Overview of Turbulence Models

for Industrial Applications:

Part-I: Introduction to Turbulence Modeling

Professor Ismail B. Celik

West Virginia University
icelik@wvu.edu ; (304) 293 3111

100
 Outline for Part-I

• Introduction to turbulence; laminar v.s. turbulent flows

• Equations of motion and energy
• Averaging techniques
• The closure problem of turbulence
• Mixing length and eddy-viscosity models
• One-equation models & k-ε model
• Summary
• Introduction to Part-II: Advanced Turbulence Models

101
 Introduction

• Fluid flow, heat&mass transfer form the life support

systems for humans and their ecological
environment.

• These systems are governed by principles of mass,

momentum, and energy conservation.

• Transport equations are mathematical models

describing the motion &properties of fluids.

102
 Introduction (continued)

• What is turbulence?
– Fluid flow occurs primarily in two regimes: laminar and
turbulent flow regimes.
– Laminar flow:
• smooth, orderly flow restricted (usually) to low values of
key parameters- Reynolds number, Grashof number,
Taylor number, Richardson number.
– Turbulent flow:
• fluctuating, disorderly (random) motion of fluids

103
 Introduction (continued)

Steady and Unsteady Laminar and Turbulent Flow

104
 Introduction (continued)
• Characterization of Turbulence:
– Irregular (disorderly or “random”)
– Transient (always unsteady)
– Three-dimensional (spatially varying in 3D)
– Diffusive: enhances mixing and entrainment
– Dissipates kinetic energy into heat
– Occur at large Reynolds numbers

105
 Introduction ( continued)

• What is turbulence (continued)?

– Beyond the critical values of some dimensionless
parameters (e.g. Reynolds number) the laminar flow
becomes unstable and transitions itself into a more stable
but chaotic mode called turbulence characterized by
unsteady, and spatially varying (three-dimensional)
random fluctuations which enhance mixing, diffusion,
entrainment, and dissipation.

106
 Introduction (Continued)
• Energy Cascade Concept:
• Fluctuations are sustained by vortex stretching under the
action of shear.

• Large eddies are broken into smaller and smaller ones.

Smaller ones feed on larger eddies.

• The smallest eddies ( Kolmogorov scale) dissipate

energy to heat by the action of molecular viscosity.

107
 Laminar Flow Examples

• (After Woods et al., 1988) (After Van dyke, 1982)

Pipe Flow Re = 1.6 x 103 Flow past a circular

cylinder Re = 41.0
108
 Turbulent Flow Examples

• (After Van Dyke, 1982) (After Van Dyke, 1982)

Homogeneous turbulence Turbulent water jet

behind a grid
109
 Turbulence Scales

• Velocity (fluctuations): u
• Length (eddy size):
• Time, τ = /u
• Turbulence Reynolds
number
– Ret = u /ν
• Turbulent kinetic energy:
Large eddies in a turbulent k~ 3u2/2
boundary layer (Tennekes • Dissipation rate: ε ~ u3/
and Lumley, 1992): • Kolmogorov scales
– τK = (ν/ε)1/2
~ Lt = boundary layer thickness
– K = (ν3/ε)1/4
– uK = (νε)1/4
110
 Introduction: Why turbulence modeling?

• Memory and time Grid points and time step

requirements for Direct requirements for DNS of
Numerical Simulations channel flow
(DNS) is prohibitive (After Wilcox, 1993)
• Industrial applications ReH Reτ NDNS Timestep
involving complex
geometries, multiphases, 12,300 360 6.7.106 32,000
and reactions are impossible
30,800 800 4.0.107 47,000
to simulate
• Remedy: Solve time 61,600 1,450 1.5.108 63,000
averaged equations and
model the turbulence 230,000 4,650 2.1.109 114,000
statistics.
111
 Why turbulence modeling (Continued)?

• Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) is possible but limited to low

Reynolds numbers, and simple geometry&flows.

• The details of unsteady, 3-dimensional effects of turbulence are

not required for design purpose.

