Early Child Development and Care

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Participatory learning theories: a framework for

early childhood pedagogy

Helen Hedges & Joy Cullen

To cite this article: Helen Hedges & Joy Cullen (2012) Participatory learning theories: a
framework for early childhood pedagogy, Early Child Development and Care, 182:7, 921-940, DOI:
10.1080/03004430.2011.597504

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Published online: 26 Jul 2011.

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 Early Child Development and Care
Vol. 182, No. 7, July 2012, 921 –940

Participatory learning theories: a framework for early childhood

pedagogy
Helen Hedgesa∗ and Joy Cullenb†
a
School of Teaching, Learning and Development, Faculty of Education, University of
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Auckland, New Zealand; bEarly Years Education, Massey University, Palmerston North,
New Zealand
(Received 13 March 2011; final version received 13 June 2011)

This paper continues scholarly conversations about appropriate theories of

development to underpin early childhood pedagogy. It focuses on sociocultural
theoretical perspectives and proposes that participatory learning theories (PLTs)
underpin pedagogy built on principles specified in three curricular documents.
Further, the paper argues that the outcomes of participatory learning contest
accepted understandings of knowledge outcomes and instead comprise notions
such as funds of knowledge, dispositions and working theories. A ‘participation
plus’ model of pedagogy is posited as emanating from PLTs and associated
outcomes. Resulting challenges for research and pedagogy are discussed.
Keywords: early childhood education; early childhood development; participation;
sociocultural; pedagogy; outcomes

Introduction
Early childhood education internationally serves children from birth to between age 5
and 8. This paper focuses on theories of learning and related curriculum and pedagogy
that are applicable prior to four- and five-year-old children beginning formal education
in primary school in Australasia and the UK. Developmental psychology, ideological
views of play, teachers’ philosophies and government policies have often guided
teachers’ curriculum decision-making in the absence of robust theory and research.
Recent growth in a research base means that knowledge and insight from diverse
fields can now be woven together usefully to inform theory and practice. Nevertheless,
Bennett, Wood and Rogers (1997) and Stephen (2010) exemplify research findings that
maintain that teachers find it difficult to articulate a range of well-understood theoretical
bases for their pedagogical practices and frequently rely on Piagetian influences and
other developmental theories to guide practice.
This paper provides a contemporary response to Burman’s (2001) challenge to
develop an alternative coherent theoretical framework to developmental psychology
to underpin early childhood practices and take account of culture in learning. A plethora
of theories has followed Vygotsky’s seminal work on the relationship between biology
and culture in learning, including cultural psychology, social constructivism, activity

∗
Corresponding author. Email: h.hedges@auckland.ac.nz
†
Recently retired.

ISSN 0300-4430 print/ISSN 1476-8275 online

# 2012 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/03004430.2011.597504
http://www.informaworld.com
 922 H. Hedges and J. Cullen

theory, cultural–historical activity theory and cultural–historical theory. For the pur-
poses of this paper, the general term ‘sociocultural theories’ is used, as this term
draws on a range of Vygotskian-influenced notions.
Specifically, the paper proposes a framework of ‘participatory learning theories’
(PLTs) as underpinning children’s experiences in families, communities and cultures
and the principles of pedagogical practices specified in Australasian and UK curriculum
policy documents. Subsequently, the paper argues that the outcomes of participatory
learning comprise constructs that contest accepted understandings reflected in notions
of domain or discipline knowledge such as literacy and mathematics. Instead, children’s
early cognitive and affective development through everyday experiences and learning
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processes, represented in concepts such as funds of knowledge, working theories and

dispositions, are viewed as outcomes. A new model for early childhood pedagogy,
termed a ‘participation plus’ model, is posited. Finally, some challenges and implications
for research and pedagogy of participatory learning as a framework are described.

Early childhood’s foundations

Early childhood literature acknowledges the continued dominance of participation in
play in children’s learning in Australasia and the UK (e.g. Anning, Cullen, & Fleer,
2009; Brooker & Edwards, 2010). In short, children choose play opportunities from
teacher provision of richly resourced, integrated environments. Learning is assumed
to follow. Much has been written internationally about the pervasiveness and benefits
of play for young children’s learning and the ways that children engage in play in differ-
ing contexts (e.g. Pramling-Samuelsson & Fleer, 2008). Yet, the literature is complex,
ideological and contradictory. Play is both a social and a cultural construct and a social
practice that has defied straightforward definitions. As argued by Stephen (2010),
varying interpretations make it difficult to continue play’s justification as central to chil-
dren’s learning without robust accompanying theoretical and pedagogical explanations.
Historically, play as the basis of curriculum and pedagogy has drawn on develop-
mental psychology as an overarching theoretical framework. Basing play provision and
pedagogical understandings largely on Western theories and individualistic models of
child development has been extensively critiqued (e.g. Brooker, 2002; Cannella, 1997;
Hedegaard, 2009). Early psychological conceptualisations about universal stage-related
expectations of development often emanated from scientific studies devoid of social,
cultural and historical context. Contemporary perspectives draw on research under-
taken in natural contexts that acknowledge learning as culturally situated and affected
by societal values. In this way, culture is ‘both the context within which the child
develops and the context into which the child develops’ (Walsh, 2005, p. 45, italics
in original). Nevertheless, the pervasiveness of developmental psychology and associ-
ated notions of norms and appropriateness persist as a primary emphasis in curriculum
and pedagogy promoted in English-speaking Western countries such as the UK
(Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency [QCDA], 2008) and the USA
(Bredekamp & Copple, 2009).

Conversations about culture in learning and knowledge construction

Burman (2001) challenged early childhood scholars to develop an alternative to indivi-
dually focused normative theories of development to account for culture and context in
curriculum and pedagogy. Walsh (2005) similarly argued:
 Early Child Development and Care 923

I believe the field needs a vital, useful contemporary developmental theory that moves it
beyond the limitations of the perspectives that dominate the field today. Working with
young children requires being able to begin to see them in all their possibilities and poten-
tials. It requires being able to understand how they learn and grow in different contexts.
This seeing and understanding cannot be done without effective developmental theory.
(p. 46)

Research in disciplines such as anthropology and sociology have now challenged,

enriched and extended theoretical understandings about the social, cultural and histori-
cal dimensions of learning contexts and assisted the field to move beyond a reliance on
developmental psychology. Edwards (2004) responded directly to Burman’s challenge
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by proposing cultural psychology (specifically sociocultural and activity theories) as a

way to acknowledge the context of children’s learning and focus on responsive peda-
gogies. Walsh (2005) also suggested cultural psychology provided a potential
alternative.

