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Overheads
D G Rossiter
Department of Earth Systems Analysis
International Institute for Geo-information Science & Earth Observation (ITC)
<http://www.itc.nl/personal/rossiter>
Topic: Resources
There are many resources, at various mathematical levels, some aimed at
particular applications. These lists are not comprehensive but should be good
starting points:
• Texts
• Web pages
• Computer programmes
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 2
Texts: Mathematical
• Chilès, J.-P. and Delfiner, P., 1999. Geostatistics: modeling spatial uncertainty.
Wiley series in probability and statistics. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
• Cressie, N., 1993. Statistics for spatial data. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
• Ripley, B.D., 1981. Spatial statistics. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 3
• Davis, J.C., 2002. Statistics and data analysis in geology. John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
• Stein, A., Meer, F.v.d. and Gorte, B.G.F. (Editors), 1999. Spatial statistics for
remote sensing. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 4
• Webster, R., and Oliver, M. A., 2001. Geostatistics for environmental scientists.
Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 5
• Venables, W.N. & Ripley, B.D., 2002. Modern applied statistics with S, 4th
edition. Springer-Verlag, New York.
• Deutsch, C. V., & Journel, A. G., 1992. GSLIB: Geostatistical software library
and user’s guide. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 6
Web pages
• R: http://www.r-project.org/
• gstat: http://www.gstat.org/
• gslib: http://www.gslib.com/
• GEOEAS: http://www.epa.gov/ada/csmos/models/geoeas.html
• ILWIS: http://www.itc.nl/ilwis/
Computer programmes
* gstat, by Pebesma
* spatial, by Ripley
* geoR, by Ribeiro & Diggle
* spdep, by Rowlingson & Diggle
* spatstat, by Baddeley & Turner (point pattern analysis)
* sp, underlying spatial data structures (used by others)
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 8
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 9
What is “space”?
• Depending on how we choose the axes, we can speak of both geographic and
feature spaces . . .
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 10
Feature space
This “space” is not geographic space, but rather a mathematical space formed by
any set of variables:
• Not included in the common use of the term “spatial” data or analysis
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 11
Geographic space
• Two-dimensional: coordinates are on a grid with respect to some origin (0, 0):
(x1, x2) = (x, y) = (E, N)
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 12
2. All data sets from a given area are implicitly related by their coordinates →
models of spatial structure
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 13
Key Concepts
• Spatial structure: the nature of the spatial relation: how far, and in what
directions, is the spatial dependence? How does the dependence vary with
distance and direction between points?
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 14
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 15
Point distribution
This shows how sample points are distributed in space.
• Random or clustered?
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 16
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 17
• Are values of closeby points similar to each other, or do the values appear to
be random?
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 18
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 19
Geographic postplot
This shows the postplot against a background that may explain the distribution of
samples or values. Examples:
• structural geology
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 20
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 21
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 22
Spatial Correlation
• That is, does knowing the value of some variable at some location give us
information on the value at ‘nearby’ locations?
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 23
• Sample covariance:
n
1 X
sXY = (xi − x) · (yi − y)
n − 1 i=1
Can we extend this idea to a single variable, which is then correlated with itself?
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 24
Auto-correlation
We want to apply the idea of correlation to one variable (auto-correlation); the
prefix auto- means “self”, here referring to the single variable.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 25
Auto-covariance
• Each pair of observations (xi, xj ) has a covariance, showing how they jointly
differ from the variable’s mean x:
(xi − x)(xj − x)
• There are (n · (n − 1))/2 point pairs for which this can be calculated
• This is a large number! For example, with 200 points this is 19,900 point pairs.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 26
• . . . we can then predict the covariance between any two locations in space.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 27
Semivariances
It is easier to model semivariances than covariances:
1
γ(xi, xj ) = [z(xi) − z(xj )]2
2
• (The ‘semi’ refers to the factor 1/2, because there are two ways to compute for
the same point pair)
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 28
The meuse data frame has coördinates in fields x and y; these are used to
promote the object to class SpatialPointsDataFrame.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 29
> summary(meuse)
Object of class SpatialPointsDataFrame
Coordinates:
min max
x 178605 181390
y 329714 333611
Is projected: NA
proj4string : [NA]
Number of points: 155
Data attributes:
cadmium copper lead zinc elev
Min. : 0.20 Min. : 14.0 Min. : 37.0 Min. : 113 Min. : 5.18
1st Qu.: 0.80 1st Qu.: 23.0 1st Qu.: 72.5 1st Qu.: 198 1st Qu.: 7.55
Median : 2.10 Median : 31.0 Median :123.0 Median : 326 Median : 8.18
Mean : 3.25 Mean : 40.3 Mean :153.4 Mean : 470 Mean : 8.17
3rd Qu.: 3.85 3rd Qu.: 49.5 3rd Qu.:207.0 3rd Qu.: 674 3rd Qu.: 8.96
Max. :18.10 Max. :128.0 Max. :654.0 Max. :1839 Max. :10.52
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 30
m(h)
1 X
γ(h) = [z(xi) − z(xj )]2
2m(h) i=1
• In practice, we have to define the set of vectors in each “bin” (to have enough
points); that is, we collect a distance range into one bin.
