Formability Training Sep 2013 PDF

Fundamentals of Sheet Metal Formability
Altair Engineering Support Contact Information

Web site www.altairhyperworks.com
Location Telephone e-mail
Australia 64.9.413.7981 anzsupport@altair.com
Brazil 55.11.3884.0414 br_support@altair.com
China 86.400.619.6186 support@altair.com.cn
France 33.1.4133.0992 francesupport@altair.com
Germany 49.7031.6208.22 hwsupport@altair.de
India 91.80. 6629.4500 support@india.altair.com

1.800.425.0234 (toll free)
Italy 39.800.905.595 support@altairengineering.it
Japan 81.3.5396.2881 support@altairjp.co.jp
Korea 82.31.716.4321 support@altair.co.kr
Mexico 55.56.58.68.08 mx-support@altair.com
New Zealand 64.9.413.7981 anzsupport@altair.com
North America 248.614.2425 hwsupport@altair.com
Scandinavia 46.46.460.2828 support@altair.se
United Kingdom 01926.468.600 support@uk.altair.com
In addition, the following countries have resellers for Altair Engineering: Colombia, Czech Republic, Ecuador, Israel, Russia,
Netherlands, Turkey, Poland, Singapore, Vietnam, Indonesia
Official offices with resellers: Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Malaysia, Italy, Japan, Korea, Spain, Taiwan, United
Kingdom, USA
Copyright© Altair Engineering Inc. All Rights Reserved for:

HyperMesh® 1990-2013; HyperCrash® 2001-2013; OptiStruct® 1996-2013; RADIOSS®1986-2013; HyperView®1999-2013;
HyperView Player® 2001-2013; HyperStudy® 1999-2013; HyperGraph®1995-2013; MotionView® 1993-2013; MotionSolve® 2002-
2013; HyperForm® 1998-2013; HyperXtrude® 1999-2013; Process Manager™ 2003-2013; Templex™ 1990-2013; MediaView™
1999-2013; BatchMesher™ 2003-2013; TextView™ 1996-2013; HyperMath® 2007-2013; ScriptView™ 2007-2013; Manufacturing
Solutions™ 2005-2013; HyperWeld® 2009-2013; HyperMold® 2009-2013; solidThinking® 1993-2013; solidThinking Inspire™
2009-2013; solidThinking Evolve™ 1993-2013; Durability Director™ 2009-2013; Suspension Director™ 2009-2013; AcuSolve®
1997-2013; and AcuConsole® 2006-2013.
In addition to HyperWorks® trademarks noted above, GridWorks™, PBS GridWorks®, PBS Professional®, PBS™, PBS Works™
and Portable Batch System® are trademarks of ALTAIR ENGINEERING INC. All are protected under U.S. and international laws
and treaties. Copyright© 1994-2013.
Additionally, the Altair software is protected under patent #6,859,792 and other patents pending.
All other marks are the property of their respective owners.
ALTAIR ENGINEERING INC. Proprietary and Confidential. Contains Trade Secret Information. Not for use or disclosure outside of
ALTAIR and its licensed clients. Information contained in HyperWorks® shall not be decompiled, disassembled, or “unlocked”,
reverse translated, reverse engineered, or publicly displayed or publicly performed in any manner. Usage of the software is only as
explicitly permitted in the end user software license agreement.
Copyright notice does not imply publication.
i
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Test your Sheet Metal Fundamentals......................................................................... 1
Chapter 2: Presentations ................................................................................................................ 5
Section 1: Manufacture and Processing of Sheet Metals........................................................... 6

Section 2: Determination of the Mechanical Properties of Sheet Metal ................................... 15
Section 3: Basic Modes of Deformation in Stamping ............................................................... 26
Section 4: Defects in Stamping................................................................................................. 36
Section 5: Tests of Formability ................................................................................................. 40
Section 6: Press Actions ............................................................................................................ 59
Section 7: Basics of Draw Die Development............................................................................. 71
Section 8: Advanced Forming Processes and Technologies ................................................... 82
Section 9: Review: State-of-the-Art in Forming Simulation Technology................................. 90
Chapter 3: Workshops ................................................................................................................. 100
Workshop I: Mechanical Properties of Sheet Metal Materials ........................................... 101

Part 1: Review Typical Uni-Axial Force/Extension Data.......................................................... 102
Part 2: Derive Engineering Stress / Engineering Strain Data .................................................. 103
Part 3: Derive True Stress/True Strain Data............................................................................ 104
Part 4: Derive True Stress/True Plastic Strain......................................................................... 105
Workshop II: Practical Assessment of the Post-Formed State ........................................... 107

.
Part 1: Identify and Measure Major and Minor Axes ................................................................ 109
Part 2: Calculate Major and Minor Strains ................................................................................ 110
Part 3: Plot Major Strains Against Minor Strains ...................................................................... 113
Parts 4 and 5: Identify the Mode of Deformation ...................................................................... 114
ii
Chapter 1: Test Your Sheet Metal Fundamentals
Chapter 1
Test your Sheet Metal

Fundamentals
In This Chapter:
• Quiz
Proprietary Information of Altair Engineering, Inc.

1
Test your Sheet Metal Fundamentals
1) What is the definition of Steel?
a) Alloy of Iron and Carbon b) Alloy of Aluminum and Carbon

c) Alloy of Tungsten and Carbon d) Alloy of Nickel & Cadmium
2) What does DQSK Steel stand for?
a) Draw Quality Special Killed b) Draw Quantity Simple King

c) Design Quality Steel Killed d) None of the above
3) If a member is subjected to a force of ‘F’, across a section of area ‘A’, the amount of
engineering stress in the member is
a) F/A b) F*A
c) A/F d) None of the above
4) If the initial length of a member is L and it undergoes an elongation of ‘l’ the

engineering strain ‘e’ is
a) l/ L b) l/(L-l)
c) L*l d) L*(L-l)
5) In the above example how will you compute the ‘true’ strain from engineering strain
‘e’?
a) 1+e b) ln (1+e)
c) ln (e) d) ln (e-1)
6) If the total strain is ‘e’, the plastic’ strain is ‘ep’, what is the value of the elastic strain
‘ee’?
a) ep – 1 b) ep * e
c) e – ep d) None of the above
7) Luders Bands appear
a) After the yield point b) Before Yield point

c) At Failure d) After Failure
2
8) Higher strain ratio ‘r’ implies ability to draw
a) More deep b) Less deep c) No effect d) Cannot draw
9) In steels in general the higher the value of the yield, the hardening exponent ‘n’ is
a) Higher b) Lower c) Same d) No effect
10) In the Forming Limit Diagram (FLD) the X and Y axes represent respectively
a) Major and Minor Strain b) Minor and Major Strain