Sociocultural theory development

Prompted by the translated writings of the theories of Vygotsky and later Russian scho-
lars, much recent research in early childhood education has adopted a sociocultural
theoretical framing to attempt to understand children’s development. Vygotsky
(1986) saw development as occurring in several ways simultaneously. He argued
that an individual’s learning and development occurred first as a social process and sub-
sequently became internalised into thought in an ongoing and dialectical manner. He
described how children learn everyday concepts without explicit instruction through
participation in experiences. Vygotsky believed that children’s early informal daily
interactions provide a bank of experiences to draw on to develop more formal, concep-
tual knowledge in later schooling, in interdependent ways. Gradually, through more
formal instruction, children develop and recontextualise these everyday understandings
into scientific (academic, conceptual) concepts.
A major thrust of continued attempts to move forward theoretically has involved
further consideration of sociocultural theories. As Stetsenko (2009) asserts, a range
of disciplines are drawing on conceptualisations of development that move beyond dua-
listic notions of biology and culture. In relation to education, she describes Vygotsky’s
ideas as a ‘conceptual revolution [that emphasises] relational and dynamic approaches’
(p. 132) with co-construction, dialogue, belonging, relationships and participation
guiding pedagogy.
The concept of everyday learning occurring through dynamic, dialogic relationships
in institutional contexts such as families and educational settings draws attention to the-
ories that highlight participatory learning. These theories emphasise that children
develop through participation in the everyday activities and practices of communities
that themselves change historically and culturally, including children’s participation
itself. Participatory theories have highlighted both the contribution that everyday activi-
ties in children’s families, communities and cultures make to learning and the role of
pedagogical relationships. Knowledgeable peers and adults in multifaceted roles
support children to explore and construct new understandings, knowledge and skills.
A key theoretical concept for relationship-based pedagogy is the zone of proximal
development (ZPD). Vygotsky’s concept has become widely accepted, yet has suffered
the fate of popular theories, that of narrow interpretations. Chaiklin (2003) explains
Vygotsky’s uses of the notion. First, it describes developing psychological capabilities
 924 H. Hedges and J. Cullen

in children. Secondly, applied to educative approaches, it explains the difference

between children’s unaided performance and performance with assistance. Vygotsky’s
aim for education was to provide experiences for children within their ZPDs, activities
that are challenging but attainable with support. Thirdly, it was used as a metaphor to
represent a zone where children’s everyday understandings interact with conceptual
knowledge provided by mediators of learning, such as teachers; hence the notion of
co-construction that has evolved. Further, the ZPD can be viewed as a dynamic, crea-
tive zone during mediated interactions (Lidz & Gindis, 2003). In this final view, the
zone can be viewed more as a zone of potential development. This may open up
even further possibilities for responsive pedagogies within the zone, and actions by
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knowledgeable others to re-visit and expand learning environments that extend chil-
dren’s learning and enable knowledge construction. The concept of ‘participation
plus’ argued in this paper builds on Lidz and Gindis’ interpretation of mediated knowl-
edge construction.
Further, Vygotsky (1986) was clear that ‘. . . direct teaching of concepts is imposs-
ible and fruitless’ (p. 150). Instead, Vygotsky supported that learning should be auth-
entic; that is, it should be relevant to the daily life and practices of children in
communities or cultures. The concept of intersubjectivity was proposed to include
both affective and cognitive components in learning and is about developing shared
purpose and meaning among participants in teaching and learning experiences. The
mutual influence of cognition and affect distinguishes these approaches from purely
cognitive explanations of learning and enables pedagogical relationships to be analysed
as key contributors to children’s learning.
Of particular relevance for early childhood education, Vygotsky (1978) viewed
play, and particularly sociodramatic play, as a major source of learning. He viewed ima-
ginative and symbolic play as a way in which children acted out understandings of real
life behaviours in their specific cultural contexts, often showing this through the imagin-
ary behaviour of characters and objects used in the play situation. When children engage
in sociodramatic play, they assume the actions, language, thinking and emotions of the
human roles they are engaging in. For example, to play at being families successfully
requires that children have knowledge of family roles and responsibilities and intersub-
jectivity with play partners. Sociocultural perspectives therefore also suggest that
children’s play provides a way for them to practise taking part in the social life of the
adult world ahead of actual participation. Imagined situations, symbolic actions,
scripts, roles and rules provide the mediational means for such play as children use
cultural tools to interact with peers and adults. In this way, children build both culturally
valued knowledge such as literacy and numeracy from their participation and identities
as learners and citizens.

Contemporary sociocultural perspectives

Post-Vygotskian scholars have developed and extended Vygotsky’s thinking in a range
of ways to provide perspectives on transforming knowledge and practice. An abundance
of theories with differing emphases and terminology has helped research move beyond
hypotheses and generalisations to understanding culturally specific beliefs and practices
important to development (Rogoff, 2003). Although Vygotsky is credited with drawing
attention to culture in learning, he himself did not provide a definition for this (Cole &
Gajdamaschko, 2007). Culture has since been defined as accepted, routine ways of car-
rying out everyday activities and processes, which alter over time due to changing
 Early Child Development and Care 925

