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CASTING

Casting means pouring molten metal into a mold with a cavity of


the shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify. When solidified,
the desired metal object is taken out from the mold either by
breaking the mold or taking the mold apart. The solidified object is

called the CASTING.


BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF CASTING PROCESS
1. MOLD CAVITY
2. MELTING PROCESS
3. POURING TECHNIQUE
4. SOLIDIFICATION PROCESS
5. MOLD REMOVAL
6. CLEANING, FINISHING AND INSPECTION
SAND CASTING
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF CASTING PROCESS
1. MOLD CAVITY
2. MELTING PROCESS
3. POURING TECHNIQUE
4. SOLIDIFICATION PROCESS
5. MOLD REMOVAL
6. CLEANING, FINISHING AND INSPECTION
Cross-section of typical two-part sand mold
Indicating various MOLD COMPONENTS and TERMINOLOGY
CASTING TERMINOLOGY
 PATTERN: An approximate replica or duplicate of the final
casting.
Molding material is packed around the pattern and pattern is
removed to produce a mold cavity
 FLASK: The box that contains the molding aggregate
 COPE: is the top half of the pattern, flask, mold, or core in a
two-part mold
 DRAG: Refers to the bottom half of the pattern, flask, mold, or
core in a two-part mold
 CORE: A sand shape that is inserted into the mold to produce
the internal features of a casting, such as holes or passages
for water cooling
 CORE PRINT: Region added to the pattern, core, or mold
which is used to locate and support the core within the
mold
Contd …
CASTING TERMINOLOGY
 MOLD CAVITY: Shaped cavity formed by the combination of
mold material and core into which the melt is poured and
solidified to produce the desired casting
 RISER: An extra void created in the mold and also filled with
molten material to provide a reservoir of material that can flow
into the mold cavity to compensate for any shrinkage that
occurs during solidification.
Riser MUST contain the last material to solidify otherwise
shrinkage voids will be located in the final casting and not in
the riser
 GATING SYSTEM: is the network of channels used to deliver
the melt to the mold cavity
 POURING CUP or POURING BASIN: Portion of the gating
system that initially receives the melt from the pouring vessel
and controls its delivery to the rest of the mold
Contd …
CASTING TERMINOLOGY
 SPRUE: The vertical portion of the gating system through
which from the pouring cup, the melt travels down
 RUNNERS: Horizontal channels of the gating system through
which melt enters into the mold cavity
 GATES: Controlled entrances of the gating system into the
mold cavity
 VENTS: Additional channels included to provide an escape for
the gases generated within the mold
 PARTING LINE OR PARTING SURFACE: Interface that
separates the cope and drag halves of a mold, flask, or pattern
and also the halves of a core in some core-making processes
 DRAFT: is the taper on a pattern or casting that permits it
easy withdrawal from the mold
Functions of a GATING SYSTEM

FUNCTION-1: to deliver the melt, poured into the mold, to ALL


sections of the Mold Cavity
FUNCTION-2: to Minimize Turbulent Flow, which tends to
promote excessive absorption of gases and oxidation of the metal
and accelerates mold erosion.
 Short Sprues are Desirable, since they minimize the distance that the
metal must fall when entering the mold.
 Rectangular Pouring Cups Prevent a vortex of funnel from forming,
which tends to suck gas and oxides into the sprue.
 Tapered Sprues also prevent vortex formation.
 Large Sprue Well can be used to dissipate the kinetic energy of the
falling stream.

FUNCTION-3: Gating system should also be designed to Trap


Dross and Sand Particles and keep them from entering the mold
cavity.
Lower-density particles will rise to the top of the molten material if
sufficient time is given
CASTING TERMINOLOGY
 CORE BOX: The Mold or Die used to produce casting cores
 CHAPLETS: Small metal supports positioned between the core
and mold cavity surfaces to support the weight of those cores which
do not completely pass through the castings and to keep it away
from being moved or float by the molten metal
 Use of chaplets should be minimized
because they become an integral part
of the finished casting and may cause
defects or be a location of weakness.

 Chaplets should be made of the same


or at least comparable composition as
the casting material.

 Chaplets should be large enough so


that they do not completely melt and
permit the core to float but small
enough so that their surface melts
and fuses with the metal being cast.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CHAPLETS
CASTING TERMINOLOGY
 CHEEK: Third segment of the
flask used to facilitate the
molding of shapes containing
reentrant angles or sections
i.e. Round pulley with recessed
groove around its perimeter

 CHILL: Masses of high heat capacity and high thermal conductivity


material that placed in the mold adjacent to the casting
o To assist the risers in performing their job
o To accelerate the cooling of various regions
o To promote directional solidification
o To increase the effective feeding distance of a riser
o To reduce number of risers required for casting
CASTING TERMINOLOGY
 MOLDING SAND: Sand used to prepare the mold

