LECTURE NOTES: Visual Optics

15. Spectacle Lenses and their Subsidiary Effects-Part 1

Reading References CVO: Relevant sections in Chapter 13 with particular

attention to what is taught in class. VO: Section 2.13.2, p59-60.
Jalie M The Principles of Ophthalmic Lenses. 3rd Edn. Assoc. Dispensing Opticians. 1977,
Refer to Chapters 1-3.

15.1 Spectacle Lenses: Revision

Surface Powers

Spectacle lenses are usually in the meniscus form. The front surface (surface facing
the object space) has positive surface power F1. The back surface (surface facing the
eye) has negative surface power F2. In general they cannot be treated as thin lenses.
For fitting purposes the BVP is specified in the prescription. The BVP (Fv) in terms
of F1, F2 , the thickness of the lens t and the index of the lens n is given by,

Fv = F1 / [1(t/n)F1] + F2 Eqn.(15.1)

F1 = power of the front (outside) surface of the spectacle lens
F2 = power of the back (inside or ocular) surface of the spectacle lens
A given lens power, F'V, may be formed by any appropriate combination of F1 and F2.
The base curve of a given spherical lens is the flattest surface power of that lens.
Sphero-cylindrical lenses normally have only one sphero-cylindrical surface power.
The flattest power on that surface is the base curve. The other is the cross curve.
The sphere curve is the power of the other surface.
Most spectacle lenses are best form lenses. Best form lenses are designed to minimise
spectacle aberrations.

Lens Combinations
Lenses of small power (<3.00 D) when placed in contact with each other may be
treated as thin lenses. If there is considerable gap between two lenses then one should
find the equivalent power given by,

FE = F1 + F2  (t/n)F1F2 Eqn.(15.2)

A cylindrical lens has no power along its axis and it has maximum power along the
perpendicular direction (power meridian). This is due to the fact that a cylindrical
surface has no curvature along its axis (∞ radius of curvature) and maximum
curvature (min. radius of curvature) along the power meridian. By knowing the
curvature along a meridian we can estimate the focusing power of a cylindrical lens
along that meridian. For a plano cylindrical lens of power C the power along a

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meridian that makes an angle  w.r.t. the cylinder axis is given by C sin2.

Simple addition of Cylinders

1. When the axes are parallel the cylinder powers simply add.
2. While adding cylinders whose axes are perpendicular to each other, cylinders
of same magnitude yield a sphere.
3. While adding obliquely crossed cylinders of the same magnitude and sign the
resultant cylinder axis will lie along the angular bisector of the acute angle
between them. Once the axis of the resultant cylinder is known, the total
power along the axis meridian and the total power along the perpendicular
meridian of the resultant spherocylinder can be calculated by finding the
power along that meridian due to each cylinder using the formula C sin2.

Exercise 15.1 Without using a calculator, determine the powers of the

following: (i) -2.00x20 along 50, (ii) -2.00x20 along 65, (iii) -2.00x20 along 80,
(iv) -2.00x20 along 110, (v) -1.00x10/-1.00x70, (vi) -1.00x10/-1.00x130,
(vii) -1.00x10/-1.00x100.
(Ans. -0.50D, -1.00D, -1.50D, -2.00D, -0.50/-1.00x40, -0.50/-1.00x160, -1.00DS)

15.2 Estimation of Spectacle Lens Power

In the clinic, it will be often useful to estimate the given spectacle lens power quickly.
Some of the common methods used are as follows.

15.2.1 Spectacle Magnification

The view is minified through negative lenses and enlarged through positive lenses.
This is due to spectacle magnification (later notes) and gives a coarse estimate of F.

15.2.2 Displacement Test

When a lens is moved transversely, the view through it is displaced.
Displacement is against the movement if F is positive and with if F is negative.
This is due to the prismatic effect of the lens and gives a coarse estimate of F.
An accurate estimate of FV is obtained by neutralisation of the movement using trial
lenses.

15.2.3 Rotation Test

This test is used with spherocylindrical lenses.

When a sphero-cylindrical lens is rotated, the view through it rotates.
With the normal arrangement, rotation is in the same direction as the minus axis.
At the same time, rotation is opposed to the rotation of the plus axis.
This scissors motion is a basis for estimating the axis of the cylinder accurately.