• Time averaged or space averaged (filtered) quantities are

appropriate and cost effective

• Averaging leads to additional terms, which require semi-

empirical models!

112
 Transport Equations: Conserved scalar
Jn ∂
Je = Jw + (J w )∆ x
∂x
∆y Similarly for Jn, Js, Jtop, Jbot
Jw ( ρ φ∆Vol.) Je
æ ∂φ ö
J = çm φ e − Ar
∆x è ∂x
Js Convection + Diffusion
 = ρUA; mass flow rate
m
• Control volume balance: {time rate of change} = {net flux through the surfaces}
∂ (ρ φ ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z )
= (J e − J w ) + (J n − J s ) + (J top − J bot ) + source − sin(k)
∂t

∂ (ρφ )
+ ∇
"⋅ (ρu"
φ) = ∇
! "⋅ (Γ∇
"φ ) + Sφ
!
∂t! convention diffusion net
Time Rate source
113 of Change
 Governing Equations: Conservation of Mass

Set
=1 in the general transport equation to obtain

Conservation of mass or continuity equation

∂ρ æ ∂ρ ö Dρ
= ∇ ⋅ (ρ U ) = ç + U ⋅ ∇ρ + ρ ⋅ ∇U = + ρ∇ ⋅ U
∂t è ∂ t Dt

• Lagrangian frame of reference: follow a deforming volume

containing fixed mass.
– D(m)/dt = 0 = D( ρ Vol )/dt = 0
– VolD ρ/Dt + ρDVol/dt = 0 D()/Dt = material derivative
– D( )/dt = d( )/dt + u .∇( ); D(Vol)/Dt = ∇. (u)

114
• Incompressible fluids: ∇.(U) =0 <=> D(ρ)/dt =0
 Navier Stokes Equations

• Navier-Stokes equations express the balance of momentum

over a control volume

• Momentum is a vector quantity, mv, and hence has three

components.

• CV balance: {time rate of change} = {forces (normal and shear

forces) acting on the surface + convected momentum}

∂
• e.g. (m U )east = (m U )west + (m U )∆x
∂x

(see work book for a detailed derivation)

115
 Navier Stokes Equations

Vector Notation Tensor Notation

∂ ρU ( ) + ∇ ⋅ (ρ U U) = −∇P + ∇Θτ
~
∂ ( ρ U i ) ∂ (ρ U j U i )
+ = −
∂P
+
∂ τ ij
∂t ~ ~ ~ ∂t ∂x j ∂x i ∂x j

Cartesian Coordinates, (x,y,z); (U,V,W)

x-Momentum Equation
∂ ( ρ U ) ∂ ( ρ UU ) ∂ ( ρ VU ) ∂ ( ρ WU ) ∂P ∂ τ xx ∂ τ xy ∂ τ xz
+ + + = − + + +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
I II x II y II z III IV
I=Time rate of Change II=Convection
III=Pressure Gradient IV= Viscous diffusion

116
 Energy Equation

∂ (ρh ) ∂ (ρU j h ) ∂ (q j ) ∂P ∂P
+ =− +Φ+ + Uj
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂t ∂x j
∂T
dh = C p dT; q j = −k ( Heat flux in j - direction);
∂x j
Φ = Viscous dissipation function, h = enthalpy, T = Temperature

∂u i
Φ = τij
∂x j
2
τij = 2µSij − ∇ ⋅ U δij (does not include pressure)
3 ~

δij (= 1 when i = j; = 0 when i ≠ j) = Kronecker' s delta function

117
 Stress Tensor
• Newtonian Fluids
éτ xx τ xy τ xz ù
ê
[τ ]
ij = êτ yx τ yy τ yz : Symmetric 2nd Order Tensor
êτ τ τ (
ij =
ji, e.g.
xy =
yx)
ë zx zy zz

