PHGY 210

Module 1 Notes
Week 1
Module 1
Section 1: Introduction to Systems Physiology and Homeostasis
Readings: Pages 3-16
Focus of the course is to fulfill the following:
 Understand how organ systems function on an individual and on a systemic level
Physiology map:
Type Example
Cells Smallest to largest Neurons
Tissue Nervous Tissue
Organ Brain
Organ system Nervous system
What is homeostasis?
The ability of a cell or organism to regulate and maintain its internal environment
regardless of the influences of the external environment
 Achieved by progressing to the set point
o Set point = Level/ point at which a variable physiological state tends to
be stable
Homeostatic Control Systems
Maintaining homeostatic conditions relies on achieving the set point by the
homeostatic control system
1. Sensor
a. This component is responsible for detecting changes from the
environment
2. Integrator
a. This component is responsible for comparing sensory information to
the set point
3. Effector
a. This component is responsible for sending the appropriate initiating
changes to return to the set point
Homeostasis cycle
Stimulus > Sensor > Integrator > Effector > Return to homeostasis
Sensor Afferent
detects Efferent Response
pathway pathway change,
changes sends sends homeostasi
input to output to s achieved
integrator effector again
Types of homeostatic regulation
1. Intrinsic Control
 Also known as local regulation/ autoregulation
 Characterized as an organ that can maintain homeostasis within itself
o Example: Heart
 Can control heart beat
 Intrinsic control can override extrinsic control
2. Extrinsic Control
 Characterized as control and regulatory mechanisms are outside of the
tissue/ organ
 Involves the Nervous and endocrine systems
o Example: Body temperature
 Majority of homeostatic control system are dependent of extrinsic control
Feedback loops
Two Types!
1) Negative Feedback
 Majority of the homeostatic control operates on this type of feedback
 Occurs when an environmental parameter causes the effector to initiate a
response
o Effector will respond in the opposite direction and restore the parameter
to the set point
 Signals stop once the set point is achieved
2) Positive feedback
 Occurs when effector cells amplify the initial signal
Section 2: Membrane Physiology
Readings: Pages 29-50
Plasma Membrane (PM)
 PM is a physical barrier that separates the internal and external
environments from one another
o Allows for different fluid composition in both internal and external layers
 Roles
o Active role in regulating the internal fluid compositions
 Allows for molecule permeability (what can come into and out of the
cell)
o Inputs nutrients into the cell and outputs waste products out of the
cell
o Cell-cell communication
o Involved in joining of cells to form tissues and organs
Primary Functions of the Plasma Membrane
I. Ensures Cell survival
II. Maintain homeostasis
III. Cooperative and coordinated function with surrounding cells
Structure Function
Phospholipids  Lipid bilayer of PM
 Polar Head & is Hydrophilic
 Heads are negatively charged
phosphate group
 Non-polar fatty acid tails & is
Hydrophobic
 Heads are positioned towards the
external environment
 Tails are positioned towards the
internal environment
Cholesterol  Found between the phospholipids
 Keeps PM structure rigid and prevents
fatty acid chains from packing too
tightly
 Ensures fluid membrane structure