• (Note: there are other ways to estimate the variogram from the variogram
cloud; in particular so-called robust estimators.)
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 31
np are the number of point pairs in the bin; dist is the average separation of
these pairs; gamma is the average semivariance in the bin.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 32
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 33
2.0 ● 543
● 452
● 477
● 500
● 457 ● 415
● 589
● 564
● 574
1.5 ● 533
semivariance ● 547
● 457
1.0 ● 419
● 299
● 57
0.5
0.0
0 500 1000 1500
distance
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 34
In the previous slide, we can estimate the sill ≈ 1.9, the range ≈ 1200 m, and the
nugget ≈ 0.5 i.e. ≈ 25% of the sill.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 35
• Distance interval, specifying the centres. E.g. (0, 100, 200, . . .) means intervals
of [0 . . . 50], [50 . . . 150], . . .
• All point pairs whose separation is in the interval are used to estimate γ(h) for
h as the interval centre
• Narrow intervals: more resolution but fewer point pairs for each sample
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 36
● ● ●
2.0
●● ●
● ● ● ●
●● ● ● ● ● ●
● ●
2.0
●
1.8
●
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● ● ●
●● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
● ● ●● ● ●
● ●
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●●
1.6
● ● ●
1.5
●
●● ● ● ● ● ●
●
1.5
●● ●● ● ●
●●●●
v$gamma
v$gamma
v$gamma
●
● ● ●●
1.4
●● ● ●
●
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1.0
● ● ●
1.0
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1.2
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●
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1.0
● ●
0.5
0.5
●
0.8
●
● ● ●
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●
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1.8
● ● ●
1.8
1.8
●
●
● ● ● ●
1.6
1.6
1.6
●
●
v$gamma
v$gamma
v$gamma
1.4
●
1.4
1.4
●
●
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.0
● ●
●
1.0
1.0
0.8
●
0.8
● ● ●
0.8
500 1000 1500 200 600 1000 1400 200 600 1000 1400
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 37
• Each bin should have > 100 point pairs; > 300 is much more reliable
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 38
• Infer the characteristics of the underlying process from the functional form
and its parameters;
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 39
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 40
• Only some functional forms can be used to model the variogram (theoretical
and mathematical constraints)
(− h
a)
γ(h) = c{1 − e }
3
c 3h − 1 h : h<a
γ(h) = 2a 2 a
c : h≥a
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 41
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.8 sill sill sill
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.6
semivariance
semivariance
semivariance
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
nugget nugget nugget
0.0
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
1.0
1.0
sill sill sill
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.6
semivariance
semivariance
semivariance
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
nugget nugget nugget
0.0
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 42
Comparaison
m
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0
0.8
1
1.0E
Exponential
S
Spherical
G
Gaussian
P
Pentaspherical
C
Circular
L
M
Linear-with-sill
2ange
4
6
8 inear-with-sill
xponential
pherical
entaspherical
omparaison
ircular
aussian
ssemivariance
sill
n
rnugget
Mrange
Mill
.2
.4
.6
.8
.0
ugget
sseparation
eparation
emivariance
distance of variogram models
Comparaison of variogram models
1.0
sill
Exponential
0.8 Gaussian
Circular
0.6
Spherical
semivariance
Pentaspherical
0.4
Linear-with-sill
0.2
nugget
range
0.0
0 2 4 6 8
separation distance
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 43
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 44
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 45
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 46
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 47
• Automatically, looking for the best fit according to some objective criterion
• In both cases, favour sections of the variogram with more pairs and at shorter
ranges (because it is a local interpolator).
