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Documente Cultură
Although no one, and no teacher, can predict the future with any certainty,
people in leadership capacities such as teachers are required to make guesses
about the probable future and plan appropriately. Teachers therefore need to
plan their curriculum according to the more likely future their students face
while at the same time acknowledging that the students have a future. The
competent leader cannot plan according to past successes, as if doing so will
force the past to remain with him. The most competent leader and manager,
in fact, is not even satisfied with thoughts of the future, but is never satisfied,
always sure that whatever is being done can be improved.
The term ‘curriculum ’has been derived from a Latin word ‘currere’ which means race
course .Thus ,the term ‘curriculum’ has the sense of competition and achievement of
goal inherent in it. .
Curriculum is total environment. The most comprehensive concept of curriculum is given by
those who conceive it to include the total environment of the school. In the words of H.L.
Caswell, "The curriculum is all that goes on in the lives of the children, their parents and their
teachers. The curriculum is made up of every thing that surrounds the learner in all his
working hours." In fact, the curriculum has been described as "the environment in motion." In
modern times, the term is interpreted in this more liberal sense because there is no
questioning the fact that the child's education is influenced, by not only books but the
playground, library, laboratory, reading room, extra-curricular programmes, the educational
environment, and a host of other factors. In the school, both the educator and the educand are
part of the curriculum because they are part of the environment, while in the family the child
is expected to progress and achieve the goals of education
. Curriculum must involve the human experiences, culture and, civilization which are to be
transferred to new generation.
. Curriculum should be the means to develop the moral character, dicipline honesty,
cooperation, friendship, tolerance and sympathy with others.
.
. Curriculum should help in developing the ability of thinking, wisdom casoning, judgement
and other mental abilities.
. It should consider the stages of growth and development of child for development attitude,
interest, values and creative ability.
. It should provide the awareness and understanding of physical and social environment and
its components.
. It should develop the right type of feeling and beliefs towards religions, new values and
traditions.
. It should help to develop democratic feeling ad democratic way of life among students.
. It should integrate the knowledge of various teaching subjects in view of their future life.
. It should determine the mode of interaction between teacher and students in school: The
mode of teaching is decidedly the nature of curriculum
The teaching process is done through interaction between teacher and students\. The
curriculum is the basis for the interaction between teacher,and taught.
.
Basic Elements of Curriculum Development
The educational process includes teaching, training and instructional activities.
Teaching activities are performed by a Teacher. They are planned or designed by the teacher
according to four components-(l) Teaching-learning objectives (2) Teaching content or
subject-matter (3) Teaching method and (4) Evaluation learning outcomes.
In the curriculum development, the level of students, needs of the society and nation,
the nature of content and means of voicing learning experiences are considered as important
factors, "use are essential in identifying the objectives of teaching-learning. Several types of
teaching objectives are attained by the same content.. Teaching is organized from memory to
refelctive level on the same content of subject-matter.
The specific or behavioral objective are realized by organizing specific teaching task and
activities. Thus curriculum development involves from basic elements.
(1) Objectives
(2) Content
(3) Method or strategies of teaching, and
(4) Evaluation. These elements are interdependent.
.The Objective. The subjects content structure, levels of students, and type of examination
components are considered in the identification of objectives of teaching and learning. These
objectives are specific. These are vritten in behavioural terms so as to develop learning
structures aid conditions.
. Content or Subject-matter. The content of any subject is usually broal. It is
analysed into sub-content and into elements. These elements anarragncd in a logical
sequence. The behavioural objectives are written with the help of these elements of the
content. It is also known as Igic of teaching.
. Strategy of teaching. Specific objectives of teaching are attained with the elp of
appropriate teaching strategy. The behavioral objectives rovide the awareness and insight
about the specific learning conditions the strategy is employed for providing learning
experiences and bringig desirable behavioral change.
. Evaluation. The level of student's attainment is evaluated by employ the criteria referenced
test. It shows the effectiveness of strategy of teaching and other components. The
interpretation of evaluation provide he feedback to the curriculum and its components. These
are improved and modified to attain the objectives of teaching and learning It is the
empirical basis for the curriculum development.
. The difference between curriculum transaction and curriculum development has been
summarized in the following table:
Transaction V/s Development of Curriculum
Curriculum Transaction Curriculum Development
It is a broad concept and area of It is a specific and narrow concept of
1. 1.
curriculum. curriculum.