Membrane Proteins  These proteins are inserted into the

phospholipid membrane
 Regulates cell function, maintain cell
structure, transportation across cell
membrane and facilitates signaling
 Exist at the inner and outer sides and it
can pass through the entire PM
Ion Channels  Are a type of specialized membrane
protein
 Regulates ion into PM
 Spans through the entire lipid
membrane
Carbohydrate (CHO) Chains  Formation of Glycoproteins and
glycolipids
 Short CHO chains can be attached to
proteins or the bilayer
 Stabilization of membrane structure
 Act as surface receptors
 Involved in transportation across the cell
membrane
Cell-to-Cell Adhesion (Three methods)
I. Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
a. Consists of a gel-like fibrous protein mixture with complex CHOs
i. Matrix is watery
b. Surrounds all cells in the tissue and keeps them held in place
c. Matrix allows for diffusion from blood and removes waste from cells
d. ECM also known as Interstitial fluid
i. Consists of three major protein fibres
1. Collagen
a. Cable-like fibres
b. Provides tensile strength to ECM
2. Elastin
a. Rubber-like protein
b. Provides elasticity to ECM
3. Fibronectin
a. Promotes sell adhesion
II. Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs)
a. Are a type of transmembrane protein
i. Intercellular side – interaction with cytoskeleton
ii. Extracellular side – interaction with extracellular matric CAMs
b. Allows cells to stick to each other and their surrounding
III. Cell Junctions
a. Are specialized junctions between cells
i. Desmosomes (Adhesion Junctions)
1. Anchors two adjacent cells together
2. Plaques = dense intracellular
thickenings
a. Connected through
glycoproteins filaments
3. Stretchy
ii. Tight Junctions (Impermeable junctions)
1. Tight seal between cells, prevents
molecular movement between cells
2. Kiss site = meeting point of different
junctional proteins
3. Primarily found in epithelial tissues
a. Allows for the formation of
highly permeable barriers
between different chemical
compositions
 iii. Gap Junctions (communicating junctions)
1. Small, water soluble substance can
pass through only
2. Involved in cell-to-cell communication
3. Commonly found in cardiac and
smooth muscle cells
a. Involved in electrical signaling/ activity
4. Aids in secondary messengers between connected cells
Membrane Permeability
Function in which selective substance can pass through the PM
 Permeable substances are those can freely pass through the PM
 Impermeable substances are those that cannot pass through the PM
 Semi-permeable is referred to the PM itself
o It represents that ability of some substances being able to pass freely
while others cannot
Permeability factors
I. Size
a. Membrane channels vary in size and this will allow for selectivity of
substances
i. Example: Small substance (ions) can pass through the membrane
through ion junctions
1. Larger substance, like glucose, will need a transport protein
to move across the membrane
II. Solubility
a. Solubility is about lipid solubility/ how lipophilic the substance is
i. Good lipophilic substances are uncharged or nonpolar
1. O2, CO2, fatty acids
a. All can readily cross the PM
ii. Bad substances are charged or polar
1. Na+, Ca2+, Glucose
a. Also known as lipophobic
2. Requires a transporter to cross the PM
Methods of transport across the membrane
 Molecules vary with the method of transportation to cross the PM
 Not all molecules can readily pass through the channels and will require aid from
a transport protein
 There are two distinct transport methods
Passive
Requires cellular energy
Consists of Diffusion and Facilitated
diffusion
Diffusion – Is unassisted movement of
a substance
Diffusion is a term used about the
concentration of a substance in a
solution
 Dependent on the concentration
gradient
 High density to low density is
referred to as going down the
concentration gradient
 Dynamic equilibrium – When the
concentration gradient no longer
exists
Osmosis – Is the net diffusion of water
down a concentration gradient
Facilitated Diffusion – No energy
required
 Makes use of a carrier to transport
substance across the PM
 Uses carrier proteins that exist in
the PM already to move non-
permeable substance
Active
Does not require cellular energy
Consists of Carrier mediated and
Vesicular transport
Carrier proteins in the active transport
move against the gradient
 Energy required in the form of ATP
for this type of movement
Carrier Mediate transport
Specificity
 Carrier proteins are specialized
and act on substance that they
recognized
Saturation
 Limited amounts of substance can
be transported at a given point in
time
Competition
 Many carrier proteins can act on
like-structured substances
Vesicular transport – Two forms of
transport: Exocytosis and endocytosis
 Responsible for the transport of
substance out of and into the cell
 Certain ions or large molecules
that cannot pass through the PM
use this type of transport
 They are wrapped in a membrane
enclosed vesicle
Requires energy
Endocytosis – movement of substance
out of the cell to the inside of the cell
1. Pinocytosis – ingestion of liquid
into a cell via budding of small
vesicles from cell membrane
2. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
– Similar to pinocytosis, dependent
on substance and specific-receptor
on cell surface
3. Phagocytosis – internalization
(engulfing) of substances
Exocytosis – moves substance from
within the cell to the outside
environment
Water movement and its forces
1. Osmotic Pressure
o Underlying force that moves water down its concentration gradient
 Moves from High to low
2. Hydrostatic Pressure
o Forces that are created by a given water volume
o As volume increases, so does hydrostatic pressure
Section 3: Membrane Potential
Page 54-59
What is an electrochemical gradient?
References to the different in ion concentration from the internal and external
environments of a cell membrane
Ohm’s Law – Relation between membrane potential and ionic currents
V=IR
 V= voltage (the membrane potential)
 I= Current (ions moving across the membrane)
 R= resistance (ability of the PM to resist ion movement across it)
Importance of Ion Channels
Are transmembrane proteins that allow ions to enter and exit a cell
 Direction= Typically down the concentration gradient
Four main types of ion channels
1. Voltage-gated
a. Control facilitated by membrane potential
i. Closed = at a resting potential
ii. Open = during nerve impulses
iii. Inactivated = Briefly after an activation
2. Chemically gated
a. Dependent on ligands
i. Ligands = a specific chemical messenger
3. Mechanically gated
a. Dependent on physical, mechanical deformations
i. Example: Stretching
4. Thermally gated
a. Dependent on thermal changes/ temperature changes
Voltage-Gated ion channels and Ohm’s Law
I (Current) R (Resistance) Channel
Small High Closed
High Low Open
Rule of Thumb: Current, I, is inversely proportionate to Resistance, R
Potassium’s Electrochemical Gradient
 Due to uneven distribution of ions, an electrical gradient is created in the PM
 This created different chemical and electrical gradients because of the varying
ions
 K+ uses concentration and electrical gradients as a driving force for the
movement of the ions
Three types of gradients
1. Concentration Gradient
a. Ions want to move down a concentration gradient
2. Electrical Gradient
a. Charges
i. Internal charge: Negative (-)
ii. External charge: Positive (+)
b. Creates an inward electrical gradient, prevents K+ from leaving the cell
c. Due to positively charged proteins (anions)
3. Electrochemical Gradient
a. Can work with each other or against each other
Nernst Equation (Reversal potential)
An equation that can be used to calculate Equilibrium Potential, E
 E represents the membrane potential for an ion that will be at equilibrium at a
given concentration

