Plasticity

Fundamentals
and Applications

P.M. Dixit • U.S. Dixit

Plasticity
Fundamentals
and Applications
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To my wife, Rekha, and my daughter, Rashmi.

Prakash M. Dixit

To my teachers.

Uday S. Dixit
Contents

Preface......................................................................................................................xv
Authors................................................................................................................. xvii

1. Solid Mechanics and Its Applications.........................................................1

1.1 Introduction............................................................................................ 1
1.2 Continuum Hypothesis.........................................................................2
1.3 Elasto-Plastic Solids...............................................................................4
1.4 Applications of Solid Mechanics.........................................................5
1.5 Scope of This Textbook..........................................................................8
Exercises............................................................................................................. 8

2. Review of Algebra and Calculus of Vectors and Tensors.......................9

2.1 Introduction............................................................................................ 9
2.2 Index Notations.................................................................................... 10
2.3 Kronecker Delta and Levy-Civita Symbols...................................... 16
2.4 Vectors................................................................................................... 20
2.4.1 Norm of a Vector..................................................................... 21
2.4.2 Addition of Vectors................................................................. 24
2.4.3 Dot Product.............................................................................. 25
2.4.4 Cross Product.......................................................................... 25
2.4.5 Derivative of a Vector Function............................................ 27
2.4.6 Gradient of a Scalar Field....................................................... 27
2.4.7 Divergence and Curl of a Vector Field.................................30
2.4.8 Green’s Theorem in a Plane................................................... 33
2.4.9 Divergence Theorem of Gauss.............................................. 35
2.4.10 Integral Theorem of Stokes.................................................... 37
2.5 Transformation Rules for Vector Components under the
Rotation of Cartesian Coordinate System........................................ 41
2.6 Tensors...................................................................................................44
2.6.1 Transformation Rules for Tensor Components under
the Rotation of Cartesian Coordinate System.....................44
2.6.2 Contraction and Quotient Laws........................................... 47
2.6.3 Some Important Definitions and Properties of Tensor..... 48
2.6.4 Eigenvalues of a Tensor.......................................................... 51
2.6.5 Polar Decomposition of Tensors........................................... 55
2.6.6 Tensor Calculus....................................................................... 60
2.6.7 Divergence Theorem.............................................................. 62
2.6.8 Stokes’ Theorem...................................................................... 62
2.6.9 Norm of a Tensor.................................................................... 62

vii
viii Contents

2.7 Tensors and Vectors in Curvilinear Coordinates............................ 69

2.7.1 Scale Factors for Cylindrical and Spherical
Coordinates.......................................................................... 70
2.7.2 Gradient of a Vector................................................................ 72
2.7.3 Divergence of a Vector........................................................... 73
2.7.4 Laplacian of a Scalar............................................................... 75
2.7.5 Curl of a Vector........................................................................ 76
2.7.6 Volume of an Infinitesimal Element.................................... 78
Exercises........................................................................................................... 79

3. Stress................................................................................................................ 85
3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 85
3.2 Stress at a Point..................................................................................... 87
3.3 Surface Forces and Body Forces......................................................... 90
3.4 Momentum Balance Laws.................................................................. 92
3.5 Theorem of Virtual Work.................................................................... 94
3.6 Cauchy’s Theorem................................................................................ 95
3.7 Transformation of Stress Components........................................... 103
3.8 Stresses on an Oblique Plane........................................................... 105
3.9 Principal Stresses............................................................................... 107
3.10 Maximum Shear Stress..................................................................... 111
3.11 Octahedral Stresses........................................................................... 113
3.12 Hydrostatic and Deviatoric Stresses............................................... 114
3.13 Mohr’s Circle....................................................................................... 116
3.13.1 Two-Dimensional Case........................................................ 116
3.13.2 Three-Dimensional Case..................................................... 120
Exercises......................................................................................................... 120