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Exercise 15.2
A crossline is viewed through a spectacle lens (front surface facing the observer).
The crossline appears aligned when the datum line is along 30 deg. (the datum line is
a horizontal reference line on the spectacle when the spectacle is in its normal
position). In that orientation, a +2.00 DS (in contact with the front surface of the
spectacle lens) neutralises the power horizontally. A -1.00 DS neutralises power
vertically. How will the vertical line seen through the lens rotate if the lens is rotated
cw from this position. Determine Fsp. (Ans. clockwise; +1.00/-3.00x60)

15.3 Subsidiary effects of Spectacle lenses

When a spectacle lens is used the retinal image may become larger or smaller
(spectacle magnification) or shifted in position (prismatic effects) due to the imaging
properties of the spectacle. The limited size of the spectacle frame might limit the
field of view. Such effects are broadly classified as subsidiary effects of spectacle
lenses. In this lecture notes we learn about some aspects of spectacle magnification.
These effects are generally more prominent for spectacle lenses than for contact
lenses. This is mainly due to the fact that the spectacles are worn at a distance and
often we roll our eyes and see through different portions of the spectacle lens.

15.3.1 Spectacle Magnification, SM

Spectacle magnification may be defined as the ratio of the size of the retinal image
formed with correction to the basic retinal image formed without any correction. SM
for any lens could arise due to its shape and thickness or due to its power. The total
magnification can be described as arising due to the shape factor and power factor.

15.3.1.1 The Shape Factor, S

Consider an afocal telescope. Its equivalent power (focusing power) is zero. Parallel
rays are incident and parallel rays emerge. However, there is angular magnification,
MT given by F2 / F1. Similarly, a lens may be afocal (i.e. have zero focusing power)
and yet could provide angular magnification depending on its surface powers.
Consider a spectacle lens whose Fv = 0 as shown in Fig. 15.1.

Fv = 0

Fig.15.1 Spectacle magnification when Fv = 0 is given by the shape factor S.

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As Fv = 0,

F1 / [1(t/n)F1] + F2 = 0

This implies that

F2 / F1 = 1 / [1(t/n)F1] Eqn.(15.3a)

which means that this lens behaves like an afocal telescope, providing an angular
magnification given by 1 / [1(t/n)F1] . This magnification depends on the front
surface power F1 and thickness of the lens alone. The front surface power decides the
back surface power for a given Fv and thus affects the shape of the lens. Hence the
magnification given by Eqn.(15.3a) is called the shape factor, and denoted
by S.

Thus S = MT = F2 / F1 = 1 / [1(t/n)F1] Eqn.(15.3b)

15.3.1.2 The Power Factor, P

The SM arising due to the back vertex power Fv′ of the spectacle and the vertex
distance d is said to be due to the power factor. The dependence of SM on d and Fv′ is
derived below. Consider a distant object viewed through a spectacle lens of power
Fv′. Let the object subtend angle uo at the lens. Angle subtended by the image of the
object formed by the lens at the eye is u (See Fig. 15.2).

Fig. 15.2 Angle subtended by the object and the image at the eye.

Spectacle magnification is the ratio of the size of the retinal image formed with the
lens to the size of the retinal image formed without the lens which is equal to

(the angle u subtended by the image formed by the lens at the eye) / (the angle u
subtended by the object at the eye) = tan(u ) / tan(uo)

= [h /(fv - d)]/ [h/fv]

= fv /(fv - d) = 1/[1-Fv d) = P Eqn.(15.4)

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Thus the magnification that results due to the BVP of the lens and the vertex distance
d is called the power factor and is denoted by d.

15.3.1.3 Total Spectacle Magnification, SM

Any lens can be considered to be an afocal lens plus a thin lens of power Fv′ attached
to it. We know that,

F2 = Fv′  F1/ [1  t/n F1]

F2 is thus made up of two components, one of power Fv′ and the other of power
 F1/ [1  t/n F1] which neutralizes the rays reaching the back surface. Thus the given
lens is made up of an afocal lens and a thin lens of power Fv′. Thus the total spectacle
magnification of the lens is due to the afocal lens (shape factor) and the thin lens of
power Fv′ (power factor).