Management of curriculum is done at Curriculum development is a cyclic
initial stage of introduction of new process use for improving and
2. 2.
courses at school stages and higher modifying the courses at particular
levels. state of level.
Management of curriculum
employs the following steps: It is a cyclic process using
(i) Planning, the following four steps:
(ii) Organizing, (i) 'Objectives,
3. (iii) Administering, 3. (ii) Instructional. methods,
(iv) Guiding and, (iii) Evaluation method,
(v) Controlling. (iv) Feedback.
MODELS OF CURRICULUM
Curriculum models are just as instructional designs. They bring competency in
educational process and teaching-learning. They are he best ways to proceed in formulating
theories of teaching taming, instruction should begin with what is known about leaning and
instruction. Teaching models are the basis of teaching theories. The curriculum models are
very useful for teachers for planning and agenizing educational process. They can use
models in the traction of curriculum preparing an outline for guiding students' activity and
developing instructional procedure for realizing objectives. Curriculum models are very
close to models of teaching.
HILDA TABA MODEL OF CURRICULUM
Hilda Taba developed Inductive Teaching Model which backbone to social studies
curriculum.
(i) Focus. Its main focus is to develop the mental abilities and lay emphasis upon concept
formation. It involves cognitive tasks in concept formation.
(ii) Syntax. The teaching is organized in nine phases. The first three phases are concerned
with the concept formation involving enumeration, grouping and labeling categories. The
second three phases are related to the interpretation of data by identifying relationship,
explaining relationship and drawing inferences. The last three .phases arc concerned with an
application of principles by hypothesizing, explaining and verifying the hypothesis.
(iii) Social System. In the all nine phases, the classroom climate is conducive to learning and
cooperative. A good deal of freedom should be given for pupil-activities. The teacher is
usually the controller and initiator of information. Teaching activities arc arranged in a
logical sequence in advance.
(iv) Support System. The teacher should help the students in dealing with the more
complex data and information. He should encourage them in processing the data,
basically designed to develop thinking capacity. A particular mental and cognitive task
requires • specific strategy to improve thinking.
(v) Classroom Application. Taba designed his model to create inductive thinking among
learners. It helps to organize social studies curriculum so that cognitive process may be
facilitated. The learning experiences are the basis of information to arrange the content in an
effective sequence. The first three phases arc useful in dealing with elementary classes,
while the last three phases are useful for higher classes especially for science and language
curriculum.
(vi) Evaluation. Hilda Taba has developed teaching model as well as curriculum model. His
curriculum model is based on the evaluation concept. That In designing the outline of
the curriculum, evaluation plays significant role.
1. Identification of objectives.
2. Evidence for teaching-learning operation.
3. Evidences of factors affecting learning.
4. Evidences of pupil behavior pertaining objectives
Step1. The curriculum is a evaluated in the light of educational objectives identified for
preparing learning experiences. These objectives include-cognitive, affective, phychomolor
creativity and perceptions, The evidences are collected for the identification of the
objectives.
Stage 3. Analysing and interpreting the data to develop the hypothesis regarding needed
change.
Hilda Taba curriculum model is based on the evaluation approach •of B.S.Bloom designed
for examination reform. E.vidences collected in different stages are used to diagnose the
weaknesses of T curriculum . These evidences are further used for formulating hypothesis.
The structure of the curriculum is mollified on the basis ol verification of the hypothesis.
Thus, an empirical approach is used for the curriculum development. The hypothesis indicate
the type of modification needed in curriculum development.
The above steps and stages are used in sequences. This model of curriculum is highly
empirical. The modification is done on the basis of evidences.
ADMINISTRATIVE MODEL OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Management refers to conscious preference from variety of alternative plus proposals
and further the more that such choices involve purpose full commitment to recognize and
derive objectives. Management employs strategies to achieve the objectives.
It indicates the various activities performed under the development of curriculum:
1. Planning a Curriculum.
2.Formulating Educational Objectives.