values, roles, rules, technologies and practices (Cole, 1996; Rogoff, 2003). Moreover, a
sociocultural perspective conceptualises culture as a dynamic system of meaning, with
values, goals and practices that promote particular approaches to education (Göncü &
Katsarou, 2000). Sociocultural theories’ explanations do not imply that cultures are
cohesive or necessarily share values and practices. Space does not permit extensive
discussion of these theories, nor do we wish to be accused of simplifying or misrepre-
senting these (e.g. see Gredler’s [2007] commentary on perceived distortions of
Vygotskian ideas). Instead, we draw readers’ attention to comprehensive treatments
of significant strands: cultural psychology (Cole, 1996; Valsiner, 2007); cultural–
historical activity theory, commonly known by its acronym CHAT (Roth & Lee,
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2007); and cultural-historical theory (Hedegaard & Fleer, 2008). Further, Rogoff’s
(1998) discussion differentiating social-constructivist from social influence theories
has had a bearing on our argument.
In addition, some writers have drawn attention to the different metaphors that under-
pin perspectives of knowledge based on contrasting views on learning. Sfard (1998)
distinguished between acquisition and participation metaphors. The former views learn-
ing as an individual, action-oriented pursuit and is derived from cognitive constructivist
and developmental theories of learning. The latter regards learning as occurring through
participation, between people in situated contexts, and is supported by sociocultural
theory. In response to criticism that learning rather than knowledge is emphasised in
both metaphors (e.g., Bereiter, 2002), and to develop a more conceptually rich theoris-
ation of these metaphors, Paavola, Lipponen and Hakkarainen (2004) argued for a third
metaphor, that of knowledge creation. In this metaphor, Paavola et al. emphasise the
dynamic nature of learning for transforming knowledge and practice. Such a dynamic
nature reflects Stetsenko’s (2009) emphasis on co-construction, dialogue, belonging,
relationships and participation as guiding pedagogical practices. It also recognises
that participation is a dialectic construct in terms of its three key components: knowl-
edge, learning and experience (Roth, Huang, Goulart, & Lee, 2005).
This paper argues that ‘knowledge of’ and ‘meaning making’ are essential to parti-
cipatory learning for young children. Such a contention is supported by Bereiter (2002)
who argues that ‘both learning and knowledge building ought to be meaningful’
(p. 255) and that both are collaborative efforts. Edwards (2005) avoids some issues
related to separating conceptions of learning and knowledge by suggesting that partici-
patory learning results in development of the capacity to interpret and respond to the
complexity of the world. We argue that meaningful knowledge building occurs in
the context of self-motivated participation in authentic activities. Children later may
re-create and represent their knowledge in their collaborative play in early childhood
settings. In this way, children may also construct an identity as a competent learner.
Here, consistent with the interpretations of the ZPD outlined earlier, the kinds of infor-
mal, everyday knowledge children construct are mediated by teachers’ domain knowl-
edge in the context of responsive pedagogical approaches and can be a foundation for
the co-construction of more formal knowledge.
This paper therefore continues to ‘move forward the conversation . . . looking at how
culture plays into practice and learning’ (Edwards, 2004, p. 86) and provides theoretical
guidance for early childhood pedagogy begun by Burman, Edwards and Walsh. While
in agreement with much of Edwards’ argument and its implications regarding culturally
grounded, responsive pedagogy, and her acknowledgement to early childhood research-
ers who have enabled scholars to advance such theorising, we highlight a different
framework for pedagogy based on sociocultural theories. Accordingly, this paper
 926 H. Hedges and J. Cullen

emphasises participation in learning in cultural contexts. We concur with Edwards

(2005) that there are sophisticated relationships ‘between mind and world, knowledge
and meaning making, and feeling and action’ (p. 50). However, Edwards argues that
a sociocultural view of the mind is ‘outward looking, resourceful, intent on interpreting
and responding to the world’ (p. 50) and that a participation metaphor does not do justice
to the complexity of the relationship between mind and world. Consistent with a knowl-
edge creation model, we suggest that a participatory view of learning, coupled with
attention to different types of knowledge outcomes that assist children to build learning
identities, helps to bridge this perceived gap.
We argue, consistent with Rogoff (1998, 2003), that in the early childhood context,
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participation is more active than mere presence, which in itself may not engender learn-
ing without attention to relationships, content, change, context and cultures. Further,
Rogoff (2003) argues that ‘[f]rom the transformation of participation view, evaluation
focuses on the process of individuals’ participation in and contributions to the ongoing
activity rather than on “outcomes” and individuals’ possession of knowledge and skills’
(p. 279). Nevertheless, we argue that both process and outcomes are important, and
therefore also take a step further by highlighting the outcomes of participatory learning
beyond knowledge of processes of activities and practices, to the resultant early con-
ceptual and dispositional understandings. We therefore term this a ‘participation
plus’ framework for early childhood pedagogy.
In summary, differing sociocultural learning theories and models of knowledge and
learning can be interpreted and drawn on and co-exist in research and pedagogy but,
critically, require sophisticated understanding by teachers and researchers in order to
do so. Such theories and models highlight differently the changing roles, contributions
and influences of individuals, groups and cultural tools, activities and practices in learn-
ing activity and knowledge construction. In this way, participatory learning is consist-
ent with a knowledge-creation model of learning (Paavola et al., 2004). A participation
plus model of pedagogy builds on the knowledge creation construct in order to promote
children’s foundational and early conceptual knowledge. These ideas, brought together
within a framework of PLTs, will be discussed after the following overview of three
current approaches to early childhood curriculum and pedagogy.

Early childhood curriculum and pedagogy built on sociocultural theory

All learning and knowledge construction is therefore situated, that is, an individual’s
learning is mediated by relationships and cultural activities, tools, artefacts and prac-
tices. Three cultural artefacts in the form of current curricular policy documents for chil-
dren aged birth to five years in primarily English-speaking Western countries are now
considered: NZ’s Te Whariki (Ministry of Education [MOE], 1996), Australia’s The
Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF) (Department of Education, Employment
and Workplace Relations [DEEWR], 2009) and the UK’s Early Years Foundation
Stage Curriculum (EYFS) (QCDA, 2008). Key aspects of the structure and emphases
of each are overviewed in relation to the argument to be developed for participatory
learning as a contemporary theoretical framework for pedagogy.
Each curriculum provides an aspiration statement for children’s participation in their
communities and societies that has both a present and future orientation for children as
learners and citizens. Te Whariki aims for children ‘to grow up as competent and confi-
dent learners and communicators, healthy in mind, body and spirit, secure in their sense
of belonging and in the knowledge that they make a valued contribution to society’
 Early Child Development and Care 927