4. Measures of Deformation and Rate of Deformation........................... 127

4.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 127
4.2 Deformation........................................................................................ 127
4.2.1 Linear Strain Tensor............................................................. 130
4.2.2 Infinitesimal Rotation Tensor.............................................. 136
4.3 Deformation Gradient....................................................................... 139
4.4 Green Strain Tensor........................................................................... 144
4.5 Almansi Strain Tensor....................................................................... 148
4.6 Logarithmic Strain Tensor................................................................ 152
4.7 Strain–Displacement Relation in Curvilinear Coordinate........... 153
4.8 Transformation of Strain Components........................................... 156
4.9 Principal Strains................................................................................. 158
4.10 Maximum Shear Strain..................................................................... 158
4.11 Octahedral Strain............................................................................... 159
4.12 Volumetric Strain............................................................................... 162
4.13 Mean and Deviatoric Strain.............................................................. 162
4.14 Mohr’s Circle for Strain..................................................................... 163
Contents ix

4.15 Incremental Strain Tensor................................................................. 165

4.15.1 Introduction........................................................................... 165
4.15.2 Incremental Linear Strain Tensor....................................... 166
4.15.3 Incremental Infinitesimal Rotation Tensor....................... 168
4.16 Material and Local Time Derivative................................................ 169
4.17 Rate of Deformation Tensor.............................................................. 172
4.18 Spin Tensor.......................................................................................... 176
4.19 On Relation between Incremental Strain and Strain
Rate Tensors........................................................................................ 177
4.20 Compatibility Conditions................................................................. 178
Exercises......................................................................................................... 180

5. Incremental and Rate Type of Elastic–Plastic Constitutive

Relations for Isotropic Materials, Objective Incremental Stress
and Stress Rate Measures.......................................................................... 187
5.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 187
5.2 Elastic Stress–Strain Relations for Small Deformation................ 188
5.2.1 One-Dimensional Experimental Observations................ 188
5.2.2 Generalized (i.e. Three-Dimensional) Stress–Strain
Relations................................................................................. 190
5.2.3 Stress–Strain Relations for Isotropic Materials................ 191
5.3 Experimental Observations on Elastic–Plastic Behavior............. 194
5.3.1 1-D Experimental Observations on Plasticity................... 195
5.3.1.1 Elastic Region......................................................... 197
5.3.1.2 Yield Stress............................................................. 197
5.3.1.3 Plastic Region......................................................... 197
5.3.1.4 Strain Hardening................................................... 198
5.3.1.5 Temperature Softening......................................... 200
5.3.1.6 Viscoplasticity........................................................ 200
5.3.1.7 Isochoric Deformation.......................................... 200
5.3.1.8 Large Deformation................................................ 200
5.3.1.9 Hysteresis............................................................... 202
5.3.1.10 Bauschinger Effect................................................ 202
5.3.1.11 Effect of Hydrostatic Stress on Yielding............ 203
5.3.1.12 Anisotropy............................................................. 203
5.4 Criteria for Initial Yielding of Isotropic Materials........................ 204
5.4.1 von Mises Yield Criterion.................................................... 204
5.4.2 Tresca Yield Criterion........................................................... 209
5.4.3 Geometric Representation of Yield Criteria...................... 211
5.4.4 Convexity of Yield Surfaces................................................. 214
5.4.5 Experimental Validation...................................................... 214
5.5 Modeling of Isotropic Hardening or Criterion for
Subsequent Isotropic Yielding......................................................... 215
5.5.1 Strain-Hardening Hypothesis for Mises Material........... 217
5.5.2 Work-Hardening Hypothesis for Mises Material............ 219
x Contents