Normal Stresses Shear Stresses

∂U 2 æ ∂U ∂V ö
τ xx = 2µ − µ∇. U τ yx = τ xy = µçç + − ∇ . U ÷÷
∂x 3 ~
è ∂y ∂x ~ ~
∂V 2 æ ∂V ∂W ö
τ yy = 2µ − µ∇. U τ yzx = τ zy = µçç + − ∇ . U ÷÷
∂x 3 ~
è ∂z ∂y ~ ~
∂W 2 æ ∂U ∂W ö
τ zz = 2µ − µ∇. U τ zx = τ xz = µç + − ∇. U
∂x 3 ~
è ∂z ∂x ~ ~
118
 Equations for Incompressible Fluids/Flows
∂U i
• Equation of Continuity = 0; ∇ ⋅ U = 0
∂x i ~

• Momentum equation
∂ (ρU i ) ∂ (ρU i U j ) ∂P ∂ (2µSij )
+ =− + + ρg i
∂t ∂x j ∂x i ∂x j

1 æç ∂Ui ∂Uj ö
s ij = ç +
2 è ∂x j ∂x i
• Thermal energy equation cp , cv = constant
∂ ∂ ∂ æç ∂T ö ∂U i
(ρc pT ) + (U j .ρc pT ) = ç
kh + τ ij + ΦT
∂t ∂x j ∂x j è ∂x j ∂x j

119
 Averaging Techniques: Reynolds Averaging

Stationary Turbulence Unstationary Turbulence

120
 Averaging Techniques: Reynolds Averaging

• U = <U> + u; Notation u = u´ = fluctuating component of U(x,t)

• Time average:
t 0 + ∆t
1
U =< U >= U ( t ) dt ; Limit as ∆ t → ∞
∆t t0
• Ensemble average:
U (x , t i ); N → Large
1 N
< U >=
N i=1

• Phase Averaging:
∆t

< U (x , t ) >=
1 2
U ( x , t + τ )d τ
∆t − ∆t
2
–
t = window width

121
 Averaging Techniques: Favre averaging

• For flows with significant variations in flow properties,

fluctuations in density and viscosity etc. can not be neglected.
For these a density weighted average (Favre average) is more
appropriate.
– U = { U} + u
; decomposition of U(x,t)
• Definition {U} = <U>/< >, { } = Favre average
– note: <u
> = -<  u
>/<  > = - <  u>/<  >  0,
– but <  u
> = 0.
• {uv} = <uv> + <  uv>/<  > - <  u 
v>/<  >2

122
 Averaging Rules: Averaging

• < U + V > = <U> + <V>; < <U> > = <U>; <U><V>> = <U><V>

• <dU/dt> = d(<U>)/dt; <d(UV)/dx> = d (<UV>)/dx

– average of a derivative = derivative of the average

• <u> = 0; average of the fluctuations is zero , (not for Favre

averaging)

• <UV> = <U><V> + <uv> ; <uv>  0. (non linear terms!)

• Comment: Average of linear terms is the same with the averaged

quantities substituted, Non-linear terms, e.g. d(UV)/dx, lead to extra
123
terms that need to be calculated separately.
 Reynolds Averaged Equations:
∂U i ∂u i
= 0; =0
∂x i ∂x i
∂
(ρ U i ) + ∂ (ρ U U j )= −
∂P
+
∂
(µ S )− ∂
(ρ u u ) ;
∂t ∂x j i
∂x i ∂x j ij
∂x j i j

τ ijt = − ρ u i u j ; Reynolds Stresses

Note: T=<T>+
; Drop < > when not necessary

∂
∂t ∂x j
æ
∂ x j è ∂x j
ö
(ρc pT ) + ∂ (U j ρc pT )= ∂ çç k T ∂T + τ ij ∂U i + τ ijt ∂U i − ∂ ρc p u jϕ
∂x i ∂x j ∂x j
( )
∂
(ρU i Φ ) = ∂ çç Γ ∂Φ − ρ u iφ + SΦ ;
æ ö
∂x i ∂x i è ∂x i
Φ = conserved scaler; q i = u iφ ; Turbulent fluxes