Therefore the total SM = P  S Eqn.(15.5)

For an anisometropic subject the SM in each eye will be different. If this difference
exceeds 4% then the subject will experience distortion/discomfort. In such cases we
can adjust the front surface power, thickness and index of the lens and minimize the
difference in SM through the shape factor. Reducing the value of t or F1 or increasing
n will reduce the SM due to shape factor. Reducing the value of d will reduce the SM
due to power factor.

Exercise 15.3
F = Fsp = R +1.50DS, L -1.50DS. F1 = R +7.00DS, L +4.00DS. t = R 4 mm, L 3 mm.
For both lenses, n = 1.5 and d = 16 mm. Calculate SM and the differential %SM.
Assuming refractive ametropia find if the subject will experience difficulty.
(Ans. 1.044, 0.984, 6%)

15.3.1.4 Relative Spectacle Magnification, RSM

The spectacle magnification is defined w.r.t. the basic retinal image size in the
uncorrected eye. It is useful to have a standard reference so that we can compare the
retinal image sizes in different eyes. For example, we would like to compare the
images formed in the left and right eyes of a subject (or) we might want to compare
the size of the images along the two principal meridians of an astigmatic eye.
Relative spectacle magnification provides the standard reference. RSM is defined as
the ratio of the basic retinal image size in the corrected eye to the basic retinal image
size in a standard emmetropic eye.

RSM = (Basic retinal image size in the corrected eye)/(Basic retinal image size in
the standard emmetropic eye).

We can show that RSM = SM x 60/K'.

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Exercise 15.4
Determine RSM in Exercise 15.3 in axial ametropia if, K' = R 63.00D, L 59.00D.
(Ans. 0.994, 1.001)

15.3.1.5 Spectacle Magnification and Vertex distance

For a given subject, the power of the correcting lens will vary as the vertex distance is
varied. The power will vary such that the correcting lens forms the image at the far
point of the subject. In other words the distance of the far point is the secondary focal
length of the correcting lens. If we trace the undeviated ray we can readily show that
the size of the image formed at the far point is proportional to f ′. The size of the
retinal image is proportional to this image size. Therefore, if we compare the
spectacle magnification of the correcting lenses at two different positions for a subject
they will be in the ratio of their respective focal lengths (or) in the inverse ratio of
their focal powers. This is of relevance when a subject changes his correction from
spectacle to contact lens or vice-versa (see Fig. 15.3)
(retinal image size while using contact lens) / (retinal image size while using spectacle
lens) = FSP / FCL

Fig. 15.3 As the retinal image size is directly proportional to the primary image size, when
a subject changes from spectacle lens to contact lens retinal image size decreases.

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Exercise 15.5 The power of the spectacle correction of a subject is 14 DS and the power of
his contact lens correction is 17 DS.
a) Find the percentage change in spectacle magnification when he goes for contact lens
correction from spectacle lens correction.
Ans. 17.6%
b) Find the percentage change in spectacle magnification when he goes for spectacle
correction from contact lens correction.
Ans. 21.4 %

15.4 Ophthalmic Prisms

When we look at a near object, our eyes automatically converge (roll inwards) such
that the images formed by the left and right eyes are in the appropriate region of the
retina for our brain to perceive a single image of the object. If our eyes do not
converge correctly, then we would perceive the object as two images. This condition
is referred to as diplopia. Thin prisms are often used to study convergence or to help
us in achieving convergence. Also, depending on the region through which we see, a
spectacle lens will have some prism power as per Prentice’s rule. In this lecture, we
study the basic properties of ophthalmic prisms and the prismatic effects of spectacle
lenses.

Revision

A plano prism has zero power (P = 0) and uniform thickness. All the other prisms are
thickest in their base and thinnest at the apex.
Prisms are represented by an arrow from the base to the apex. Prisms deflect the
image rays towards the base. Consequently, if we look at an object/image through a
prism, the image appears displaced towards the apex. The power of a prism is
expressed in prism dioptres. The prism power  = 100 tan, where  is the angle of
deviation by the prism.  also gives the linear displacement of the image seen through
the prism in cm at a distance of 1m. A prism is specified by the orientation of its base
and its power. The base direction is given as ‘in’ or ‘out’ along the horizontal and ‘up’
or ‘down’ along the vertical. ‘In’ refers to the nasal side and ‘out’ refers to the
temporal side. Prism power gives a measure of displacement. Displacement is a vector
quantity. Hence, when the base of a prism is along an oblique meridian, its power is
generally decomposed and expressed as the power along the horizontal and the power
along the vertical.

