to their sensitivity to changes of effective
is the dilation-related contrary-rotation of fluid lenses con- stress and to frequency. Attenuation levels are also sensi-
tra rock-to-rock contacting asperities, when non-planar tive to the saturating fluid and petro-physical properties.
joints or fractures are under significant shear stress, and High dispersion (and low Qseis) values may correlate with
therefore significantly ‘open’. This geometric effect could permeable sand and carbonate beds within shale. Such
also potentially cause a minor rotation of shear wave split- beds can be at least ten times as permeable as the host
ting polarization, as argued in Chapter 15. shale formation. The dependence of seismic velocity on
frequency can be used for reservoir characterisation, since
the dispersion is mathematically related to seismic attenu-
14.20 ation. High frequency measurements differ from low fre-
quency measurement due to both elastic scattering and
Measurements in deeper wells have indicated that seismic intrinsic attenuation.
Qp based on seismic frequency VSP, may be systematically
smaller than Qp based on higher frequency sonic logging.
This is the opposite of what has been measured in shal-
14.23
lower wells, where attenuation was least for VSP and most
for sonic logging, giving lower Qseis. The expected disper-
AVO (amplitude variation with offset) and AVOA (ampli-
sive bias of higher frequency (sonic) waves travelling at
tude variation with offset and azimuth) indicate that
higher velocities than lower frequency seismic (VSP)
variation of P-wave amplitude can be related both theo-
waves, remains consistent when shallow or deep.
retically and in practice, to the presence of fracturing.
Individual values of Qp or Qs may change ‘erratically’ with
Appropriate analysis of AVOA gives reasonable estimates
depth unless depth averaging is used. However, rock qual-
of the orientation of fracturing, particularly if only one set
ity Q-values down recovered core also tend to fluctuate
is involved, or if one set is dominant. Fracture orientations
quite strongly, and since linked to deformation modulus,
can be compared to results obtained when using C-waves
Qp and Qs must also be expected to fluctuate.
(P to S converted waves), and the shear-wave splitting and
polarization mechanism. The converted P to S waves have
14.21 the advantage that they can be generated by compres-
sional (i.e. explosive) sources, yet are expected to contain
Rock quality differences, and therefore differences in stiff- the same information as pure S (or SS) waves, as discussed
ness and susceptibility to failure may play a role in such in Chapter 15.
Conclusions 599
14.24 14.27
Although the use of shear waves are theoretically There is a reported problem of model-dependence in
favoured for fracture set detection, there has been some AVAO analyses. The dominant fracture strike direction
reluctance to use shear waves, due to more expensive can be ambiguous, since the azimuthal variation in the
acquisition and more expensive processing routines. near-offset AVO gradient, can be positive or negative, rela-
For these reasons, the use of P-waves for fracture set tive to the fracture direction. The direction of the most
detection and estimation of orientation, has attracted a positive AVO gradient can correspond to either the frac-
lot of interest, even though P-wave travel times need to ture-normal, or the fracture strike direction, depending
be detected in many directions to obtain the necessary on the character of the fracturing, and depending on
information. whether brine-filled or gas-filled. Forward modelling is
therefore needed in order to constrain the interpretation
of AVOA. Forward modelling using fracture density, frac-
ture aspect ratio, and fracture (additional) compliance con-
14.25 cepts, may actually require knowledge of two different
fracture apertures: the hydraulic aperture (e) that would
If seismic data acquisition is conducted parallel to the govern squirt losses, and the physical aperture (E) that
(geologically suspected) fracture orientation, the fractures would govern compliance or stiffness and stored volume
will have minimal influence on the reflection properties, of fluid, where E e. This inequality in the case of
regardless of the angle of incidence, or offset. The P-wave favourably rough-walled joints or fractures seems so far to
particle motion is then parallel to the fractures. If the seis- have been ignored.
mic line is instead oriented more perpendicular to the
fractures, at larger angles of incidence than zero, the reflec-
tion coefficients will be affected strongly. At the largest
14.28
angles of incidence, especially perpendicular, the P-wave
velocity is also expected to be affected by the acoustic
The probability for multiple joint or fracture directions in
properties of the fluids filling the fractures. Thus in the
the neighbourhood of faults, means that the fast velocity
presence of anisotropy, the reflection amplitude will vary
is no longer equal to the matrix or bulk rock velocity.
with offset, due to changed angle of incidence, and will
The normal elliptical Vfast and Vslow distribution is then
also change with azimuth (AVOA).
replaced by superimposed multiple ellipses, which have
the effect of reducing the observed velocity. The previous
directionality with a single set of joints or fractures will be
14.26 lost. Due to rapid changes in fracture frequency, rapid
changes in velocity are also seen. Such is actually a
When deviation of 20° to even 40° is observed between response to the rapid changes in rock mass quality Q close
AVO-determined dominant fracture orientation and to, and across faults, as frequently mapped in tunnelling,
the perpendicular-to-break-out based H max direction, and when logging fault-zone core, in each case for rock
and when nearly as large deviation is also obtained quality determination.
between shear-wave polarization and the H max direction,
the possibility of conjugate-shearing of joint sets that are
intersected by the H max direction should be considered. 14.29
Although this contradicts the standard industry assump-
tion of ‘open fractures parallel to H max’, it helps to There is a multitude of technical jargon in the geophysical
explain frequent angular discrepancies between domi- industry. Some is exceedingly simple. Converted C waves
nant ‘open’ fracture azimuths, and the perpendicular-to- means explosive or air gun generated P-waves converted to
break-out based H max direction, At shallow depth, the S-waves at an interface or at the sea floor. (Pure S-waves
standard industry assumption, also in civil engineering, may be referred to as SS). The term 4C means four-
is more correctly focussed on maximum permeability, component seismic recordings. These consist of one
and Vp, being parallel to the H max direction. hydrophone, one vertical geophone, one in-line horizontal
600 Conclusions
geophone, and one cross-line horizontal geophone. The compaction, and reduced layer thickness, i.e. reinforc-
term 4D means 3D seismic repeated at intervals for mon- ing effects. Time-shifts of as much as 12–16 ms, between
itoring changes caused by production. Repeated 4D sur- 1989 and 1999, recorded at the Ekofisk field, were related
veys can be made cheaper by modifying 4D receivers to to an estimated 6m of additional compaction at 3 km
also be 4C. There are now some expensive 4D4C installa- depth. An uncritical time-lapse comparison between sur-
tions that make frequent reservoir monitoring much veys, may give unrealistically large values for compaction
cheaper. The consequence of frequent full-field 4D4C re- and subsidence.
shoots, as at Valhall, in the North Sea, providing full-field
estimates of all required reservoir parameters, is more effi-
cient exploitation of reserves, and a production increment 14.33
obviously coming sooner than discovery and exploitation
of new fields. Extensive casing damage to numerous wells at Ekofisk is
evidence of discontinuous behaviour, due to stretching of
the overburden and differential bedding plane slip. This
14.30 was also seen in early discontinuum models. Subtle
changes are now known to occur to the overburden
Reservoir monitoring with 4D seismic in its most basic velocity, due to the ‘stretching’ of the overburden in
form is the repeated inversion of changing seismic data, to response to the incremental compaction between surveys.
obtain dynamic reservoir properties, which can subse- There are about 150 km3 of obviously discontinuous rock
quently be used to predict pore pressure change at a dis- involved in the compaction and subsidence. Further evi-
tance from the wells based on the effective stress and fluid dence for discontinuous behaviour caused by compaction
sensitivity of laboratory samples of the reservoir rocks. at Ekofisk can be seen in the results of the 4D seismic.
History matching can be used to up-scale the rock physics Fault related discontinuities are seen in ‘time lapse’ tomo-
matrix data, and to calibrate forward modelling of grams of compaction magnitudes. Forward modelling of
anisotropy and fracture effects. There is high sensitivity to compaction details, performed in the 1980s, indicated
effective stress in shallow reservoirs, but a stress-velocity small-scale down-dip shearing of conjugate jointing in the
plateau may be reached at high effective stresses (i.e. chalk, before evidence of slickensiding had been seen in
beyond roughly 25 to 50 MPa, depending on rock type newly drilled core.
and on fracture-surface roughness.) A velocity plateau
indicates the need for up-scaling using attenuation.
14.34
fracture sets, or faults. The direction of H max shows a fre- are rough, or that there exists a close-to-fracturing pore
quent tendency to have bisected the geologic features that pressure, or that there is a suitable quantity of hard min-
are the basis for the joint rosettes. An implied mechanism eralization to ‘bridge’ and maintain an earlier porosity.
of conjugate shear, would show strong parallels to the Alternatively, if some pre-peak-strength shear displace-
findings of Zoback and co-workers, concerning the fre- ment of non-planar joints or fractures has occurred,
quency of water conducting discontinuities in deep wells there would be the contribution of dilation to ‘open-
needing to be oriented so that they are under shear stress. ness’, and the additional influence of a 10° to 20° rota-
tion of the fluid-bearing parts of the fractures in
relation to the contacting parts taking the load. This
14.36 might rotate both the sources of attenuation and the
sources of shear-wave polarization.
Mapping of the azimuthal velocity anisotropy of P-waves
using a downhole triaxial accelerometer sensor array, and
multi-azimuth walk-away (or ‘float-away’) VSP, is a means Chapter 15 Shear wave splitting in
of reducing the risk of drilling low-productivity wells in fractured reservoirs and
unfractured parts of reservoirs. Calibration with oriented resulting from
core data and with FMS logs improves the likelihood that earthquakes
later producing-wells will intersect ‘open’ conductive frac-
ture sets, where P-wave anisotropy is highest. Azimuthal 15.1
variation in the shear modulus of the fractured rocks is
cited as the reason for the P-wave velocity anisotropy. Vertical and sub-vertical jointing is extremely common
Dominance of one fracture set orientation, with a near- in most rock masses. Yet vertical boreholes are usually
orthogonal subset, and variation of fracture density in the the first, and seemingly also the second choice, for sam-
unequal two-set system, would be reasons for variations in pling and gaining access to the sub-surface. The sam-
the degree of seismic anisotropy, and demonstrate the pling bias caused by the mismatch of borehole diameter
benefit of 3D mapping. and horizontal spacing of vertical structure, and the
vertical borehole itself, is extreme and well known. If
the economic savings of a vertical well, and the subse-
quent cost of an extensive seismic survey and its inver-
14.37 sion were combined, there would perhaps be reason for
rapidly deviating exploration boreholes at least 10° or
Multi-azimuth walk-away VSP can also be used to map 15°, in order to sample the increasingly understood rele-
the attenuation anisotropy of a reservoir. A fractured, oil- vance of vertical and sub-vertical structure on hydrocar-
saturated reservoir is likely to show azimuthal variation in bon production. On the other hand drilling and hole
attenuation, in a similar manner to P-wave anisotropy. As stability problems might be increased by the more fre-
examples, we may quote Qp 18 in the fractured part of quent joint intersections.
a reservoir, and Qp 35 to 40 in the overburden, which
was assumed to be relatively unfractured, with minimum
attenuation correspondingly scattered between wider 15.2
azimuths. In the particular reservoir, minimum attenua-
tion was some 20° to 30° oblique to both the open con- Shear-wave anisotropy due to splitting and polarization
ducting fractures and to the h max direction, based on caused by the presence of vertical or aligned structure,
oriented cores and borehole images. Conjugate jointing, (and P-wave azimuthal anisotropy), are miraculous means,
perhaps also pre-peak shearing, is again suggested. in view of the long seismic wave lengths, for rectifying
these poor joint or fracture sampling strategies. The cen-
tral challenge of sub-surface fracture characterization is to
14.38 obtain data on essential fracture attributes where direct
observation has been prejudiced by vertical wells. An early
‘Open’ fractures in a petroleum reservoir would seem to deviation of 10° or more would greatly improve under-
require that the rock is unusually strong and that joints standing of both the overburden jointing and the reservoir
602 Conclusions
jointing. The potential anisotropy of the overburden can- fluids prop open a population of compliant voids or
not be ignored in seismic inversion, as indicated in an inclusions that are nevertheless capable of remaining open
increasing number of cases, especially where compaction against the least principal stress. The implication of 3D
and therefore subsidence are occurring. principal stress anisotropy at depth is that EDA cracks
will tend to be aligned in a vertical plane, striking parallel
to the major horizontal stress. With this configuration, a
15.3 microcracked but otherwise isotropic crust would be
transversely isotropic, with a horizontal symmetry axis.