• incompressible fluids with constant properties

124
 Typical shear flows: Mean flow

Fully developed laminar and turbulent Experimental turbulent-boundary

flow in a channel (ref ?) layer velocity profiles for various
pressure gradients (ref ?)
125
 Typical shear flows: Mean flow

Structure of turbulent flow in a pipe (a) Shear stress (b) Average velocity

126
 Typical shear flows: Mean flow

Universal plot of turbulent velocity Universal plot of turbulent temperature

profiles in zero pressure gradient profiles in zero pressure gradient. After
After Hoffmann and Perry[11] Hoffmann and Perry [11]
127
 Typical shear flows: Mean flow

Comparison of Spalding’s inner-law expression Mean-temperature distribution across the layer

with the pipe-flow data of indgren (1965) (ref ?) as a function of molecular Prandtl number
128 (ref ?)
 Typical shear flows: Mean flow

Experimental rough-pipe velocity profiles, showing the Composite plot of the profile-shift parameter ∆B(k+) for
downward shift ∆B of the logarithmic overlap layer various roughness geometries, as complied by Clauser (1956)
Boundary layer velocity profiles for rough walls Notation v* = U*=U

1 +
U+ = ln y + + B − ∆B( k s ) ; U+ = U/U*; y* = yU*/

κ
1 1 y
∆B ≅ ln(1 + 0.3k s+ ) for k s+ > 60; U + = ln( ) + 8.5
129 κ κ ks
 Fluctuating Velocities in a boundary Layer

(After White, 1991)

130
 Classical Models: Assumptions

• Turbulent eddies behave like mixing agents and usually

increase mixing, hence
– effective diffusivity = molecular (or laminar) + turbulent
– (Bousinesq’s eddy viscosity concept)

• Dimensional analysis:

t = lchuch ;
t = t/ ; not a fluid property

• Analogy to laminar flows: Simple shear flows

 =  (dU/dy) ; -<uv> = t ( dU/dy)

131
 Classical Models: Assumptions

• In general:
2
τ = 2 µSij − µ∇ ⋅ uδ ij − Pδ ij ; Laminar Stresses
l
ij
3
τ ijt = − ρ (u i u j ) = 2 µ tSij − µ t ∇ ⋅ uδ ij − ρkδ ij ;
2 2
turbulent stresses
3 3
u i u i = (u 2 + v 2 + w 2 ); turbulent kinetic energy
1 1
k=
2 2
1 æ ∂ U ∂U j ö
Sij = ç i +
2 çè ∂x j ∂x i ; rate of deformation (strain) tensor
ì0, when i ≠ j
δ ij = í ; Kronecker’s delta
1, when i = j

132
 Zero Equation models: Mixing length models

• Prandtl’s Mixing length model:

uch = lmix (dU/dy)

• von Karman
uch = lmix (dU/dy) ; lmix = (dU/dy) / (d2U/dy2)]
– lmix =  y for y < yo ; (inner region)
lmix =  for y > yo ; (outer region) ;
 = shear layer thickness,   0.20

• Combined: lmix = 0.085  tanh ( y / 0.085 )

133
 Zero Equation models: Mixing length models

wall free flows: lmix = 

Mixing length constants for free shear flows (Wilcox, 1993)

Flow Type: Far Wake Plane Jet Round Jet Plane Mixing Layer
lmix/δ 0.180 0.098 0.080 0.071
134
 Zero Eq. Models: Cebeci-Smith Model
• Inner layer: y < yo

t = lmix2 (dU/dy)
lmix = fd y ; fd = [1 - exp (-y+ / A+)] van Driest damping function
• A+ = 26 func( P/x)

• Outer layer: y > yo

t =  * Ue Fk ;
* = displacement thickness
Fk = 0.5 (1 - erf(y /  - 0.78) : Klebanoff intermittency factor
– or Fk = [1 + 5.5(y / )6 ]-1
– Compressibility effects: include ( / w), ( / w)
– Buoyancy, pressure gradient, Heat and Mass transfer (see notes, Rodi pp.
17-20, see also p. 50 of Wilcox)