c) Major and Minor Stress d) Minor and Major Stress
11) Points above the FLC in the FLD diagram indicate
a) Safe zones b) Failure due to splitting

c) Wrinkles d) Marginal failure due to splitting
12) The lower the Young’s modulus of the material
a) Greater is the springback b) Lower is the springback

c) No change d) Cannot say
13) Tip Angle of the die influences which of these?
a) Initial contact b) Draw depth

c) Flow of the material d) All of the above
14) Addendum is defined as the portion
a) Outside the part b) Inside the part

c) Around the drawbead d) On the punch
15) Draw Bars are used to control the
a) Unequal length of line b) Flow of the material

c) Blank shape d) All of the above
3
16) Metal Gainers are used in
a) Stretch flanging operation b) Shrink flanging operation

c) Trimming d) None of the above
17) In mechanical presses the maximum tonnage occurs
a) At TDC b) Remains the same through out

c) At BDC d) Between the TDC and BDC
18) Which is true?
a) Hydraulic Presses are slower than Mechanical Presses

b) Hydraulic Presses can attain higher loads
c) Hydraulic Presses can give constant tonnage throughout the stroke
d) All of the above
19) Superplastic forming is done under
a) Elevated temperature b) At very low temperatures

c) Very high tonnage d) None of the above
20) Wrinkling can be observed in one step simulation by looking at the
a) Thinning percentage b) Major and Minor Strains

c) FLD contour d) All of the above
21) To do incremental analysis the user requires
a) Die data b) Blank size and properties

c) Process conditions d) All of the above
4
Chapter 2: Presentations
Chapter 2
Presentations
In This Chapter:
 Manufacture and processing of sheet metals - 6
 Determination of the mechanical properties of sheet metal - 15
 Basic modes of deformation in stamping - 26
 Defects in stamping - 36
 Tests of formability - 40
 Basics of draw die development - 59
 Press actions - 71
 Advanced forming processes and technologies - 82
 Review: State-of-the-Art in Forming Simulation Technology - 90
5
SECTION I
MANUFACTURE AND PROCESSING OF

SHEET METALS
Formability of Sheet Metal Basic Training 1 of 18

© 2013, Altair Engineering Inc. Reproduction Prohibited Without Written Permission
OUTLINE
• Composition of steel
• Micro-Structure, Processing and Alloying additions
• Coating Systems
• Mild Steels
• Advanced High Strength Steels
• Other Materials

6
STEEL COMPOSITION
• Carbon Steels
Element %weight
Carbon 0.030% - 0.050%
Nitrogen 0.002% - 0.005%
Manganese 0.150% - 0.300%
Aluminium 0.030% - 0.070%
Silicon <0.010%
Silicon Phosphate <0.010%

SHAPING, ROLLING AND FINISHING

• Hot Rolling
• The importance of Recrystallisation
• Variables in Hot Rolling
• Cold Reduction
• Grades of Cold Reduced Materials
• Batch Annealing
• Continuous Annealing

7
BATCH AND CONTINUOUS ANNEALING

COATING SYSTEMS
• Barrier Methods
• Sacrificial Systems
• Hot Dip Processes
• Electro-deposition
• Organic Coating
• Plastic Laminated Strip

8
COST COMPARISON
• Factors Affecting Steel Costs
Steel Type Relative

Cost
Hot Rolled Carbon Steel 0.86
Cold Rolled Class II 1.00
Cold Rolled Class I 1.02
HSLA AISI 50XK 1.11
HSLA AISI 60XK 1.14
Hot Dipped Galvanised 1.17
Aluminized 1.21
Electro-Galvanized 1.29

HIGH STRENGTH STEELS (HSS)
• HSLA
• Dual Phase Steels
• Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP Steels)
• Bake Hardenable Steels
• Martensitic (Mart) Steel
The last 4 fall in the category of Advanced High Strength Steel

(AHSS)

9
AHSS MICRO-STRUCTURE AND BEHAVIOR
www.worldautosteel.org

AHSS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

10
AHSS THINNING
Substitution of DP 350/600 for HSLA 350/450 reduces the

maximum thinning from 25% to 20%

SPRINGBACK
DP steels show larger springback than HSLA. For TRIP steels

springback is between DP and HSLA steels.

11
OTHER MATERIALS
• Sound Deadened Steel (Polymer Composite Sandwich)
• Stainless Steel
• Aluminum
• Titanium
• Magnesium
• Composites

Material Requirements
For the end customer

• Visual appearance
• Corrosion resistance
• Safety in crash
For the OEM

• Ease of manufacture (formability)
• Low cost
• Ease of coating and surface treatment

12
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
• Low Density - light
• Good corrosion resistance
• Nontoxic (used in food containers)
• Good recyclability (about 90% recovered and recycled in

automotive)
• 4-5 times more expensive than steel (pound for pound)
• Will split at sharp stamping angles; more springback than steel

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
5000 series: 2.5~3% Mg

• Good drawability
• Strength and ductility are low (up to 275 MPa and 22%
elongation)
• Can form Luders bands
• Work hardens during stamping
6000 series: 1% Si, 0.5~1% Mg

• Higher strength (up to 400MPa)
• Heat treatable
• Compatible with paint processing
• Bake hardens during painting
13
8
Titanium
• Relatively light
• High Strength
• Superior corrosion resistance
• Expensive (about 5 times cost of aluminum)
• Difficult to extract in its pure state
• Traditionally used in aerospace applications

Composites
• Light
• High Strength
• No corrosion
• Poor cycle time

– Difficult to control process (thermal)
• Delamination issues
• Traditionally used in aerospace and race car applications

– Recent trend towards commercial vehicles
Formability of Sheet Metal Basic Training 18 of18

14
SECTION II
DETERMINATION OF THE MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF SHEET METAL

UNI-AXIAL RESPONSE OF A METAL
• Material response is fundamental to formability
• Subject material to well defined load with clearly

measured response
• Fundamental test of material response independent of

specimen geometry
• Uni-axial tensile test is the basic experimental test
• Direct stress as opposed to shear stress
• Metals behavior identical for both tension and

compression

15
SIMPLE BAR EXAMPLE
• For an applied tensile direct

load the extension of the bar
is measured (Fig 1)
• Monotonic increase in
applied load measure
resulting extension
• Obtain Load / Extension