5.5.3 Criterion for Subsequent Yielding for Mises Material

Based on Strain-Hardening Hypothesis........................... 219
5.5.4 Experimental Validation of Isotropic Hardening............223
5.6 Elastic–Plastic Stress–Strain and Stress–Strain Rate
Relations for Isotropic Materials......................................................223
5.6.1 Drucker’s Postulate for Stable Plastic Material................. 224
5.6.2 Associated Flow Rule........................................................... 228
5.6.3 Elastic–Plastic Incremental Stress–Strain Relation for
the Mises Material................................................................ 233
5.6.4 Elastic–Plastic Stress–Strain Rate Relation for the
Mises Material.......................................................................234
5.6.5 Viscoplasticity and Temperature Softening...................... 237
5.7 Objective Incremental Stress and Objective Stress
Rate Tensors........................................................................................ 238
5.7.1 Relation between Cauchy Stress Tensors When the
Increment Is Pure Rotation.................................................. 240
5.7.2 Piola–Kirchoff Stress Tensors.............................................. 242
5.7.3 Increment of Second Piola–Kirchoff Stress Tensor
(Objective Incremental Stress Tensor)................................ 244
5.7.4 Relation between Finite and Infinitesimal
Incremental Rotation Tensors for Small Increment......... 246
5.7.5 Jaumann Stress Tensor (Objective Stress Rate Tensor)...... 247
5.8 Unloading Criterion........................................................................... 248
Exercises......................................................................................................... 250

6. Eulerian and Updated Lagrangian Formulations................................. 253

6.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 253
6.2 Equation of Motion in Terms of Velocity Derivatives...................254
6.3 Incremental Equation of Motion...................................................... 255
6.4 Eulerian Formulation........................................................................ 256
6.4.1 Governing Equations (Elasto-Plastic Material)................ 257
6.4.2 Governing Equations (Rigid-Plastic Material)................. 258
6.4.3 Boundary Conditions........................................................... 260
6.4.4 Initial Conditions.................................................................. 261
6.5 Example of Eulerian Formulation: A Wire Drawing Problem.... 261
6.5.1 Inlet and Exit Boundaries AB and EF................................ 262
6.5.2 Stress-Free Boundaries BC and DE.................................... 263
6.5.3 Plane of Symmetry AF......................................................... 263
6.5.4 Die Interface CD.................................................................... 263
6.5.5 Location of Plastic Boundaries............................................ 265
6.6 Updated Lagrangian Formulation................................................... 266
6.6.1 Governing Equations........................................................... 266
6.6.2 Boundary Conditions........................................................... 268
6.6.2.1 Initial Conditions.................................................. 269
6.6.2.2 Updating Scheme.................................................. 269
Contents xi

6.7 Example on Updated Lagrangian Formulation: Forging of a

Cylindrical Block................................................................................ 269
6.7.1 Stress-Free Boundary BC..................................................... 270
6.7.2 Plane of Symmetry DC........................................................ 271
6.7.3 Plane of Symmetry AD........................................................ 271
6.7.4 Platen Interface AB............................................................... 271
Exercises......................................................................................................... 272

7. Calculus of Variations and Extremum Principles................................ 275

7.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 275
7.2 Functional........................................................................................... 278
7.3 Extremization of a Functional.......................................................... 283
7.3.1 Functional Containing the Form F(x,y,y′).......................... 283
7.3.2 Alternate Form of Euler–Lagrange Equation................... 289
7.3.3 Functional Containing the Form
F = ( x , y1 , y1 , y 2 , y 2 ,..., y n, y n ).................................................. 291
7.3.4 Functional Containing the Function of n
Independent Variables......................................................... 293
7.3.5 Functional Dependent on the Functions and Its
Derivatives up to Order n.................................................... 296
7.4 Solution of Extremization Problems Using δ Operator................ 299
7.4.1 Variational Operator............................................................. 299
7.4.2 Properties of Variational Operator.....................................300
7.4.3 Converting Variational Form to Differential Equation..... 302
7.5 Obtaining Variational Form from a Differential Equation..........305
7.6 Principle of Virtual Work.................................................................. 312
7.7 Principle of Minimum Potential Energy........................................ 314
7.8 Solution of Variational Problems by Ritz Method........................ 315
Exercises......................................................................................................... 317

