Contents
Introduction to Buried Piping
Dynaflow Lecture: Buried Piping
Rotterdam, 8 March 2012
Why burying a pipe?
Advantages of burying a pipe
!  Reduces plant congestion and avoids existing above
ground obstructions.
!  Allows for shorters route (fewer bends).
!  Soil can be used as uniform supporting, no above
ground supports and constructions are needed.
!  Protection from ambient temperature changes.
!  Protection from wind loads.
!  Long stretches of buried pipe act as a virtual anchor
and the need for large axial restraints or expansion
loops is eliminated.
Copyright 2011 @ Dynaflow Research Group
!  Introduction to Buried Piping
!  Soil Properties & Classification
!  Some Principles of Soil Mechanics
!  Rigid Pipe - Soil Interaction
!  Flexible Pipe - Soil Interaction
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Why burying a pipe?
Disadvantages of burying a pipe
!  Piping has to be designed for soil and surface loads,
which makes the stress and flexibility of the piping
more complex.
!  Careful trenching and backfill is required to avoid
excessive soil settlement.
!  There are some ‘uncertain’ parameters involved in
the design of buried piping.
!  Identification and repair of failures is more
problematic (quality control is very important for
buried systems).
!  Corrosion challenges, coathing/cathodic protection
might be required.
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 Soil-Pipe Interaction Underground Failure Mechanism
It is useful to have a basic understanding of the fundamental principles Examples of typical failures in buried piping

!  Soil is an earthen material consiting of loose solid particles with water in between. When burying !  Buried steel pipe failures are most often corrosion
a pipe, soil is effectively used as a construction material. related – a good coating is the first line of defence.
!  Soil is not a distinctly defined material with constant properties. Soil has a variety of !  If soil and surface loads are excessive the pipe cross-
appearances with widely varying properties. section can buckle or crack.
!  The mechanical behavior of soil (soil mechanics) on its own is a very specialized field of study. !  The moving portion of a pipe will generally be resisted
by the soil, creating significant bending stresses at
!  Buried pipelines are for their strength and stability behaviour dependent on the support and changes of direction, e.g. elbows and tees.
resistance of the surrounding soil.
!  Upheaval buckling due to a high water table or
!  Deformation of the pipeline can also deform the soil. Additionally, external influences may cause buckling due large thermal expansion.
the soil to deform as well, causing additonal loads on the pipe.
!  Fiberglass (FRP/GRP) pipes are more flexible than
!  All in all, there is a complex and continuous interaction between a buried pipe and the soil and steel pipes and therefore very senstive for abrupt
therefore soil-pipe interaction should be considered in any buried pipe design. changes in soil settlements.

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Underground Failure Mechanism Underground Failure Mechanism

High bending stresses in elbows and tee’s Steam line failure in New York City

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Underground Failure Mechanism Underground Failure Mechanism
Steam line failure in New York City Pipe upheaval due to high water table

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Underground Failure Mechanism Relevant Design Codes

Various “bad” design solutions Codes and manuals that touch on the subject of buried piping
Buried pipelines are not extensively covered by the ASME B31 codes. Some of the B31 codes have
additional requirements for buried pipes such as:

!  ASME B31.4 (Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping)

!  ASME B31.8 (Gas Transportation Piping)
!  ASME B31.1 (Power piping)

Often codes refer to “competent engineering judgement”. However, the following codes and
standards address the issue of buried pipe lines in detail:

!  NEN3650
!  AWWA M11 and M23 (American Water Works Association)
!  ASCE (American Socitiey of Engineers)
!  German ATV-DVWK

Apart from these codes there are well-known publications about this matter by:

!  L.C. Peng, Stress Analysis Methods for Underground Pipelines

( Peng’s papers are also added to the course material)
!  G. Kruisman, Influence of the Soil in Avanced Buried Pipeline Flexibiltiy Analysis

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 Contents Soil Classification According to Grain Size
Soil properties & classification Soils can be classified according to the size of the grains

!  Most basic classification of soil is based grain-size.