Countless hydrocarbon reservoirs have been discovered,
characterised, and monitored by P-waves. However,
P-waves cannot solve every seismic imaging or reservoir 15.6
description problem. The addition of S-waves, usually in
the form of converted PS-waves, has given oil and gas The traditional view was that there were several possible
companies an enormous quantity of new reserves that small scales of azimuthal anisotropy that could cause shear
could not have been found with P-waves alone. The new wave splitting, such as aligned crystals, lithological
reserves have been more effectively exploited by better anisotropy due to aligned grains, stress-aligned microc-
identification of fracturing, and therefore better place- racks, and fine layering. Much evidence for the influence
ment and deviation of production and water-flood wells. of larger-scale joint-set alignment effects on shear wave
Multi-component recording of shear-wave attributes also splitting has subsequently been obtained. These larger
provides information where shallow gas has obscured P- scale features obviously dominate drainage potential from
wave imaging over central parts of a field, such as at the matrix to the joints, and thence to the wells in hydro-
Ekofisk and Vallhall. carbon production. The micro-scale extensive dilatancy
anisotropy (EDA) championed by Crampin and co-work-
ers, would logically dominate drainage from the pores to
15.4 the microcracks. Relatively large time delays between split
shear-waves may also be set up in the top tens to hundreds
The basic geological source of polarized shear waves can of meters of rock. These near-surface effects have been
be sets of vertical joints or fractures, or stress-aligned termed natural directivity. Principal stress aligned microc-
microcracks. These aligned features cause the vertically racks, or principal stress aligned intra-bed jointing, or
transmitted shear-waves to split into fast and slow compo- aligned jointing from historic tectonic effects including
nents, registered as time delay, due to the attenuating doming and anticlines, each have shear-wave splitting
effect of fracture shear compliance, on the S-wave compo- potential.
nent that has particle motion perpendicular to the fracture
strike. Shear-waves travelling in the parallel direction
hardly sense the presence of the cracks, and travel at 15.7
almost the wave speed of the unfractured matrix. The dif-
ference in travel-time between the fast qS1 and slow qS2 It was earlier considered remarkable that, with all the dif-
components is strongly related to the length of travel path ferent scales and characters of aligned fluid-filled cracks,
and to the density of the crack population. It is also related inclusions or fractures in sedimentary, metamorphic and
to fracture compliance. Numerous polarized shear wave igneous rocks, that the differential shear-wave anisotropy
observations show the fast wave polarized parallel (or sub- varied only within narrow limits (0.5 to 5%). With
parallel), to the accepted local or regional maximum stress increasing application at fractured reservoirs, this range,
field. There can be several reasons for this, and also several and the earlier assumed limited ranges of fracture den-
reasons for deviation from this direction in other cases. sity, have each been extended, sometimes by significant
margins.
15.5
15.8
The potential of fluid-filled microcracks to react to crustal
stress and strain led to the early proposal for extensive dila- The traditional porous medium experience is that shear-
tancy anisotropy (EDA). The hypothesis was that crustal wave velocity remains unchanged whether a formation
Conclusions 603
contains gas, oil or water. However, because of the effects are sure to vary, and each split shear wave may therefore
of fluid compressibility on the dynamic normal stiffness split again, giving multiple splitting. The influence of
of fractures, or its inverse compliance, the polarized shear the joint structures near the recording site gives one of
waves passing through a fractured or jointed medium, the most prominent results. Down-hole instrumenta-
may actually have the unexpected ability to distinguish tion is needed if possible, in order also to minimise
between oil and gas, specifically when incident waves and such site effects and the higher frequency filtering due to
jointing are non-parallel. Regions of gas are characterized attenuation.
by lower magnitude slow shear waves, and regions of oil by
higher magnitude slow shear waves. In comparison, clas-
sic Gassmann porous medium theory anticipates an
15.12
S-wave velocity relatively unaffected by the type of fluid.
High velocities in rock tend to occur where attenuation is
low or Qseis is high. This reciprocal relationship between
15.9
velocity and attenuation is one of the reasons why the
leading split shear wave is a very stable phenomenon,
A controversial point is whether the fractures and shear-
because it is travelling in the fast direction and is less atten-
waves can both be vertical, where theoretically only shear
uated than the slower split shear wave. Sometimes the
compliance would be sensed, because it is uncertain if
slow wave is too attenuated to allow calculation of the
shear compliance will be sufficiently affected by these
shear-wave anisotropy. The location along the ray path
contrasting fluid compressibility effects. A more certain
where the shear-wave splitting is imprinted most strongly
effect of fluid compressibility is when normal compli-
is not known a priori, and near-surface effects where joint-
ance is involved in the case of sub-vertical fractures or
ing is stronger may be a disturbing feature. Well fractured
sub-vertical shear-waves, giving a finite angle of inci-
reservoirs may over-print such effects. Lower crack densi-
dence. There is evidence that the delay between the split
ties implied by many earthquake studies may be a reflec-
shear waves may decrease with increasing depth, yet an
tion of the sampling of ‘average rock’. In contrast, crack
accumulative delay with increasing depth would naturally
densities interpreted from fractured reservoirs may repre-
be expected. This perhaps suggests that stress-sensitive
sent a ‘biased sample’, caused by a rock mass that is more
compliances are involved, which would match rock
jointed or fractured than the norm, and therefore also a
mechanics experience with the non-linear pseudo-static
target for exploration and subsequent exploitation.
stiffness of joints or fractures.
15.10 15.13
In the case of earthquake recordings, the relative steep- The geophysicist’s crack density (e) is defined as number
ness required for the incident wave to make an acute (N) of cracks per volume (V) times the crack radius (a)
angle to typical sub-vertical structure, means that there is cubed. Crack density was often quoted in the range of
a need for the recording site to be within the shear wave e 0.01 to 0.05 in reportedly widely different geologi-
window. This derives from the requirement of angles of cal and tectonic regions. This commonly used parame-
incidence less than sin1(Vp/Vs). For a Poisson’s ter is unfortunately remarkably ambiguous. Ten million
ratio of 0.25, is about 35°. Outside this window the micro-cracks @ 100
m/10 cm cube, give e 0.01,
shear-wave waveforms are severely distorted. The epicen- while ten fractures @ 1 m/10 m cube also give e 0.01,
tral distance from the recording sites must therefore be and even ten minor faults @ 100 m/1 km3 give
significantly less than the focal depth of the earthquake. e 0.01. These three scenarios, with their theoretically
equal ‘crack density’, have very different mechanical and
fluid-conducting properties. Nevertheless they theoreti-
15.11 cally would previously have suggested equal shear wave
anisotropy. Alternative methods of forward modelling
The large depth of most earthquake sources means that show this theory to be in error, when extremes of frac-
shear waves will pass through a range of rock types with ture size and compliance are involved, and due to fre-
different ages. Velocity and individual joint-set properties quency or dispersive effects.
604 Conclusions
15.22
15.20
The shear compliance ZT and normal compliance ZN
The simple addition of the three fracture compliance interpreted from loaded, roughened Lucite (Plexiglas)
terms (ZN , ZT and ZT) is made in the same diagonal-term plates, which were used to simulate ‘a fractured medium’,
(1,1 5,5 and 6,6) locations in the combined compliance was apparently responsible for some authors to assume
matrix. In the context of shear-wave splitting, the stiffness that ZN ZT for the case of dry, gas saturated cracks.
matrix term relating to the fast shear wave propagating Seismic phenomena observed in highly stressed, finely
parallel to the fractures, is the C44 term, and the slow shear layered (t 0.7 mm), roughened plates of Lucite, with
wave propagating perpendicular to the fractures, is given their extreme ‘crack densities’ and artificial ‘fracture’ sur-
by the C55 term. The Thomsen shear-wave splitting faces, should however not be used to predict rock joint
anisotropy parameter () is defined from the elastic stiffness response to dynamic or static loading. The suggested
matrix as (C44 – C55)/2C55 (often expressed as a percent- ‘equality’ of ZN and ZT was propagated in some of the
age), where qS1 (C44/), and qS2 (C55/). Shear- geophysics literature, but may be far from realistic for all
wave splitting anisotropy as defined by Thomsen, is but the smallest laboratory specimens. ZN involves
commonly in the range 0 20%. The Crampin ‘micro-closure’ in a stiffening direction, while ZT
definition of the S-wave velocity anisotropy is a contrast- involves ‘micro-slip’ in a direction that may not involve
ing 100 (Vs max – Vs min)/Vs max or 100 (qS1 – qS2)/ stiffening.
qS1. For the case of the vertically propagating waves
through the vertical fractures, there is no fracture compli-
ance term in C44, only the Lamé constant
for the back- 15.23
ground rock. This causes the fast shear-wave component
to be parallel to the fractures. For the case of the slow shear An inequality of the joint or fracture compliances would
wave, the more complex C55 term involves ZT, and be more consistent with the experience of Ks Kn, con-
not ZN. The simpler compliance matrix S55 term is simply cerning the pseudo-static shear and normal stiffnesses of
1/
ZT. joints and fractures, where stiffness is the rough inverse of
compliance. The magnitude of Kn proves to be a bit less
than, but quite close to 1/ZN in good quality unweath-
15.21 ered hard rock, while in the shearing direction,
Ks 1/ZT, sometimes 1/ZT. However ZT data from
Involvement of ZN in the slow shear wave velocity theo- geophysics investigations is extremely limited compared
retically requires dipping fractures, or non-vertical wave to the large body of Ks (pseudo-static) data that has been
propagation. When polarized shear-waves sense the dif- in use in discontinuum rock mechanics modelling since
ferent viscosity of oil or gas in the fractures, ZN is more the late 1960’s, first in jointed FEM studies by Goodman.
likely to be involved than ZT, which would have a less If pseudo-static stiffnesses and dynamic compliances
obvious dependence on fluid viscosity differences. This could be related, despite the different orders of magnitude
sensitivity is despite Gassmann’s theory for porous of dynamic and ‘static’ deformations, then the more
606 Conclusions
static testing, and between small sample testing and the Ks 1 MPa/mm. This low, back-calculated ‘in situ’ shear
large sample reality, which causes experimental stress- stiffness is similar to the values used in large-scale pseudo-
magnitude problems. The completed parts of the jigsaw static modelling of compaction/subsidence in rock
are the abilities to estimate both of the pseudo-static stiff- mechanics. In general one may assume that the pseudo-
nesses Kn and Ks and the less tangible physical (E) and static values of stiffness are lower in the normal direction,
hydraulic (e) apertures, for different sizes of jointed rock and much lower in the shear direction, than the equiva-
block, based on simple index testing. This involves esti- lent dynamic values of stiffness.
mation of joint roughness and wall strength, using respec-
tively the un-scaled or scaled JRC and JCS components of
the Barton-Bandis joint constitutive model. 15.33
changes of stress, which might be capable of monitoring of Vp/Vs was 2.9. There was evidence for only a shallow
the build-up of stress and other crustal adjustments before concentration of P-wave anisotropy, which decreased
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Anomalous water from 4% at 500 m depth, to zero below 1.5 km depth.
level changes and GPS-measured displacement anomalies Isolated fluid-filled cracks at depths from 500 m to 3 km
have been related to various changes in prior and subse- were too tight to be detected by the P-wave survey, but
quent P-wave and S-wave travel times and delays. could contribute to the shear-wave delays. P-wave
anisotropy was defined as 100 (Vp max Vp min)/
Vp average, while S-wave anisotropy was defined as
15.36 100 (Vs max Vs min)/Vs max) following convention.
reservoir level, indicating the presence of fractures. The geomechanics concept is provided by deep-well data
time delays tend to be largest at lowest frequencies (e.g. showing that joints under differential (shear) stress are
5–15 Hz), and smallest at higher frequencies (e.g. the conductors, with other directions apparently non-
20–40 Hz). However, polarization of the fast S-waves may conducting.
show no apparent variation with frequency, unless at very
low frequency. The time delays between the split shear
waves may be decreasing as frequency increases, due to 16.3
stiffening of the squirt phenomenon in the case of the
slow waves. Such data have been used for inverting for the The interpretation of shear wave splitting with possible
theoretical fracture density (an appropriate re-naming of multiple ‘vertical’ joint or fracture orientations emphasises
crack density), and for fracture radius, using nine-compo- the need for knowledge of both shear and normal compli-
nent VSP data sets, with one P-wave and two orthogonal ances, if poro-elastic modelling is to extend to stress and
S-wave sources. Frequency-dependent anisotropy has also displacement sensitive aspect ratios for the modelled joints
been demonstrated. or fractures. Presently, limited sets of laboratory data, and
even more limited sonic log and cross-hole data, and a
tentative extrapolation to large scale seismic interpreta-
Chapter 16 Joint stiffness and tion of fault compliances, strongly suggest a scale effect.
compliance and the joint Increased compliance in both normal and shear directions
shearing mechanism is implied, as scale is increased or frequency reduced.