 FACING SAND: The sand used next to the pattern for


obtaining cleaner and smoother casting surfaces

 BACKING SAND: The reconditioned sand used in bulk after


the facing sand

 PARTING SAND: The sand sprinkled on the pattern and to the


parting surfaces of the mold halves to prevent adherence of
molding sand
 BOTTOM BOARD: Board over which halves of the flask are
kept while preparing the mold
 CASTING: The term used to describe both the process and the
product when the melt is poured and solidified in a mold
PATTERN
The PATTERN is an approximate physical model of
the object to be made by the CASTING PROCESS

• It is the principal tool during the casting process


• Making a pattern is the first step in CASTING
• Quality of the casting depends largely on the pattern
material, its design and construction
• Strength and durability of the material selected for
patterns must reflect the number of castings that the
mould will produce
Types of PATTERNS
1. Single Piece Pattern
2. Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern
3. Gated Pattern
4. Cope and Drag Pattern
5. Match Plate pattern
6. Loose Piece pattern
7. Follow board pattern
8. Sweep pattern
9. Skeleton pattern
10. Shell pattern
11. Segmental pattern
Single Piece or Solid Pattern Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern

Pattern
Gate
Runner

Gated Pattern Cope and Drag Pattern

Match Plate pattern Sweep pattern


Functions of the Pattern
1. A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a
casting.
2. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the
casting requires a core and need to be made hollow.
3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in
the mold cavity may form a part of the pattern.
4. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth
surfaces reduce casting defects.
5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of
the castings.
PATTERN MATERIAL
Desirable properties
1. Easily worked, shaped and joined
2. Light in weight
3. Strong, hard and durable
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature
and humidity
7. Available at low cost
Some good and widely used pattern materials are
 Wood and Wood Products (Pine, Mahogany, Teak, Walnut, and
Deodar)
 Metals and Alloys
 Plasters
 Plastics and Rubber
 Wax
Allowances in pattern
The dimensions of the pattern are slightly different from the
final dimensions of the casting.

The modifications that are incorporated into a pattern are


called PATTERN ALLOWANCES which are of following types:
1. Shrinkage Allowance: To compensate for solid cooling (i.e. cooling
from freezing temperature or range to room temperature)
2. Draft and Shake Allowance: To facilitate easy withdrawal of pattern
from mold
3. Machining or Finish Allowance: Extra amount of material to be
provided on the casting so as to impart better finish to it
4. Distortion Allowance: To compensate for distortion of weaker
sections of the casting
5. Shake Allowance: Before withdrawing the pattern from the mold, the
pattern is shaken all around the vertical faces to enlarge the mould cavity
slightly to facilitate its removal. the original pattern dimensions have to be
reduced to account for this increase in dimension.
Required Distorted Cambered
Casting casting pattern

Various Allowances
Incorporated into a Pattern
of a Casting.
Rate of Contraction of Various Metals

Material Dimension Shrinkage allowance (inch/ft)


Grey cast Iron Up to 2 feet 0.125
2 feet to 4 feet 0.105
over 4 feet 0.083
Cast Steel Up to 2 feet 0.251
2 feet to 6 feet 0.191
over 6 feet 0.155
Aluminum Up to 4 feet 0.155
4 feet to 6 feet 0.143
over 6 feet 0.125
Magnesium Up to 4 feet 0.173
Over 4 feet 0.155
Exercise: The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern.
Assuming only shrinkage allowance, calculate the dimension of the pattern. All
Dimensions are in Inches
Draft Allowances of Various Metals

Height of the given


Pattern material Draft angle (External surface)
surface (inch)

1 3.00 3.00
1 to 2 1.50 2.50
Wood 2 to 4 1.00 1.50
4 to 8 0.75 1.00
8 to 32 0.50 1.00
1 1.50 3.00
1 to 2 1.00 2.00
Metal and Plastic 2 to 4 0.75 1.00
4 to 8 0.50 1.00
8 to 32 0.50 0.75
Machining Allowances of Various Metals
Metal Dimensions (inch) Allowance (inch)
Up to 12 0.12
Cast Iron 12 to 20 0.20
20 to 40 0.25
Up to 6 0.12
Cast steel 6 to 20 0.25
20 to 40 0.30
Up to 8 0.09
Non-ferrous 8 to 12 0.12
12 to 40 0.16
Molding materials
Choice of molding materials is based on their processing properties.
 Sand: Green Sand (Mixture of Sand, Clay, Water, and Some Organic Additives)
is the most commonly used

 Metals and Alloys: Are used in multiple-use mold casting processes

 Plaster: Plaster of Paris (or Calcium Sulfate or Gypsum), with various


additions to improve green strength, dry strength, permeability, castability.

 Ceramic: Ceramic molds are similar to plaster molds, except that the mold
can withstand the higher melting point metals.