!  Introduction to Buried Piping
!  Soil Properties & Classification !  Soils with large grains are called “gravel” and soils 300 mm
with small grains “sand”.
!  Some Principles of Soil Mechanics 63 mm

!  Rigid Pipe - Soil Interaction !  Internationally it is defined that sand contains grains
larger than 0.063mm and smaller than 2mm.
!  Flexible Pipe - Soil Interaction 2 mm

!  Gravel contains grains with sizes between 2mm and

63mm.

!  Grains smaller than 0.063mm are called “silt”. 0.063 mm

!  Grains smaller than 0.002mm are called “clay”.

13 0.002 14
mm
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Soil Classification Diagram Porosity, Void Fraction & Water Saturation Parameter
The grain-distribution diagram contains the distribution of the various grain sizes Fundamental soil composition parameters

!  “Porosity of Soil” (n): void volume between the grains

!  A steep curve indicates that the soil grains are n = 0.5236
devided by the total soil volume:
similar of size (uniform soil).
V
well graded n = void
!  A flat curve means that the soil consits of various Vsoil
grain sizes. bad graded Most soils have porosity numbers between 0.30-0.45.
When porosity is small soil is “closely packed”, when
!  For grains larger than 0.05mm the distribution
large soil is “losely packed”.
diagram may be determined by means of
seaves.
!  A similar parameter to describe the porosity of the soil is
“Void Fraction” (e): n = 0.2595
!  The uniformity coefficient is defined by the
following ratio: Vvoid
D e=
CU = 60 Vgrain
D10
!  Water Saturation Parameter (S) is the water volume
!  Values of Cu < 2 indicate that the soil is bad or
devided by the void volume:
discontineously “graded”.
Vwater
S=
Vvoid
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 Classification According to Soil Density
Dry, wet, grain and total soil density
!  Dry soils have a dry density (ρdry) and wet soils have a wet
density (ρwet) .
!  The dry density should not be confused with the density of
the grains (ρgrain) itself.
!  To illustrate this sand for instance has a grain density
typically around: ρgrain=2650 kg/m3. The dry density of sand
as a bulk itself is typically ρgrain=2000 kg/m3.
!  Based on earlier defined parameters the total density (ρ) of
the soil can be expressed as:
ρ = S ⋅ n ⋅ ρ wet ⋅ g + (1 − n) ⋅ ρ grain ⋅ g
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Other Soil Parameters & Properties
Chemical composition and soil cohesion
!  Chemical composition of the soil (content of minirals; organic
particles, ect). Sands and gravels consit for instance out of
quartz, felspar, mica spots. Clays contain next to above
mentioned minirals also so called clay minirals (kaoliniet,
montmorilloniet, illiet).
!  Cohesion is another property of the soil. Cohesion indicates
that loads may be transferred by for instance roughness or
attraction forces between grains in the soil. Examples are:
1.  Electrostatic forces in stiff clays,
2.  Root cohesion (which may be caused by vegetation).
3.  Negative capillary pressure
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The Relative Soil Density
The relative soil density is a measure how well soil may be compacted
!  The relative density (RD) is an indicator of the
ρdry ρwet
“compaction ability” of the soil and depends on
the void fraction:
emax − e ρ dry,max ⋅ (ρ − ρ dry,min )
RD = =
emax − emin ρ ⋅ (ρ dry,max − ρ dry,min )
!  Soils with values of (RD) < 0.5 can easily be
compacted.
!  Tests may be used to determine the relative density
of the in-situ soil. Example os such test is the
“Proctor Test”.
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International Soil Classification Table
Examples of international soil classifications
!  Classification attempts have been made to derive a
“global” soil classification table.
!  A well known (international) classification system is
shown in the table on the top right; for which a two
letter designation is given to the soil.
!  More extended classification tables give also
measures for: the compaction properties of the soil
and other useful guidelines.
!  Classifications tables are found in ASTM D2487,
NEN3650, DIN18196.
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 Contents
Some basics of soil mechanics
!  Introduction to Buried Piping
!  Soil Properties & Classification
!  Some Principles of Soil Mechanics
!  Rigid Pipe - Soil Interaction
!  Flexible Pipe - Soil Interaction
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Microscopic Soil Stress Distribution
Loads in a wetted soil are transferred by the water and contact between grains
!  When a soil element is subjected to a uniform
normal stress (σ) as shown in the figure on the
right stresses can be accommodate by two
effects:
1.  water pressure
2.  soil contact force
!  The nett stress is: σ "= σ − p
!  p is the fluid pressure in between the voids
!  σ" is called the “effective (grain) stress”
!  Formulas were first derived by “Terzaghi”
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Macroscopic Stresses on Soil Elements
Soils can only be loaded by compression
!  On soil stresses can work similar to other materials.
!  Soils however can only accomodate “compression”
stresses not tensile stresses.
!  For wet soils it is true that a large part of stresses are
accomodated by the water content in the soil.
!  The water content inside the soil cannot accomodate
shear stresses; however the soil itself can.
!  Typical (macroscopic) stress tensors working on an
arbitatry soil element are shown on the right.
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Example of Vertical Stress in a Soil Layer
Application of Terzaghi’s formula
!  According to Terzaghi the effective grain stress in a
σ
soil can be found as the difference between total
σ stress and water pressure.
!  The total weight of the soil below the “freatic Hdry
surface” is: ρwet*Hwet. In which ρwet is the volume
weight of the wet soil and Hwet is depth of the wet soil
layer.
σ σ !  The total weight of the soil above the freatic surface
is: ρdry*Hdry. In which ρdry is the volume weight of the Hwet
dry soil and Hdry is depth of the dry soil layer.
p !  The effective grain stress then becomes:
p
p
Fcontact = σ”*A
σ " = σ − p = g ⋅ ( ρ dry ⋅ H dry + ρ wet ⋅ H wet ) − g ⋅ ρ water ⋅ H wet
p
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 Shear Stress in Soils The Horizontal Stress in a Soil at Rest
The ability to resist shear stresses depends on the friction and cohesion The horizontal stress in a soil is directly related to the vertical stress