16.1 16.4
Rock mechanics developments in distinct element rock A comparison has been made between the presently
mass deformation modelling, including flow within the known normal ZN and shear ZT compliance laboratory
deforming joints, can be used to illustrate an extension of and field data, which is a dynamic and micro-deforma-
the traditional geophysics concept of one set of stress- tion response, and the much larger body of laboratory
parallel ‘open’ joints in a reservoir. This is important and field data for the pseudo-static response of normal
because multiple sets of joints are more usual in rock Kn and shear Ks stiffness. Data for joints, tension frac-
masses, probably including even deep reservoirs. Multiple tures and clay-filled discontinuities are readily available
joint or fracture sets, such as bedding and two vertical sets due to long term use in rock mechanics modelling of
also open the possibility of polarization orientations that jointed rock masses. These pseudo-static measures of
are not parallel to the H max direction. Two conjugate stiffness are given in typical units of MPa/mm, and when
vertical joint sets intersected by the H max direction can inverted show resemblance but generally larger magni-
also cause shear wave splitting with polarization that tude, compared to the geophysicists compliance, given in
nearly corresponds to this principal stress direction. typical m/Pa units.
16.2 16.5
When reservoir joints or fractures are not parallel to the When rock mass and rock joint quality is high, the
H max direction, they may be acted on by shear or differ- dynamic modulus Edyn is not of much greater magni-
ential stress, and this implies shear deformation, which tude than the static modulus Emass. The normal compli-
may be needed to supplement the often too small con- ance ZN may then be within 1 to 1/10 of the magnitude
ducting apertures which may result when in the tradi- of the inverted static normal stiffness Kn. A typical lab-
tional parallel to H max direction. This philosophy is based oratory-scale ZN range of 1013 to 1014 m/Pa, or Kn
on the fact that unless joints or fractures are mineral (dyn) of 10,000 to 100,000 MPa/mm is therefore found
‘bridged-but-not-blocked’, or are very rough and in hard to be 1 to 10 times stiffer than typical Kn (static) data
rock, both testing and modelling indicates too small aper- of typically 1,000 to 10,000 MPa/mm (range maybe
tures to be considered ‘open’, since conducting apertures 100 to 50,000 MPa/mm). In the inverted worlds of
may be 5
m, and often 1
m. Support for this geophysics and rock mechanics, 1012 m/Pa is the same
612 Conclusions
16.11
16.8
Index data for typical reservoir rocks and joints, with vari-
There is present uncertainty in the magnitudes of ZN and ation of both strength JCS and roughness JRC, and con-
ZT because of limited test data at different scales. The sideration of confinement effects on strength, give
uncertainty in the magnitudes of the pseudo-static Kn prediction of very small conducting apertures of micron
and Ks parameters used in rock mechanics is much less, or less magnitude when modelling closure by an assumed
and values can be readily predicted using a 1D model for h min of 10 to 40 MPa, unless roughness and strength are
coupled M–H joint behaviour. However, there is an both significant. Available coupled M–H test data from
inevitable lack of test data with respect to high pressure the laboratory CSFT apparatus, and from in situ block
and large size, also in the case of pseudo-static testing. tests, each including heating, also confirm the extremely
small apertures of interlocked joints, unless rough and of
high strength, or with aperture preserved by mineral
16.9 bridging.
A further uncertainty with all four joint parameters is that
rough joints or fractures tend to be more tightly closed at 16.12
high temperature, and are also more tightly closed follow-
ing several load cycles if they have been sampled and When modelling minor amounts of shear, excellent per-
unloaded, and cooled. Joints can appear ‘over-closed’ by meability is predicted in most cases, due to the positive
Conclusions 613
‘down-slopes’ to have a different average orientation than in the range 0.6 to 1.0, require typical to high ranges of
the ‘up-slope’ rock-to-rock contact areas. This rotation both JRCn, and confined strength JCSn. This means a
may influence the polarization direction of split shear full-scale roughness as high as 10, and full scale confined
waves, if they are more sensitive to one or the other of rock strengths (1 3) as high as 200 to 600MPa or
these average directions. Combined with two conjugate more, to explain this higher range of resisted
/n loading.
but usually unequally developed joint or fracture sets, the The subscripts (n) on the index parameters signify in situ
resultant polarization directions of the split shear waves strength, and block sizes Ln of perhaps 0.25 to 2.5m.
qS1 and qS2, can have at least two reasons for not lining up
exactly with the classically ‘preferred’ H max and h min
directions, and for showing 4D rotations of azimuth. 16.16
occurs, and might explain the high end of the interpreted 16.20
values of in situ
.
Due to the problem of clay-sealing of discontinuities,
and due also to the general effect of reduced permeabil-
16.19 ity at significantly increased effective normal stress, a new
term called QH20 has been developed, involving an
An approximate, order of magnitude prediction of per- inverted Jr/Ja term, a normalized JCS, together with a
meability in rock masses, can be made using the rock simple depth-permeability equation for the ‘soft poros-
mass Q-value, normalized by the uniaxial strength to ity’ represented by jointed rock. This shows promising fit
the form Qc. This can be equated to the inverse of the to shallow civil engineering Lugeon testing, and poten-
Lugeon value, where 1 L is 107 m/s. The resulting tially also to deep-well data, and demonstrates suitable
Qc 10, K 108 m/s type of estimate appears to be adjustment to lower permeabilities caused by clay-filled
a useful first order estimate, when Qc values range from discontinuities and increased depths.
0.1 to 1000, implying little complication of clay smear.
The range of K is then predicted to be about 106 to
1010 m/s, or roughly 1013 to 1017 m2 if water vis-
cosity at 20°C is invoked, for simplicity.
Appendix A – The Qrock parameter
ratings
of Q by c /100, and Qo the use of a specifically ori- section of tunnel, for separate analysis and reporting.
ented RQD, termed RQDo relevant to a loading or Overall frequencies of observations of each rating
measurement direction). All the classification rat- (or selected sets of data) can be given as numbers on
ings needed for tunnel and cavern design are given separate logging sheets. Large data sets can be plot-
in the six tables, where Q only would usually apply. ted in e.g. EXCEL when returning from the field.
2. For correlation to engineering parameters as described 5. It is convenient and correct to record rock mass
in this paper, use Qc (multiplication of Q by c / variability. Therefore allow as many as five observa-
100). For specific loading or measurement directions tions of each parameter, for instance in a 10 m
in anisotropically jointed rock masses use RQDo in length of tunnel or 5 m length of core. If all obser-
place of RQD in the Q estimate. This means that vations are the same, great uniformity of character
an oriented Qc value should contain a correctly is implied, if variable – this is important informa-
oriented RQDo for better correlation to oriented tion. At ‘the end of the day’ the histograms will give
engineering parameters. a correct record of variability, or otherwise.
3. Q-parameters are most conveniently collected using 6. Remember that logged RQD of 10, including 0,
histogram logging. Besides space for recording the are set to a nominal 10 when calculating Q, to
usual variability of parameters, for structural domain avoid calculating Q 0. In view of the log scale of
1, domain 2 etc., it contains reminders of the tabu- Q, the histograms of RQD in the logging sheet will
lated ratings at the base of each histogram. Space for be sufficiently accurate if given mean values, from
presentation of results for selected (or all) domains left to right, of 10, 15, 25, 35…85, 95, 100. The
at the top of the diagram, includes typical range, log scale of Q also suggests that decimal places
weighted mean and most frequent (Q-parameters, should be used sparingly. The following is consid-
and Q-values). ered realistic 0.004, 0.07, 0.3, 6.7, 27, 240. Never
4. During field logging, allocate running numbers to report that Q 6.73 or similar, since a false sense
the structural domains, or core boxes, or tunnel of accuracy will be given.
sections, e.g. 1 D1, 2 D2 etc. and write the 7. Footnotes below the tables that follow, also give
same numbers in the allotted histogram columns, advice for site characterization ratings for the case
using a regular spacing for each observation such as of Jw and SRF, which must not be set to 1.0 and
11, 113, 2245, 6689 etc. In this way the histograms 1.0, as some authors have suggested. This destroys
will give roughly the correct visual frequency of all the intended multi-purposes of the Q-system, which
the assembled observations, in each histogram col- has an entirely different structure compared to RMR
umn. Besides this, it will be easy to find the relevant (Leave blank if permeability and stress data is
Q-parameters for a particular domain, core box or awaited, otherwise estimate Jw and SRF.)
Appendix A – The Qrock parameter ratings 617
Figure A4 Graphic presentation of the meaning of Jr/Ja, representing the frictional strength of joints and clay-filled discontinuities. Note
tendency for friction angle development like i, , and – i, according to whether dilatant or ‘normal’, or contractant joint
or discontinuity resistance to shearing.
Appendix A – The Qrock parameter ratings 621
Figure A5 The Q-system of tunnel (and rock cavern) permanent support estimation, based on Grimstad and Barton, 1993, and Barton,
2000. The other widely used ‘rock mass rating’ (RMR) used in engineering geology has approximate correlation to Qrock as shown
in the equations. The version ‘RMR 15 log Q 50’ is preferred. Barton, 1995. (Note: B systematic bolting i.e. grouted
steel rebar. Sfr fibre reinforced sprayed concrete, often called shotcrete).
622 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure A6 The Q-parameter histogram logging sheet, for recording the number of observations of each parameter.
Appendix A – The Qrock parameter ratings 623
Figure A7 Example of hand-filled Q-parameter ratings from core-logging of part of a deep borehole.
624 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
Figure A8 Example of EXCEL calculation of rock mass quality statistics, for the deep borehole, part of which was logged in Figure A7.
Appendix B – A worked example
Q-value and tunnel or cavern support 2. Emass (or M) 10 GPa, Vp (seismic) 3.5 km/s,
Qseis 12. (A rock mass porosity equal to a nomi-
Note the overbreak caused by three joint sets in Figure B1. nal 1% has been assumed).
The joint planes (beneath the sprayed concrete) are planar 3. From Figures 5.36 and 5.37, the empirically-derived
and weathered or clay-coated, making for poor stability effect of increased depth can be traced; i.e.
until also reinforced with rock bolts. Q 90/9 Vp 5 km/s, and Emass 32 GPa at 500 m depth.
1/4 0.66/2.5 0.7 (‘very poor’). Estimate of perma- 4. By implication, with a (continued, pessimistic)
nent support requirements from Figure A5: 20 m span assumption of unchanged rock mass quality with
requires B (bolting) 1.6 m c/c (spacing) 13 cm S(fr) increased depth, the magnitude of Qseis (specifi-
(steel-fibre reinforced ‘shotcrete’ or sprayed concrete). cally Qp at seismic frequency) would be expected to
be about 30.
Q-value used for geophysical 5. The reality of improved Q-value at depth (e.g.
estimates Jr/Ja 2/1, and SRF 0.5 (high stress) would
mean Q 40. With less well-developed joint sets,
1. With a simple c estimate for the gneiss of 150 MPa, the rock mass quality Q-value could easily be 100,
Qrock 0.66 150/100 1.0. Therefore at this at 500 m depth.
shallow (25 m deep) cavern site the following ‘geo- 6. With the 40–100 estimate of Qrock, a more likely
physical’ estimates can be made, from Figure 5.36, range of Vp is about 5.6–6.0 km/s, with Qseis
5.37, 13.60 and 15.33. increased to about 60–68 at 500 m depth.
Figure B1 The reality of near-surface construction of tunnels and caverns in rock. Note the three joint sets causing deep over-break. See Plate 17.
626 Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy
7. The approximate Qseis estimates of about 10 at ‘explanation’ for this simple (probably too simple) link
25 m depth, and about 60–70 at 500 m depth are is that all three parameters (Qrock and Qseis and Emass)
mirrored numerous times in this book. are reflecting the ‘soft-porosity’ effects of both structure
and joint stiffness, with potentially several joint sets
Qrock and Qseis appear to be approximately linked via involved, not purely normal loading across one set. For
the pseudo-static deformation modulus, which can be some reason, rock mass dynamic stiffness as reflected in
estimated from Qrock, as we have seen. The possible Edyn, is too high for a good correlation.
