IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation Vol. ET-14 NO.

6, December 1979 289

TRANSIENT BEHAVIOR IN TRANSFORMER OILS:

PREBREAKDOWN AND BREAKDOWN PHENOMENA

S. J. Rzad, J. C. Devins and R. J. Schwabe

General Electric Research and Development Center
Schenectady, New York

ABSTRACT
A quantitative correlation between streamer
velocities and impulse breakdown voltages has been
established for point-plane geometries. We have
extended these studies to less divergent fields
(rod-plane) where we have identified two regions
for impulse breakdown in liquids, one initiation-
controlled and a second controlled by streamer
propagation rate. Which controls breakdown is
determined by electrode geometry (field divergence),
liquid composition, and wave shape. The influence
of these parameters has been determined and a
general model for the prediction of impulse
breakdown voltage is proposed.

INTRODUCTION With this model, and a knowledge of the dependence

During the last several years we have been studying
of streamer velocity, v, on voltage [6], breakdown
will occur when
prebreakdown phenomena in liquids [1-6]. In these
investigations we measured prebreakdown streamer ve-
locities as a function of a number of parameters such
tb
as voltage, field configuration, temperature, and T vdt = L (1)
chemical and physical properties of the liquids. We
further observed that breakdown occurs within fractions ti
of a microsecond after the streamer has crossed- the
gap. It would seem possible, therefore, that one
could predict the impulse breakdown voltage for any
wave shape simply from a knowledge of the streamer
velocity as a function of voltage. This would be true,
of course, only if the voltage were high enough so that Vb
the streamer could initiate. In this paper we shall
compare the experimental impulse breakdown voltages
with those calculated from our measurements of streamer Vi
velocities and shall examine the conditions under which
these voltages are determined by initiation or propa- V
gation processes.

HIGHLY DIVERGENT FIELDS

Let us consider an impulse wave such as- shown in
Fig. 1. In order for breakdown to occur a streamer
must initiate (Vi) and propagate across the gap [2]
before the voltage drops to zero. In fact, it has
been found [7] that breakdown occurs on the tail at
t tb
a voltage which is considerably larger than zero, so
that it may be concluded that a minimum voltage for
breakdown, Vm, exists. This presumably corresponds Fig. 1: Characteristic voltages for oil breakdown
to a minimum voltage required for propagation of the on an impulse wave.
streamer.

0018-9367/79/1200-0289$00.75 0 1979 IEEE

290 IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation Vol. EI-14 No.6, December 1979

where L is the gap, and ti and tb are the times corres-

ponding to initiation and breakdown. For impulses
having rise times much shorter than the tail time, T,
the voltage wave can be approximated by
v =V exp (-t/T) (2)
and t 0.
_oft 700
For voltages above Vm the velocity of positive
streamers in transformer oil is related to voltage by
-- 600
the expression [6] CD

1,-
co 500
v = v + KV (3)
0

where K = 0.62 cmVl1s-1 and v. = 1.64 x 105 cms-1. A

z 400
Combining equations (1), (2) and (3) and remembering
that ti = 0 one obtains 0
I 300
L = v t + KTV - KTV exp(-t /T) (4) W.2t
'r
Since the time to breakdown, tb, corresponds to the
minimum voltage Vm:
200
Vm = Vo exp(-t b /T) (5) 100'
equation (4) can be written as
0

v
+ V -
v
K ln
V

V (6)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I/T (X 104S1)
K-r m K V
m
A plot of VO
1/T should be a curve having an
vs
intercept of Vm, since for large T, VO Vm. Such a
plot, utilizing measurements of Degn, [8] is shown Fig. 2: A comparison of calculated and experimentaZ
in Fig. 2. These measurements were carried out with dependence o breakdown voZtage on taiZ time in
a point-plane geometry using a standard transformer
transformer oil. Positive point-plane. Gaps -(Q):
oil. The point was stainless steel with a radius of 2.5 4 cm; (J): 5.08 cm: (A): 10.16 cm; (v): 14.61 cm.
about 50 pm and the plane electrode was 50 cm in
diameter. The curves drawn in Fig. 2 are those given
by Equ. (6) assuming Vm corresponds to the value of
VO for a tail time of 2590 ps. The agreement between
calculated and experimental values is generally good,
particularly when one considers that there are no
adjustable parameters other than Vm. If account is 300
taken of the finite rise time (1.2 ups), the agreement
is essentially unaltered.
The minimum propagation voltage, Vm, appears to in-
crease linearly with gap as shown in Fig. 3. It seems
likely that this is related to the voltage drop across 200
the streamer, although the details are not clear at
this time.
E
Another related parameter is the time to breakdown
on the tail of the wave. This is given by rearranging
Equ. (4) to give

tb = -T ln[1- KVO +
KTVO (7)