!  When cohesionless soils are poured to the ground

from above it will spread due to gravity. Because of !  At rest the vertical soil load induces also a horizontal load due to contraction effect.
friction the area of spread is limited creating an angle of
repose (φ) at the balanced state. !  The ratio σ’’h/σ’’v is a constant known as coefficient of neutral earth pressure at rest (K0).

!  From this experiment the friction force that resists the !  Values for K0 are typical between 0.5 and 1.
shear loads may be calculated and the internal friction
coefficient (µ) of the soil may be determined: !  Sometimes Jaky’s correlation is used: K 0 = 1 − sin(ϕ )

σ h'' = K 0 ⋅ σ v''
f =resistance
!  The friction µ ⋅ n = µ ⋅(s)
w ⋅of
cos ϕ→
any tanplane
soilµin=any ϕ is
then expressed as: σ’’v
σ’’h
!  The angle (φ) is also
s =called theϕ soil
n ⋅ tan( ) + cangle of internal
friction.

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The Max Horizontal Soil Stress Nnar a Retaining Wall Contents

Rankine determined the relation between max horizontal and vertical soil stress Some basics of soil mechanics

!  When a burried object start to move the horizontal soil pressure changes.
!  Introduction to Buried Piping
!  Based on Rankin’s Theory (1857) the maximum increase and decrease in horizontal soil
pressure on each side of the object may be calculated. !  Soil Properties & Classification
ϕ !  Some Principles of Soil Mechanics
!  The active coefficient of soil pressure is: K P = tan 2 ( 45 +
2
)
ϕ !  Rigid Pipe - Soil Interaction
!  The passive coefficient of soil pressure is: 2
K A = tan ( 45 − )
2
!  Flexible Pipe - Soil Interaction
'' '' '' '' '' ''
σ − Δσ = K A ⋅ σ
h h v σ + Δσ = K p ⋅ σ
h h v