Log conversion

Reduced form for K+, Na+, or Cl

 -60mv CG >EG, K+ out of cell, MP more
negative
-90mv At equilibrium for K+
-120mv EG \ > CG, K+ into the cell, MP more
positive
Resting Membrane Potential
 Is the electric potential across its membrane
o Equation is similar to Nernst equation but includes permeability (P)

Terminology of membrane potential changes

Depolarization When the membranes voltage
approaches 0mv
Repolarization Membrane voltage approaches RMP
Occurs after a depolarization or
hyperpolarization period
Hyperpolarization When the membrane voltages becomes
more negative (away from RMP)
 Polarized = When the membrane is
not at 0mv
 Negative sign reflects the internal
conditions relative to the external
conditions
o Neurons at rest have a
polarizing value of -70mv
What are graded potentials (GP)?
 Changes in membrane potential
o Used for short distance signalling
 Is considered the difference in change
 Magnitude and duration of a GP is dependent on strength and duraction of
triggering stimulus
Section 4: Ionic Basis of the Action Potential
Page 59-64
Action Potential
 Caused by a stimulus event
o Results in a localized depolarization
 Is considered an all or nothing response
  Benefit: Long duration and does not
diminish in strength
Action Potential overview
 Threshold = The potential that must be met
for an action potential to occur
Kinetics of Voltage-gated Ion Channels
Potassium (K+) and Sodium (Na+) voltage-gated
channels are the most common
 Movement for both channels are controlled by the activation and inactivation
of their respective gates
Three gate states
1. Closed – Refers to the ion channel
a. Activation gate = inside the pore remains closed
b. Ions such as sodium cannot pass and enter the cell
2. Open – Occurs when the threshold potential is
reached
a. Activation gate = inside the pore opens!
b. Ions can freely pass into the cell
i. Open state = known as the process of
activation
3. Inactive – Inside pore is blocked
a. Activation gate = can be open or closed
i. No current present, so nothing happens
b. Occurs after an open channel
c. Inactivation gate = blocks the inside of the poor
i. No ion flow/ movement
Channel Structure
Potassium = Four subunits
 All subunits contribute to activation and inactivation gates