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Index
Bad Creek borehole, permeability 555 basic friction angle (see friction)
Balder formation 15 basin (see also plate tectonics) 179
band width (ubiquitous term) forearc 227
very high- with down-hole instruments 378 marginal 227
Bakhtar calculator curves 526 pull-apart 228
Ballotini glass spheres 547, 548, 551, 552 Basin and Range province, Western USA 227, 231
Bandis joint strength, scale-effect components 522 Bay of Islands, Newfoundland 262, 264
Barents Sea 404 bathymetric contours 281, 437
Barton-Bandis constitutive model for rock joints, fractures beach sand 254, 350, 351
401, 424, 428, 435, 456, 484, 486, 490, 492, beam footprints 67
493, 537 Beaumont Tunnel, near Channel Tunnel, S.England
application if clay-fillings, caution 546, 547 94, 319
conversion of strength criterion to Mohr-Coulomb beautiful
parameters 539 strikingly- (continuous sub-ocean seismic profile) 284
coupled modelling 506 Beaver County, Utah 42
coupled stress, deformation, dilation, permeability 523, bed, bedding
524, 526 intra- joints 208, 236
high-stress version, confined JCS 544 intra- joint apertures 208
modelling of conducting apertures under stress joints 145
512, 541 -parallel 352–357
modelling of conducting apertures, closure and shear -perpendicular 352–357
531–533 plane opening 319, 320
modelling of saturation on shear stiffness 511, 512 plane slip, subsidence 399, 400, 453, 454
Barton-Choubey shear strength criterion 27, 428, 537 thickness
application if clay-fillings, caution 546, 547 before-and-after-fracturing VP VS Q1 and permeability
conversion to Mohr-Coulomb parameters 539 362–364
peak shear stiffness estimate 428 Bekkelaget, Norway 160
basalt 12, 20, 21, 25, 28, 29 bell-shaped curve 190
artificial surface in- 80 BEM FRACOD models 306, 307
Atlantic margin- 255 bentonite
breccia 277 seals 129–130
Columbia Plateau- 269 Berea (see sandstone)
Columbia River, dilated joint 520 Berger, Norway 160
columnar- 124–127, 366, 500 Berkeley, California 422
columnar/flow entablature- , Hanford 124–127 BGS Anisotropy Project, Edinburgh 405, 409
compliance and dynamic stiffness, columnar 500, 503, BHA bottom hole assembly 312
504 BHC borehole compensated logging 379
Eastern North Sea- 269 BHTV 385, 386
flows 277 biaxial
flow-top weathering 163 loading of in situ blocks 165–167, 513–517
flow-top permeability 163 loading of tension fracture model 105, 524
intact, distinction from jointed 269, 276 loading of 1 m3 blocks 509, 545, 553
North Atlantic, Faroe Islands 203 loading-path, theoretical, corrected for dilation 553
permeable, jointed 270 biaxially-loaded direct shear box
pillow 277 needing correct stress transformation, dilation added 554
sub- imaging 403 bi-compressional arrival 313, 317
-to garnet transformation 242 phantom arrival 313
unfractured 278 billiard-table planarity, non-producers 549
vesicular 22, 23, 265 Biot 183
basalt, mid-ocean 243, 255, 264, 267–270, 273, flow related to shear modulus 356
277, 280, 285 fluid flow (boundary shear) 183, 349
basement 8, 221 fluid-past-frame attenuation 356
crystalline 220, 222 -Gassmann fluid substitution, mud-filtration 317
sub-ocean 244 generalized theory of poro-elasticity 320
Index 661
Brazilian contrasts, Sugar Loaf, tunnel collapse 558 Cajon Pass scientific borehole, San Bernadino, California
Brazilian dam foundation testing 505 432, 541, 554
Brazilian Shield 231 mobilized friction calculations 544, 554
break-out permeabilities 555
analysis 383, 386, 432 calcarenite 100
anomalies 541 calcite 509
borehole- (‘dog-earing’) 302–307 -filled joints 79, 165, 167
log-spiral shear-failure surfaces 130, 302–307 calcium carbonate cement 206
orientation logs 389 caldera structure, Kenya Rift 394–396
perpendicular to- 390 Caledonian quartzites 11
phenomena, theoretical 303 California 21, 22, 23, 210, 212, 386, 429, 431,
stress-controlled-, vertical stress 319 432, 541
structurally-controlled- 319 Southern 228
V-shaped notches (tunnels, shafts) 127, 128, 131, 303 Californian earthquakes 226
wedge-shaped fall-out 304 calliper log
breccia, brecciated rock 161 four-arm 382, 472
Brenntangen, Norway 160 long axis parallel h min 382, 383
bridges, long span 19 measurements 250, 252, 304
bright spots 458 noise 320
brine Cambourne School of Mines, Cornwall 169
-filled cracks 326, 327, 329, 426, 457, 458, 479, 480 Cambrian sandstones 11
saturation effects 326–329 Cambro-Silurian limestones 11
brittle 37 Canada 22, 57, 61, 87, 117, 127–131, 217, 325, 331,
failure 369–391, 505, 506
-ductile transition 36, 37, 257, 311, 312, 537, 539 cap rock 372
shear fracturing 312 capillary effects 353
broad-band dispersion capillary pressure (see patchy saturation)
curves 316 carbonate, carbonates
of dipole flexural waves 316 beds 387, 388
of Stonely wave modes 316 domal 443
broken rock 118 Palaezoic 430
buckling mode of deformation 310, 311 rocks 196
Buena Vista Hills reservoir, California 236, 387, 388 Carboniferous 447
Bulgaria 19 limestone 499, 500–503
bulk modulus (K) (see also deformation) 5, 13, 71, 104, sandstone 11
109–111, 529 siltstone 11
of infill material, relation to ZN /ZT compliance ratio casing
425, 426 collapse 399
pressure-sensitive-, using excess compliance 397 collapse due to overburden stretch 399–401
reduction due to joint frequency 522, 523 damage 454
buoyancy effect 297 hundreds of- collapses 400
burial setting of- 297
present deep- 300 waiting for – installation 320
present shallow- 300 cataclastic
Bussesundet, Norway 145 fault seals 404
BWIP, Hanford, USA 124–127 flow of sandstones 312
Byerlee (frictional-strength) ‘law’ 536, 542 Catalina Island, southern California 260
Caucasan oil reservoirs 439, 450–452
C-waves 369, 388, 389 cavern, caverns 16, 43, 53, 55, 76, 123, 224
repeated 3C x 3C, 9C survey 451 reinforcement and support needs 93
cable CDR compensated dual resistivity tool 313
bottom drag 11 celluloid Qseis value 181
car, Rio 558 cement, cemented
Cabril dam site, Portugal 170 partially-, vuggy 404
Index 663
model for fault 236 1–3, Mohr circle diameter 534, 537, 539, 540,
non-linear, stress dependent 464, 465 544, 545
normal-, sub-vertical structure or shear waves 408, 417 confining pressure 22, 31
off-diagonal component ZNV 506 artificially elevated 265, 269, 281
ratio ZN /ZT 417–426, 463, 465 extreme 1 GPa 246
ratio ZN /ZT of clay-filled discontinuities 506 versus porosity, extreme pressures 312
ratio ZN /ZT relation to aspect ratio, Liu model 426 conglomerates
ratio ZN /ZT (normalized) relation to fluid-type, Liu tunnel EDZ in- 121
model 426, 502 weathered 148
ratio ZN /ZT variation with stress, Pyrak-Nolte 426 conjugate
saw-cut surfaces, limestones, 5–60 MPa load 501–503 fractures 105, 414, 420, 524, 550
saw-cut surfaces, limestones, inverted dynamic stiffnesses jointing, as alternative to EDA 435
501, 502 joint shearing 414, 443, 444, 450, 550
shear and normal- relation 407 pair, sub-parallel to dominant set 390
shear stress application, effect on- 506, 507 set of joints 130
stiffness comparison 421–425, 487, 492, 493 steeply-dipping sets 442
theories for resolving fluid type 425, 426 conjugate joint shearing
units inversion to compare with stiffness 424, 427 causing contrary rotation of O and R 414, 527,
versus fracture scale (logging method), Worthington et al. 550, 551
503 connected
with off-vertical fractures or incident waves 419, 420 dis- small-scale fissures 359
ZN field measurements 499, 500 connectivity 356
ZN and ZT excess compliance matrix locations 417 joint- needs at geothermal site 436
ZN and ZT equality, or not, discussion 417–419, Conoco Borehole Test Facility 377, 384, 385, 445, 446,
463, 465 447
compliant consolidated rock layers 4
and non- pores 356 consolidation 9, 26
bonds 204 consolidation effects 4
cracks 207 constant thickness slices 374
minerals, attenuation 346, 347 continental divide 140
compressibility (see fluid) converted waves
compressional P to S termed C 394, 438
and shear wave seismic 7 mode- with TIV and TIH 394
bi- arrivals 313, 317 contact area (joint, fracture walls) 79, 80
bodywaves 4, 5 ratio Ao/A1 80
slowness 316 continuum
waves (ubiquitous term) 355, 357, 362 modelling 129, 135
compression wave becomes a discontinuum 302–307
amplitude 80–86 Conrad discontinuity 241
reflection 7 continent
refraction 7 cross- scale 179
compressive strength (see UCS) continental
uniaxial 13, 20, 24, 26, 27 crust 241–252, 255
of joint walls (see joint wall compressive strength, JCS) crystalline- crust 263, 263
compressive strength – porosity (shale) 26 borderland 260
concrete blocks 27 intruded- crust 255
roughness profiles 509 margins 254–261
conducting joints, fractures, (see permeability, joints, fractures) shelf 242
some limitations of conventional assumptions 518 sub-crust, velocity-depth structures 241, 242,
conductivity (see permeability) 245–251
confidence limits 171 continuity
confined loss of- 304
artificially 268 controversial points
strength JCS at reservoir depth 534 regarding effective stress 263, 265–267, 269
666 Index
deformation modulus (see also dynamic, Young’s, and detecting point (receiver) 153
Qseis-similarity) (contd ) detonator cap 52
M-VP relation (note: M is pseudo-static estimate) 101, 167, deviated hole 299, 300, 305
365, 366 deviation (see rotation)
M-VP – c relation 366 detector separations 9
M-VP –Qc relation 92, 94, 102, 115, 161, 167, 232, 257, Devonian sandstone-shale units 370–372, 370–371
258, 348, 365, 449 DHI direct hydrocarbon indicator 458
M-VP –Qc-L relation 164, 175, 176, 293, 365, 366 diabase 11, 12, 119, 121
mean- 114 unfractured 278
minimum- 114 diagenesis 206
reduced 5, 93 diameter
reduction 118 multi- influence, tunnel deformation 304
reduction due to extension fracture 362 diametral pair 307
ratio of Ee/Edyn (static elastic/dynamic) 107 diametrically opposite max min 306
ratio of Ed/Edyn (static deformation modulus/ diatomaceous earth 26
dynamic) 107 differential pressure, stress (1-3)
tests 46, 50, 51 applied on model rock masses 524
tension fractured model 524 exceptionally low- 351
variable 227 exceptionally high- 539, 540
deformation modulus, similarity of high 538
static Eintact (when GPa units) to seismic Q 191, differential weathering
192, 355 diffusivity 464
static Ejointed (when GPa units) to seismic Q 200, 201, 362, dike, dikes 277–280, 264
363 basic 65
static Emass (when GPa units) to seismic Q 202, 203, 210, fractured, permeable 294
220, 221, 224–226, 269, 348, 350, 352, 365–367, mafic 215
387, 405, 410, 411, 424, 436, 476, 499, 500 sheeted 264, 278, 279, 281
e change in hydraulic aperture 489 dilatancy
E change in (mean) physical aperture 489 pre-earthquake 233
delta dilatant 303, 304, 307–310
-peak (␦peak) see joints non- 302, 303–305
weakly inclined- 302 strain 190
density 4, 5, 19 dilation 4, 84, 86, 169, 212
-compressive strength (shale) 26 causing build-up of stress 546
-depth trends (deeper, deeper holes) 111, 252, 253, 255, due to triaxial shear failure 540
264, 267, 298 enhanced- of fracture set 383
-depth trends (near-surface) 20, 78, 111 for enhanced permeability 435
-depth (sub-ocean sediments, Ontong-Java) 206 mobilized-, in stress transformation 553, 554
field- 21 onset of- 540
heterogeneities 191 peak- angles 525
high- anomalies 254–257 shear-induced- 390, 392, 406, 414, 444, 520, 522, 523,
of laboratory samples 19–23, 26, 263, 265 525, 526, 527, 531–533, 536, 540, 548, 550, 553
scaling, physical models 547 dilatation 5
VP data 19–23, 263–265, 267, 324, 326 diluvial clay 26
depth (ubiquitous term) 13 Diluvium 142
anomaly 14 diorite 20, 139–142