(MOE, 1996, p. 9). The EYLF states a vision for children’s learning as: ‘All children
experience learning that is engaging and builds success for life’ (DEEWR, 2009, p. 7).
The document continually revisits three themes, belonging, being and becoming, that
also highlight participation. The EYFS states as its purpose: ‘every child deserves the
best possible start in life and support to fulfil their potential. A child’s experience in
the early years has a major impact on their future life chances’ (QCDA, 2008, p. 7).
The aims promoted in these documents are in keeping with Vygotsky’s (1986) belief
that development involves learning much more than domain knowledge and includes
becoming a contributing member of a community and society.
Te Wh ariki’s definition of curriculum is ‘the sum total of the experiences, activities
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and events, whether direct or indirect, which occur within an environment designed to
foster children’s learning and development’ (MOE, 1996, p. 10). The EYLF adapted
this definition to ‘all the interactions, experiences, activities, routines and events,
planned and unplanned, that occur in an environment designed to foster children’s
learning and development’ (DEEWR, 2009, p.9). While the EYFS does not provide
a definition of curriculum per se, in discussing the early learning goals and educational
programme, it states: ‘all the areas must be delivered through planned, purposeful play,
with a balance of adult-led and child-initiated activities’ (QCDA, 2008, p. 11).
These definitions of curriculum are responsive to the notion that everyday knowl-
edge and activities are important in children’s learning. All imply that children will par-
ticipate in a wide range of activities in early childhood settings that reflect the
experiences, understandings and values of the relevant culture, including about what
and how children learn. The first two also acknowledge that at times, children partici-
pate in activities and events where learning is incidental rather than planned, and
perhaps unintended by adults.
All three curricula emphasise that play is the context in which children learn.
Consistent with sociocultural theories, Te Whariki asserts that authentic play-based
learning is situated in socially and culturally constructed settings and is mediated by
relationships with people, places and things. ‘People’ include peers, teachers and
families and their relationships with ‘the learner, expectations, goals, prior knowledge
and experience, and intuitions’ (Cowie & Carr, 2009, p. 105). ‘Places’ include the
organisational, structural and physical features of the early childhood setting, home
and other community and cultural settings that children participate in. ‘Things’ refers
to the resources, artefacts and cultural tools that are utilised in teaching and learning
interactions.
The EYLF specifies a concept of ‘intentional teaching’ to encourage teachers to be
active, thoughtful partners in children’s learning and knowledge building. Specific teach-
ing strategies associated with this concept are, however, not outlined. Neither Te Whariki
nor the EYFS are specific about teaching strategies. Nevertheless, each curriculum state-
ment contains principles to underpin curriculum and pedagogy. Te Whariki has two that
highlight participation, namely ‘relationships’, defined as children learning ‘through
responsive and reciprocal relationships with people, places and things’ (p. 14) and
‘family and community’; noting that ‘the wider world of family and community is an
integral part of the early childhood curriculum’ (p. 14). Similarly, the EYLF identifies
relationships as vital to the three themes of belonging, being and becoming. Four of
the EYLF’s five principles, noted as reflecting ‘contemporary theories and research evi-
dence concerning children’s learning and early childhood pedagogy’ (p. 12) are ‘secure,
respectful and reciprocal relationships’, ‘partnerships with families’, ‘high expectations
and equity’ and ‘respect for diversity’. These too emphasise participation in communities
 928 H. Hedges and J. Cullen

and cultures. The EYFS principle of ‘positive relationships’ stresses the importance of
adults and includes families:
Children learn to be strong and interdependent from a base of loving and secure relation-
ships with parents and/or a key person [teacher]. The adults’ commitments are focused
around respect, partnership with parents, supporting learning, and the role of the key
person. (p. 9)

These references to relationships and families and communities clarify the role of
children’s participation in everyday experiences outside the early childhood centre
and highlight the necessity for teachers to understand and respect these in order to
provide for children’s learning.
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Of these three curricula, the EYFS is the one that remains most strongly rooted in
developmental psychology, with constant reference to individual children and rates and
stages of development. Furthermore, while ecological and sociocultural theories are
implied in some of the early learning goals and requirements for educational programmes,
no further theoretical bases are made explicit. In addition, a hint of the paternalistic attitude
for which developmentalism has been criticised remains in goals for personal, social and
emotional development. For example, the goal ‘children should understand what is right,
what is wrong and why’ (p. 12) without specifying whose values this goal refers, could be
misconstrued, despite it existing alongside the goals of developing respect for other cul-
tures and understanding the values and behaviours expected in groups.
Te Wh ariki drew on multiple theoretical perspectives during its development. The
legacy of developmental psychology, especially the theories of Piaget and Erikson,
continued with the emphasis on individual children and frequent use of the metaphor
of ‘acquiring’ knowledge in the document, alongside the ecological and sociocultural
theoretical perspectives of Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky. Moreover, as a specifically
bicultural document, it draws on indigenous Maori theories of development and learn-
ing. As it has been enacted, implemented and researched over time, it has more recently
been interpreted primarily from a sociocultural perspective.
The EYLF also draws on multiple theoretical perspectives of development and
learning. In addition, it extends thinking about curriculum and pedagogy and its rel-
evance to different children, families, communities and cultures by including consider-
ation of critical and post-structuralist theories.
In terms of outcomes, the EYFS is the most explicit about knowledge outcomes,
including these among others: personal, social and emotional development; communi-
cation, language and literacy; problem solving, reasoning and numeracy; knowledge
and understanding of the world; physical development; and creative development.
In contrast, Te Whariki specifies the concepts of dispositions and working theories as
main outcomes. These incorporate knowledge, skill and attitudinal components.
In other writing, Carr (2005) identifies the strands of Te Whariki as its outcomes for
children; namely, well-being, belonging, contribution, communication and exploration.
In a similar vein, the EYLF details five learning outcomes related to identity, contri-
bution, well-being, confident learners and effective communicators. These notions
challenge traditional conceptions of outcomes as domain-based. Instead, reflective of
sociocultural theories, outcomes are more holistic than subject domains and reflect a
more synergistic view of learning.
Nevertheless, while the EYFS comes closest to providing specific and measureable
cognitive and behavioural outcomes and provides a 13-scale summative profile to be
assessed prior to school entry, none of these documents indicate how children might
 Early Child Development and Care 929

be assessed as achieving the wider participatory goals or aspirations of each curriculum.