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 48
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 49
● 547 ● 547
semivariance
semivariance
● 457 ● 457
● 299 ● 299
● 57 ● 57
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500
distance distance
The total sill was almost unchanged; gstat raised the nugget and lowered the
partial sill of the spherical model a bit; the range was shortened by 51 m.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 50
• Can’t use non-spatial formulas for sample size, because spatial samples are
correlated, and each sample is used multiple times in the variogram estimate
This is very worrying for many environmental datasets (soil cores, vegetation
plots, . . . ) especially from short-term fieldwork, where sample sizes of 40 – 60
are typical. Should variograms even be attempted on such small samples?
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 51
• Interpolation: prediction is only for points that are geographically inside the
(convex hull of the) sample set;
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 52
Strata divide area to be mapped into ‘homogeneous’ strata; predict within each
stratum from all samples in that stratum
Global predictors: use all samples to predict at all points; also called regional
predictors;
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 53
• No theoretical answer
• Depends on how well the approach models the ‘true’ spatial structure, and
this is unknown (but we may have prior evidence)
• Should correspond with what we know about the process that created the
spatial structure
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 54
• The value of a variable at each point depends only on its coödinates and
parameters of a fitted surface
z = β0 + βx E + βy N
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 55
• We can measure the goodness of fit of the trend surface to the sample by the
residual sum of squares
• Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) is often used but is not really correct, since it
ignores possible correlation among closely-spaced samples; better is
Generalised Least Squares (GLS)
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 56
Predictions of 1st and 2nd order Trend Surfaces in the study area
1
xM
30.5
333000
332000
331000
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0st and
y330000
TS1
T
M 30000
S1
S2
331000
332000
333000
3
178500
179000
179500
180000
180500
181000
181500
--0.5
0.0
0.5
0
1.0
1.5
1
M2.0
1.5
1.0
30000
31000
32000
33000
78500
79000
79500
80000
80500
81000
81500
.0
.5 2nd order trend surfaces, study area
1.5
333000 1.0
0.5
332000 0.0
y
-0.5
331000
-1.0
-1.5
330000
-2.0
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 57
Predictions of 1st and 2nd order Trend Surfaces in the bounding box
1
xMM st and
3123481500
333000
332000
331000
y330000
TS1
T 30000
S1
S2
331000
332000
333000
178500
179000
179500
180000
180500
181000
181500
-4
-3
-2
--1
0
1
2
3
4
M 30000
31000
32000
33000
78500
79000
79500
80000
80500
81000 2nd order trend surfaces, bounding box
3
333000
1
332000
y
-1
331000
-2
-3
330000
-4
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 58
• No strata
• No regional trend
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 59
Local Predictors
Each interpolator has its own assumptions, i.e. theory of spatial variability
• ...
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 60
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 61
• Use the set of all neighbouring sample points within some radius r
• Predict by averaging :
n
1X
xˆ0 = xi , d(x0, xi) ≤ r
n i=1
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 62
n n
X xi X 1
xˆ0 = /
i=1
d(x0 , xi ) i=1
d(x0, xi)
n k
X xi X 1
xˆ0 = k
/ k
i=1
d(x0 , xi ) i=1
d(x0 , xi )
• Implicit theory of spatial structure (a power model), but this is not testable
• Can select all points within some limiting distance (radius), or some fixed
number of nearest points, or . . .