effects of- on seismic attributes 77–81 Äspö 139–142
estimation error 14 Äspö permeability 555, 556
increasing 13 Qseis 181
-modulus trends (see also deformation, and Qc ) 222 dipole
-pressure aspects of drilling 295–299 azimuthal, shear-wave, sonic logging 301, 302, 310,
to basement 8 312–316
to bedrock 9 dispersion cross-over 315
zone 19 flexural wave split into fast and slow directions 316
Index 669
Eikonal solver 16 England 11, 21, 29, 40, 42, 74, 79, 80, 94, 163
Ekofisk, Ekofisk reservoir 339, 392, 420, 438, 451, 487 North East 203, 207, 234, 346, 356, 379, 380
choice of deformation moduli at- 339, 443, 444 Southern- 319, 320, 488, 520, 521
choice of shear stiffnesses 427, 428 S.W- 488
gas-cloud difficulties 451, 499 enhanced
geomechanics-based 1D compaction model 399, 420, 443 oil recovery EOR 66
imaging through shallow gas 394, 396, 399 production techniques 363
index testing of conjugate joints 508, 510 environmental, environmentally
joint shearing 399, 401, 420, 443, 522 changes 30
modelling compaction at- with UDEC-BB 401, 443 effects 19
modelling subsidence at- with UDEC-MC 400 sensitive areas 172
monitoring with 4D 398, 399 Eocene 447
no discovery, no production if 549 Eocene limestone 11
pressure reduction 522 Eocene and Cretaceous, SW Texas 370
world’s first marine 3D/4C, 2002 451 EOR enhanced oil recovery 363
subsidence at- 339 gradient enhancement 295
elastic 4 permeability enhancement 295
acousto- 137 epicentre (see earthquake)
constants (static) 7, 183 epidote
constants (dynamic) 7, 183 mineral fillings 278
continuum theory 9 escalators 4
matrix 360 Ethiopia 245
moduli, modulus 4, 5 EU Hydratech Project 237
-parameters, time dependence in 4D 398 Eurasia 230
pseudo- response 306 Eurasia regions
reversible 183 Altaids 230
scattering 387 Arabian Shield 230
state 59 E. European Shield 230
stiffness matrix 417, 451, 477 Indian Shield 230
stress distribution, borehole 137, 302 Siberian Shield 230
stress distribution, tunnel 131 Ural Mountains 230
tensors, 3D 374 Eurasia, tectonic map, types 230, 246
waves (ubiquitous term) Shields 230
elasticity 373 Tethysides-Alpinotype 230
electrical Tethysides-Germanotype 230
circuit theory 181 European
conductivity 174 injection pressure limit (grouting) 162
resistivity (see resistivity) Eurotunnel 94
electro-magnet 187 excavation
electro-magnetic wave damage zone (see EDZ)
conductivity 169 effects 30
elliptical yielding zone 311 method
empirical (ubiquitous term) pre- velocities 165
equations (ubiquitous term) 256, 511 process 30
predictions 175 expansion due to high temperature 246
energy experimental testing facility (ubiquitous) 192, 197,
loss 18 357–359, 359–364, 192
loss/dissipated per cycle 18, 181 explosions
storage 18 nuclear tests as source 251–253
engineering exploratory drilling 4, 295
geological investigations 76, 469 exploration
geologists 58, 442, 469 borehole 306
-scale 179 -development well log display 316
units 161 galleries 99, 119
Index 673
joint, jointed, jointing, fracture, fractured (ubiquitous, and RQD/Jn as relative block size (see also scattering) 225, 469,
interchanged terms) (contd ) 615
sparse 307 Jr -joint roughness rating 6, 53, 92, 144, 175, 225, 293,
sparsely-, massive QH2O – K estimation 557 350, 447, 448
stiffness (static/pseudo-static,) 5, 6, 45, 79, 98, 106, 184, Jr/Ja as friction coefficient for joints, fractures, faults 225,
418, 420, 463 350, 411, 469, 615, 620
stiffness changes 309 Jr/Ja as friction coefficient of clay-filled discontinuities 538,
stiffness, dynamic, effects on velocity-frequency 478 556, 615, 620
stiffness non-linearity 420 Jr/Ja as directional parameter causing anisotropy 411
steeply-dipping (ubiquitous term) 357, 401 Ja/Jr for Qwater and for QH2O 556–558
strength displacement dilation BB-modelling 506, 507 Jw -joint water inflow rating 6, 92, 169, 175, 225, 293,
strength, limited 308 350,447, 448
stress discontinuity 518–521 (see SRF for 6th Q-parameter)
stretch in subsidence bowl 412 J-parameters from Barton, Barton-Bandis joint model
strike, rotating in domal structure 401 JCS joint wall compressive strength 79, 83, 203, 258, 359,
structure effects 285 420, 422, 424, 425, 428, 451, 456, 485, 492, 495,
sub-vertical 40, 41, 42, 359 496, 507–512, 540
surface 9 block test 518
surface area, reason for water weakening 402 JCS and moisture 502, 507, 509, 511, 512
testing 282 JCSo 526, 543–549
testing, stress-closure 282 JCSo in CSFT 529, 530
testing, shear-displacement-dilation 282 JCSo to JCSn scaling 531–535
three sets of- 385 JCSn 523, 525, 541, 543–549
vertical (see sub-vertical) ratio JCS/n 79, 258, 485, 508, 520, 547
void 119 ratio n/JCS in CSFT tests 528–530
wall compressive strength (see JCS) scaling equation 511
water-conducting- 172, 173 scaling with block size 523, 525
weathered, partly 508 JRC joint roughness coefficient 83, 84, 86,162, 197, 359,
weathered, SW, MW joint stiffnesses 496 363, 364, 420, 422, 424, 425, 428, 451, 456, 457,
jointed 304 460, 467, 485, 496, 507–512, 540
heavily- 7, 163 back-calculation of- from tilt test 509, 510
less frequently- 19 block test 518
-rock 30 JRC ‘at right-angles’ 517
-rock masses (ubiquitous term) 4, 5, 124–126, scaling equation 511, 544
365, 367 scaling with block size 523, 525
-rock masses, coal analogue 168 JRCo 519, 526, 543
-rock model JRCo importance in strength-deformation scaling 535
sparsely- 7 JRCo in CSFT 529, 530
joint index tests JRCo and JCSo 487, 493, 508, 510, 543–549
Schmidt hammer 26, 486, 510, 545 JRCo to JRCn scaling 531–535
tilt tests 401, 508, 510, 513, 514, 545 JRCn 523, 525, 541, 543–549
tilt tests, large-scale 509, 553 JRCn estimate from tilt tests 513, 514
wall compressive strength (JCS) 425, 508, 510, 545 JRCn measured in DST and biaxial shear tests 523, 524
wall roughness(JRC) 401, 425, 510, 545 scaling- to block-scale JRCn and JCSn 484, 508, 510
joint industry project 303 JRCmob concept 489–491, 507, 545
Juan de Fuca Ridge 269, 279 applied to model tension fractures 548
Jurassic 185 applied to stress transformation, corrected 553, 554
sandstone-shale units 371
J-parameters from Q-system (see Appendix A for all numerical Kamioka Mine 65
ratings, descriptions 615–626) Kane, North Atlantic fracture zone profile 273
Ja -joint alteration, clay-filling rating 6, 53, 92, 144, 169, Ko (ratio of h min/v) 299, 300, 443
175, 225, 293, 350, 447, 448 increased by joint shear in 1D compaction 443
Jn -number of joint sets rating 6, 53, 92, 144, 169, 175, reversal at shallow depth 299, 300
202, 225, 250, 293, 350, 447, 448, 469 kaolinite gouge (artificial filling) 83
Index 683
Parkfield Dense Seismograph Array, (HRSN) USGS, depth dependent- 164, 490, 555, 557
California 216, 223, 224, 429, 431, 432 dominant direction, fracturing 455
particle enhanced 133
motions 5, 437 e2/12-based- 173, 474, 513
size (grouting) 487 enhancement with pre-peak shear 554
velocity histories 479 estimation from QH2O 554–558
passive source (see AE acoustic emission) FZI data 333–335
patchy shooting 391, 394 high-permeability zones 17
patchy saturation 335–337 influence of conjugate shearing on- 358
causing frequency dependence 336, 337 influence of shear stress on- 517–536
capillary pressure-saturation estimates 336 low-, due to shale 236, 237, 296
discussion re compliance, squirt, attenuation 336 lower 151
due to rock joint 336 Lugeon test of- (see Lugeon)
due to macroscopic patch 336 Lugeon – K conversion, approx. 161, 164, 173,
mixture 336, 337 176, 556
with ‘homogeneous’ mix of lithologies 336, 338 macro- 356
path length 30 maintenance of joint- 358, 359
Pb3O4 red lead, model additive 547, 548, 551, 552 maintenance due to shear 402
PC-element matrix- 373
liner 151 matrix-, normalized 360
ring building (TBM tunnel) 94 max. and min. 174
peak shear strength (see joint, shear strength) measurement facility 359–361, 363, 364
singularity of ␦peak and beyond peak 554 measurement value, if intersecting structure 407
peat 26 micro- 202
pebbles 12 of matrix too low, Ekofisk 401
pegmatite 13, 70, 73 of mineralized ophiolite (estimated) 278
weathered 107, 108 of rock mass 173–175, 292, 293
Peko Oil USA 374 of rock mass, one set 533
penetration orthogonal- 358, 359
rate 78, 139, 149, 158, 321 parallel to joints, fractures 358, 359, 362, 363, 363
strength 79 principal magnitudes (tensors) 278, 291, 292
Pensylvanian sandstone-shale units 370–372 Qwater, modification for- 556
performance of TBM 158 QH2O – depth – permeability 557, 558
peridotite 19 ratio of principal-, in situ 174, 292
permeable 169 ratio of principal-, around borehole 318
fractures 179 sandstones compared 343
sub-ocean crust 266 scatter curves 334, 335
zones, Qseis/VP correlation for sands 376, 377 stress behaviour 179
permeability, permeabilities 77, 159–165, 169, 170, 203, stress behaviour (in situ tests) 165, 166, 527
331–337 stress behaviour (lab tests on coal) 168
and storage 364 stress behaviour (large-scale lab) 527
anisotropic- 358, 359, 382, 425 super-k method of prediction 378
anisotropic-, Äspö spiral tunnel 555, 556 tensors 359, 360
access spiral tunnel tensor rotation 174, 292
as function of confining pressure 359 test, testing 9, 88, 159–176, 292
as function of direction 359 test holes 513, 514
before and after grouting 173–175, 292, 293 three-axis 357–364
changes due to tunnelling 615 variable- (crustal scale) 231
-clay-content 331–337 -velocity behaviour 168
comparisons 278 virgin- 278
core-plug- 237 Permian sandstone-shale units 371
depth dependent perpendicular and parallel loading (and ray paths)
deep well- data, land-based 555 w.r.t. layering, bedding, schistocity, foliation 38, 39, 46,
depth data (1600 m of oceanic crust) 279 354–359
692 Index
1/Q – depth (sedimentary rocks to 2.4 km depth) 232 1/QP – frequency, calculated for fractures/joints of different
1/Q – depth (0 to 5.5 km depth, Lower Triassic sandstones stiffness, quartz-monzonite 200
deepest 1.5 km) 233 1/QP – permeability: various limestones: packstone etc. 349
1000/QP – frequency dependence(interbedded sand-, 1/QS – permeability: various limestones 349
lime-, silt- and mudstones), field 207
Rock physics/poro-elastic modelling
Rock physics data (sandstones) 1/Q – frequency, fracture nucleation, automaton model 463
QP , VP – frequency – effective pressure, dry or brine saturated, 1/Q – frequency,Chapman, fracture size variation 471
Berea sst. 344 1/Q(components) – frequency, SeisRox TIH model 476
QP – differential pressure, Berea sst. 352 qS1 and qS2 examples parallel and perpendicular 390, 445
QP , VP – frequency – effective pressure, dry or brine saturated,
quarry 27, 28, 42
Boise sst. 344
blasting (damage) 170
QP,, VP – frequency – effective pressure, dry or brine saturated,
quartz 27, 243, 254, 509
Massilon sst. 344
cement, precipitation of 311
1000/Q and Q – 3D confining pressure – permeability, cubic
content in three sandstones 343
specimens, Penrith sst. 363
diorite 27
QP – clay content (volumetric) – permeability, sandstones,
mineral fillings 278
equation 346
monzonite (Stripa Mine) 134–136, 422–424
QP – differential pressure, as additional function of frequency,
monzonite (Stripa), joint behaviour 197–200
Berea sst. 187
monzonite, stiffness, dynamic/static data, stress-dependent
QP – % compliant minerals, effective pressure 5 or 60 MPa,
496
sandstones, siltstones 347
quartzite, quartzites 13, 38
QP and VP – effective pressure, microcracked sandstone
bedded, steeply 301, 367
347
jointed 93
QP and QS – differential pressure, Berea sst. 342
Ko 299
QP/QS – (VP/VS)2 and pore pressure, to distinguish sand and
massive (South Africa) 224