3. Organizing the Tasks.
4. Employing Strategies and Techniques.
5. Selecting and Appointing Workers.
6. Executing and Coordinating among workers.
7. Evaluating and Controlling the Tasks.
8. Encouraging and Providing Feedback.
Administrative model is related to management technology. Its broad outline is developed
under 'Instruction design.' The basis of 'management' involves the following five activities
1. Planning,
2. Organization,
3. Administration or Execution,
4. Guiding,
5. Controlling of Feedback.
Education is a system which has various sub-systems. It is assumed that no system is
perfect. Every system or sub-system needs improvement or development. The term
'curriculum development' refers to the improvement "in the curriculum.
I.K. Davies has designed and introduced "Managing Teaching Learning Approach' which
involves four steps in educational process:
1. Planning of Teaching,
2. Organizing Teaching,
3. Leading of Teaching, and
4. Controlling Teaching.
The last step known as 'controlling teaching', means evaluation of objectives which provide
the feedback for improving these steps. The planning includes managing curriculum and
implementing curriculum. The basic model of curriculum depends on the objectives of
education.
SYSTEM ANALYSIS MODEL
System Analysis .is closely related to both training psychology and cybernetic. It has
emerged during second world war. It has greatly influenced management decision making in
business, industry, government and military. Known by several terms, System Analysis had
gained considerable standardization.
Meaning of System Analysis
The word system has been derived from the field to engineering. A system is the sum
total of agents working independently and dependently together to achieve the required
goals. The term 'system' conveys the meaning of analysis and development. The term 'system
analysis' emerged from the scientific management concept. In general, it involves utilization
of scientific mathematical techniques applied to organizational operation as a part of
management decision making activities. It assumes that no comprehensive system
development can take place without prior system analysis. Il enables the administrators to
use more scientific and quantitative methods for analysing management problems.
System technology brings to educational management a scientific-quantitative
approach for solving complex educational administrative problems.
Procedure of System Analysis
The following steps must be utilized for conducting system analysis study:
1. First Step: Formulation of objectives. To formulate the specific objectives to be achieved
it is totally inadequate. To state objectives in general terms an objective may be written in
behavioural terms of fiscal functions.
2. Second Step : Review of System operation, [t includes a comprehensive review of ihe
system operation. System analysis is problem-oriented. It is necessary to understand the
system operation. The administrators do not always understand the main problem.
Comprehensive review of the whole system is necessary to isolate the main problem to the
solved.
3. Third Step: Collection of data. It involves the statistical techniques and procedure. In
many situations, the aspects of system analysis are the application of classical statistical
procedure.
4. Fourth Step: Analysis of data. II is done lo make it meaningful. It is employed to
experimental paradigms to study the effect of independent variable. An objective analysis is
made for determining the influence of variables. The investigator is concerned with
interaction of many variables. This primary concern is to obtain correlation not to establish
cause and effect.
5. Fifth Step: Isolation of the problem. In order to isolate specific problem of the system, it is
necessary to follow earlier steps. The collection and analysis of data helps in identifying and
defining the problem.
6. Sixth Step: Specify operations in the problem. It is much more comprehensive than the
original review of the total operations. It helps to understand the relationship of all facts of
the problem to the total operation system.
7. Seventh Step : Block Diagram. In the final step in the analytical stage of the system
analysis, a block diagram is prepared for all functions of the sub-system that make up
problem area. It denotes logical structure of the sub-system operations and similar to the
block diagram.
Design
After the system analysis, the investigator attempts to design and tentative solution of
the problem. A new solution of the problem is subjected to testing. A tentative solution and
retesting the tentative solution continues until an analyst reaches to an optimal solution.
Once optimal solution is obtained, the analyst departs that loop.
Evaluation
The formal evaluation of the new solution is made for checking out its workability. It
involves implementation of tentative solution in some .aspect of the system. The analyst
proceeds through the same steps of loop as mentioned earlier. It is advisable to evaluate all
new system solutions in small scale of the required operations.
System Operations
The new design has been implemented within the system for formal evaluation and
acceptance for the solution of the problem. It involves two aspects:
1. Implementation of new system operation.
2. Maintenance of the system where a new system is designed.
Criteria for Evaluating
System Analysis Project
Performance, cost, utility and time are included in any evaluation system. The total
system should operate in an optimal fashion. These criteria are as follows:
1. Performance. The effectiveness of a system evaluated on the basis of performance. The
design of the problem solution ascertains how far the new system effective in achieving the
objectives. The performance criterion is the concept of validity of the new system. The
system is valid if it does what is it supposed to do. Thus, much of the evaluation of the
performance is quantitative.