The weights are computed only from the inverse distance; they do not account for
spatial structure nor for the relative positions of the sample points.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 64
3 3
●
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●
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●
●
333000 333000 ● ●
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●
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2 2
●
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●●●
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332000 1 332000 1
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y
●
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0 ●
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331000 331000
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−1
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● −1
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●
330000 330000
●
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178500 179000 179500 180000 180500 181000 181500 178500 179000 179500 180000 180500 181000 181500
Inverse distance x x
2.5 2.5
●
●●●●
●
2.0
●
●
●●●● 2.0
333000 333000 ● ●
●
● ●
●
1.5
● ● ● ●●
● ●● 1.5
●●●
●●● ●
●●●
●● ●●
1.0 ● 1.0
●●
●
332000 332000
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
y
●
●
●
0.5 0.5
●
●
●
●
●
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●
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●
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0.0
●
● ●
0.0
●
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331000 331000
●
●●
● ●
●
●
● ●
●
●
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● ●
●
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−0.5 −0.5
●
●
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●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
−1.0 ● ●
●●
●
● −1.0
330000 330000
●
● ●● ● ●●
178500 179000 179500 180000 180500 181000 181500 178500 179000 179500 180000 180500 181000 181500
Ordinary kriging x x
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 65
• For situations where there is both long-range structure (trend) or strata and
local structure
* Example: Particle size in the soil: strata (rock type), trend (distance from a
river), and local variation in depositional or weathering processes
• One approach: model strata or global trend, subtract from each value, then
model residuals → Regression Kriging.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 66
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 67
Kriging
• It is only “optimal” with respect to the chosen model and the chosen
optimality criterion
• Theory developed several times (Kolmogorov 1930’s, Wiener 1949) but current
practise dates back to Matheron (1963), formalizing the practical work of the
mining engineer D G Krige (RSA).
* Should really be written as “krigeing” (Fr. krigeage) but it’s too late for that.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 68
• Predicts at any point as the weighted average of the values at sampled points
• Weights given to each sample point are optimal, given the spatial covariance
structure as revealed by the variogram model (in this sense it is “best”)
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 69
• N.b. the variogram model may already be known from other studies or
theoretical considereations
4. Apply the kriging system of equations, with the variogram model of spatial
dependence, at each point to be predicted
• Predictions are often at each point on a regular grid (e.g. a raster map)
5. Calculate the variance of each prediction; this is based only on the sample
point locations, not their data values.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 70
OK in gstat
The krige method is used with a variogram model:
Note the model specification (model=m.f); this gives the assumed covariance
structure with which to compute the optimal weights.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 71
●
●●
2.0
●
●
●
●●●●●
● 2.0
333000 333000 ● ●
● ●
●
●
1.5
● ● ● ●●
● ●● 1.5
●●●
●●● ●
●●●
1.0 ● ●
●● ●●●
1.0
●
332000 332000
●
●
●
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y
●
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0.5 0.5
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0.0
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0.0
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331000 331000
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●
●
● ●
●
●
●● ●
● ●
●
−0.5
● ● ●●●●
●
−0.5
● ●●● ● ●
● ●
●● ● ●
●
● ●● ●
●
330000
−1.0
330000
● ● ● −1.0
●
● ●●●●●
178500 179000 179500 180000 180500 181000 181500 178500 179000 179500 180000 180500 181000 181500
x x
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 72
●
● ●
●
● ● ●
●
1.4 ● ● ●
●
● 1.4
● ●
● ● ●
●
333000 333000 ● ●
●
● ●
● ●
1.3 ● ● ● 1.3
● ●● ●
●
● ●
●
● ●
● ●
●
● ● ●
1.2 ●
● ● ● ● 1.2
● ●
● ● ● ●
●●
●
● ● ●
●
332000 332000 ● ● ●
● ●
1.1 ● ● ● 1.1
●
● ● ● ● ●
y
y
●
● ●
●
● ●
● ● ●
● ●
1.0 ● ● 1.0
● ● ●
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● ●
●
331000 331000 ●
● ● ● ● ●
●
0.9 ●● ●
● ● ●
0.9
● ● ●
●● ●
●
● ●●
● ● ● ● ●
● ●
● ●
● ● ●
0.8 ●
●
● ● ● 0.8
●
●
● ● ●
● ●
●
330000 330000 ●
0.7 ●
● ● 0.7
●
● ●
178500 179000 179500 180000 180500 181000 181500 178500 179000 179500 180000 180500 181000 181500
x x
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 73
• So the field is the best at each point taken separately, but taken as a whole is
not a realistic map
• The sample points are predicted exactly; they are assumed to be without
error, again even if there is a nugget effect in the variogram model
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 74
Non-parametric geostatistics
A non-parametric statistic is one that does not assume any underlying data
distribution.
For example:
• a median is simply the value at which half the samples are smaller and half
larger, without knowing anything about the distribution underlying the process
which produced the sample.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 75
• So the form of the distribution is not important, just whether a value is above
or below some threshold.