In keeping with sociocultural approaches, a narrative form of assessment has since
evolved in NZ, that of ‘learning stories’ (Carr, 2001a; MOE, 2004, 2007, 2009).
Australian teachers and researchers have also found this approach appropriate (e.g.
Nyland & Ferris 2009); indeed, the approach has found international recognition
(e.g. Karlsdóttir & Garðarsdóttir, 2010).
In summary, each document provides a framework for curriculum that reflects the
aspirations of adults for children’s lives as learners and citizens and needs to be oper-
ationalised in individual contexts. In short, each curriculum emphasises the influence of
families and communities on children’s learning, children’s active participation in play
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and learning activities and pedagogical relationships as a vital way in which children
achieve the desirable outcomes valued in each policy document. Obvious implications
for associated policies such as the importance of qualified, knowledgeable teachers are
acknowledged, but are beyond the scope of this paper. We now return to this paper’s
focus, that of arguing a contemporary response to Burman’s (2001) challenge to
provide a coherent theoretical framework for early childhood education. For these
countries and curricula at least, this could lie in the concept of PLTs.

Participatory learning theories

Research undertaken within sociocultural theoretical perspectives has demonstrated
that children’s development occurs through a process of participation in activities in
cultural communities (Hedegaard & Fleer, 2008; Rogoff, 1998, 2003). The following
discussion explicates what we describe as PLTs that focus on cultural activities and
practices, children’s active participation and a range of outcomes. In this way, learning
can be viewed as a process of transformation of participation that has personal, inter-
personal and cultural–institutional perspectives (Rogoff, 2003; Stetsenko, 2009). A
transformation of participation means that individuals, the people individuals spend
time with, and their cultural institutions purposefully influence ongoing creative devel-
opment of knowledge. Hence this perspective is consistent with Paavola et al.’s (2004)
model of knowledge creation. Further, both knowledge and learning identities are
foregrounded.
PLTs highlight the motivation children have to participate in activities in order to
learn valued knowledge, skills and practices in ways specific to their communities.
Children’s development is guided by variations in goals that ‘prioritize learning to func-
tion within the community’s cultural institutions and technologies’ (Rogoff, 2003,
p. 23). For example, different expectations of children occur as a result of different tech-
nologies and practices (e.g. self-care and care of younger children occur at a variety of
ages in different cultures). In some cases, expectations of independence and responsi-
bility might occur earlier than many Western countries such as NZ, Australia and the
UK might expect but also contrast with other non-Western countries and cultures
where children remain dependent on adults until school age.
An important limitation to acknowledge is that this emphasis on the interpersonal
role of adults in children’s learning in parenting or teaching roles should not be over-
estimated, particularly in terms of it being purposeful or educative at all times. This
aspect remains one under-researched area of participatory learning. For example,
teacher–child ratios in many early childhood services mean that teaching interactions
may be fleeting and that interactions with peers may be more common than those
with teachers. Peers are important contributors to children’s learning that are often
 930 H. Hedges and J. Cullen

overlooked by earlier theoretical perspectives than sociocultural ones. Further, the hom-
ogeneity of communities and cultures cannot be assumed and the knowledge, practices
and associated values of groups may not be shared. For example, children may learn
much by observing their families earning a living making and selling illicit drugs, but
this activity may or may not be esteemed by others in the wider community or culture.
In summary, observation, participation, language, dialogue and co-construction of
learning are common features of PLTs. Through the mediation of people and cultural
tools in settings that promote learning, such as learning communities and other social
systems, individuals inquire into and make sense of new concepts. They learn and inter-
nalise these concepts through thought and become more adept learners, communicators
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and contributors in the process. Dynamic and flexible notions of co-construction,

dialogue, belonging, relationships and participation guide pedagogical practices. Of
relevance to relationship-focused pedagogy, Wells (2002) views learning-and-teaching
as inseparable and as occurring through dialogic co-construction during joint activity
with cultural artefacts and tools. Dialogue during play facilitates inquiry, knowledge
construction and the appropriation of complex ideas and cognitive processes. In this
regard, PLTs that emphasise the social quality and focused and incidental nature of
children’s learning also highlight imitation and learning through intent participation
in cultural activities.

Learning through imitation

Lindfors (1999) has argued that: ‘From birth, virtually all children develop the ability to
engage others in their attempts to make sense of the world (p. 49). Many writers high-
light the relationship with a parent or main carer as the first most significant engagement
involved in children’s learning. The theories of Trevarthen (1995) and Parker-Rees
(2007) exemplify this focus. Trevarthen argues that children have an innate need to
learn the ways of a culture and do so from infancy by encouraging adult partners to
engage in imitatory games and conversational turns. Curiosity continues with increas-
ing age and abilities through exploration and engagement in other activities. Parker-
Rees ties imitation with special relationships, games and routines and demonstrates
how what is recognised and attended to is culturally specific.
Similarly, Rogoff (2003) notes that infants are self-motivated. ‘Infants are born
ready to learn the ways of those around them’ (p. 67). In particular, they are predisposed
to learn language, which Vygotsky identified as a key task of childhood, supported by
biological and cultural features that include relationships with key people. Parents and
caregivers (including teachers) model language and behaviours naturally and respond
intuitively to infants’ attempts to imitate these during episodes of joint attention. More-
over, in relation to transformation of participation (Rogoff, 2003), relationships, actions
and the changing nature of culture, Roth et al. (2005) argue that:
In each act, parents concretely realize ways of acting that make sense today – they sim-
ultaneously act according to the culture and produce this very culture in the act. The
infants participate in these actions, creating with their own actions resources and con-
ditions that the parents can use and address in turn. That is, with each infant, sociocultural
patterns of actions are both reproduced and, because no two actions are ever exactly alike,
new patterns of actions are produced. (p. 15)

Further, imitation is a key technique for applying learning within the ZPD, and
therefore is not limited to infants. In this regard, Vygotsky referred to imitation in
 Early Child Development and Care 931

the context of participation in cultural activities. Imitation therefore is clearly more than
mechanical copying of behaviour; it occurs through the child’s self-chosen activities
and when others encourage the child to imitate, in meaningful settings (van Oers,
2009) such as families (Hedegaard & Fleer, 2008). Moreover, while children naturally
pay attention to people, places and things, they may not enact understandings immedi-
ately. Children imitate and represent in sociodramatic play the actions of more knowl-
edgeable others in a range of activities, such as meal preparation and participating in
cultural festivals, often repeatedly, and after a significant period of time has elapsed.