sandstone 351
quartzitic
QE – confining pressure and saturation, resonant bar
sandstones 144
technique 186
quaternary
QE – saturation and frequency, resonant bar technique 190
active faults (Japan) 217
QE – strain amplitude, resonant bar technique 187
deposits 447
Rock physics data (various rock types)
QP – axial stress (sat. and dry), basalt 127 R equivalent roughness of rockfill 538
QP – pressure: sandstones 193, bedded-coal 201 Rabcewicz 76
QP – pressure, also Ppore/Pconfining 0°, 30° and 90°, radial
over-pressured shales 355 rock property variations 316
QP – porosity: igneous and metamorphic rocks, limestones and stress (see stress)
sandstones 186 unequal- stress gradients 315
Qph and Qpv – confining and pore pressure, sandstones rail tunnel, high-speed 17
192 Rangely anticline, Colorado 167
QP – compliant minerals %: 5 and 60 MPa confinement, ray
siltstones and sandstones 347 curved- paths 44
QS/QP – degree of saturation, lab 189, 232 paths 16, 59, 61, 62, 130, 261
QS/QP – VP/VS – degree of saturation, sandstone 189 paths parallel and perpendicular to assumed fractures
QP – QS calcareous-, dolomitic-, siliceous-limestones 349 384
QP – QS – oil or water saturated: limestones, bi-modal paths crossing max. no. joints 124–127, 367
porosity 350 tracing 153
QP – QS – kerogen %: modelled Kimmeridge shale, 0° and Rayleigh
90° 353 scattering attenuation 196, 480
QS – axial stress (sat. and dry) basalt 127 wave scattering 480
1/Q (1/QP) – axial stress-strain, loaded to failure, tuffaceous rebound hammer (see Schmidt) 101
sst. 195, 196 receiver, receivers
1/Q – pressure (with three Q⫺1 anisotropy parameters 357 lines (3D-4C) 391
Index 697
RMR -rock mass rating 7, 11, 56, 70, 76, 144, 163, 469, stresses, principal components 320
615, 621 support, high crack density 444
core-logging 387 type 9, 11, 27, 173
correlation to static deformation modulus (Ed or M) types for JRC, JCS, r determination (11) 509
111–113 unstable- 160
correlation (approx.) to rock mass quality Q-value 113, rock engineering 3, 30, 106, 215
163, 621 parallels 226
-variation with depth 386, 387 parallels to sub-ocean gradients 286
rock project, projects 35, 110, 423
anchor foundation 51, 52 rock failure 127
bedded 304 dilatant- 302–312
beneath our feet 558 non-dilatant- 302–305
blocks 156 rock mass 30
boundaries 202, 226 characterized not classified, outside EDZ 310
burst prone areas 52 characterization method 202
caverns, models 551 classification method, Chinese 74, 76
classes 139–141, 152 condition 9
classes and rock types 142–144, 148–150 deformability (pseudo-static) 97–115, 161, 162
conditions (adverse for tunnelling) 151 failure (under plate load) 102–104
country- 157 near-surface-, attenuation 226
cover 147 parallels (shallow crustal seismic attenuation) 224–226
deformation, large scale 400 quality 6, 7, 17, 92, 95, 225, 273, 282
fabric orientation, from Point Load 384, 385 quality improvement (due to grouting) 170–175,
finely-layered sequence of 207–207 292, 293
framework 356 quality, low 158
hard jointed 164 rapidly changing- qualities 10, 203
hard massive 93, 164 rapidly changing- qualities at fault zones 394
hard massive, completely intact, km depths 365 velocity increase 293
hard porous 164 rock mechanics 5, 45, 75, 119, 227, 309, 424
heavily jointed 145 background, logic 191, 310, 390, 407, 418, 427, 434,
importance of rock type 3 442, 444, 463, 465, 502, 523
joints (ubiquitious term, see joint) 493 developments 197
mass (see rock mass) effect 192
massiv-, negligible jointing, QH2O – K estimation 558 engineers 189
matrix 30 experience 407
model, biaxial tests of fractures 422 modelling (see numerical) 133, 420, 427, 460, 461
non-brittle 304 rejection of elastic isotropic behaviour 382
non-dilatant 304 units (e.g. MPa/mm) 200
outcrops 11 wellbore (borehole) studies 302–311, 319
partially molten- 242 rock physics 45, 179, 192, 295, 350
quality 5, 88 at laboratory scale 323–367
qualities (A to F) and velocities (VP) 143 goals, exploration related (King) 323
quality Q (see Q-value) high pressure testing needs 323
skeleton 320 model for computing change of density, from VP and
salt, VP and density 326 VS 398
stimulant, unrealistic 417, 418 more ordered relationships of- 323
slope 30 reduced sensitivity for – at great stress 320
slope, modelled 517, 551 shallow perspective of- (see Ch. 2)
soft 93, 304 weathering and alteration in near-surface – (see Ch.2)
soft, massive 304 Rocky Mountains 231
soft plastic 304 roof fall 60
strength 3, 92, 150 room temperature 30
strength, reduced 309 Rose area, East Pacific rise 275
stresses 295–300 Ross ice shelf 253
Index 699
polarization directions 413, 414, 452, 453 Barton,Colleen, Zoback, Moos,Townend, conducting joints
pressure in well 433 under shear stress 541–543
qS1 reversal with qS2 454, 455 Barton, e and E apertures from JRC 364, 489
seismic events (before/after earthquakes) 215, 216, 218 Barton, JRC-mobilized concept 435, 491, 548
S-wave time-delays 429, 433 Barton, M and Qseis similarity for jointed rock masses
S-wave travel-times 433 202, 203, 210, 220, 221, 224–226, 269, 348, 350,
tensile 352, 365–367, 387, 405, 410, 411, 424, 436, 476,
fracture traces 385 499, 500
strength (see rock) Barton, natural block-size scaling of Ks 422
tension, tensile Barton, non-linear strength envelopes, JRC, R, log- formula-
fractures 81, 87, 299 tions 538
fractures, models 524, 527, 548, 551, 552 Barton 90°-flip h min to Hmax reversal, alternative
hydraulic- 299 theory 416
tensor Barton, Qrock to Lugeon inversion 175, 176, 366, 555,
elements 374 556
fourth and second rank- 417–419 Barton, Q-system of rock mass classification 615–624
geometric 174, 292 Barton, QH2O permeability estimation, depth dependent
hydraulic 174, 292 556–558
Terlingham Tunnel 94. Barton, roughness profile, tilt test for JRC 508–510, 514
terrain Barton, shear stiffness scale effect 493
mountainous- 33, 56 Barton, stress transformation equations with dilation 552,
steep 56 553
TerraTek, Salt Lake City (now Schlumberger) 509, Barton, thermal over-closure of joints 513–517
513–515, 518, 552, 553 Barton, VP Qc M linkage 146
Tertiary rocks 142 BISQ Biot and squirt-flow, Dvorkin 378
granites 19 BOSK saturated, fractured medium model 457
mudstones 19, 27, 304 Crampin EDA shear-wave anisotropy, basic theory 429
oil shale Ko 299 Crampin 90°-flip excess pore-pressure theory 416
rocks 142 extended-Kuster-Toksöz, velocity-crack aspect ratio model-
sandstones 27, 144 ling 276
sandstones Ko 299 extended-Walsh, velocity-crack aspect ratio modelling 276
sandstone-shale units 370–372 Gassmann (Biot-) fluid substitution for porous media 317,
sedimentary rocks 25 420
siltstones 304 (error for fractured porous rock) 420, 457, 458
shale Ko 299 Johnston, spectral amplitudes, dispersive waves 198
tuff Ko 299 Jones, dispersive squirt flow model 208
Terzaghi, theory of effective stress 268, 320 Hudson (seismic) effective cracked-media model 196, 461
test apparatus, equipment (diagrams) Hudson (seismic) normal and shear compliance model 427,
rock physics 59, 192, 197, 361 503
Texaco 374 Hudson and Crampin P-wave anisotropy, fracture density
Texas 203, 386 503, 504
Texas, fractured carbonate gas field 536 Hudson and Schoenberg compliance formulation for faults
Theories reviewed (brief, biased selection, see references) 504
APE, Zatzepin, Crampin 416 Liu, fluid-type, fracture compliance, aspect ratio
Aki conjecture 228 theory 426
Aki and Richards crack relaxation mechanism 387 Mohr-Coulomb shear strength criterion 461
Bandis hyperbolic joint closure model 428, 485, 486, 494, Nur, velocity anisotropy due to loaded micro-cracks 36
528 Nur, critical porosity 324
Bandis shear strength scale effects 522 Rüger reflection coefficients with TIH 390
Barton-Bandis joint constitutive laws 435, 511 Schoenberg, slip-interface, displacement discontinuity 200,
Barton-Bandis strength-displacement-dilation, scaled 487, 461, 501
493, 507, 509, 511, 526, 531–535 Schoenberg-Sayers excess compliance theory 416, 417, 503,
Barton-Choubey peak shear strength, JCS, JRC, stiffness 504
485, 507–512, 514 Stratification-percolation model for apertures 498
710 Index
Theories reviewed (brief, biased selection, see delay increase in reservoir formation 471, 473
references) (contd ) delay-depth intervals: anisotropic, isotropic, anisotropic
Tod crack density decay model 461 473
Walsh elliptical crack closure model 364, 529 delay variations 445
Walsh friction dissipation in micro-cracks 182 distance inversion method 275
Zoback hydrostatic not lithostatic pore pressure in crust distortion 14
(references) average equation 30, 119, 121, 323, 324
thermal lapse comparison 399
gradient 242 lapse cross-well data 379
over-closure (see over-closure of joints) lapse survey 66, 451
relaxation 183 lapse, time shifts, hysteresis, in-outside reservoir 484
thermally-induced stress 135 separation, increase with path length 439
thermal expansion sag, gas or over-pressure 381
cofficient of contained water 321 shift in compacting reservoir 398, 399, 402
coefficient of contained fluids 351 TIV 374, 390, 394, 451
coefficient, importance of included joint 516 tomograms
effect on crustal velocities 248–250 acoustic 59
thin bed alternative 64, 65
in relation to wave length 372 amplitude attenuation- 65
Thomsen, weakly transversely isotropic 356 difference- 63
1000/QP and Q scale comparison 380 error- 63
3D fence- 64
finite difference modelling 196 for blast monitoring 61, 63, 64
measurements (axis-by-axis) 354–357, 359–364 non-co-planar- 64
multi-azimuth walk-away 369 Poisson’s ratio- 64
full-azimuth, full-offset P-wave survey 526 Pulse broadening- 65
multi-component, multi-mode, multi-azimuth S-wave- 64
acquisition 382 2D and 3D comparison 259
P-wave velocity tomograms 375 time-lapse S-wave-, stable through fluid change 379
repeated- multi-component survey 453 velocity difference- 61, 63
seismic survey 399 velocity difference- at fault zone 394
spherical sample measurements 358–360 VP-, and Poisson’s ratio- 379
3DEC 133, 365, 454 VP and QP-, depth slices 375
3D-4C (OBC data acquisition) 391, 396 VP/VS- 64
4D (see four) tomographic, tomography (cross-hole seismic) 40, 49, 52–65,
three 92, 94, 131, 132, 139, 154, 156, 169, 257,
-component sources 7 374–378
-dimensional failure surfaces 306 amplitude- SAT 83
-dimensional P-wave measurements 357–360 back-projection- 231
-dimensional seismic (ubiquitous term) 281, 282 blasting effects 63–64
thrust fault 244 attenuation- 18
Tibetan Plateau, China (thickest crust) 245 cross-continental 230, 231
Tier I, II, III classification (see HPHT) 320, 321 cross-hole- 52–58, 61, 74, 88
tight (fractured) gas cross-hole- (deep boreholes) 57, 94, 115
reservoir 384, 471–475 cross-pillar- 60, 61
sandstones 357 cross-well- 233
sandstones, lenticular 471–475 cross-well-, with permeability 377, 378
TIH (also HTI) 374, 390, 394, 417, 477 -inversion 56
tilt test for JRC estimation (see joint index tests) 514 post-blast 63, 64
time pre-blast 63, 64
delay (between split shear waves) 313, 314, 409, 412, 398, radar attenuation difference- 169
399, 429, 432–434, 436, 437 radar slowness- 169
delay from micro-earthquakes (Iceland, Hawaii, San shallow 3D- 374, 375
Andreas Fault) 436 3D velocity- 259
Index 711
Western 210–216, 221–224, 227, 228, 244, 245, independent- analyses in each azimuth 384
251–253, 513–515 interval stacking- 234
West Coast (Oregon, Washington, California) 231, inversion (sub-ocean floor) 281
257–259 lateral- variations 257, 258, 381
South-Western 210, 230 lithology 48
US Bureau of Mines 64 low- zones 71