Characteristics
• Initial linear relationship

between load and extension Fig 1
(Hooke’s Law)
• Limit of Proportionality
ELASTIC RESPONSE
• Elastic behavior characterized by two independent elastic

constants
• Common elastic constants are Young’s Modulus (E) and

Poisson’s Ratio ()
• Both constants can be measured from uni-axial tensile test
• Young’s Modulus determined by slope of stress/strain curve
• Poisson’s Ratio relationship between longitudinal and lateral

strain (Fig 2)

16
Fig 2

ELASTIC RESPONSE (Contd.)
• Elastic properties ( Bulk Modulus (K), Shear Modulus (G) )
E = 2G (1 + u ) E = 3K(1- 2u)
• Metallic elastic constants insensitive to wide range of chemical
composition
• Medium strength mild steel / high strength E = 200–210 GPa
• Poisson’s Ratio = 0.3

17
ELASTO-PLASTIC
RESPONSE
• Elasto-plastic behaviour
exhibits non-linear
response
• Loading beyond yield

point results in
irrecoverable plastic
strains (Fig 3)
• History Dependent
Fig 3

• Post-Yield Terminology
(Fig 4)
• Definition of yield stress

(Limit of proportionality,
proof stress)
• Work / Strain hardening
• Ultimate stress (tensile

strength)
• Uniform elongation strain
• Fracture elongation strain

Fig 4

18
A DISCUSSION OF UNI-AXIAL TENSILE TEST
• Typical Tensile Test Configuration (Fig 5)
• Specimen is monotonically loaded until fracture
• Gauge length is continuously measured for applied load
• Typically, quasi-
static application
of load
• Displacement v
Load Controlled
(Low v high
work hardening)
Fig 5

Typical Experimental Curves and Idealizations
Many metals do not exhibit a distinct yield point
Fig 6

19
• Yield Point Elongation (YPE) is characterised by discontinuities
(Fig 7)
• Stretcher strains (Luder’s Bands) appear on the surface
Fig 7

Strain-Rate Effects on Mechanical Properties
• Elastic Response is Insensitive to Strain-Rate
• Elevated Yield Stress /

Post-Yield Behaviour
(Fig 8)
• Generally forming
speeds too low to
include
Fig 8

20
STRESS / STRAIN CURVE DEFINITIONS
Engineering Stress / Engineering Strain (Also Nominal)
Convert Load / Extension Curve
s = P / Ao e = æçè L - Lo ö÷ø / Lo
P - Applied Load
Ao - Original Area
L - Measured Gauge Length
Lo - Original Length

True Stress / True Strain
• Finite element codes use true stress / true strain formulation
• Relationship between engineering and true stress / true strain
s = s (1+ e )
T eT = log n(1 + e )
where
s - Engineering Stress
e - Engineering Strain
sT - True Stress
eT - True Strain

21
True Stress / True Strain
• Conversion produces Stress-Strain Relationship
increased 450
representation of the 400
instability region (Fig 9)

350
300
Stress (N/mm^2)
250
• However, still only 200
approximate measure 150
of fracture 100
50
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Strain
Fig 9 True Engineering

Power Law Fits
• Holloman’s Law and Ludwig Equation
sT = KeT n or sT = s o + KeT n
K - Strength Value
n - Work hardening (strengthening) exponent
s o - Reference yield stress
• n and K determined from log s / log e gradient
• Can be an approximate fit.

22
• Krupkowski-Swift Law
s = K e o + e n
• where
 1n 
s u  en æs ö
K = e o = çç y ÷÷
nn è K ø
K - Strength parameter
n - hardening exponent
e - Constant 2.712
su - Ultimate tensile strength
eo - Reference Strain
Strain-Rate Effects
Cowper-Symonds – Inclusion of Strain-Rate effects

1
s æ e ö p
= 1+ ç ÷
so èCø
C, p - Cowper Symonds Hardening Parameters
e - Strain rate
Extension to Holloman’s Law
s T = KeT neT m
m - Hardening Parameter

23
METAL ANISOTROPY
• Generally, metals considered as isotropic
• Material properties are independent of direction
• Typical anisotropic materials wood, polymer composites, bone
• A specialized case of anisotropic is orthotropic
• Material properties are orthogonal directions
• Cold rolling of sheet metal produces orthogonal direction

properties (Rolling / Transverse / Through Thickness) (Fig 10)

Fig 10

24
Through Thickness Anisotropy
Plastic Strain ratio r

ew w t
r= = logn f logn f
et wo to
wf,tf - Final width and thickness
wo,to - Original width and thickness
Fig 11
r is a measure of the resistance to thinning

In-Plane Anisotropy
Rolled sheet is anisotropic in the plane of the sheet
Sheet is tested in three directions 0º, 45º, 90º to the rolling direction
Lankford parameters r0, r45 and r90
Allows determination of an average r
r ={r0 +2r45+r90} 4
A further measure is r
r = {r0 + r90 - 2  r45 } 2

25
SECTION III
BASIC MODES OF DEFORMATION IN

STAMPING

Historical Perspective
• First Example of Mass Production - The Roman Army
• Thousands of Formed Brass Plates for Soldier’s Belts

Using Presses Dating Back to 1 AD
• First Example of Crank Press for High Speed Mass

Production 2000 years later in 1850 - Military applications
• Dramatic Expansion of Sheet Metal Forming Due to

Arrival of Motor Car

26
Deep Drawing
• Developed by Alexander
Parkes (1813 - 90)
• First Copper, Then Steel
With Bessemer
• Parkes Bessemer
Experiment

Components Die
Blank
• Punch
• Blank Punch
• Blank Holder
• Die
Blank Holder

27
Punch Punch Nose
Nomenclature
Punch Profile
Radius
• Punch Nose
• Punch Profile Radius

Blank Holder Die
• Holding Pressures
Blank
• Friction
Blank
Holder
Punch

28
Die
Nomenclature
Die Binder Face Die Profile Radius
• Die Profile Radius
• Die Binder Face
Draw Bead

Blank
• Flange - held between the die binder face and the

blank holder
• Material - Careful choice vital for successful form
• Lubrication - Can assist deep draws
• Shaping - Can relieve stresses at corners of boxes

29
Deep Drawing
Nomenclature R
Punch
• Drawing Ratio
• Bend Ratio
• Limiting Drawing radius
Blank r0

Deep Drawing
Processes
• Radial Drawing Between

Die and Blank Holder (x)
• Bending / Unbending
Under Tension Over Tool
Radii (y)
• Stretching Between z y x
Punch and Die (y/z)

• Stretching Over Punch
Nose (z)