2. Cost. Analysis of system is influenced by cost function. The amount of resources is put
into the system function in terms of money, staff and facilities. Comparisons are made
regarding the investment resources in the new and old system of education. This is a
valuable criterion for evaluation system analysis projects.
3. Utility. The ultimate criterion for evaluating system project is utility of the system. The
return on investment represents the utility of a given function. Many educational functions
require an assignment of a numerical utility.
4. Time. Time factor as an evaluative criterion is closely associated with effectiveness. It is
particularly relevant criterion in evaluating system projects. There is high correlation
between time and cost. Much of the contribution of modern electronic data processing
involves time.
Application of System Analysis in Education
The purpose of the system analysis is to get the "Best environment in the best place,
for the best people, at the best time and in 'the best price"
"The system approach in instruction is an integrated, programmed complex of
instructional media, hardware and personal whose components are structured as single unit
with a schedule of time and sequential phasing."
"The system analysis greatly influences the educational administration and
organisation. It provides scientific and quantitative basis for studying the problems of
educational system. The educational implication of system analysis have been found in the
following areas of education :
1. Approach. It brings to educational management a scientific-quantitative approach for
solving complex education administrative problems.
2. Problems. It enables educational administrator to identify the actual problem and abstains
a verified solution of the problem.
3. Training. The training programmes, can also be improved with the help of system
analysis. The new concept of management may be implemented in training programmes.
4. Sub-systems. The sub-systems of education is analysed to understand the actual problem
and tentative solutions can be verified or tested on a segment of the system.
5. Change'. Any change in the educational system can be brought objectively, empirically
and economically with great utility with the help of System Analysis.
.
CURRICULUM EVALUATION
1. Formative. Formative assessment made in a situation when the curriculum is
answerable to the public. Assessment in such a situation must ensure objectivity, credibility
and relevance. To ensure these, it-will follow the get standardized norms/ procedures of lest
construction, administration and interpretation. Informal assessment is applicable to
situations where an individual or a voluntary body is a curriculum to obtain some
information to fulfil some personal requirements. The informal assessment also needs to be
objective and reliable, but the evaluator is not bound to satisfy about these qualities of his
assessment. Hence, the process of assessment need not follow the set procedures of
evaluation.
Stimulative Assessment. Formative assessment is concerned with identifying learner
weaknesses in attainment in order to help the learner and the teacher overcome/remedy.
Summative assessment aims at certifying and grading the attainment of the learner at the end
of a given course.
(i) Tests for formative assessment are given at regular and frequent intervals during a course,
while the tests for summative assessment are given at the end of a course or at the end of a
fairly long period, say a term or a semester or a year. In a course that extends over six
months, a test at the end of say, every fortnight will be a fomative test, while the test at the
end of the six months will be summative.
(ii) The level of generalisation sought by the items of a summative test will be must higher
compared to that sought by the items of a formative test. For instance, if the items of a
formative test check the ability to apply a given rule or principle to a given unfamiliar
situation, the items in a summative test may check the ability to apply one or more to the
appropriate rules/principles from among the many given in a variety of situations.
(iii) The functions of formative and summative assessments are different in the context of
EOEP. Formative assessment includes tests and other forms of measurement intended to give
a measure or of success of the parts of a curriculum even when the curriculum is. in the
process of development. Summative evaluation includes such forms of measurement that
would give a measure of success of the course as a whole.
3. Developmental Assessment. Besides formative assessment and summative assessement in
education, yet another term is in use. It is 'development assessment". Used in the context of
curriculum development, it refers to the evaluation of the preliminary versions of curriculum
with representative sample of learners. It is generally treated as a part of the curriculum
development schedule. Formative assessment in this context refers to the evaluation of a
course made with larger group of learners. The purpose of such assessment is not to help the
process of curriculum development but to help the activities of maintenance and revision of
curriculum already developed.
CRITERIA FOR CURRICULUM EVALUATION
The review about literature related to curriculum indicates that there are four major
criteria for assessing the workability of the curriculum.