US Department of Energy 382 low- layer 140, 141
US Geological Survey 216 model 93, 154, 157, 212, 219, 252, 253
Uzbekistan 211 model, multi-layer, sub-ocean 243, 252, 253, 258, 262,
266, 267, 269, 274, 289
Vacuum Field, New Mexico 451 model, multi-layer, altered zone 317
Vajon dam site 108 nine (or more) components of- 355, 361
Valhall reservoir 391, 392, 396, 438, 453–455 oscillation in well logs 299–301, 316
Vamanashi earthquake 213 permeability, of joints, of fractures 363, 364
Vardø sub-sea road tunnel, Norway 145 porosity-permeability 332–334
Vatnajökull eruption, Iceland 434 rock condition (Japan) 48
Veas sewage treatment caverns, Slemmestad, reduction in subsiding reservoir 399
Norway 148 residual- tomogram 57
velocity, velocities (see also numerous data sets at: VP) rosette 40
anisotropy 129, 299 thickness anomaly 256
anisotropy due to fractures 358–360 tomograms (see tomography)
anisotropy due to foliation 38, 248 undisturbed 313, 319
anisotropy due to joints and bedding 361–364 versus radius (see EDZ) 120, 318
anisotropy expressions 356 velocity-depth (see VP, by category)
anomalous, supposedly 271 curves 91, 92
anomaly 14, 256, 257 discussion 271, 272
azimuthal anisotropy 40–44, 129 gradients (see also velocity gradients)
contoured, continuous profile 284 non-uniqueness 271
contrast 15 structures, sub-continental crust 241, 242, 245–251
density space 22 structures, continental margins 254–261
depth models 369 structures, geothermal fields 394, 395
depth and crustal type, to 50 km 251 structures, mid-Atlantic ridge 261–273, 287–290
depth-age models 369–372 structures, East-Pacific rise 273–290
depth models 266, 267, 271, 274, 275, 369 velocity ratios (see VP and VS categories following)
discrepancy, lab to in situ 263, 265, 268, 276, 281 (Vo/VP)2 with azimuth (granites) 41
dispersion (see frequency dependence) 45, 386 (V/Vmax) with azimuth (limestones) 44
dispersion due to absorption 386 (V’/V) w.r.t. incident angle to fault 48
dispersion, negative 343, 344 (VF/VL) field to lab 69, 73
distribution 4 (VF/VL)2 field to lab squared 69, 74
false 146 Vema, North Atlantic fracture zone profile 273
fluctuation in interbedded strata 379 Venezuelan oil sand 330
gradient 4, 6, 52, 91–95, 265, 268, 271, 272, 273, 285, Ventura Basin 260
348, 370–371, 381 vertically-aligned fractures, jointing 374, 407,
gradient, extreme 14, 283, 286 409, 477
gradient, large, steep 15, 60, 222, 268, 269, 274, 277, causing anisotropy with low frequency 382
278, 348, 371 causing biased sampling with vertical wells 407
grid 16 causing signal distortion with mid-frequency 382
high- where Qseis and Qrock also high 410, 411 leading to reflections with high frequency 382
high- regions 129 missed by vertical wells 407, 408, 441
higher- with water than oil, in 4D 397 progression in complexity of matrices 416
hysteresis 31 vesicules, vesicular (see basalt)
increase with age 261–263, 276, 282, 287–290 gas-filled 265
increase due to compaction 398, 402 Vibrometric 56
714 Index
vibration VP – biaxial and axial stress (in situ jointed block of granite)
longitudinal 5 166
torsional 189 VP – biaxial and axial stress (in situ jointed block of sand-
vibrator (see source) stone) 167
Vicker’s microhardness 78 VP – confining pressure (diverse rocks) 31
Viking Graben, North Sea 352 VP – confining pressure: sandstones, dry and saturated 32,
viscosity bedded-coal, dry, saturated, 3-axis testing 201
visco-elastic 183, 475 VP – confining pressure and pore pressure (sandstones) 193
viscous VP – cross-hole (not tomography) 50–52, 66, 67, 106,
damping 190 119, 120, 134–136
dissipation 190 VP – cross-hole (time of heating and cooling) 135, 136
void (see joint void) VP – cross-hole tomography 54, 55, 58, 62–64, 132, 234
formation due to blasting 61 VP – cross-pillar tomography in mining 60, 61, 65
-space due to blasting 118 VP – density 19
volcanic VP – density (dolerite) 22
porous- rocks 27, 142, 251–253 VP – density (extreme confining pressure) 23
soil 25 VP – density (Tertiary foundations) 21
volume comparison VP – density (sulphide ores) 23
compaction-subsidence- with core plugs 400 VP – density (basalt, gabbro, serpentinite peridotite,
volumetric joint count 167 20 my) 265
velocity (see VP and VS , and all categories below) VP – depth (see multiple categories below)
azimuthally-dependent- 301 VP – Ee and Ed (pseudo-static: limestones and diverse rock
depth trends (see VP-depth, etc) 297 types 99–103
elliptical Vfast and Vslow replaced at faults 394 VP2 –Ee and Ed 100
fast- not equal matrix at faults 394 VP – Emass (pseudo-static) and other parameters, Tertiary
P-wave-, see VP specification below bridge foundations 21
radially-dependent- 302 VP – Edyn (diverse sources) 107
reduction, source of 306 VP – extensional strain amplitude: sandstone 187
zone of changed- 302 VP – failure stress (plate loading to failure) 104
VP (see also P-wave) alphabetic listing of categories VP – fractures per meter in drill holes 73
(see itemized data below alphabetic order) VP – joints per meter (diverse rocks, countries, weathering)
VP – age, sub-ocean, spreading ridge data 262, 264, 265, 72
287–289 VP – joint spacing, penetration strength, chalk 79
VP air-dry – VP saturated (dolerite) 23 VP – joint spacing, depth, shallow tunnel in chalk 79
VP anisotropy (parallel) and VP (perpendicular) slate 38 VP – load-unload (slate) 38
VP anisotropy (maximum) parallel to major joint set 40 VP – Lugeon value (permeability) 159, 160
VP – angle of incidence (anisotropic rocks, dry or saturated) VP – orthogonal directions (jointed blocks of granite: dry or
38 wet) 40
VP – artificially jointed: frequency, roughness, clay-filling, VP – penetration rate (TBM) 149
dilation/shearing 85, 86 VP – permeability (see listings below) 159–177,
VP – azimuthal 360° (in situ sparsely jointed granite) 40 333–337
VP – azimuthal 360° (in situ jointed granite limestones) 40, VP – permeability – FZI 333–335
42, 43 VP – porosity (see listings below) 19, 21, 24
VP – azimuthal 360° (in situ jointed) 44 VP – porosity (clean sandstones, and suspension) 324
VP – azimuthal 360° 3D VSP (0 to 520 m) 44 VP – porosity (crystalline, volcanic rocks) 28
VP – axial load (pre- and post-failure, coal) 104 VP – porosity – clay-content (sandstones) 25, 331–333
VP – axial stress (perpendicular, parallel: foliated VP – porosity (of rock mass, Tertiary foundations) (nr %)
gneiss) 39 19, 21, 22, 24
VP – axial stress (indentor, sandstone, tomography) 59 VP – Q-value, core logging, cavern site 76
VP – axial stress (basalt 126), (quartz-monzonite 136) VP – QP – depth plots (1800 to 2800 feet) 234
VP – axial stress (lab- and field-scale comparison, granite) VP – QP – depth trends (1 to 20 km) 230
166 VP – QP – depth trends (1 to 1200 km) 245
VP - axial stress-strain, loaded to failure (tuff-sandstone, VP – rock quality Q-value (see listings below) 13
granite) 195, 196 VP – rock quality – deformability 24
Index 715
VP – RQD – joints per meter, or core lengths (hard rocks, (iii) VP – depth (continental crust, shallow)
near-surface) 6, 13, 71, 72, 75 VP – depth – fractures/m (900 m XTLR well, crystalline
VP – rate of penetration, hardness, RQD, density 78 rocks near SAFZ) 90, 91
VP – reduction with freeze-thaw cycles 185 VP – depth (0 to 1.6 km, nuclear waste site tomography)
VP – saturation (foundation) 21 58
VP – Schmidt N-hammer rebound (crystalline, volcanic VP – depth (0 to 5.5 km, Lower Triassic sandstone in deep-
rocks) 28 est 1.5 km) 233
VP – seabed tomography 56 VP – VS – depth, on land (0 to 7 km, porous, jointed vol-
VP – support type 141, 147, 149 canics, tuff, NTS) 251–253
VP – temperature (ambient to freezing, sandstone) 33 VP – VS – depth – fractures/m – VP/VS ratio (1100 m
VP – three dimensional incident angles (truncated cube, MONT-1 well, jointed granodiorites) 90, 92
shale) 39 VP – VS – transmissivity, and VP/VS (400 to 1800 m deep
VP – time of drying out (granite) 31 boreholes in marl) 161
VP – time of heating and cooling 185
VP – uniaxial compressive strength (crystalline, volcanic (iv) VP – depth (continental margin)
rocks) 28 VP – depth (and density) (0 to 45 km, also laterally 240 km)
VP – uniaxial compressive strength (dolerite) 23 US East Coast 255, 256
VP – uniaxial compressive strength (diverse) 25 VP – depth (4.4 to 6.0 km) Hawaiian ridge 258
VP – uniaxial compressive strength (Tertiary mudstones, VP – depth (0 to 6 km), NE Atlantic, sub-basalt profile 403
sandstones) 27 VP – depth (0 to 30 km) San Francisco Bay area crust 259
VP – uniaxial compressive strength (shale) 26 (v) VP – depth (sub-ocean, spreading ridge)
VP – water level fluctuations (reservoir dam site) 89, 90 VP – depth East Pacific rise 273–287
VP – water saturation – porosity (crystalline, volcanic VP – depth WAP 10, 52 km, East Pacific rise 284–286
rocks) 29 VP – depth 14°S on East Pacific rise 286
(i) VP – depth, extreme depth VP – depth Mid-Atlantic ridge 243–245, 261–273
VP – VS – depth (0–6300 km) crust to inner core 241 VP – depth Ontong-Java 206
VP – VS – confining pressure (extreme, 5–10 kb) 32 VP – depth 0 to 1 km, East Pacific rise, linear gradient
assumption 275
(ii)VP – depth (continental crust, deep) VP – depth sonic log, Hole 504B, Costa Rica ridge 280
V P – depth (0 to 8 km, six geothermal fields, Kenya VP – depth – age young oceanic crust 276
Rift) 395 VP – depth – permeability – porosity, Hole 504B, Costa
V P – depth (0 to 9 km, KTB super-deep well, sonic and Rica E.Pacific ridge 278
VSP) 249, 250, 252 VP – depth – porosity – permeability (0 to 500 m of sedi-
VP – depth (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 km histograms) 247 ments) marine logging and modelling, Site 977, ODP
VP – depth (0–25 km, 0–50 km) 247, 248, 250, 251 Leg 161, Shipboard Scientific Party 336
VP – depth (0–35 km) and lateral variation (0–200 km) VP – VS –depth, VSP, Hole 504B, Costa Rica ridge 280
229 VP – VS –depth, VSP, Hole 504B, Costa Rica ridge, and lab
VP – depth (0 to 50 km) five types of continental crust, comparison 281
with lab-sample comparison 250 VP – VS –depth 264, 266, 267, 275, 277, 280, 281, 286
VP – depth (0 to 50 km) Proterozoic, Phanerozoic, VP – VS – Poisson’s ratio, young crust 270
Platform, Oregen crust 251
VP – depth (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 km) orogens, shields and plat- (vi) VP – depth (petroleum reservoirs, shallow, deeper)
forms, continental arcs, rifts, extended crust, average VP – depth, also QP /VP – depth, 210–400 m, sands and
crust 248 sand channels 375–377
VP – depth (0 to 50 km) continental crust, USA VP – depth (0 to 5500 feet) (also Q) Melville Island,
N.W.Montana to Washington State 251 Canadian Arctic 233
VP-VS – depth, on land (0 to 9 km, KTB super-deep well, VP – depth (0 to 6 km), NE Atlantic, sub-basalt
sonic and VSP) 249, 250, 252 profile 403
VP – VS – QP–QS - depth (0 to 35 km, and laterally 0 to VP – depth (0 to 2.3 km), limestones, clays, over-pressured,
190 km) Japan 229 two wells 450, 452
VP (variation) for 29 crustal rock types, 309°C, 20 km VP – depth (1800 to 2800 feet) (also Q) mixed lithology,
equivalent depth 249 BP Devine Test Site 234
VP (anisotropy) matrix, high pressure, high temperature VP – depth (4000 to 4350 feet) (also Q) fractured shales,
248 Buena Vista Hills 237
716 Index
VP – depth (0 to 5 km) high pressure well, over-pressure VP static/VP dyn (and Young’s modulus) – axial strain magni-
effects 298 tude, Boise sst. 340
VP – depth (0 to 5 km) and lateral, at salt dome, North Sea VP static/VP dyn (and Young’s modulus) – axial strain magni-
381 tude, Pecos sst. 340