30
BASIC MODES OF DEFORMATION
• Deep Drawing
• Stretch Forming
• Stretch Flanging
• Bending

DEEP DRAWING

31
DEEP DRAWING Contd.
• Principal deformation modes are stretch radially and

shrink compression in the flanges
• Limit of Deep Drawing determined from a balance of

drawing forces (blank holder, beads, bars etc …) and the
fracture resistance of the side walls of the blank
• r-value, Limiting Draw Ratio (LDR), Equivalent Drawing

Load and Draw Forming Ratio as a measure of the
drawing capability of a blank
• Standard tests to assess drawing performance

STRETCH FORMING

32
STRETCH FORMING Contd.
• Surface area of the blank is enlarged by stretching or

stretch-drawing to form the component
• Localized straining events should be kept to a minimum
• The ability of the material to redistribute stresses by

work hardening is critical in stretch forming, i.e. n-value
• Combination of Low Yield plus High Tensile Strength is

optimal for stretched panels
• Tests to assess stretch

STRETCH FLANGING

33
STRETCH FLANGING Contd.
• Central hole is subject to expansion. Material in this

area is highly strained
• Edge ductility is of critical importance
• Tests to assess stretch-flange capability

BENDING

34
BENDING Contd.
• Sheet Metal is subject to a curvature change over a finite radius
• Bending is initially an elastic event which is recoverable.

However with increased moment and/or sheet tension a
permanent plastic set may be introduced
• Outer and inner radius will be in tension and compression

respectively

35
SECTION IV
DEFECTS IN STAMPING

STAMPING FAILURES
• Splitting
• Wrinkling
• Springback and Side Wall Curl
• Earing

36
SPLITTING
• Splitting predominantly is initiated by a localized deformation
called necking

SPLITTING

37
WRINKLING
• Caused by compressive instability

SPRINGBACK AND SIDE WALL CURL

• Springback and Side Wall Curl are caused by elastic recovery
of the panel after the part is unloaded when the tools retract
from BDC

38
EARING
• Caused by excessive planar anisotropy of the materlal, high Dr

STAMPING FAILURES Contd.

• Galling, Panel Scoring, Pick-up
• Stamping Marks, Feature Line Movement, Skid-Lines
• Highs and Lows, Oil-canning
• Bad ‘Strike’, multiple contacts out of sync, Bow Waves
• Sag into Die Cavity, prior to hit. Alteration to length of line
• De-lamination, powdering and flaking
• Dent resistance and Fatigue. Is the post-formed panel ready

for it’s ‘form, fit and function’

39
SECTION V
TESTS OF FORMABILITY

Basic Theory
• Strains measured by
change in ellipse
diameters relative to circle
diameters
• Major Strain
• Minor Strain
• Strains calculated are
surface strains

40
Plotting Major and Minor Strain
Example: Minor Strain: (2.6-

3)/3*100%
Original Circle Size: 3 mm =-13%
dia Major Strain (%)
Major Ellipse Axis: 4 mm

Minor Ellipse Axis: 2.6 mm 40
30
Major Strain: (4- 20
3)/3*100% 10
= 33% -20 -10 0 10 20

Minor Strain (%)

Types of
Deformation
Behavior
• Plotting points on major

and minor strain diagrams
• Modes of deformation can

be derived from major-
minor strain plots

41
Constant Volume
• Volume of metal stays

constant during plastic
deformation
• Metal moved not added or
removed
• Provides relationship
between surface and
thickness strains

BASIS OF THE FORMING LIMIT DIAGRAM

• Keeler’s famous paper published 1965
• Inferred that for any given material a ‘limit strain’ graph could be
derived empirically and hence plotted
• This empiricism would encompass scribing small diameter circles

onto metal test pieces and bi-axially stretching to failure
• Measure the strain circles at the onset of failure
• Keeler results were for +ve major and minor strain. Goodwin
(1968) proposed method for both +ve and -ve major and minor
strains and as such the Keeler-Goodwin diagram (FLD) was
derived

42
KEELER’S ORIGINAL RESULTS
• The results from Keeler’s paper (1965), for +ve major and
minor strain

BASIS OF THE FORMING LIMIT CURVE

• Curve Premise: by stretching sheet samples of varying
dimensions, and thus inducing different modes of
deformation, a number of limiting strain points for a material
can be attained
• These limiting strain points may then be connected

culminating in a ‘Forming Limit Curve’
• The ‘Forming Limit Curve’ (FLC ) plotted on a ‘Forming Limit

Diagram’ (FLD), defines the limits to which a material can be
strained successfully before inducing failure caused by
localised non-uniform deformation of the material
• The FLC is a measure of a metals ‘Formability’

43
FORMING LIMIT CURVE PRODUCTION
• Method was devised by Nakazima et al.
• Using hemi-spherical punch and steel strips of fixed length, but

varying width, a whole range of strain ratios (e1/e2) can be
produced, from -0.5 to 1.0. The width of the strips force the
different mode of deformation
• Bi-axial modes on the wider strips to pure shear on the thinnest
• Strips 6” long and between 1” and 6” wide used in suitable steps

will produce an adequate FLC
• Strips marked with 2-3 mm circle grid prior to deformation, this

enables thinning strain and circle grid analysis to be carried out
on the post-formed strips

NAKAZIMA STRIPS

44
FORMING LIMIT DIAGRAM CONVENTIONS
• When measuring strain, the major strain is by definition the larger
of the two strains relating to a deformed ellipse. The major strain
is always greater than or equal to the minor strain
• The FLD in industry is usually always plotted as the relation of

Engineering major strain to Engineering minor strain. This is
again by convention
• Measurement equipment should be thoroughly calibrated before

estimating induced strain. This should be done on circles of
known diameter. Any persistent error should be recorded on the
test sheet.
• Results from strips which do not exhibit a ‘pole’ failure should be

disregarded
FORMING MODES ON THE FLD
• Plane Strain
• Equi-Biaxial Tension
• Pure Shear (Draw)
• Uni-Axial Tension
• Uni-Axial Compression
• Strain Ratio

45
FORMING MODES ON THE FLD Contd.

RESULTS OF DIFFERENT MODES ON PANELS

• Right Hand Side
• Left Hand Side

46
THE FORMING ENVELOPE
• Concept of Forming Envelope on the FLD
• Ductile Fracture
• Brittle Fracture
• Propensity to Wrinkle
• Damage
• Recap of Failure Modes bounded on the FLD

THE FORMING ENVELOPE Contd.