Learning through intent participation

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Learning also occurs for children through observation, listening and participation. This
view of learning may be expressed as learning through ‘intent participation . . . a power-
ful form of fostering learning’ (Rogoff, Paradise, Arauz, Correa-Chávez, & Angelillo,
2003, p. 176). Rogoff et al. describe how humans learn by observing and listening in on
others as they collaborate in shared tasks, in flexible and complementary roles. Further,
language is vital for information sharing and questioning to explore ideas.
Education in this sense becomes an all-encompassing term for children’s experiences
in a range of institutional settings from homes and early education settings to sports clubs
to schools, whether or not these experiences were specifically designed to be educational.
In this way, children also become exposed to activities, tools, events and artefacts
relevant to their culture and practices (Rogoff et al., 2003). From engagement in social
and cultural activity, learning is eventually internalised by children, and represented
and re-created as opportunities arise to do so. Rogoff et al. (2003) pointed out that
such learning often occurs in authentic situations in which children are very eager to
participate. Motivation is therefore intrinsic to achieving participation goals and illus-
trates the mutual effect of cognition and affect inherent in Vygotskian theories and
subsequent sociocultural perspectives.
This paper now moves to consideration of the outcomes proposed by PLTs. These
outcomes are important considerations for curriculum and pedagogy in early childhood
settings built on play and principles of reciprocal and responsive relationships and
engagement with families and communities, typified in the three curricula documents
outlined earlier.

Outcomes of participatory learning

The notion of an ‘outcome’ is itself steeped in a developmental view of childhood as
preparation for late education and life. Debates about educational curricula and goals
are culturally situated. Outcomes for children in Western societies, as still reflected some-
what in the UK EYFS curriculum, are commonly narrowly defined as occurring in knowl-
edge or subject domains such as literacy, numeracy and science in order to meet notions of
school-based standards and expectations. Western, mono-cultural, developmental
perspectives often dominate such expectations and associated early standards (e.g.
Bracken & Crawford, 2010; Invernizzi, Landrum, Teichman, & Townsend, 2010) and
are an area ripe for critique for cultural relevance beyond the focus of this paper.
Alternative conceptions suggest outcomes in a participation plus model of peda-
gogy might encompass skills, dispositions and other process outcomes that occur
alongside the development of knowledge. These conceptions therefore incorporate
both learning and performance goals (Dweck, 2000). From a view of childhood as
 932 H. Hedges and J. Cullen

participation in complex cultural activity (Rogoff, 2003), outcomes might include those
that come from participation in the present, belonging to cultures and communities and
as preparation for future mature roles and responsibilities in these communities. Indeed,
Bereiter (2002) argues that ‘the best preparation [educational institutions] could provide
for future learning is the broadest and deepest possible understanding of the world’
(p. 227). These broader conceptualisations of outcomes can be clearly seen in the
EYLF’s vision and three themes of belonging, being and becoming; the EYFS’s
purpose and aim and Te Whariki’s aspiration statement.
Bereiter (2002) argues that situated knowledge should be a starting point for knowl-
edge building and that understanding the world is essential for a subsequent ability to be
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innovative in a knowledge society. In this way, he clarifies why knowledge outcomes

could be important in early childhood education in a way consistent with Paavola
et al.’s (2004) metaphor of knowledge creation. As Vygotsky (1986) signalled with
his views regarding the relationship of everyday informal understandings of early child-
hood to subsequent more formal scientific concepts, children need some knowledge in
order to build and create further knowledge.
Three theoretical constructs were signposted early in this paper as alternative out-
comes reflective of a focus on participatory learning: funds of knowledge, dispositions,
and working theories. The following sections discuss these constructs in relation to
children’s foundational understandings, with reference to three ideas that might be
viewed, concurrently, as integral to a participation plus perspective on pedagogy.
These ideas comprise contributors to, influences on and outcomes from participatory
learning in homes and community settings such as early childhood services.

Funds of knowledge
Tacit knowledge is a key component of everyday knowledge (Vygotsky, 1986) and inno-
vative knowledge communities (Paavola et al., 2004). González, Moll and Amanti
(2005) developed a positive view of the diverse everyday knowledge and life experiences
found in families, from sociocultural theoretical perspectives. González et al. define
funds of knowledge as the culturally specific bodies of knowledge, including skills
and strategies, which contribute to household functioning, development and well-
being. These may include information, ways of thinking and learning, approaches to
learning and practical skills. Examples include knowledge of shopping, meal prep-
aration, socialising and communicating with wider family and community members
and participation in sports, music and art activities.
Funds of knowledge is a concept that positions the knowledge people develop in
their families and communities as intuitive sources of cultural and cognitive resources
that can be utilised in educational settings. For example, shopping instinctively
involves literacy, mathematics, communication and decision-making among other
knowledge and skills. Children’s funds of knowledge can be seen influencing many
of the activities they engage in during play that involves pedagogical relationships
and could, arguably, form both a framework for curriculum, pedagogy and foundations
for later learning (Hedges, Cullen, & Jordan, 2011). Moreover, as Moll (2000) points
out, ‘ [c]onsidering this claim, one realizes that the teaching of literacy or mathematics . . .
or the development of bilingualism at home or school may differ radically depending on
the social practices or relationships found within particular institutional contexts’
(p. 124). Funds of knowledge as a concept therefore represents both the content and
the context of learning (see Hogg, 2011).
 Early Child Development and Care 933

Dispositions
Skills, attitudes and associated behaviours influence children’s identities as learners in a
range of contexts. Dispositions were originally a psychological construct combining
these attributes. More recently, a sociocultural perspective has been argued (Claxton &
Carr, 2004). This view accounts for multiple contexts and influences on children’s learn-
ing and incorporates the views of family and community members, and children them-
selves, alongside professionals such as teachers, about children’s learning. This
perspective has had a major influence on the assessment practices developed in relation
to Te Wh ariki, adapted and adopted internationally.
In learning stories, competent learners are seen to develop positive dispositions for
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learning, such as curiosity, concentration, persistence, contribution and communi-

cation, as outcomes (Carr, 2001a). The EYLF lists desirable dispositional outcomes
as curiosity, cooperation, confidence, creativity, commitment, enthusiasm, persistence,
imagination and reflexivity. However, dispositions are not referred to at all in the
EYFS, or its support guide for teachers, in terms of either outcomes or assessment
practices for the 13-scale profile designed to be the summative feature of their early
childhood experience.
From the ‘participation plus’ perspective, other dispositions may also contribute to
learning and knowledge construction in discipline areas, for example, the disposition to
think mathematically (Anning & Edwards, 2006) or scientifically (Hedges, 2003).
Likewise, teachers can view children as emergent learners (Cullen, 1998) or with
specific learning orientations such as ‘being nearly five’ (i.e. about to begin formal
schooling; Carr, 2001b) or being active, emergent inquirers (Lindfors, 1999). Disposi-
tions also assist motivation for further learning and enable learners to engage metacog-
nitive strategies when persisting with difficult scenarios and concepts, both essential for
innovative and creative knowledge-building.