Sodium = Single activation gate and inactivation gates

 One large transmembrane protein
Section 5: Nerves and Synaptic Transmission
Page 64-71; 74-77
Neuron
Key cell type involved in the nervous system
Structure
Four functional zones:
1. Input Zone – Area where stimulus
signals are received (Incoming signals)
a. Structures:
i. Dendrites
ii. Body
2. Trigger Zone – Action potentials
initiated
a. Structures:
i. Axon Hillock
3. Conducting Zone – Action potential conduct to their target locations
a. Structures:
i. Axon
4. Output Zone – Chemical messengers released
a. Structures:
i. Axon Terminals
Pathway:
Action Potential forms at the axon hillock > moves toward axon terminus via Opening
of sodium channels
Refractory Periods
 Can be absolute
o No other action potential can be triggered
 Is an important factor that determines neuronal firing rates
 Refractory periods are a way of ensuring one-way propagation in neurons
o Due to the inactive state of the sodium channels
 Occurs because of the previous action potential being released
Neuron Action Potential Traits
 Speed of AP determined by myelination & fibre diameter
o Myelination = Specialized cells formed by oligodendrocytes and
Schwann cells
 Involved in the Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
  Myelinated regions = Lipid-rich and provide cell insulation
o Schwann Cells – Support cells of Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
o Oligodendrocytes – Support cells of the Central nervous system (CNS)
 Fibre diameter – Larger diameter results in increased firing rates
o Less current resistance with increased size
Synapses and Function
Synapses are the junction between two nerve
cells
 Detailed: Junction between the
presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron
 Transmission is chemical and not
electrical
Terms
Presynaptic Neuron Region of the incoming
action potential
Postsynaptic Neuron Destination of the action
potential
Synaptic Cleft Region of extracellular fluids
that lies between post and
pre-synaptic neurons
Synaptic Vesicle Stores neurotransmitters
and releases them into the
synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitter Chemicals released into the
synaptic cleft
Involved in the activation of
ion channels in the post-
synaptic neuron
membrane
Pathway
1. Electrical action potential received at axon terminal in presynaptic neuron
a. Opening of Calcium voltage-gated channels
i. Calcium released and flows down the concentration gradient and
into the cell
1. Calcium into axon terminal and triggers exocytosis of
synaptic vesicles with neurotransmitters
a. Neurotransmitters released into synaptic cleft
i. Neurotransmitters react to receptors on the
postsynaptic neurons
1. Binding occurs and opens chemically-
gated ion channels
a. Reaches postsynaptic membrane
Postsynaptic Potentials
Creation of graded potential from neurotransmitters interacting with chemically-gated
ion channels on the postsynaptic cell
 Can travel to the axon hillock if signals are strong enough
Function of graded potential
 Cause two reactions for synapses
o Stimulation or Excitatory synapse
 Also known as excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
 Occurs because of the opening of nonselective cation channels
 Causes a slight depolarization period (but mostly likely
does not cause an AP to occur)
o Brings membrane potential closer to threshold
o Inhibition or Inhibitory synapse
 Also known as inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
 Occurs when neurotransmitters activate Chloride or Potassium
channels
 Potassium leaves the cell
 Chloride enters the cell
o Both causes a slightly more negative internal charge
for the cell
 Slight hyperpolarization occurs and moves the membrane
potential away from the threshold