Unfortunately measurements of the times to breakdown

for transformer oil are unavailable. However, such GAP (CM)
measurements were made by Mathes and Rouse [7], on
Marcol 70, a highly refined naphthenic-based mineral
oil supplied by Exxon Corporation. For this material
the positive streamer velocity was experimentally Fig. 3: The dependence of minimum propagation voltage
found to be gap-dependent, and given by [6] on gap. Positive point-pZane. (e) transformer oil;
(A) MarcoZ 70.
V = K 'VIL 0-5 (8)
Rzad, Devins, and Schwabe: Transient behavior in transformer oils 291

rather than that by Equ. (3). Here, K' = 2.68 cml5
V ls-1. Since v0 is zero the third term in Equ. (7)
drops and the equation is easily solved to give
tb =- lnL -
K?KTV
The experimental data and the calculated curves
(Equ. (9)) for a 1.5/50 Ps wave are shown in Fig. 4
for three different gaps. Each point corresponds to
one experimental determination. Averages only are
given in Ref. [7]. We are indebted to K. N. Mathes
for supplying us with the individual measured points
plotted in Fig. 4. The times are measured from the
time to crest. In this case there are no adjustable
parameters, so that the agreement with experiment is
gratifying,although the scatter of the data is large,
especially for larger gaps. It might be considered
that this is a reflection of a statistical time lag
in the streamer initiation process. However, except
for the lowest voltages, our measurements of streamer
length as a function of time show very little scatter
50r I
I region is conducting and that the growth rate is pro-
I Recently Kelley and Hebner [10] have in fact obtained
40F I direct evidence indicating that the spherical streamer
and no time intercept (cf Fig. 2, Ref. [1]). Since
each point in that figure refers to a separate
ment it is clear that no appreciable statisticalexperi-
time
for initiation exists. For the lowest voltages, near
Vm, the results of measurements of streamer
time are much more scattered as is evidenced,length
vs
(9) example, again in Fig. 2 of Ref. [1].
for
vations have led to the conclusion that Many
such obser-
near the mini-
mum voltage for propagation, the streamer
becomes somewhat erratic. We believe that velocity
it is this
phenomenon which gives rise to the statistical fluctu-
ations observed in Fig. 4. The effect is enhanced
the fact that the total transit time will be by
by the slower velocities, ie., those nearer Vm. weighted
(9) predicts a minimum value for V0 = Equ.
general this voltage is smaller than Vm, the minimum
In L15/K'T.
voltage for streamer propagation. Values for Vm can
be calculated from Equ. (6) for Marcol 70
breakdown voltages of Mathes and Rouse [7],using
the
that v0=0 and that K=K '/ LO. These values, remembering
in Fig. 3 as a function of gap, are seen plotted
to be not
much different from those obtained for transformer oil.
For the negative streamers a somewhat different model
is required since their velocity in Marcol 70 is a
strong function of position in the as well as of
the voltage. The negative streamersgapappear to be
spherical regions which grow toward the plane [1,2].
The velocity dependence on position in the
gap can be
accounted for if one postulates that the spherical
portional to the field, E, at its boundary, r, [1,9].
is conducting. We assume.

v = AE (10)
where A is a constant. Approximating the geometry by
30k concentric spheres,

E = V (1 1)

20k r2
r R

where R is the radius of the outer sphere, and the

is R-r., r0 being the radius of the gap
point. For the
gaps used in this work R is essentially equal to the
10 gap L, i.e. ro<<R.
Combining (10) and (11) we have

dr A V
010I - 1L I
I
____jI v=dt =
2 - (12)
100 200 300 400 =r r RR

V(k V) Separating
R and t from
the variables and
0 to tb we have
integrating r from r0 to

Fig. 4: A comparison of caZcuZated and experimentaZ

time to breakdown in Marcol 70. Positive point-
plane. Gaps-(O): 2.54 cm; (U): 5.08 cm; (A): tb -T
ln 6AT + 2AVQT (1 ) (13)
7.62 cm.
Since
i.e.
R»>ro the terms in r 2 and r03 can be nr-lected,