1. Subject-Content. Various subjects are included in the curriculum, such as-Hindi, English,
Sanskrit, History, Geography, Social Science, Physical Sciences, Bio-science, Home science,
Maths,
Economics, Psychology, Sociology, Physical education, Art, and Drawing etc. The structure
of content of these subjects is determined for the curriculum development.
2. Experiences. The curriculum provides the following type of experiences to the students,
social, historical, geographical (time and place sense), physical, political, civics senses,
religious, spiritual and reactive experiences, expression of ideas facts and events.
3. Skills. Curriculum provides the situations for developing skills or psychomotor actives-
languages reading, writing, speaking, observations, perception, use of different type,
instrument in the workshops and field works, communications skills, craft work, and verbal
and non-verbal communication skills. It is related to psychomotor objectives.
4. Attitude and Values. Curriculum provides the experiences for developing affective domain
of the learners. The feeling, beliefs, attitudes and values are developed. It develops self-
confidence, honesty, sensitivity sincerity, morality, objectivity, character and adjustment.
Related to cognitive, affective and pshcyomotor domains, the factors are given due
weightage in good curriculum.
Interpretation of Evaluation Results
Evaluation results are interpreted in various ways from different said prints and for different
purposes such as guidance, performance .etc.
Critical Appraisal of Existing Syllabus
The concept of curriculum is very wide and extensive. It includes all those
experiences which a student gets in the aegis of the school. It includes all educational and
co-curricular activities inside and outside the classroom. The curriculum can be understood
in the form of activity and experience.
The term 'syllabus' is often used in the sense of the term 'curriculum'. In fact, the
matter for an intellectual subject is called content. When this content is organised in view of
teaching in the classroom, this is called syllabus.
Thus, the syllabus presents the definite know ledge regarding the amount of
knowledge to be given to students during the course of teaching of different subjects; while
the curriculum demolish which educational activities, the teacher would complete the needs
of the syllabus. In other words, the syllabus determines the content to teaching, while the
curriculum determines the methods of teaching for imparting it.
Teaching can be made more effective if a science teacher is fully satisfied with the
curriculum which he has to teach. Also, he should know its utility. It can be possible only
when he studies the prevalent syllabus critically. It should be fully clear to him that each
subject has certain specific aims which students have to achieve. A teacher should examine
these aims and how they can be achieved on the basis of the present syllabus.
From this view, the prevalent syllabus can be placed under the following bases for its
critical study :
1. Syllabus in Relation to Objectives : The syllabus is a means to attain the
objectives. If aims and means are not in consonance, then the desirable outcomes would only
be a pipedream. The utility of the syllabus depends on the fact whether the topics included in
it are helpful in the realization of the concerned teaching objectives. In this context, it would
be necessary to evaluate the syllabus. The following table can be used
Sl. No. Topic Cognitive Affective Psychomotor
Domain Domain Domain
1. Theoretical 2
topics 3
4
2 Practical 1
2
topics 2
3
4
Sl.No. Approaches of Topic (1) Topic (2) Topic (3) Topic (4) Topic (5)
Syllabus
1. Logical
2. approach
Topical
3. approach
Concentric
approach
4. Interest and need
-oriented
5. approach
Democratic
approach
6. Child-centered : The syllabus should not only be meant for common students, but
it should have due provisions for talented and backward students also. The syllabus should
be analyzed from this viewpoint also.
The focal point of the syllabus should be the student. The syllabus should be selected
keeping in view the age, previous knowledge, interest, aptitude, needs etc. of students. It
should be found out the importance given to these factors in the syllabus. It would only the
be possible to evaluate its utility for students.
7. Correlation : Because a student attains knowledge as a whole unit, so the
importance of science being related with other subjects, its influence or. other subjects and
influence of other subjects on it cannot be ignored. Therefore, it should be known whether
the form of syllabus is partial or not, which can be done on the basis of the following table :
Sl.N. Topic Subjects of Subjects of Subjects of
Unilateral Collateral Multilateral
Correlation Correlation Correlation
1. —
2 —
3. —
4. —
5. —
8. For Future Education : The syllabuses for the secondary level and higher
education should be inter-connected, so that continuity of knowledge can be maintained. The
syllabus should be analysed on this basis by which it can be ascertained which topics can
form the basis for future higher education, so that the capability of the syllabus in view of its .
can be evaluated
REFERANCES