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15.4.1 Prisms in Contact

An example of prisms in contact is the Risley prism used routinely in practice.

The Risley prism which consists of two thin prisms in contact provides variable prism
power. The power of each prism = P
In the zero position ( = 0), the prisms are aligned and opposed as shown in Fig. 15.4.

Fig. 15.4 The Risley prism

A spindle is turned to rotate the prisms through equal and opposite angles, + .
The spindle is along the base-apex direction of the prisms when they are in the zero
position. When rotated through an angle  the resultant prism power becomes
2Psin, base at 90 to the spindle as shown in Fig. 15.5.

Fig. 15.5 Variable prism power produced by turning the spindle.

Exercise 15.6
Calculate the combined power of (i) 5 base out, 3 base in (ii) 5 base up, 3 base down.
(Ans. 2 base out; 2 base up).

Exercise 15.7
In a Risley prism the spindle is turned by  = 22 deg. The combined power produced is
9 base out. Calculate P and the orientation of the spindle. What adjustments are needed
to produce (i) 18 base in and (ii) 2.5 vertical prism?
(Ans. 12; vertical; 48.5 deg in reverse direction; 6 deg, horizontal spindle).

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15.4.2 Effective Prism Power

When there is a prism at the spectacle plane, the image is displaced and the eye has to
rotate to see the image. The eye rotates about its centre Z. The Effective prism power,
, is the angle through which the eye rotates expressed in prism dioptres.

Exercise 15.8 Determine apparent linear displacements and effective powers of an

8 prism base up in contact with spectacle lens powers of (i) 0.00, (ii) -6.00DS and
(iii) +6.00DS. Working distance = 250 mm from S. z = SZ = 30 mm (Z is the centre
of eye rotation).
(Ans. 20 mm down, 7.1 base up; 17.2 mm down, 6. 1 base up; 23.8 mm down, 8.5 base  up).

15.5 Prismatic Effects of Spectacle Lenses

15.5.1 Monocular Prismatic Effects

The visual point is the point V on the spectacle through which the visual axis passes. If
we know the location of the visual point and the optical centre, we can find the prism
power arising from the spectacle using the Prentice rule. Exercises 15.9 and 15.10
demonstrate the use of Prentice rule for a spherical lens and for a spherocylindrical lens.
P varies with the position of the visual point, V, on the lens according to Prentice's Rule.
To find the prism power of a cylindrical lens at any point, we find the distance of the
point from the axis of the cylinder along the vertical and along the horizontal directions.
The distance of the visual point from the cylinder axis along the vertical is referred to as
the vertical decentration. Similarly, the distance of the visual point from the cylinder axis
along the horizontal is referred to as the horizontal decentration. We also find the power
of the cylinder along the vertical and the horizontal directions. Then we apply the Prentice
rule to get the prism power along the vertical and along the horizontal using the
corresponding decentrations and the powers.

Exercise15.9
V is 12 mm down and 3 mm in (with respect to O). F = (i) +5.00DS and (ii) -5.00DS.
Calculate P, determine its direction by inspection and determine the amount and
direction of apparent displacement of an object viewed through V at 6 metres.
(Ans. 6.0 base up, 1.5 base out, 360 mm down, 90 mm in; 6.0 base down, 1.5 base in, 360 mm up, 90 mm out)

Exercise 15.10
Answer the following from first principles
R -3.00DCx30. V is 12 mm down and 3 mm in with respect to O. Determine the
vertical decentration, v, the horizontal decentration, h, the powers @ 90 and 180 and
hence P. (Ans. 13.7 mm down, 23.8 mm in, -2.25D, -0.75D, 1.8 base in, 3.1 base down)
R +5.00/-3.00DCx30. V is 12 mm down and 3 mm in with respect to O. Calculate P.
(Ans. 0.3 base in, 2.9 base up)

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15.5.2 Binocular Prismatic Effects (BPE)

The binocular differential or relative prismatic effect is defined as the difference in

the prism powers in front of the right and left eyes. The BPE can be considered along
the vertical (VBPE) or along the horizontal (HBPE). Consider prisms, PR and PL, in
front of the right (R) and left (L) eyes respectively. VBPE is given as (PR - PL )- R
(or) (PL - PR) - L . HBPE is given as PR + PL. Note that our eyes cannot roll
differently along the vertical while they can along the horizontal leading to relative
divergence or relative convergence.