R
t
tb
= -T lnI -
6A V0 T
(14)
292 IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation Vol. EI-14 No.6, December 1979
The value of A was determined by titting a wide range
of measurements of streamer lengths for various applied
voltages, times and gaps using Equ. (12). Its average
value was 0.016 cm V s1
A comparison of the values calculated from Equ. (14)
for a 1.5/50 Ps wave is made with the measurements of
Mathes and Rouse [7] in Fig. 5. Again individual
points were supplied by K. N. Mathes, and again, it
should be pointed out that the calculations involve
no disposable constants, so that the agreement seems
satisfactory. The scatter in the data may reflect
the variations in velocity at low voltage, as for
positive streamers (cf. Fig. 2, Ref. [1]).
200[
150 A Fig. 6: Time to breakdown vs. breakdown voZtage in
I100
.0
O~~~C
0.
0 100 200 300 400 500
V(kV)
Fig. 5: A comparison of calculated and experimentaZ
time to breakdown in MarcoZ 70. Negative point-
pZane. Gaps-(o): 0.64 cm; (A): 1.27 cm; (A):
1.59 cm.
MODERATELY DIVERGENT FIELDS
In electrical equipment great care is usually taken
to eliminate highly divergent fields such as are repre-
sented by point-plane geometries. On the other hand,
completely uniform fields are generally unobtainable
for practical reasons. In this section we shall con-
sider field divergences corresponding to enhancement
factors (ratio of maximum to average field) ranging
from 1.01 to 15.
For fairly uniform fields, photographic measurements
of streamer velocities are difficult [4], since ini-
tiation stresses are high. Thus streamer velocities
are high, and since the gaps which can be used are
small, the transit times are very short. Moreover
the reproducibility between experiments is poor. For
these reasons we determined instead the times to
breakdown on rectangular voltage waves, averaging over
five measurements. To maximize the time to breakdown
we used negative polarities on the rods, since the
negative streamer velocities are lower [1].
.*0
_ 1IN
-,A
00.
100
MarcoZ 70 for 100 ps rectanguZar voZtage waves with
rod-plane geometries. Radius of curvature of the
rod - 0.05 cm solid points; 0.075 cm half-fiZZed
points; 0.15 cm open points. Gaps-(o): 0.08 cm;
(0):
0.16 cm; (A): 0. 32 cm; (V): 0. 48 cm; (0):
0.64 cm; (4..):0. 79 cm; (4-): 0.95 cm.
In Fig. 6 are shown breakdown voltage-time charac-
teristics for spherically capped rods having three
different radii of curvature with seven different gaps.
Each point is the average of five measurements. The
arrows indicate that at least one of the measurements
did not lead to breakdown, and in this case only the
measurements corresponding to breakdown were used in
forming an average. A striking feature of this plot
is that for each gap there is one region where the
data are independent of radius of curvature and another
where a dependence on radius of curvature is evident.
This is more clearly illustrated in Fig. 7 where we
have plotted the results for a single gap, 0.318 cm.
While for short times and high voltages there is a
single curve, for lower voltages the curves separate,
approaching limiting values which depend upon radius
of curvature, the larger the radius of curvature the
larger the limiting voltage.
Similar measurements have been made in uniform field
gaps [11-13] to give somewhat similarly shaped curves.
There has not been general agreement on the interpre-
tation of the results. Thus while Crowe [11] and
Goodwin and MacFadyen [12] consider that the curves
indicated the presence of a formative time lag which
is required for breakdown development, Lewis and Ward
[13] explain the curves in terms of a statistical time
lag required for breakdown initiation.
It seems reasonable to identify the limiting voltages
with those required for initiation of the streamer,
while the higher voltage values for shorter times are
those required for streamer propagation across the gap.
Further evidence that this interpretation is correct
is given in Fig. 8 where we compare similar measure-
ments, on another batch of oil, with values obtained
from streamer photographs where the points do corres-
pond to the time required for propagation across the
gap. The streamer lengths were measured in both rod
(0.05 cm radius) to plane and point (3 pm radius) to
plane geometries. The data in Figs. 6 and 8 strongly
support the conclusion that the propagation rate is
Rzad, Devins, and Schwabe: Transient behavior in transformer oils 293

independent of field geometry. This conclusion

appears to be valid even for quite uniform fields, as
is shown in Fig. 9, where we have plotted volt-time 0
curves for two gaps with electrode geometries having
much smaller field enhancement factors (1.01 to 2.23).
0'
We have shown above that the breakdown voltage may be 150 [-
determined either by that required for a prebreakdown
streamer to propagate across the gap, or by that re-
quired to initiate the streamer depending upon the
electrode geometry and wave shape. We shall now attempt
V (kV)
to define more quantitatively the conditions deter- 100
mining which breakdown mode dominates.