Working theories
The notion of working theories in Te Whariki draws upon Claxton’s (1990) work on
minitheories. Working theories might be defined as ways children process intuitive,
everyday, spontaneous knowledge and use this creatively to interpret new information,
and think, reason and problem solve in wider contexts. Working theories may represent
children’s intellectual curiosity and thinking as they attempt to make connections
between current and desired understandings and experiences in matters of interest to
them. These ideas about children’s thinking are mentioned in all three curricular docu-
ments referred to. Claxton argued that in the early years of life, through gradual editing
and improvement, minitheories become more effective, comprehensive, appropriate
and connected. Working theories therefore exemplify processes of learning and inno-
vative knowledge construction, that is, they contribute to learning, influence children’s
thinking and become outcomes in themselves. Working theories also exemplify the
dynamic nature of learning espoused by PLTs.
The knowledge children contribute to a concept such as working theories has been
described as naı̈ve in domains of biology, psychology, physics and technology (Inagaki
& Hatano, 2002; Wellman & Gelman, 1992). Yet, children demonstrate serious interest
in understanding their world when they, for example, appear to extrapolate knowledge
about humans to working theories about animal and insect habitats and life cycles in
domains of biology, psychology and physics. Further, while children may be less
experienced due to age, maturity and opportunity, their thinking can be complex and
 934 H. Hedges and J. Cullen

creative. Egan (2009) queries a number of psychology’s contributions to educational

concepts, including the assumption present in the theories that new knowledge can
only be built on prior knowledge and experience. Egan argues that this ignores the crea-
tivity, emotions and imagination children employ to connect with their worlds. Such
contributions to knowledge creation are implicit in a participation plus model.
Teachers can use children’s working theories to mediate and extend children’s
understandings using contextually relevant experiences and lead to early conceptual
knowledge (Fleer, 2010). Teachers having intersubjectivity with children and a willing-
ness to engage with their theorising and inquiring is a further example of enacting a
participation plus model of pedagogy.
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A participation plus model of early childhood pedagogy

In summary, from a sociocultural theoretical perspective, a participation plus model of
pedagogy views innovative learning and knowledge building as occurring through
participation in complex cultural activity. Theories of children’s development such as
learning through imitation and intent participation underpin responsive pedagogy built
on principles specified in contemporary curricula such as relationships and family and
community. PLTs also encourage dynamic pedagogies involving co-construction,
dialogue and belonging, and an alternative view of outcomes for early childhood
education that incorporate knowledge, skills and attitudinal components and comprise
constructs such as funds of knowledge, dispositions and working theories.

Challenges of PLTs for research and pedagogy

The effectiveness of the three curricula frameworks discussed in this paper would
benefit from longitudinal research similar to that of Marcon (1999, 2002) who
researched the outcomes of different curricula approaches on later educational achieve-
ment. For the purposes of investigating the effectiveness of the current participation
plus model, wider perspectives of outcomes would need to be incorporated. Some
early positive indications are however found in the case study research of Carr et al.
(2009) on the ways children’s dispositions played out in their early schooling experi-
ences and achievements. Further though, PLTs as a contemporary theoretical frame-
work for early childhood pedagogy present some challenges for research and
pedagogy. These are overviewed in this section to highlight the participation plus
model for early childhood pedagogy posited in this paper.
Cognition is a dynamic, collaborative process that requires researchers to investigate
how children’s understandings change through participation with people in cultural
activity (Rogoff, 1998). Qualitative research that draws on ethnographic approaches
in which researchers are central to a study, and sociology of childhood perspectives
in which children are viewed as capable and competent, is likely most appropriate. In
acknowledging that researcher motives and goals are integral to a study, Hedegaard
and Fleer (2008) provide further significant suggestions for robust research method-
ologies and practices. Validity in these approaches comes from being explicit about
theoretical orientations, conceptual relations, ethical decision-making, contexts and
activities and including all participants’ perspectives within the methodological
approaches. Employing these methodologies, it could be fruitful to apply and research
PLTs in other Western and non-Western cultural contexts to underpin early childhood
pedagogy, or in contexts where no curricular policy documents yet provide guidance.
 Early Child Development and Care 935

Consideration of sociocultural approaches to pedagogy, including specific teaching

strategies, a range of outcomes and the theoretical bases for these require further teacher
understanding that could usefully come from research partnerships between teachers
and researchers. Siraj-Blatchford, Sylva, Muttock, Gilden and Bell’s (2002) study in
the UK argued that effective pedagogy has three features: adult and child involvement
in high quality dialogue, including episodes of sustained, shared thinking between both
adults and children and child peers; cognitive engagement or co-construction of learn-
ing in a careful juxtaposition of teacher initiated and child initiated experiences; and the
use of pedagogical techniques such as modelling, demonstrating, questioning and
explaining. Farquhar’s (2003) NZ synthesis of research identified seven characteristics
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of effective pedagogy that maximise children’s learning outcomes. Four of these are:
effective pedagogy involves working with children as emergent learners; pedagogy
is informed by contextual knowledge of children’s learning; pedagogy scaffolds, co-
constructs, promotes metacognitive strategies and also facilitates children’s learning
in the context of adult/older child activities; and the social setting is organised in
ways that support learning and maximises outcomes. These provide research-based
arguments for participatory pedagogy built on sociocultural notions such as intersubjec-
tivity and co-construction and a participation plus model for pedagogy that uses intui-
tive intellectual resources and children’s learning identities to sustain thinking and
promote outcomes in responsive pedagogy. All of these notions could usefully be
teased out in future research about pedagogy that also more directly addresses the
actual curriculum policy document and associated outcomes of each country.
Australasian and UK early childhood education settings often separate children
from the genuine activities of their culture through their very institutional nature and
emphasis on play, often apart from real-life participation in genuine activities. Recog-
nising and building on children’s funds of knowledge highlights families as partners in
children’s learning with authentic contributions to make to curriculum that help to
reduce this disjuncture (e.g. see Hensley, 2005). Teachers must then continually
develop ways to engage respectfully with the particular families and communities
they serve to understand the culturally specific nature of children’s funds of knowledge,
dispositions and working theories. Further, a focus on outcomes such as dispositions
and working theories requires teachers to think in a more complex manner about the
design of educational environments and their pedagogical decision making and
actions (see Carr et al., 2009) within the dynamic, creative zones of children’s ZPDs
during mediated interactions.
Intentional and responsive teaching, highlighted in the three curricula documents,
comes from teachers and children knowing each other well and sharing purposeful
learning. Positive, reciprocal interactions in children’s ZPDs have a joint focus;
hence, the notions of co-constructing curriculum and innovative knowledge. The foun-
dations of critical thinking and metacognition are also laid in such interactions and
support early childhood’s integrated experience-based approaches that foster choice,
inquiry, initiative, identity and independence. Guiding children towards more concep-
tualised understandings and fostering dispositions for learning are additional parts of
these processes. Teachers therefore require sophisticated understandings of develop-
ment, learning and teaching in order to be intentional and responsive.
In the UK, where specific knowledge outcomes are identified in the curriculum, a par-
ticipation plus model could promote a focus on the intuitive knowledge gained through
funds of knowledge and represented in working theories. This in turn might assist tea-
chers to realise the expected outcomes of communication, language and literacy,
 936 H. Hedges and J. Cullen