47
THE FORMING ENVELOPE Contd.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FLC
• n-value
• FLDo
• Strain Rate Hardening
• Gauge Influence on the FLC
• Out of Plane Loading and In Plane Loading
• Edge Ductility

48
INFLUENCE OF n-value ON THE FLC

FLD

49
INFLUENCE OF STRAIN RATE ON THE FLC

INFLUENCE OF GAUGE ON THE FLC

50
INFLUENCE OF EDGE DUCTILITY ON THE FLC

OFFSET TO FLC FOR SAFETY

51
COMPLEX STRAIN PATHS AND THE FLC

SOME EXAMPLE FORMING LIMIT CURVES

52
Basics of Circle
Grid Analysis
• Circles marked on blank

surface in regular pattern
• As blank deforms to
create pressing, circles
deform
• Deformations can be
measured and strains
derived.
Early Marking
Techniques
• Original scribed square

grid designs
Problematic Because:
• Grid line spacing too wide
• Difficult to decide what to
measure
• Scribing slow, lead to non-
typical failure

53
Evolution of Circle
Grids
• Circle grids chosen in

favour of other marking
methods
• Clearly identifiable
measurable quantities
• Better accuracy
• Several grid designs have
been developed

Choice of Circle Size
• What is the lower limit ?

• Grumbach and Sanz generated FLDs using range
of circle sizes
• Found dependency of FLD shape and level
• Circle diameters 2 to 3 mm chosen to meet plane
strain criterion

54
Imprinting Techniques
• Requirements:
Durable - Cannot be damaged or worn during

process
Accurate - Distortions will be measured relative
to pre-defined original size
Efficient - Standard size grids can be marked
on any type of blank

Photogridding
• Coating of blank with ultraviolet-

sensitive emulsion
• Exposed through negative
• Developed
• Highly accurate method but delicate

55
Electrochemical
Marking
• Nylon sheet produced

through photoresist
method
• Felt pad soaked in
electrolyte
• Electrical connnections
made to blank and roller
• Process takes 20-30s to
complete
Measurement Techniques
• Must be efficient and accurate
• Mylar tape

56
Measurement
Methods (Cont)
• Bench Microscope
• Ayres Analyser

ANALYTICALLY DERIVED FLC

57
Workshop

58
SECTION VI
PRESS ACTIONS

Established Forming Technologies and

Methodologies
• Press Actions
• Introduction to Mechanical Presses
• Force Curves
• Speed of Hit
• Stroke (Top Dead Centre to Bottom Dead
Centre)
• Shut Height
• Press Stiffness
• Hydraulic Presses
• Mechanical and Hydraulic Presses - pros
and cons
• Automation in the Press Shop
• Transfer Presses
• Tandem Presses

59
Press Actions
• Mechanical, Hydraulic, Steam, Pneumatic and Electromagnetic

• Press Actions / Press Motions
• Single Action processes
• Double Action processes
• Multiple Actions
• Screw Type Action
• Press Frame Construction & Typical Layouts
• Drive Systems, Number of slides
• Press Drive mechanisms - crank, knuckle joint, cam-driven

Introduction to Mechanical Presses
• Presses can be as large as 6000 tons

• Bed sizes can be up to 10 metres by 5 metres
• Presses can have large bed and die space, but low tonnage
• Presses can have small bed sizes, but high tonnage (e.g. coining
presses)
• Force generated by slide through a crank connected to motor

60
Mechanical Presses &
Press Shops
• Presses
• Typical Mechanical Press
• Terminology
• Force Mechanism
• Gear Action
• Clutch and Brake Mechanism
• Marquette Function
• Gas Pins
• Press Guards
• Power isolators
• Die ‘Jacks’
• Cam pressing

Mechanical Presses &

Press Shops
Terminology
•Crown
•Bed
•Bolster Plates
•Wrist Pins
•Saddle
•Slide
•Upright
•Connections
•Punch
•Die
•Blank Holder

61
Force Curves
Mechanical Press
• Force Rating determined by
loads on press frame and tie
rods, gears, shafts and
bearings
• Energy rating determined by
drive motor, clutch and brake
• Press Energy
• Press Tonnage

Speed of Hit
• Presses can operate between 1 and 3600 strokes/minute.
• Choice of press speed is crucial to successful process.
• Available energy to do work also varies.

62
Stroke
• Stroke is the distance between

Top Dead Centre (TDC) and
Bottom Dead Centre (BDC).
• The dimensional difference of
the slides movement during the
power cycle. The stroke must
always be greater than the
distance the die has to travel to
operate properly.

Shut Height
SHUT HEIGHT
The space reserved in the press

for the accommodation of the
tools. It is measured from the top
of the press bed to the bottom of
the slide (RAM) with the screw
adjust up.

63
Press Stiffness
• Every press deforms under load
• Type of operation will determine press stiffness
• Influences the functional accuracy of pressed panels
• Stiffer and stronger the better!

Introduction to
Hydraulic Presses
• Hydraulic Presses Provide

Slower Cycle Times
• Speed Variability
• Controllable Force
Characteristics

64
Hydraulic Presses
• Hydraulic Presses can have many slides and motions
• Press construction to same standard as mechanical presses
• Drive system stiffness in fluid compressibility
• Typical press capacity 100 to 1000 tons

Hydraulic Presses (cont)
Speed Requirements
• Slower cycle times than mechanical presses

• Pressing speeds up to 0.25 m/s
• Approach/return speeds up to 0.85 m/s

65
Hydraulic Presses (Cont)
Hydraulic Press Types
• Push down

Pull down
• Lower overall height
• Stiffer Design
• More expensive

66
Fluid Cell Type
• Uses flexible bladder

• Can make shapes impossible to press in conventional press
• Process time can be up to 3 mins
• Used in aircraft industry

Hydraulic Press Advantages
• Adjustability
• Impossible to overload
• Variable speed
• Variable force
• Economic when high forces are required
• Material thickness variations

67
Hydraulic Press Disadvantages
• Slower speed
• Larger drive motors required
• Require special cooling
• Shock loading
• Hydraulic versus Mechanical presses

Automation in the Press Shop
Tri-Axis Transfer Press Line
• Performs all stamping operations within one press

• Use of feedbars to transfer panels.
• Transfer presses are usually five stages

68
Transfer Presses
Advantages
• Performs all pressing operation
within one press
• Faster die changes than
tandem press
• Faster running rates than
tandem press
Disadvantages
• More expensive than tandem
press
• Less versatile than tandem
press

Tri-Axis Transfer Press Line
• Successive Operations Performed Within One Press
• Panel Transfer by Feedbars

with Attached Transfer Fingers
• Advantages:
Fast Running Rates (SPM)
Die Changes Faster