σ’’v σ’’v
σ’’h-∆σ’’h σ’’h+∆σ’’h

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 Modeling Soil – Pipe Interaction Modeling Soil – Pipe Reaction in a Pipe Mechanical Model
Soil stiffness & ultimate soil load are key parameters for a proper soil model Soil reaction is often represented by spring type elements in a mechanical model

!  It is custom practise to approximate soil-pipe interaction by means of spring elements; which are
!  A buried pipeline is continuously supported and restrained by the soil. applied along a mechanical model of the piping system.

!  When the pipe line moves inside the soil the soil exerts a reaction force counteracting the !  These spring elements are placed along the “wire” model to simulate the distributed reaction of
movement of the pipe. the soil.

!  The soil itself has a certain stiffness which describes the relation between applied load and !  The spings carry both information regarding the stiffness of the soil and the ultimate load it may
displacement as in a regular material. accomodate.

!  Another important property is the ultimate load which it can accomodate before it fails/
collpases .

!  Knowing both soil properties are crusial when one is aiming to estimate soil pipe interaction
and resulting pipe stresses.

!  Rigid buried pipe theory addresses longitudinal pipe deformations only.

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Representation of Maximum Soil Loads Upward Soil Resistance Depending on Soil Prism
Three different soil loads may be developed Marston’s load theory may be used for vertical soil resistance

!  Generally pipe experiences 3 types of soil loads:
1.  Vertical Soil Load (Upward & Downward)
2.  Horizontal Soil Load
3.  Axial Soil Load (Friction)
!  When the pipe is in rest and does not move the
loads extered on the pipe are in balance and are
normally called: “neutral soil loads”
!  When on the pipe another external load is exerted
neutral soil loads modify to balance the external
loads: we then talk about: “active and passive
soil loads”
!  Vertical soil resistance can be described by the
application of the “soil prism theory” also know as
“Marston’s load theory”
Vertical Upward
!  This theory states that the soil resistance is determined
by (a) the weight of a soil prism above the pipe and
Horizontal (b) the shear forces exerted on either sides of the
prism.
!  The shear conditions depend on the installation layout
of the pipe and soil; but in this case negative shear will
be assumed.
Vertical Downward
!  Next to the soil prism the weight of the pipe needs to
be taken into consideration as well.
friction

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Derivation of Upward Soil Resistance Upward Soil Resistance for Deep Buried Pipes
Shear effects are found by integration of the loads on both sides of the prism Marston theory does not apply for deep buried pipes

!  Shear stresses can be found by intergrating the friction !  Marston’s method assumes that the “friction
along both side surfces of the prism. planes” run from the outer edges of the pipes
towards grade level.
!  Let’s assume cohesionless soil (c=0, e.g. sand); ϕ is the
friction angle of the soil. !  For deep buries pipes (H > 5*D /10*D) this is not
true anymore.
!  The upward soil resistance q [kg/m] is:
!  The failure mechanism for deep buried pipes can
2 be determined according to deep burried
q = ( S + WS ) = tan(ϕ ) ⋅ K A ρH + ρDH foundations; which is beyond the scope of this
course.

!  The weight of the prism is: WS = ρ ⋅ D ⋅ H !  These failure planes do not strech until the grade
N N
surface.
!  The shear along the prism is calculated using Rankine’s
theory: S = 2 ⋅ N ⋅ µ = K A ⋅ ρH 2 ⋅ tan(ϕ )
1 σ v'' = ρH
N = K A ⋅ ρH 2
2
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Downward Vertical Soil Resistance Lateral Soil Resistance

Downward soil resistance requires the definition of the soil bearing capacity Lateral soil resistance restrains the pipe to move laterally

!  When the pipe moves downwards the soil !  When a structure is buried it experiences lateral
resistance can be determined from the “vertical (horizontal) soil loads at rest.
bearing capacity”.
!  There are numerous theories to describe the
!  Detailed geotechinical evaluation is required to relation between the lateral load and the soil
determine the vertical bearing capacity. reaction.