8. Two-Dimensional and Axisymmetric Elasto-Plastic Problems......... 323

8.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 323
8.2 Symmetric Beam Bending of a Perfectly Plastic Material
(1-D Problem)...................................................................................... 323
8.2.1 Pure Bending......................................................................... 324
8.2.1.1 Elastic Analysis...................................................... 324
8.2.1.2 Plastic Analysis...................................................... 327
8.2.2 Bending in the Presence of Shear Force............................ 331
8.3 Hole Expansion in an Infinite Plate (Plane Stress and
Axisymmetric Problem).................................................................... 336
8.3.1 Initial Yielding....................................................................... 337
8.3.2 Elasto-Plastic Analysis for a Perfectly Plastic Material.... 339
8.3.2.1 Stresses in the Elastic Region.............................. 339
8.3.2.2 Stresses in the Plastic Region.............................. 339
8.3.3 Elasto-Plastic Analysis for a Hardening Material............343
xii Contents

8.4 Analysis of Plastic Deformation in the Flange of Circular

Cup during Deep Drawing Process (Plane Stress and
Axisymmetric Problem).................................................................... 351
8.4.1 Determination of Stresses.................................................... 353
8.4.2 Determination of Strains..................................................... 355
8.4.2.1 Determination of Logarithmic Hoop Strain..... 356
8.4.2.2 Determination of Logarithmic Thickness
Strain....................................................................... 359
8.5 Necking of a Cylindrical Rod........................................................... 361
8.5.1 Analysis in the Plane of Symmetry (z = 0)........................ 363
8.5.1.1 Simplification of Differential Equation.............. 365
8.5.1.2 Solution of the Modified Differential Equation.... 369
Exercises......................................................................................................... 371
Appendix A................................................................................................... 380
Appendix B.................................................................................................... 382

9. Contact Mechanics...................................................................................... 385

9.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 385
9.2 Hertz Theory...................................................................................... 386
9.2.1 Geometry of Unstressed Surface in the
Region of Contact.................................................................. 387
9.2.2 Boussinesq Solution.............................................................. 392
9.2.3 Pressure and Deflections in the Contact Region.............. 395
9.2.4 Two Spheres in Contact........................................................ 397
9.2.5 Two Cylinders in Contact along a Line Parallel to
Their Axes..............................................................................400
9.2.6 Alternate Derivation for the Contact between
Two Cylinders........................................................................ 402
9.2.7 Stresses in Contact Problem................................................ 405
9.3 Elastic–Plastic Indentation................................................................ 407
9.3.1 Solution of Flat Plate Indentation Problem by Upper
Bound Method...................................................................... 409
9.3.1.1 Power Dissipation along AB................................ 411
9.3.1.2 Power Dissipation along BC................................ 411
9.3.1.3 Power Dissipation along BD................................ 412
9.3.1.4 Power Dissipation along CD................................ 412
9.3.1.5 Power Dissipation along DE................................ 412
9.3.2 Solution of Flat Plate Indentation by Slip Line
Field Method.......................................................................... 413
9.3.3 Solution of Flat Plate Indentation by
Numerical Methods.............................................................. 416
9.4 Cavity Model...................................................................................... 418
9.4.1 Determination of Elastic–Plastic Boundary Radius........422
9.4.2 Determination of Plastic Strain........................................... 424
9.4.3 Typical Results.......................................................................425
Contents xiii

9.5 Sliding of Elastic–Plastic Solids....................................................... 427

9.6 Rolling Contact................................................................................... 428
9.7 Principle of Virtual Work and Discretization of
Contact Problems............................................................................... 431
Exercises......................................................................................................... 433