D G Rossiter
Introduction to applied geostatistics 76
• The outlier problem: a dataset may contain a few very high values
• These can make the area mean arbitrarily high (n.b. not the median)
• These can make the experimental semivariogram unreliable for “typical” values
and useless for unusual values:
* the point-pairs where the outliers are included will have very high
semivariances
* these contribute disproportionately to the average semivariance in a bin . . .
* . . . so that the variogram is very difficult to model
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 77
• E.g. a random sample of 15 N(10, 1) variates with one outlier at 100 (i.e. 10x
the expected value) replacing the last value:
• The one point with value 100 accounts for (100 − x̄)2/15 = 470 of the
variance, i.e. 470/540 = 87% of it
• So, it will make semi-variances of point pairs involving this point much
higher than others; these can be seen in the variogram cloud
• Note: the median is only slightly affected: if the outlier replaces a value
above the median, the next-highest value is now the median
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 78
1. Ignore (assume that they represent a different population and remove from the
dataset before further analysis)
2. Set to some arbitrary maximum, nearer the bulk of the population; same
problem
3. Transform the variable to logarithms for modelling; transform back for the
final maps and estimates
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 79
Lognormal Kriging
~ i = log z(x
1. Transform the data to their (natural) logarithms: y(x) ~i); this
should be approximately normally distributed
2. Model and interpolate with the transformed variable (OK, block kriging, UK,
KED, trend surfaces . . . )
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 80
Indicator kriging
This is a simple non-parametric (also called distribution-free) method
ofinterpolation.
Note that there are other non-parametric methods, e.g. disjunctive kriging;
these have a much more difficult theory.
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 81
Distribution-free estimates
So far we have assumed an approximately normal or lognormal distribution of the
target spatially-correlated random variable. But this may be demonstrably not
true.
A non-parametric approach does not attempt to fit a distribution to the data, but
rather works directly with the experimental CDF, by dividing it into sample
quantiles.
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 82
Indicator variables
• Binary variables: Take one of the values {1, 0} depending on whether the point
is ‘in’ or ‘out’ of the set; i.e. if it does or does not meet some criterion
* These are suitable for binary nominal variables, e.g. {“urban”, “not urban”};
{“land use changed”, “land use did not change”}
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 83
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 84
Indicator map
• A common strategy is to divide the range of the sample values into quartiles
or deciles and prepare an indicator for each
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 85
• Compute as for a parametric variogram; every sample point has either value 1
(below the cutoff, in the set) or 0.
• The semivariance of each point pair is either 0 (both above or below; both out
or in) or 0.5 (one above, one below; one out, one in).
• Variograms near the two ends of the CDF have few 1’s or 0’s (depending on the
end), so few point-pairs will have semivariance 0.5 → hard to model (fluctuates)
• Model as for parametric variogram; however the total sill must be < 0.5
(generally it’s a lot lower)
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 86
2. Calculate the empirical variogram for that indicator (not the median)
• (May have to use a threshold closer to the median if there are too few 1’s so
that the variogram is erratic)
4. Solve the kriging system at each point to be predicted, using Simple Kriging
(SK) with the quantile proportion as the expected value (e.g., in the 6th
decile, 0.6 of the values are expected to be 1’s)
• Note! this is only true if the original sampling scheme was unbiased! If not,
also estimate the mean (use OK).
6. This may be interepreted as the probability that the point does not exceed the
threshold
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 87
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 88
500
● 500
●
452
● ●452
0.10 477
● 0.10 477
●
● 415 ● 415
533
● 533
●
543
● 543
●
299
● 299
●
457
● 457
●
0.08 0.08
574
● 574
●
419
● 419
●
semivariance
semivariance
0.06 0.06
decile);
0.04 0.04
0.02 0.02
500
●
452
●
0.10 477
●
● 415
533
● −1
543
●
333000
●547 ●564 ●589 457
●
299
●
457
●
0.08
574
● −0.8
419
●
−0.6
0.06
y
unrealistic nugget ● 57
−0.4
0.04
331000
−0.2
330000 −0
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 89
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 90
Summary: Advantages of IK
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Introduction to applied geostatistics 91
Summary: Disadvantages of IK
D G Rossiter