Exercise 15.11
Determine the BPE for the following prism pairs. (a) R 6 base up, L (i) 0, (ii) 6
base down, (iii) 6 base up; (b) R 6 base out, L (i) 0, (ii) 6 base out, (iii) 6 base in.
(Ans. 6 b. up R (6 b. down L), 12 b. up R (12 b. down L), 0; 6 b. out, 12 b. out, 0.

15.5.2.1 Horizontal Prismatic Effects

Prismatic effect plays an important role in spectacle dispensing. One often has to roll
both the eyes appropriately to see objects at various locations. The intersection of the
visual axis of the eye with the spectacle lens is called the visual point. The distance of
the visual point ‘V’ from the optical centre ‘O’ is referred to as the inset ‘i’. Knowing
the value of ‘i’ one can calculate the prism power induced by a spectacle lens using
the Prentice Rule. While doing near work both the eyes roll inward (converge).
Convergence of eyes along the horizontal leads to horizontal prismatic effects. The
following exercise illustrates the convergence required in doing near work through
different spectacle corrections.

Exercise 15.12
For both the eyes, F'V = (i) 0 and (ii) +8.00DS and (iii) -8.00DS centred for the DPD
of 64 mm. WD = 40 cm. z = 30mm. Calculate effective prism power C. Use the
approximation: i (monocular inset) = 1 mm per dioptre of working distance, to
determine the approximate value of C using Prentice's rule.
Ans. 14.9, 14.9; 19.2, 18.9; 12.2, 10.9

The results of CE 15.12 indicate that when wearing spectacles, convergence demand
is greater for a hyperope than for a myope. Conversely, when a myope transfers to
contact lenses convergence demand increases. In such cases the subjects may report
ocular stress or diplopia while doing near work.

With spectacle wear, as the convergence increases for a hyperope and decreases for a
myope, the accommodative demand also increases for a hyperope and decreases for a
myope in almost equal proportion. This tends to keep the C/A ratio close to its normal
value! Consequently, comfortable binocular vision is expected for the young distance
corrected subjects.

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15.5.2.2 Seg compensation

While prescribing bifocal Adds the optical centre of the Add-segment can be moved
inward (or) outward depending on the distance correction to optimize convergence of
the eyes.

Exercise 15.13
For each spectacle of the previous exercise consider an Add = +2.5 D. Calculate the
required incentration ic to restore normal C.
Ans. 2.2mm ; 9.4mm; -4.9mm

15.5.2.3 Image Jump.

While looking through bifocal lenses as subject’s gaze (line of sight/visual axis)
moves from the DP to NP the subject might experience a gap in the FOV due to the
prism effect of the Add. In this case the image might appear to jump across the
boundary for the subject. Alternately, the subject might experience an overlap in the
FOV through the DP and NP. In this case there will be a zone of confusion across the
boundary. The subject might see the same object through the DP as well as the NP.

Exercise 15.14
Consider a plano lens with +2.75 D Round seg Add of diameter = 28 mm. Calculate
the change in prism power (a) at the dividing line and (b) at the reading level 8 mm
below the dividing line. Calculate the corresponding displacement (i) at 4 m, and
(ii) in the reading plane. Assume that the subject does not accommodate.
Ans. 3.85 base down, 1.65 base down; 154 mm up, 66mm up; 14 mm up, 6mm up

15.5.2.4 Prismatic effects in Anisometropia:

Anisometripia is present when a subject requires separate corrections for the right and
the left eye. Prismatic effects must be considered seriously while providing spectacle
corrections for anisometropes so that their binocular vision is not compromised.
While prescribing Add to anisometropes, care must be taken to minimize the VBPE.
We will look at some examples in the tutorial to illustrate the horizontal and vertical
binocular prismatic effects in anisometropia and some compensation methods.

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