problem solving, reasoning and numeracy, and knowledge and understanding of the
world in ways responsive to children’s interests, dispositions and motivations. In NZ
and Australia, teachers are currently less constrained by external requirements in terms
of specific knowledge outcomes. They are therefore in a good position to support and
extend children in their areas of interest while remaining cognisant of cultural knowledge
and expectations. This does not, however, reduce their obligation to support young chil-
dren’s early conceptual learning or to take seriously, in relation to conceptual knowledge,
the implications of the learning outcomes that are specified in the curricular documents.
Again, exploring these ideas in future research would be helpful.
The combination of participatory learning and pedagogy that builds on children’s
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everyday knowledge to lead to early scientific concepts is another essential ‘plus’. Tea-
chers can encourage children’s early knowledge building in areas of interest using med-
iational processes involved in PLTs. Chaiklin and Hedegaard (2009) described their
concept of ‘radical–local’ teaching and learning to emphasise combining academic
concepts with the local content and conditions in children’s families, communities
and cultures. Their teaching approach uses the concept of the ‘double move’ to high-
light the two teaching processes involved. Fleer (2010) interprets the concept of a
double move in pedagogical practice in play-based programmes as when a teacher
not only connects conceptually and contextually with children but also analyses their
play for possibilities for active concept formation. ‘In the double move approach, the
teacher holds in her/his mind the psychological resources of the child, the contextual
dimensions of children’s everyday lives and experiences (everyday concepts), and the
concepts she/he wishes children to learn (scientific concepts) ’ (p. 212). Understanding
these concepts and processes may also be vital to responsive and intentional pedagogy
and examining longer-term cognitive outcomes in schooling. Further, teachers might
examine the extent of the domain knowledge they bring to co-constructed interactions
with children and seek to extend this as necessary to support children’s knowledge
building and inquiries.
In summary, future longitudinal research, particularly qualitative studies that
involve researcher-teacher collaboration, is clearly necessary to establish the long-
term outcomes of, and the effectiveness of the pedagogical approaches of, the three cur-
ricula documents highlighted in this paper and therefore the participation plus model
posited. This type of research may influence related policies such as those that take
account of cultural context in setting educational expectations and suggesting appropri-
ate pedagogical strategies, that is, the different and possibly eclectic routes by which
differing emphases and outcomes might be met. Further, such qualitative work could
be situated against longitudinal quantitative methods that would track cognitive out-
comes, using a mixed methods design. These data would serve to overcome the limit-
ations of current research on sociocultural curricula, at least in the NZ context, where
little is known of content knowledge or school achievement outcomes (Cullen, 2008;
Meade, 2010; Nuttall, 2011).

Conclusion
Children’s learning and knowledge-building about their world is focused and given
meaning by the social and cultural contexts in which it occurs. Children’s active partici-
pation in families, communities and cultures is motivated by their desire to be participat-
ing members of such groups. PLTs have been argued in this paper as a contemporary
response to sociocultural theoretical directions that view children as immersed and
 Early Child Development and Care 937

engaged with their cultures, and as in keeping with the curricular policy documents in
three Western countries. PLTs are responsive to Vygotskian notions of the mutual
role of cognition and affect in learning and that learning involves attainment of skills,
processes, innovative knowledge building and preparation for future societal responsi-
bilities alongside domain knowledge.
An alternative conception of outcomes, within a participation plus model of peda-
gogy, has been proposed to promote the everyday knowledge and cognitive processes
that children contribute to their learning and innovative knowledge-building. Reflective
of sociocultural theories, rather than purely domain-based knowledge, funds of knowl-
edge, dispositions and working theories highlight a more holistic view of outcomes.
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In this way, we have responded to Edwards’ (2005) claim that a participation meta-
phor does not do justice to the sophisticated relationships ‘between mind and world,
knowledge and meaning making, and feeling and action’ (p. 50). We have argued that
a participation metaphor is responsive to the complexity of the relationship between
mind and world when coupled with attention to different types of knowledge outcomes
consistent with a knowledge creation model and a holistic view of learning and knowl-
edge. In this way, as Edwards (2005) pointed out, participatory learning results in the
development of ‘expertise . . . a capacity to interpret the complexity of the world and
have the wherewithal to respond to that complexity’ (p. 60). We argue that the ‘where-
withal’ includes the affective, motivational and skill aspects we have posed as well as
cognitive components.

Notes on contributors
Helen Hedges is a senior lecturer and assistant dean (research) at the Faculty of Education at the
University of Auckland. She teaches and researches children’s and teachers’ interests, knowl-
edge and learning, in the contexts of early childhood and teacher education, using sociocultural
theoretical and methodological approaches.

Joy Cullen was foundation professor of early years education at Massey University, Palmerston
North, New Zealand. Following retirement in 2007 she continues to publish in early years
education. Research and publications in recent years have focused on research-based teaching
practices and curriculum that explicate and extend a sociocultural pedagogy, within the holistic
framework of NZ’s Te Whariki early childhood curriculum.

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