69
Tandem Presses
• Series of individual presses in

close proximity
• Robots handle transfer between

presses
• Number of presses may vary
• Cost effective and flexible

70
SECTION VII
BASICS OF DRAW DIE DEVELOPMENT

CONTROLLING MATERIAL FLOW

• Establishing the ‘Tip Angle’ for a complex stamping
• Die Addendum
• Draw Bars
• Draw Walls
• Binder Development
• Drawbeads, position, geometry, closure
• Material gainers, Take-up beads

71
TIP ANGLE
• Tip Angle refers to the amount by which the panel is rotated
about the horizontal axis whilst being pressed. The panel is
pressed at rotated angles in order to establish a constant depth
of draw, which is hopefully minimized

DIE ADDENDUM
• The Die Addendum is defined as the area on the punch face,
which extends from the product trim line out to the punch
opening
• The purpose of the Die Addendum is to control the balance of

material movement during forming, with the use of draw walls,
draw bars, draw beads and others etc…
• The main function of the addendum is to balance the length of

line and optimize stretch in the panel

72
ADDENDUM COMPONENTS

PRODUCT

73
ADDENDUM

DRAW BARS
• Draw bars are use to take-up excess metal caused by a non-
uniform draw depth. The male bar is usually part of the punch
and the female part is a section of the die

74
DRAW WALLS
• Draw walls are merely a connection between the edge of the
part and the punch opening line
• Draw walls are used to match height differences between the

binder surface and the product surface

BINDER DEVELOPMENT
• Develop binder to pre-form the blank and supply restraining
force on the material during the pressing process. Binder
should prevent wrinkle formation in early stages of draw
• Binder shape usually consists of basic shapes such as planes,

cones, cylinders etc …
• Binder Development consists of adding addendum surfaces

beyond the trim line, constructing generator lines to ensure
developable surface, establishing the punch opening line,
extending the binder surface, establish binder width and smooth
the binder surfaces (smooth transitions)
• Estimate blank holder loads

75
BINDER DEVELOPMENT

BINDER DEVELOPMENT Contd.

76
DRAWBEADS
• Main function of a drawbead is to control the amount and
direction of material flow into the die cavity
• The geometry of the drawbead will dictate the way in which the
material flows through the feature. Drawbeads may also be
nested in pairs
• The positioning of the drawbead is also an important

consideration in producing a successful pressing
• Movement of drawbead ‘lines’ must also be taken into account

when designing your press tooling
• Usually better to start off with more aggressive beads and ease
them. More difficult to work other way
DRAWBEADS Contd.

77
OTHER FORMS OF PROCESS CONTROL
• Length of Line
• Material Gainers
• Take-up Beads
• Lances
• Free Form Dies
• Multiple Hits, Draw-Redraw, Reverse Hit
• Selective lube & blank geometry

LENGTH OF LINE

78
MATERIAL GAINERS
• Material Gainers are used on stretch flange operations to avoid
splitting of the flange material. Usually embossing features are
placed on the tools in the area to undergo the stretch flange
operation, usually only partially within the panel, as here

MATERIAL GAINERS

79
MATERIAL GAINERS

TAKE-UP BEADS
• Take up beads are used to prevent wrinkle development when

forming decreasing curves in flanges (shrink flanging)
• As the overall flange length is reduced the take up beads absorb

the excess material

80
PROBLEM FEATURES
• Box Corners
• Embossing
• Piercing
• Hole Expansions, Burrs, Coining
• Transitions
• Ironing
• Movement of Weld Lines

81
SECTION VIII
ADVANCED FORMING PROCESSES AND
TECHNOLOGIES

Advanced Forming Processes and Technologies
• Hydroforming: Tube and sheet

• Tailor welded blanks
• Superplastic forming
• Back pressure drawing
• Rubber forming
• Spinning
• Flow forming
• Explosive forming
• Magnetic forming
• Contoured die drawing
• Double blanks, sandwich panels, patch piece
technology
• Expert systems, Neural network

82
Tube Hydroforming
• Process used for automotive sub-frames, exhaust systems and
structural parts.
• Process involves putting a straight or bent welded tube into a forming
die. Die is then filled with water. Using very high pressure, metal tubing
is reformed and bent.
• Critical process parameters include velocity, pressure and position.
www.thefabricator.com

Sheet Hydroforming
Simulation process involves the following:
• Putting sheet on the blankholder.

• Closing the blankholder and applying pressure to the fluid.
• Stretching the sheet until it is pressed against the punch. The resulting
plastic elongation is controlled and produces a strain hardening effect.
• Moving the punch inside the die. The sheet touches the punch. The
forming of the sheet metal blank depends only on the pressure of the
fluid.

83
Tailor Welded Blanks
• This process refers to stampings where multiple sheets are welded
together prior to the deep drawing process
• This enables designers to “tailor” the best properties of the different
metals so that they are located precisely where they are required
• Precise process control is required to prevent weld-line movement
during deep drawing
www.a-sp.org

Superplastic Forming
Superplastic forming is the ability of a material to withstand large amounts

of elongation without necking or breakage.
Process consists of heating the material to the superplastic forming

temperature within a closed die, and then applying pressure to force the
blank into the die.
Uniform deformation is dependent on precise control of strain rate and strain

rate sensitivity.

84
Back Pressure Drawing
In this process the punch draws the

blank into a pressurised fuid, which
holds it tightly against the punch,
forcing thinning and failure further
up the cup wall.

Rubber Forming
Advantages
• Tooling costs reduced by up to
90%
• Lead time reduced
• Tool modifications are simple
• High quality parts can be
produced
Disadvantages
• Process requires trial and error
• Poor material utilisation
• Higher press capacity is
required
• Restricted to shallow parts
• Hand work often required to
finish parts

85
Spinning
Circular sheet metal blank is rotated

in a lathe and a manually operated
tool is used to form the part.

Flow Forming
This process can produce large

thickness reduction, giving parts
with good surface finish and high
strength.

86
Explosive Forming
• In this process an underwater

explosion generates a shock
wave which deforms sheet
metal into a die.
• Used for small quantity

production Suitable for one-off
manufacture of large parts
• Process can produce a different

strain distribution than other
forming processes.