!  For a general idea the downward resistance can !  We will discuss Rankine’s Method developed
be roughly estimated to be as twice the horizontal for retaining walls.
resistance.
!  When the structure moves horizontally when
!  The vertical bearing capacity is the vertical load buried the equilibrium loads change.
required to break the soil underneath the pipe
over the full width of the pipe. !  Also for buried non-pipe structures lateral soil
pressure is of great relevance.
!  The failure mode is illustrated in the figure on the
right.

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 Soil in Equilibrium without Lateral Movement Passive & Active Lateral Soil Resistance
In equilibrium there is a balanced lateral load called the neutral lateral load When the pipe moves laterally the neutral soil load is altered in an active and passive
load

!  To move the pipe horizontally inside the soil a load (Q) A-A B-B
!  When a pipe is buried it also experiences a horizontal A-A A-A is required.
soil load at rest.
!  In front of the pipe the neutral load increases to resist
!  The horizontal equilibrium loads (qneutral) at rest are this movement; “passive soil resistance”. Q
called the “neutral horizontal loads”.
qneutral qneutral !  At the back side of the pipe the neutral soil load qactive qpassive
!  Netto no horizontal force works on the pipe. decreases: “active soil resistance”.

!  Lateral loads can be represented by 2 symmetric !  In most cases the active soil load (qactive≈0) can be Q = q passive − qactive
“wedges” shearing along planes A-A. ignored; since a void is created direclty next to the pipe
and no load is transfered to the pipe.

!  Lateral stresses can be represented by 2 asymmetric

“wedges” shearing along planes A-A & B-B.

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Lateral Loads and “Wedge Effect” Maximum Passive & Active Lateral Soil Resistance
Example of an experiment Mohr-Coulomb theory may be used to calculate the passive and active loads

!  To calculate the maximum active and passive horizontal loads the equilibrium of
the forces along the shear planes of the wedge may be determined.

!  Theory assumes that the soil fails at a friction surface planes Ѳ.

S = shear force (friction)

N= normal force
Ws= prism weight load
Ѳ = slip plane

Q
qactive qpassive
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 Determining the maximum lateral soil load Lateral Soil Resistance For Deep Buried Pipe
Maximum soil load is found by differentiation Rankine’s model is not valid for deep buried pipes

(A) Load Equilibrium:

: F →: 0 = q
Σ passive − S cos θ − N sin θ !  The wedge model is valid only when the depth of the cover is less than the diameter of the
pipe.
ΣF ↑: 0 = WS + S sin θ − N cosθ
WS =
1
γ (H + D )2 tan(Θ)
!  When it is applied to larger cover depths it over estimates the lateral resistance.
2

qpassive !  However for a cover depth equal to 3 times the diameter of the pipe the overestimate is
θ (B) Solving for qpassive:
only 10%.
1 2
q passive = γ (H + D ) cot θ * tan(Θ − ϕ ) !  For deeper buried piping the failure mode is tunneling and pipe punching.
2
!  For this case the soil resistance is typically much smaller than according to the wedge
(C) Determining Maximum qpassive theory.
1 2 ϕ
q passive = γ (H + D ) tan 2 (45 + )
2 2 !  Special theory is required to define the ultimate load for this cases, which beyond the scope
of the training.
Expressed as Rankine’s Coefficient Kp:
1 2 ϕ
q passive = γ (H + D ) K p K P = tan 2 (45 + )
2 2

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Axial Soil Resistance An Equation for Axial Soil Resistance

Axial soil resistance is caused by the effects of friction Axial soil resistance is proportional to the weight of the soil cover and pipe