10. Dynamic Elasto-Plastic Problems............................................................ 437

10.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 437
10.2 Longitudinal Stress Wave Propagation in a Rod (1-D Problem)..... 437
10.2.1 Method of Characteristics................................................... 439
10.2.2 Conditions at the Surfaces of Discontinuity in
Wave Propagation................................................................. 441
10.2.3 Elastic Solution of 1-D Wave Equation...............................442
10.2.4 1-D Wave Equation for Unloading.....................................444
10.2.5 Plastic Solution of 1-D Wave Equation in Rod
Impacted against Rigid Support.........................................445
10.3 Taylor Rod Problem (Impact of Cylindrical Rod against
Flat Rigid Surface, 1-D Problem)...................................................... 450
10.3.1 Governing Equations........................................................... 452
10.3.1.1 Kinematic Relations.............................................. 452
10.3.1.2 Equation of Motion............................................... 452
10.3.1.3 Volume Constancy Condition............................. 453
10.3.2 Determination of x as a Function of e................................ 453
10.3.3 Determination of h as a Function of e................................ 456
10.3.4 Determination of t as a Function of e................................. 457
10.3.5 Energy Method..................................................................... 459
Exercises......................................................................................................... 459

11. Continuum Damage Mechanics and Ductile Fracture........................ 461

11.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 461
11.2 Motivation........................................................................................... 462
11.2.1 Failure of the Titanic............................................................. 462
11.2.2 Failure of Liberty Ships........................................................ 462
11.2.3 Failure of Comet Passenger Aircraft.................................. 462
11.2.4 Failure of the Space Shuttle Challenger.............................463
11.3 Objective and Plan of the Chapter................................................... 463
11.4 Classification of Fracture..................................................................464
11.5 Global and Local Approaches to Fracture...................................... 465
11.5.1 Limitations of Global and Local Approaches
to Fracture.............................................................................. 466
11.6 Ductile Fracture.................................................................................. 467
11.6.1 Void Nucleation or Initiation............................................... 468
11.6.2 Void Growth.......................................................................... 470
11.6.2.1 Analytical Models for Void Growth................... 470
11.6.3 Void Coalescence.................................................................. 472
xiv Contents

11.7 Models of Fracture Initiation............................................................ 474

11.7.1 Porous Plasticity Model (Gurson and GTN Model)......... 475
11.7.2 CDM-Based Model: Review of Literature......................... 477
11.7.3 Other Models of Fracture Initiation................................... 478
11.8 Thermodynamics of Continuum..................................................... 481
11.8.1 Thermodynamic Process with Internal Variables............ 482
11.8.2 Thermo-Elastic–Plastic Process..........................................483
11.9 Continuum Damage Mechanics...................................................... 485
11.9.1 Length Scales of Damage..................................................... 485
11.9.2 Representative Volume Element......................................... 487
11.9.3 Requirements of Damage Modeling.................................. 488
11.9.4 Definition of a Scalar Damage Variable............................. 488
11.9.5 Effective Stress Concept....................................................... 490
11.9.6 Crack Initiation Criterion..................................................... 491
11.9.7 Strain Equivalence Principle............................................... 491
11.9.8 Elastic Strain Energy Equivalence Principle..................... 492
11.9.9 Thermodynamic Force Corresponding to Damage......... 493
11.9.10 Constitutive Equations for Thermo-Elasto–Plastic
Process in a Damaged Material.......................................... 497
11.9.11 Damage Growth Laws......................................................... 499
11.9.12 Microcrack Closure Effect................................................... 502
11.10 Techniques for Damage Measurement...........................................504
11.11 Application of a CDM Model........................................................... 506
11.11.1 Procedure for Determining Damage Law
Coefficients in Equation 11.122............................................ 507
11.11.2 Tensile Testing and Ductile Fracture of
Cylindrical Specimen...........................................................508
11.12 Closure and Further Reading........................................................... 513
Exercises......................................................................................................... 513

12. Plastic Anisotropy....................................................................................... 515

12.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 515
12.2 Normal and Planar Anisotropy....................................................... 515
12.3 Hill’s Anisotropic Yield Criteria...................................................... 519
12.4 Plane Stress Anisotropic Yield Criterion of Barlat and Lian....... 529
12.5 Three-Dimensional Anisotropic Yield Criteria of Barlat
and Coworkers................................................................................... 533
12.6 Plane Strain Anisotropic Yield Criterion........................................ 537
12.7 Constitutive Relations for Anisotropic Materials......................... 539
12.8 Kinematic Hardening........................................................................542
Exercises.........................................................................................................545
References............................................................................................................ 549
Preface