VP – depth (850 to 1000 m) also core porosity-core perme- VP static/VP dyn (and Young’s modulus) – axial strain magni-
ability 334 tude, Ohio sst. 340
VP, VS – depth (0 to 1 km), CBTF well, also density, per- VP and VS – 3D confining pressure, before/after fracturing,
meability, birefringence 445 cubic specimens, Crossland Hill sst. 362
Vph and Vpv – confining and pore pressure (Berea,
(vii) VP – depth (near-surface, land-based)
Michigan sandstones) 192
VP – depth (0–50 m) and lateral variation, various sedi-
ments and rock 10 sandstone, tight gas
VP – depth slice (mean 32, 96, 106 m and laterally, allu- stress-strain data 339
vium, lithified sands-sandstone) 374, 375 velocity-density data 327
VP – depth (1–15 m, shallow soils) 24 VP –VS data 328
VP – depth (5–15 m, 6 m,120 m, 200 m, mostly rock) 79, 3D VP –confining pressure, spherical samples,
52, 52, 20 layering/jointing, dry, saturated 358
VP – depth (0–60 m approx., jointed gneiss, tomography) 3D permeability –confining pressure, spherical samples, lay-
55, 56, 88, 89 ering/jointing 359
VP – depth (mine-drift walls) 70, 73
unspecified sandstones
VP – depth (10–500 m approx., into tunnel walls: EDZ
VP – porosity, high porosity sandstones 325
related) 119–121, 123–125, 127–129, 133
VP – density, high porosity sandstones 327
VP – pressure/depth, core and sonic log comparison,
VP – density, sandstones 326, 327
Whitchester sst. 348
VP – porosity clay content % 331–333
VP – VS (0 to 35 m) (also dynamic elastic parameters) 111
VP – porosity-velocity, clean sst. and sand suspension 324
VP – VS (5 to 40 m) hard igneous, metamorphic rocks 6, 105
VP – porosity, sandstone and sand suspension 324
VP – VS – depth (0 to 60 m), Conoco borehole, fractured
VP – saturation % gas/brine, sandstones 341
limestones, impermeable shales 448
VP – saturation, patchiness data, multiple clean/shaly sand
VP – VS large number of rock types, near-surface refraction
composites 33, 337
seismic assumed 12
VP – frequency – 1000/Q fused glass beads 345
VP – VS from fine resolution of sonic logs, interbedded
VP – VS data, sandstones 328, 329, 372
shale, sandstone, limestone 379
VP – VP/VS – degree of saturation, sandstone 189
VP/VS – depth (0 to 70 m) clay over mudstones 8
VP and VS versus differential pressure 298
VP/VS ratio: near-surface 6, 9, 161, 252
VP and VS versus excess pore pressure 298
VP/VS ratios, six geothermal fields, 0 to 8 km, Kenya Rift 395
VP (and QP) – effective pressure, microcracked sandstone
VF/VL ratio of field (seismic) /laboratory (ultrasonic) 105,
347
106
VP/VS)2 – QP/QS – (and pore pressure) to distinguish sand
(viii) VP,VS rock physics data sets and sandstone 351
specified sandstones VP/VS – differential pressure, also to extremely low pressure,
VP – porosity, Troll sand 326 sands 351
VP (and QP) – frequency – effective pressure, dry or brine
oil sands/tar sands
saturated, Berea sst. 344
VP – temperature – oil/gas %, Kern River oil sand 330
VP (and QP) – frequency – effective pressure, dry or brine
VP – temperature – brine/oil %, Venezuelan oil sand 330
saturated, Boise sst. 344
VP – temperature, Canadian tar sand 331
VP (and QP) – frequency – effective pressure, dry or brine
saturated, Massilon sst. 344 diverse rock types
VP – VS – temperature, Boise sst. 331 VP – porosity, limestones, dolomites, chalks 325
VS – permeability, fracture closure, cubic specimens, VP – density, limestones, dolomites, anhydrite, rock salt,
Crossland Hill, Fontainebleau, Springwell sst. 364 shale 326
VP – VS – axial strain (Berea sandstone) 37 VP – density, limestones, dolomites, chalks 327
3D qP – normalized permeability, stereograms, North Sea VP – VS limestones, dolomites, chalks 328
sst. 390 VP – VS shales, mudrock 372
VP static/VP dyn and Young’s modulus versus axial strain mag- VP – VS – kerogen %, Kimmeridge shale, North Sea, 0° and
nitude, Berea sst. 340 90° 353
Index 717
VP – pressure, shale, 0°, 45 ° and 90° shear wave splitting with- focussed on domains 410, 439
VP – VS (and Vsh and Vsv) – pressure, shale, 0°, 45 ° and 90° surface shot points, single azimuth 382, 383
354 vertical-cable seabed- 446
VP – (and Vsh and Vsv) – 0° to 90° from bedding, and stere- walk-around- 383, 439, 440
ographic, shale, 354 walk-away- 382, 383, 439
walk-away- for S-wave acquisition 439
qP component P-wave velocities through truncated cube,
wide-aperture layout- 383
shale 39
zero offset- 383
VP – VS – axial stress (quartz-monzonite 136) vug, vugs 196, 197
VP – VS – confining pressure, Barré granite 36 exact structure 196
VP – VS – density (basalt, gabbro, serpentinite peridotite vuggy
20 my) 265 porosities 196
VP – VS – confining pressure, marble columns 81
VP – VS (dry, crystalline, volcanic rocks) 29 Wales 9, 11, 160
VP – VS – group velocity versus stress, mated, unmated ten- walkaway VSP (see VSP)
sion fractures 87 WAP 10 (52 km profile), East Pacific Rise, mid-ocean ridge
VP and VP/VS for dry, partly saturated, saturated: extension 283–285
tests 189 water 4, 12, 254.
bearing joint set 42
VP/VS diverse data
bearing sandstone reservoirs 343
VP/VS energy ratio (Es/Ep) 131
cold- injection, HDR 414
VP/VS ratio: theory 6, 7, 109
conducting joints, spacing with depth 488, 490
VP – rock quality
conducting joint/fracture/fault directions 384, 541–543
reversed- 17
conducting fracture directions under shear stress 402, 541,
VP – Q – depth – porosity (strength) relation 271, 273,
542
274, 285, 285
content 27, 169
VP – Q – M (deformation modulus) model 83, 92, 94,
depth 296
108, 132, 134
expulsion 135
VP – Q – M – L (Lugeon) model 164, 225, 291
fault-eroding water pressure 154, 156
VP – Q – M – permeability, near-surface model 225, 291
filled fissures 22
VP – Q – M – permeability, near-surface model, curve
filled structure 281
jumping 291
filled holes 61, 73
VP – Q or Qc model 6, 7, 13, 18, 47, 74, 115, 271
flooding (see water flooding)
VP – Qc – gradient, sub-ocean basalts 287
fresh- effect 297
(ix) rock physics/poro-elatic modelling ground- 11
VP – qP – VS – frequency, matrix and 10 cm fractures 466 ground-water pressure 159
VSP 14, 49, 207–209, 249, 369, 377, 380, 387 injection tests 162
azimuthal- 384, 385 injection into reservoir, effect on joints 487
diametrically-opposed- 445 inrush 151
down-hole receivers 382, 383 pressure anomaly, in well 433
effect of subsidence on- 400 pumping test (extraction) 162, 173, 174
far-offset 439 saturated joint samples 509, 510
-for horizontal well sections 382 saturation (see saturated) 7, 9, 27, 29, 200, 201, 352, 353
for QP and QS analysis 386 saturation weakening of chalk 399–402
for analysing velocity differences re sonic 386 sensitive reservoir rocks 402
limited offset- 383 table 8, 15, 124
multi-azimuth- 382, 383 velocity of- 159
multi-azimuth- for fracture anisotropy detection weakening modelling, chalk 399, 400, 402
382–386 water-flood, -flooding 329
multi-azimuth reversed- 385, 447 causing local cooling and aperture increase 329, 402
near-offset- 377, 384–386, 445, 446 causing contraction of matrix 402
nine-component- 385, 471–475 caused reduced velocity, amplitude, frequency 353
opposite-azimuth- for fracture dip 445 conjugate shearing 390, 522
-QP less than sonic-based QP 386 directionality 402
718 Index
Plate 1 Deep (1000–1200 m) cross-hole tomography at the UK Nirex Ltd Sellafield site. (Schlumberger GeoQuest, Nirex Report S/94/007,
by kind permission). (Figure 4.10).
722
(b)
Plate 4 Comparison of a) detailed seismic-based (4D time-shift) compaction interpretation (with adjustment for the velocity reduction
caused by a subsiding overburden), with b) geomechanics-based one-dimensional strain compaction model, that included porosity
reduction due to weakening effect of water saturation. Smith et al., 2002. Note gas cloud effect in centre of seismic model.
(Reproduced by kind permission of Norwegian Petroleum Society, NPF). (Figure 14.29).
(a) (b)
Plate 5 Two examples of attenuation modelling with a set of vertical aligned fractures, using Chapman’s dynamic poroelastic matrix-and-
fracture-set model. See Chapter 15 for a description of this model. Maultzsch et al., 2005. (Reproduced by kind permission,
Maultzsch pers. comm. 2005). (Figure 14.37).
724
(a) (a)
(b)
(b)
Plate 7 Bluebell-Altamont Field anisotropy interpretation, from
Plate 6 Bluebell-Altamont Field anisotropy interpretation, from
Liu et al., 2003a, with kind provision of files from Liu,
Liu et al., 2003a, with kind provision of files from Liu,
pers.com. 2005. a) Steep time delay gradient in reservoir
pers.com. 2005. a) Except at low frequency (0–10 Hz), a
interval, with frequency dependence. b) Interpretation
reasonably constant polarization at 40° to 45° is shown. b)
of anisotropy percentage as function of frequency.
Time delays show three intervals: gradient, flat, gradient,
(Figure 15.57).
implying anisotropy, isotropy, anisotropy. (Figure 15.56).
725
(a)
(b)
(c)
Plate 10 The photograph is a fine example of contrasting JRC values from an interlocked joint and a minor fault in welded tuff, with respective
JRCo values of about 15 and 1. (Figure 16.28).
Plate 11 Hydraulic aperture (e), versus normal stress (n), versus average rock temperature (T° C) in the permeability test volume of the
TerraTek heated block test, CSM mine, Colorado. Note aperture (e) reductions from 30.0
m to 18.3
m, to 12.9
m and finally
to 9.1
m as a result of temperature rise, despite constant applied stress. This gives an apparent reduction in the normal stiffness
in this test, but in the warmth of a deep petroleum reservoir, would have allowed joints to remain stiffer since their formation.
Barton, 1982. (Figure 16.33).
727
Plate 12 Interlocked and sheared joints in ‘wavy’ columnar basalt, demonstrating the role of asperities and dilation on aperture distribution.
Columbia River Basalts, Washington State, USA. (Figure 16.37).
Plate 13 Vertical view through the inter-bedded bituminous shales and dolomite bed, in Kimmeridge Bay, showing a) complex, b) ordered
sub-vertical joint patterns. Dorset coast, S. England. (Figure 16.39).
728
Plate 14 Normal and shear stresses for fractures identified as hydraulically conducting (closed symbols) or non-conducting (open symbols).
Cajon Pass (triangles), Long Valley (circles), Nevada Test Site (squares). Townend and Zoback, 2000, with data also from Colleen
Barton et al., 1995. (Zoback, 2006 pers. comm., by kind permission). (Figure 16.63).
Plate 15 Normal and shear stresses for fractures identified as hydraulically conducting or non-conducting, using borehole imaging. Cajon
Pass (red diamonds and dots), Nevada Test Site (green circles and dots), Long Valley (yellow triangles and dots), KTB (Germany –
blue squares and dots). Inset shows
/n for combined data set. Zoback and Townend, 2001, with data from Ito and Zoback,
2000, and from Colleen Barton et al., 1995. (Zoback, 2006 pers. comm., by kind permission). (Figure 16.64).
729
Plate 16 a) An example of a massive rock mass with rock quality Q 1000 and a deformation modulus in excess of 100 GPa. A very low atten-
uation is implied. b) The fault-collapse blocking the tunnel on the right would give almost the lowest rock quality Q 0.001, and a
modulus of deformation lower than 1 GPa. It is perhaps ‘off-the-scale’ regarding the conventional definition of Qseis, and would need
to be under stress to allow spectral analysis of measurable amplitudes. Its Q-value would then be higher too. (Figure 16.79).
Plate 17 The reality of near-surface construction of tunnels and caverns in rock. Note the three joint sets causing deep over-break. (Figure B1).