Magnetic Forming
• High energy rate process

• Current flows in opposite
direction through conductive
material placed near coil
• Sheet metal between 0.25 and
12mm can be formed with a
number of pulses.
• Up to 6000 J at 2 second
intervals can give pressures up
to 350 M Pa.
• Used for high volumes of small
components

87
Contoured Die Drawing
• Die contour is such that only the

edge of the blank touches the
die making initially a conical
shape.
• No blank holder is required as

blank remains tangential to die

Advanced Forming Processes and Technologies
Other processes:
• Roll forming
• Double blanks
• Sandwich panels

88
Other Processes
Roll forming
Double blanks

Other Processes
Hemming
Ironing

89
Section IX
Review: State-of-the-art in Forming Simulation

Technology

Overview
• Sheet Metal Forming Simulation Methods

• Product Development Process
• One-Step or Inverse Method
• Simulation Examples
• Deliverables of the One-Step Method of Simulation
• Incremental Stamping Finite Element Analysis
• Incremental FEA worked example

90
Sheet Metal Forming Simulation Methods
There are two main stream methods of simulation of Sheet

Metal Forming processes. These are used to assess the
formability of any given component. Either of the two methods
to be discussed should be utilized at distinct junctures in the
design and process development phases. This is done to
reduce the overall cost of product development, but also to
significantly reduce costs associated with marginal and poor die
performance and to achieve a compression of the time to
market.
Inverse (One Step) Method
Incremental Explicit and/or Implicit FEA Methods

Traditional Methods w/o CAE
• Die Development through Trial and Error

– Costly
SIMULATION
– Time consuming
– Expensive to:
• Redesign part
• Rebuild tool
– Looking down the barrel
X
Soft Tool Build Soft/Hard
Product Design Process Dev.
&Tryout Tool Tryout
X
X
91
Today - Integrated with CAE
• Relatively inexpensive to modify design

• Reduces trial and error
• Physical verification still required
– Less time required for tooling
One Step One Step Incremental Time/Cost

Savings
Product Design Process Dev. Soft Tool Hard

Tryout Tool Tryout

One-step (Inverse) Method
• Begins with the part shape

• Finds nodes on the original
blank surface
• Accounts for:
– Material properties
– Binder tonnage
– Draw-beads
– Friction
• Up front Analysis without run-
offs

92
Part Designers
• Inexpensive Virtual Product
Modification
– Early Feasibility Tryouts
• Up-front analysis
– Without part runoffs
– Identify possible
manufacturing concerns
due to part shape

Die Development Engineers
• Quickly check:
– Material
– Blank-holder
– Draw-beads
– Friction
• Process & Product changes

– Binder Modification
– Product Modification
– Better overall part

93
Virtual Draw-Die Tryout
Reality
HyperForm

Product - Analysis Engineers
• Maximize correlation between

computerized and physical
testing
– Influence of thickness
Distribution on Structural
Performance
– Increase accuracy
– Efficient structural parts

94
One-Step Stamping Simulation
Advantages
– Fast Solutions. Most analyses complete in seconds
– Mesh requirements are not stringent
– Simple input requirements and run control. FE expertise is not an essential
with One-Step solvers
– Link to further structural FEA - thickness, plastic strain distribution
Disadvantages
– Currently only works with single stage stampings
– Only first and last state are available
– Limited abilities with regard to blankholding surfaces with complex
curvature

Incremental Stamping Simulation

• Advantages
– Multi-stage pressing simulations with full results transfer and
springback
– Multiple time slices through the pressing process to aid die
development
– Better deformation mode determination than One-Step solutions
– Full strain-path history and tool marks are available through
process and on bottom
– Adaptable to other types of press simulation e.g. tube hydroforming
• Disadvantages
– Solution times are hours compared to seconds for One Step
– Mesh quality of blank and mesh of critical importance to the
success of the Incremental analysis
– FE expertise is certainly an aid in running these analyses

95
Incremental Stamping Example
Door Aperture Pressing

Incremental Stamping Example

• Inputs to incremental analysis
– Fully meshed discretization of the tooling surfaces
– Blank mesh
– Material properties, n, r0, r45, r90, gauge, hardening curve
– Frictional conditions
– Blankholding pressures
– Location and number of Marquette/Gas pins
– Process motions, velocities accelerations
– Gravity stage
– Holding Stage
– Deep draw
– Secondary stage, Tertiary stage ...
– Trimming
– Springback

96
Gravity Stage (Holding Stage)
• Inputs to gravity stage
– Blank given a 1g acceleration toward the stationary tools
– Die is deformable but impenetrable by blank
– Energies are damped until blank is at steady state

Binder Wrap
• Inputs to Binder wrap
– Upper and lower blankholder clamp the blank into a pre-form
– Critical process in Stamping process. Controls how much and
where the material is locked into die cavity!

97
Process Variables
• Input
– Blank size in certain directions - blank shape - tailored!
– Pierced central how shape - lances!
– Frictional conditions - selective lubrication
– Blankholder tonnages - marquette pin locations
– Draw walls, bars, sausages
– Draw bead locations and severity
– r value directions
– die clearances

Results of Incremental Analysis

• Deliverables
– Blank: Thickness distribution, strains, strain history, full set of
stress tensors, tool marks, displacements, edge movement and
energies
– Tools: Contact pressure stresses, deformation (deflection), punch
resultants and energies
– Iterate to provide a successful component
– Compare to practical results

98
What else can Software do for us?
Feasibility Process Process Process Transfer n-Sigma
Optimization Layout Validation Validation Evaluation
Cost Analysis
Blanking Results Die Design Die Optimal Stress/Crash KPIs
Nesting Mapping Geometry Casting Analysis Measurement

99
Chapter 3: Workshops
Chapter 3
Workshops
In This Chapter:
 Workshop , – Mechanical Properties of Sheet Metal Materials
 Workshop ,, – Practical Assessment of the Post-Formed State
100
Proprietary Information of Altair Engineering, Inc.
Mechanical Properties of Sheet Metal Materials - Workshop
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SHEET

METAL MATERIALS
WORKSHOP ,
101
This workshop calculates the true stress / true plastic strain curve which is
derivation from typical uni-axial force / extension data.
Part 1: Review Typical Uni-Axial Force / Extension Data
Specimen Dimensions
Gauge Length, L = 80 mm
Specimen Width = 20 mm
Specimen Thickness = 2 mm
Specimen Initial Cross Sectional Area, Ao = 40 mm2
Material Properties
Young’s Modulus, E = 210,000 Nmm-2
Typical Uni-Axial Force / Extension Data
FORCE SPECIMEN
LENGTH
(N) (mm)
5600 80.16
6400 80.80
7000 81.60
7680 84.00
8400 86.40
9240 89.60
10600 94.40
12120 99.20
15680 108.80
17000 112.00
102
Part 2: Derive Engineering Stress / Engineering Strain Data
Engineering Stress = Applied Load / Original Cross Section Area
s = P / Ao
Engineering Strain = Extension / Original Length
e = æçè L - Lo ö÷ø / Lo
ENGINEERING ENGINEERING
STRAIN STRESS
(Nmm-2)
103
Part 3: Derive True Stress / True Strain Data
The conversion from engineering to true stress / strain data is achieved using the
following :-
sT =s(1e) eT = logn(1 e )