I I F? I 50

L-0.-318cm ni
vA I II
170 K U 50 100
TIME (ps)
-

-J
0 Fig. 8: Time to breakdown vs. breakdown voltage in
130 F- Marcol1 70 for 100 ps Radius
rectangular voZtage wave with
0 rod-plane geometry. of curvature of the rod
-0.05 cm; gap 0.64 cm. (0): ExperimentaZ breakdown
wrqco
ax data; (I) predicted from negative streamer veZocities
in rod-plane geometry; (X): predicted from negative
streamer veZocities in point-pZane geometry.
90H

[14] with a rod radius of 0.07 cm. This means not

only that the stress required for initiation is essen-
0
vv~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~g
25 50
1.

*. 100
.
TIME TO BREAKDOWN (is)
Fig. 7: Time to breakdown vs breakdown voZtage in
Marco 70 for 100 ps rectanguZar voZtage waves
with rod-ptane geometries. Radius of curvature of
the rod (Q): 0.05 cm, (o ): 0.075 cm, (A): 0.15 cm.
-
In Fig. the "initiation voltages" derived from
10
the lower plateau values obtained from Figs. 6 and 9
as a function of gap for several radii of curvature
have been plotted. Because of the uncertainties in
extrapolation the absolute values of these voltages
may be in error by ca 15%, although the relative
values are somewhat better than this.
The dashed portions of the curves represent expected
trends and not quantitative extrapolations. It is the
purpose of this analysis only to provide a model for
the expected behavior, since the long gap data for
initiation voltages are not available for a more
quantitative treatment. The crosses shown in Fig. 10
refer to positive 1.5/50 us impulse breakdown voltages
tially independent of polarity but also that the sta-
tistical time lag is negligible, since otherwise the
peak breakdown voltage would be dependent upon wave
shape. Hosticka [15] also found that the impulse
strength of standard transformer oil was independent
of polarity for rod-plane geometries in the
where initiation dominates. region
Since the statistical time lag appears to be small
the voltages required for initiation will be essen-
tially independent of wave shape or duration, while
those required for propagation will be strongly de-
pendent on wave shape as described above. Positive
and negative point to plane impulse breakdown
are also plotted in Fig. 10 voltages
utilizing the data of
Mathes and Rouse [7]. Because some of the
points for the curve for negative polarity experimental
fall outside
of our graph
the solid line comes from one drawn
through the points: 0.64 cm gap, 150 kV; 1.27 cm
gap,
323 kV; and 1.59 cm, 420 kV. As is evident from our
previous discussion, these curves are determined by
the propagation velocity of the streamers. These
velocities appear to be independent of radius of cur-
vature as seen in Figs. 6 and 9 for negative
points
and rods. Therefore, a single propagation curve
apply in Fig. 10. We have insufficient data with will
positive rods to establish whether a single propagation
curve exists. However, this will not affect the
validity of the following arguments.
 294 IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation Vol. EI-14 No.6, Decemnber 1979

In order for breakdown to occur, for any geometry,

the voltage must exceed that required for both initia-
190 -
a tion and propagation across the gap. Thus, for each
radius of curvature there will be a range of gaps for
170 - a 0 which initiation controls the breakdown voltage, while
70
150
above a certain gap, corresponding to the appropriate
intersection point in Fig. 10, propagation will be the
150 0
t
controlling process. This should be reflected in a
0 U 0
relatively discontinuous increase in slope for the
110 U curve of breakdown voltage versus gap. It is clear
from Fig. 10 that the transition from initiation to
90 0 propagation-controlled breakdown will occur at much
A A£ 0 0.0.
smaller gaps for negative polarities. This is sub-
stantiated by the data of Hosticka [14] for the 1.5/50
0

70~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0.
50 1 vis impulse breakdown in white naphthenic oil using
0 5 10 15 20 0.07 cm radius rods. The negative values fall on our
TIME (its) propagation curve while the positive values on that for
initiation.
While the above results were obtained with a white
Fig. 9: Time to breakdown vs. breakdown voltage in oil, it is expected that the model should apply gener-
MarcoZ 70 for 100 ps rectanguZar voltage waves with ally to breakdown in liquids. Since we have found [16]
rod-plane geometries. Gap -0. 08 cm; radius of that initiation voltages are much less affected by low
curvature of the rod (o): 0.05 cm; (0) 0.5 cm; - ionization potential or electron scavenging additives
(A): 2. 54 cm. Gap 0.16 cm; radius of curvature -
than those for propagation, our model suggests that
of the rod (J): 0.05 cm; (a): 0.5 cm; (V): 2.54.
-
long gap breakdown, where propagation dominates, will
be more sensitive to small amounts of such impurities.
The gaps corresponding to intersections between initi-
ation and propagation curves will, of course, depend
upon wave shape; the longer the tail time the larger
the gap for intersection.