Comment: Hard to compute *, can not be generalized to 3D

135
 Eddy Viscosity Distribution

− κB é z Z2 ù + κu
µ t = µκe ê e − 1 − Z − Z = κu =
ë 2 ν*

µ t ,outer ≈ Cρ U e δ * C ≈ 0.016

0.016ρU e δ *
µ t ,outer ≈
é æ y ö
6
ù
ê1 + 5.5ç δ÷
ë è ø

136
 Zero Eq. Models: Baldwin-Lowmax model

• Inner layer: y < yo

t = lmix abs () ;  = local vorticity
1 æ ∂U ∂U j ö
 = (x2 + y2 + z2)1/2 = (2 ij ij)1/2; Ω ij = ç i − Vorticity tensor
2 çè ∂x j ∂x i

lmix = fd y ; fd = [1- exp(-y+ / A+)]

• Outer layer: y > yo

t =  Ccp Fw Fk (y ; ymax / Ck) ; Ccp = 1.6 , Ck = 0.3
Fk = 0.5 [1 - erf(y/ - 0.78) ; Klebanoff intermittency factor
Fw = min(ymax Fmax ; Cwk ymax Udif /Fmax ] ; Cwk = 1.0
F(y) = y abs() Fd
Ccp = 1.6, Ck = 0.3, Cwk = 1.0

Comment: No need to compute *; can be used for 3D flows

137
 Zero Eq. Models: examples

Comparison of computed and measured channel-flow properties, ReH=13750

_________Baldwin-Lomax; ---------Cebeci-Smith; 0 Mansour et al. (DNS); Halleen-Johnston Correlation

(After Wilcox, 1993)

138
 Zero Eq. Models: assessment

Comparison of computed and measured boundary layer velocity profiles and shape factor for nonzero pressure
gradient; Cebeci-Smith model (After Wilcox, 1993)

139
 Zero Eq. Models: examples

Computed and measured flow properties for Driver’s separated flow;

____ Baldwin-Lomax; o Driver (After Wilcox, 1993)

140
 Zero Eq. Models: examples

Velocity profiles and pressure distribution Measurements and calculations (Cebeci-Smith model),
------basic model; with curvature effects; __________ with low-Rθeffects, ……. With
extrapolated pressure distribution (After Celik and Patel, 1984):
141
 Zero Eq. Models: assessment
• Mathematically very simple, numerically robust

• Good for 2D boundary-layer type flows without separation

• Acceptable results even with separation and non-equilibrium flows (e.g. one and
1/2 Eq. Model of Johnson-King)

• Calculation of the shear-layer thickness is not trivial

• Extension to 3D flows with complex geometry is difficult.

• Not good for complex flow effects such as curvature, history effects.

• Comment: These models will work well only for the cases for which they have
been fine tuned (note a different constant for each flow in Table ??).

142
 One Eq. models:

• A transport equation is solved for either the length scale, lch,

eddy viscosity, vt, the turbulent kinetic energy, k, or a any other
related variable

• Generic scalar transport equation in a turbulent flow field.

(φ ) = ∂ ( ρφ ) + ∂ (ρU jφ ) = Diffφ + Pφ − Dissφ

Dφ é ∂φ ∂ ù
ρ = ρê + Uj
Dt êë ∂t ∂x j ∂t ∂x j
∂ æç ∂φ ö æ ∂φ ö
Diffusion = Diffφ = Γeff ; Production = Pφ = ç Exact ; c1 ρu ch ; c1 ρφ / t prod
∂x j çè ∂x j ç ∂x j
è

Dissipation = Dissφ = c 2 ρφ / t diss νt

Γeff = Γlam + Γturb = Γlam +
σt
143
 One Eq. models:
Menter Model
æ ∂U ö æ ∂ 2U ö

= t ; tprod = [2 Sij(Sij + ij)]-1/2; tdiss = t / l l = ç ÷ çç 2 Von Karman length scale
è ∂ y è ∂y

Badwin-Bart Model
æ ∂υ t ∂υ t ö

= t; Pυ t = (same as in Menter model); Dissυ t = c 2 ρ ç
ç ∂x ∂x
è j j
Comment: no distance from the surface is required
Prandtl’s Model
∂U ∂U