TRUE TRUE
STRAIN STRESS
(Nmm-2)
104
Part 4: Derive True Stress / True Plastic Strain
This final manipulation of the stress / strain curve is often required for input into a
finite element programme (eg. RADIOSS, DYNA, PAMSTAMP, OPTRIS) whose
mathematical formulation is based on the true stress measure.
The elastic strain component is subtracted from the total strain component.
eT = e e  e p
ee = sT / E
The elastic strain only represents a negligible percentage of the total strain once
the specimen commences yielding.
PLASTIC TRUE
STRAIN STRESS
(Nmm-2)
105
Graphical Presentation
106
Practical Assessment of the Post Formed State - Workshop
PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE POST-FORMED

STATE
WORKSHOP ,,
107
Practical Assessment of the Post-Formed State - Workshop
This workshop demonstrates the derivation of major and minor strains from
deformed circle grid markings made on formed parts. The workshop requires
accurate measurements to be taken from the provided plots.
Part 1:
Attached is a sheet with plots of ellipses, which result from deformation of circles
marked on the blank due to straining of the part during the forming process. The
original circle size is also plotted and clearly identified at the top left of the page.
Identify the major and minor axes of the ellipses and measure their lengths.
Tabulate them in the first column of the attached table.
Part 2:
Calculate the Major and Minor strains by reference to the original circle diameter.
Tabulate them in the third and fourth columns of the attached table.
Part 3:
Plot the major strains against the minor strains for each ellipse. Plot a single
point for each and identify it with the ellipse number.
Part 4:
From the position of the point in the major-minor strain space, identify the mode
of deformation
Part 5:
Try to identify where the modes of deformation might occur in the box component
plotted in the Figure. Mark each position with the ellipse number.
108
PART 1 – DEFORMED CIRCLES
Reference Circle.
Diameter :
Ellipse 1
Major Diameter :
Minor Diameter :
Ellipse 2
Major Diameter :
Minor Diameter :
Ellipse 3
Major Diameter :
Minor Diameter :
Ellipse 4
Major Diameter :
Minor Diameter :
Ellipse 5
Major Diameter :
Minor Diameter :
109
PART 2 – CALCULATION SHEET 1
Ellipse 1
Major Engineering Strain :
Minor Engineering Strain :
Ellipse 2
110
PART 2– CALCULATION SHEET 2
Ellipse 3
Ellipse 4
111
PART 2 – CALCULATION SHEET 3
Ellipse 5
Ellipse Number Major Engineering Minor Engineering

Strain Strain
Table 1: Summary of Measured Strains
112
PART 3 – MAJOR / MINOR STRAIN PLOT
Major Engineering Strain (%)
35
30
25
20
15
10
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Minor Engineering Strain (%)
113
PART 4 / 5 – MODE OF DEFORMATION
Ellipse Number Mode of Deformation Position on Box
114

Formability Training Sep 2013 PDF

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Formability Training Sep 2013 PDF

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Fundamentals of Sheet Metal Formability

Altair Engineering Support Contact Information

Location Telephone e-mail

Australia 64.9.413.7981 anzsupport@altair.com

Brazil 55.11.3884.0414 br_support@altair.com

China 86.400.619.6186 support@altair.com.cn

France 33.1.4133.0992 francesupport@altair.com

Germany 49.7031.6208.22 hwsupport@altair.de

India 91.80. 6629.4500 support@india.altair.com

Italy 39.800.905.595 support@altairengineering.it

Japan 81.3.5396.2881 support@altairjp.co.jp

Korea 82.31.716.4321 support@altair.co.kr

Mexico 55.56.58.68.08 mx-support@altair.com

New Zealand 64.9.413.7981 anzsupport@altair.com

North America 248.614.2425 hwsupport@altair.com

Scandinavia 46.46.460.2828 support@altair.se

United Kingdom 01926.468.600 support@uk.altair.com

Copyright© Altair Engineering Inc. All Rights Reserved for:

Copyright notice does not imply publication.

Chapter 2: Presentations ................................................................................................................ 5

Section 1: Manufacture and Processing of Sheet Metals........................................................... 6

Chapter 3: Workshops ................................................................................................................. 100

Workshop I: Mechanical Properties of Sheet Metal Materials ........................................... 101

Workshop II: Practical Assessment of the Post-Formed State ........................................... 107

Test your Sheet Metal

Proprietary Information of Altair Engineering, Inc.

1) What is the definition of Steel?

a) Alloy of Iron and Carbon b) Alloy of Aluminum and Carbon

2) What does DQSK Steel stand for?

a) Draw Quality Special Killed b) Draw Quantity Simple King

4) If the initial length of a member is L and it undergoes an elongation of ‘l’ the

7) Luders Bands appear

a) After the yield point b) Before Yield point

a) More deep b) Less deep c) No effect d) Cannot draw

a) Higher b) Lower c) Same d) No effect

a) Major and Minor Strain b) Minor and Major Strain

11) Points above the FLC in the FLD diagram indicate

a) Safe zones b) Failure due to splitting

12) The lower the Young’s modulus of the material

a) Greater is the springback b) Lower is the springback

13) Tip Angle of the die influences which of these?

a) Initial contact b) Draw depth

14) Addendum is defined as the portion

a) Outside the part b) Inside the part

15) Draw Bars are used to control the

a) Unequal length of line b) Flow of the material

a) Stretch flanging operation b) Shrink flanging operation

17) In mechanical presses the maximum tonnage occurs

a) At TDC b) Remains the same through out

18) Which is true?

a) Hydraulic Presses are slower than Mechanical Presses

19) Superplastic forming is done under

a) Elevated temperature b) At very low temperatures

20) Wrinkling can be observed in one step simulation by looking at the

a) Thinning percentage b) Major and Minor Strains

21) To do incremental analysis the user requires

a) Die data b) Blank size and properties

 Manufacture and processing of sheet metals - 6

 Determination of the mechanical properties of sheet metal - 15

 Basic modes of deformation in stamping - 26

 Basics of draw die development - 59

 Advanced forming processes and technologies - 82

 Review: State-of-the-Art in Forming Simulation Technology - 90