Plastic deformation of metals is either desirable or undesirable, depending

on the situation. A structure or machine element should not undergo perma-
nent deformation during the course of loading. Hence, the design is carried
out so as to avoid plastic deformation. On the other hand, when the objective
is to convert a raw material into a finished product, plastic deformation of
the material is one option. Here, proper knowledge of plasticity is needed for
process optimization. Sometimes, plastic deformation is desirable in situa-
tions where failure is inevitable. One example is the crash of an automobile,
where a significant amount of plastic deformation of the vehicle body will
protect the passengers from injury.
Despite the importance of plastic deformation, in most of engineering col-
leges, plasticity theory is not offered as a course in an undergraduate pro-
gram. Many postgraduate programs in design and manufacturing also lack
a course on plasticity. Lack of faculty and adequate textbooks contribute to
this trend. A number of dissertations involving plasticity are carried out by
students without a sound understanding of the basic concepts. Invariably,
the students either use commercial finite-element (FE) software or develop
their own code. To use a commercial FE software effectively or to develop
an ability to write one’s own code, knowledge of the basic fundamentals of
plasticity theory is essential. This textbook is expected to fill the gap in the
literature by providing a simplified treatment of the basic fundamentals of
plasticity and discussing some important applications.
The authors thank Dr. S.S. Gautam for contributing Chapter 11 of the
book. The help of Mr. Vinod Yadav in drawing the figures of the book is
acknowledged. The first author (PMD) would like to thank his family for
providing moral support while writing the book: his and his wife’s brothers
and sisters-in-law, his and his wife’s sisters and brothers-in-law and his son-
in-law, Sayantan Chakraborty. The first author would like to dedicate this
book to his wife, Rekha, and daughter, Rashmi (before her marriage), both
of whom, during his entire academic career, took care of most of the family
responsibilities to keep him free to pursue his academic interests.

xv
xvi Preface

We hope the students, teachers and practicing engineers will find the book
useful. We welcome the suggestions of everyone for improving the future
editions of the book. The comments and suggestions for the book can be sent
to us through e-mails at pmd@iitk.ac.in or uday@iitg.ac.in.

Prakash M. Dixit
Uday S. Dixit

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product

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Authors

Dr. P.M. Dixit obtained a bachelor’s degree in aeronautical engineering

from Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kharagpur in 1974 and a PhD in
mechanics in 1979 from the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA.
After a short teaching career (1980–1984) at the Department of Aeronautical
Engineering at IIT Kharagpur, he joined the Department of Mechanical
Engineering at the IIT Kanpur in 1984, where he is currently a profes-
sor. For the past 25 years, he has been working in the area of computational
plasticity with applications to metal-forming processes and ductile fracture
in impact problems using finite element method as a computational tool. He
has published about 50 journal papers, 25 conference papers and 2 books
(both on the modeling of metal-forming processes). He has guided 9 doc-
toral and 75 masters’ students.

Dr. U.S. Dixit obtained a bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering

from erstwhile University of Roorkee (now Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee) in 1987, an MTech in mechanical engineering from Indian Institute
of Technology (IIT) Kanpur in 1993, and a PhD in mechanical engineering
from IIT Kanpur in 1998. He has worked in two industries – HMT Pinjore
and INDOMAG Steel Technology, New Delhi, where his main responsi-
bility was designing various machines. Dr. Dixit joined the Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, in
1998, where he is currently a professor. He has been actively engaged in car-
rying out research in applied plasticity for the last 23 years. Dr. Dixit has
published about 50 journal papers, 50 conference papers and 3 books related
to manufacturing and finite element method. He has also edited one book
on metal forming. He has guest-edited a number of special issues of journals
and is currently an associate editor in the Journal of Institution of Engineers
(India) Series C. He has guided 5 doctoral and 37 masters’ students.

xvii