= k; t = k1/2 l Pk = −τ ∂x = − u i u j ∂x ; Dissk =  = cD k3/2 / l
; l
has to be supplied
t i i
ij
j j

e.g. chen & Patel (1987): t = c k1/2 l

é æ Re y öù é æ Re y öù k1 / 2 y
l µ = c l y ê1 − expç − ÷; l ε = c l y ê1 − expçç − ÷÷ ; Re y = ; c µ = 0.09, c l = 2.55, A µ = 70, A ε = 2c l
ç A ÷ ë è A ε ø υ
ëê è µ ø
(including near-wall correction)
Spalart-Allmaras (1994) Model

= t/f
; f
= wall function complex two-layer model (see also Bardina et al., 1997)
144
 Assessment: One-Equation Models

• Mathematically simple, robust, includes history (or upstream) effects, little

numerical overhead.

• Calibrated mostly for aerodynamic boundary-layer tyre flows, or shear dominated

flows.

• The length scale relations are empirical, and not so suitable for more general,
complex industrial flows.

• The troublesome -equation is not solved. This is a big advantage if length scale
relations are satisfactory.

145
 The Standard k-εε Model
A phenomenological approach

k-equation ε-equation
D(ρk ) D(ρε)
= Diff ( k ) + Pk − ρε = Diff ( ε ) + ρPε − ρD ε
Dt Dt
∂ éæ µ t ö ∂k ù ∂ éæ µ t ö ∂ε ù
Diffusion = Diff ( k ) = êç µ + ÷÷ Diff ( ε ) = ê ç µ + ÷
∂x j ëêçè σ k ø ∂x j ∂x j êëçè σε ÷ø ∂x j
∂u i ∂u C P C ε
Pr oduction = Pk = −ρ u i , u j = τijt i Pε = ε1 k ; D ε = ε 2 ; k = Time scale
ε
∂x j ∂x j k/ε k/ε
k2
∂u i ∂u j Eddy Viscosity = ν t = Cµ
Dissipation = ε = ν , ε
∂x j ∂x i
æ ∂u ∂u ö 2 Empirical constants are determined from asymptotic
τijt = ρν t ç i + j − ρkδij
ç ∂x ∂x 3 analysis, experiment s, and optimization.
è j i
Cµ = 0.09 C ε1 = 1.44 Cε 2 = 1.92 σ k = 1.0 σ ε = 1.3

146
 Examples: k-ε Model

Comparison of the k-ε model with the flat plate boundary layer data
of Klebanoff (1955). [After Jones and Launder (1972).]

147
 Examples: k-ε Model

Flow over 35° swept wing; Re = 2.42 × 106. [After Johnston (1987).]
Note: experiments indicate separated flow. All models predict attached flow.

148
 Examples: k-ε Model

Flow past a backward-facing step. [After Goldberg (1987).]

149
 Examples: k-ε Model

Flow in sudden expansion of a pipe. [After Celik, et al (1987)]

150
 Assessment of the Standard k-ε Model
•Robust, easy to apply, the most commonly used method
•Easily extendible to complex geometries and multi-
dimensions
• Fairly good results for many engineering applications,
especially good for trend analysis
•Isotropic and inherently assumes “local” equilibrium,
hence good for high Reynolds number flows.
•Not good for flows involving significant curvature,
rotation, buoyancy, sudden acceleration, separation, and
low Re regions

151
 Summary: Part-I
•An introduction to fluid flow regimes, governing
equations, and turbulence modeling is presented
•The zero- and one-equations models using the mixing-
length or eddy-viscosity concept are reviewed.
•These models are good for calculations of boundary or
thin shear-layer flows such as wakes, jets, flow over
airfoils etc. with simple geometry but without separation.
•The standard k-ε model is introduced using a
phenomenological approach. This model is a popular
model, easy to use and robust, but has many
shortcomings.
•All need further improvements for accurate predictions
152