!  Axial loads are generated by the shear resistance !  In the case of an idealized model the axial
developed over the pipe outer surface. resistance (f) can be determined by the following
expression:
!  Shear resistance comprises two parts:
1.  cohesive forces f = µ (2WS + W p )
2.  friction forces
!  The active soil force is defined as:
!  A typical soil pressure distribution on a pipe is
shown in the figure on the right. WS ≈ ρDH

!  A more practical approach is to idealize the !  The resulting axial resistance force is than:
methodology and determine the axial friction based Typical friction values of µ:
on the vertical loads as shown in the figure on the f = µ (2 ρDH + W p )
right.
!  (µ) is called the friction coefficient (not to be
confused with the soil friction coefficient).

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 Pipe/Soil Stiffness Definition The Axial Pipe/Soil Stiffness
Pipe/Soil stiffness defines the interaction stiffness between soil and pipe The definition of the axial pipe stiffness is similar

!  Stiffness describes the amount of soil displacement !  Axial friction can also modelled as a bi-linear curve as
that is required to reach ultimate soil load. is shown on the right.

!  As can be seen from the stress-strain curve the !  The movement before full fracture is reached, is
behavior is generally non-linear. considered to me small or instantenous in most
mechanical representations of axial friction.
!  Soil stiffness values may be determined from soil
investigation. !  After reachring full axial load the load remains
unchanged.
!  In pratise the non-linear behavior is approximated by a
so-called bi- or tri-linear curve as can be seen from !  The relation between load and displacement in the
the graph on the right. linear part is desribed by:
q
Kq =
!  The strain at which maximum (ultimate load) is reached de f
kf =
is also called the “yield displacement”. Some sources de
report that this value is about 1.5 – 2% of the pipe
bottom depth.

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Contents Flexible Pipe – Soil Interaction

Flexible pipe – soil interaction Ring deformation is especially relevant for flexible pipes

!  Introduction to Buried Piping !  Flexible Pipes can also experience significant

circumferential deformation effects due to soil load.
!  Soil Properties & Classification
!  Some Principles of Soil Mechanics !  Exessive circumferential deformation of the pipe may
lead to collapse/fracture of the pipe.
!  Rigid Pipe - Soil Interaction
!  Flexible Pipe - Soil Interaction !  Determining the amount of ring ovalisation is therefore
a key factor in the design of a flexible pipe.

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 Pipe Ring Deformation and Stresses Some Notes on the Iowa Formula
Ring deformation is especially relevant for flexible pipes The Iowa formula includes 2 stiffness effects

!  M. Sprangler (student of Marston) observed that Marston
Theory for vertical loads on buried pipes was not
adequate for flexible pipes.
!  Flexibile pipes provide little inherent stiffness in
comparison to rigid pipes, but still perform remarkably
well when buried.
!  The ability of flexible pipes to support vertical loads is
dervied from:
1.  The redistribution of loads around the pipe
2.  It generates passive pressures at the sides of the pipe
when it moves outward against the earth
!  His derived formula is called “Sprangler’s” or “Iowa“
formula which relates ring deflection (∆X) to the vertical
soil loads.
!  If one studies the Iowa equation one can note that
the ring deflection is resisted by 2 effects:
1.  Pipe ring stiffness (A) Pipe ring stiffness (B) Soil lateral
2.  Stiffness of the surrounding soil stiffness
!  The bedding constant (K) accounts for the the
supporting “bed” underneath the pipe.
∆X
!  Typical values for different bedding angles are
shown in the table on the right.
!  Since soil consolidates at the sides of the pipe
over time the factor (DL) is used to account for the
additional ring deflection.

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Contents Dynaflow Buried Piping Training

End

!  Two days buried lines with CAESAR II

training course.
!  Introduction to Buried Piping
!  17 - 18 September 2012.
!  Soil Properties & Classification
!  Some Principles of Soil Mechanics !  You can register using our webpage.
www.dynaflow.com
!  Rigid Pipe - Soil Interaction
!  Flexible Pipe - Soil Interaction
!  End

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 Questions ?

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