I I I I I I I I 1

LUJ

IE
wj
xl
_
CD
Ck
X
LUI
+
fi + l,
X-X'X-X-

0
A-
0.1I. AI
0.2 -I
0.3 _I
0.4
_I
Q5
I_
Q6
_I
0.7
_I
0.8
__
0.9
GAP (cm)

GAP (cm) Fig. 11: Initiation field as a function of gap for

various radii of curvature of the rod in MarcoZ 70 -

(a): 0. 05 cm ( )): 0. 075 cm; (A): 0.15 cm; (X):

0.5 cm; (+): 2.54 cm.
Fig. 10: Impulse breakdown behavior in Marco1 70.
Negative initiation voZtages-radius of curvature
of the rod (o): 0.05 cm; (T): 0.075 cm; (A): 0.15 cm;
(0): 0.5 cm. Propagation voZtages - 3 pm radius
point-plane experimentaZ data ref. 7 (0) positive
-

point; (a): negative point. Impulse (1.5/50 Ps)

breakdown voZtages in 0.07 cm radius rod-pZane
geometry experimentaZ data ref. 14: (X) positive
-

rod; (+) negative rod.

Rzad, Devins, and Schwabe: Transient behavior in transformer oils 295

The initiation voltages obtained from Figs. 6 and 9

can be converted to maximum fields (macroscopic) at the 3. The conditions under which propagation or initia-
rod electrodes [17]. These are plotted as a function tion dominate were delineated. Parameters, such as
of gap in Fig. 11. It is clear that with the exception wave shape, geometry and gap are included in this
of the smallest radii of curvature the initiation fields description.
are essentially independent of the gap, while they are
inversely dependent on the,radius of curvature. This 4. The initiation fields appear to be essentially the
behavior could be explained by weak link statistical same on both polarities.
theories in which it is assumed that the breakdown
field decreases with increasing area [18] or volume
[19] under stress. A plot of bre'akdown field against AC KNOWLEDGMENTS
volume of oil under 80% or greater of the maximum
stress at the electrode is given in Fig. 12, using the We are greatly indebted to Dr. P. Degn for allowing
data of Fig. 11. The correlation is fair except for us to use some of his unpublished data and to
the smallest volumes under stress (small radius of Dr. W. F. Westendorp for carrying out the rod-plane
curvature) where a pronounced dependence on gap is field calculations.
obse'rved (cf. also Fig. 11). It should be noted that
a simila'r correlation is found on plotting the initia-
tion stress against area of the electrode under 80% REFERENCES
or greater of the maximum stress. We are presently
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"Prebreakdown Phenomena in Liquilds: Electronic
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L87-191, 1976.

[2] J. C. Devins, S. J. Rzad and R. J. Schwabe, "The

Role of Electronic Processes in the Electrical
2 r- Breakdown of Insulating Liquids,'t Can. J. Chem.
Vol. 55, 1899-1905, 1977.
a [3] J. C. Devins, S. J. Rzad and R. J. Schwabe,
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With Highly Divergent Fields," 1976 Annual
Report on Conference on Electrical Insulation
and Dielectric Phenomena, 182-192, 1978.
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VI- 0
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U-
[5] S. J. Rzad, J. C. Devins and R. J. Schwabe,
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n u-II 11111
111111
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111111
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I0

VOLUME TO 80/. MAX. STRESS (cm) [6] J. C. Devins, S. J. Rzad and R. J. Schwabe.,
"Positive Streamer Velocities in Dielectric
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[7] K. N. Mathes and T. 0. Rouse, "Influence of

Aromatic Compounds in Oil on Pirelli Gassing
and Impulse Surge Breakdown," 1975 Annual
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and Dielectric Phenomena, 129-137, 1978.
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A
ties impulse breakdown voltages has been established
and [8] P. Degn, Private Communication.

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range
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[15] C. Hosticka, "Dependence of Uniform/Nonuniform
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[16] Our unpublished Data.
[17] W. F. Westendorp, "The Enhancement Factor of the
Electric Field in the Point-Plane Configuration,"
Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report ORNL-TM-5137,
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[18] A. H. Sharbaugh, J. C. Devins and S. J. Rzad,
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Manuscript was received 9 April 1979, in revised form
3 August 1979.