 Graphite: Powdered graphite can be combined with cement, starch, and water
and compacted around a pattern
 Rubber: Several types of artificial elastomers can be compounded in liquid
form and poured over a pattern to form a semi-rigid mold. rubber molds are
sufficiently flexible to permit stripping from an intricate pattern or shapes with
reentrant surfaces. Unfortunately, rubber molds are suitable only for small
castings of low melting point materials.
Molding Sand
Desired Properties of Molding Sand
 Refractoriness: Ability of the molding sand to withstand the high
temperatures of the melt so that it does not fuse with the melt.
 Presence of sand imparts this property to the molding sand.
 Cohesiveness or Bond: Due to this property, rammed molding sand
particles are bonded together once the pattern is withdrawn from the mold.
 Cohesiveness is obtained by coating the sand grains with clays that
become cohesive when moistened.
 Permeability: Property of the molding sand due to which it allows the gases
inside the mold (During solidification of casting) to escape to the surroundings.
 Permeability is a Function of the
 Size of the sand particles,
 Amount and Type of clay or bonding agent,
 Moisture content,
 Compacting pressure
 Collapsibility: It is the property due to which sand mold automatically
Collapses after Solidification of the casting to allow free contraction of the cast
material.
In the Absence of collapsibility, contraction of the cast material is hindered by the
mold resulting in tears and cracks in the casting.
 Flowability or Plasticity: Property of molding sand to flow around and over the
pattern to acquire the desired shape during molding.
 Green Strength: Property of the green sand to retain the shape of the mold. The
strength refers to the compressive strength
Molding sand containing moisture is termed as green sand.
 Dry Strength: Ability of the dry sand to retain the mold cavity and at the same
time withstand the metallostatic forces.
When the moisture in the molding sand is completely expelled, it is called dry
sand..
 Hot Strength: Strength of the sand required to hold the shape of the mold cavity
when all the moisture of sand has been eliminated and the sand reaching a
high temperature when the melt in the mold is still in the liquid state.
 Adhesiveness: Property of the molding sand by which it is capable to adhere to
the surface of the molding flask.
 Other Requirements:
 Cheap and easily available,
 Low thermal expansion coefficient,
 Reusable,
 Chemically inert and non sticking to the casting surface.
Composition of Molding Sand

 Material used for making green sand molds consists of


 Sand (70-85%): to provide refractoriness
 Clay (10-20%): To act as binder, along with water, impart tensile and shear
strength to the molding sand
 Water (3-6%): to activate the clay and provide flowability or plasticity
 Organic Additives (1-6%): To enhance desired sand properties

 Exact composition may vary slightly depending on whether casting is ferrous or


non-ferrous

 Good molding sand always represents a compromise between conflicting


factors such as
 Size of sand particles,
 Amount of bonding agent (such as Clay),
 Moisture content,
 Organic matter

 Molding sand composition must be carefully controlled to assure satisfactory and


consistent results.
Variation of Permeability and Green Compressive Strength with Moisture
content and Grain Size
Variables Affecting Molding Sand Properties

Sand Grain Shape and Size


 Shape and size of the sand grains greatly affects the various molding sand
properties. Sand grain size could be coarse or fine (Higher the Grain Fineness
Number (GFN) lower the Grain Size).
 Coarse Grains have more void space between the grains consequently provide
good permeability and better resistance to high temperature melting and
expansion,
 Finer Grains have lower permeability, however they provide better surface
finish to the casting produced.
 Higher the Grain Size, Higher would be the Refractoriness.
 Purity of sand grains improves the refractoriness.
 Distribution of the grain size also plays an important role. Uniform-size grains
give good permeability, while a wide distribution of sizes enhances surface
finish.
 Grain Shape could be compounded, angular, sub-angular and round.
 Round Grains give good permeability and minimize the amount of clay
required because of their lower surface area.
 Angular Grains give better green strength because of the mechanical
interlocking of the grains.
Clay and Water
 An optimum amount of water is to be used for a given clay content to obtain
maximum green compression strength.
 During the sand preparation clay is uniformly coated around the sand grains.
water (certain amount depending upon the amount of clay) then reacts with the
clay and forms a linkage of silica-water-clay-water-silica (or clay) throughout the
molding sand.
 Any additional amount of water increases the plasticity and dry strength but
reduces the green compression strength.

Method of Preparing Sand Mold


 Degree of ramming increases the bulk density or mold hardness of the sand
and is related to the other properties.
 Increased ramming increases the strength.
 Permeability of green sand decreases with degree of ramming.
CORES
 Cores are the Materials Used for Making Cavities and Internal Features which
Cannot be Produced by the Pattern Alone.
 Cores are Generally Made of the Sand and are Even Used in Permanent
molds.
 In general, Cores are Surrounded on all Sides by the Melt and Therefore
Subjected to Much More Severe Thermal and Mechanical Conditions  Core
Sand should be of Higher Strength than the Molding Sand.

Desired Characteristics For a Core


 Green strength: A Core Made of Green Sand should be Strong Enough to
Retain the Shape till it Goes for Baking.
 Dry strength: Core should have Adequate Dry Strength so that when the Core is
Placed in the Mold, it is Able to Resist the Cast Material Pressure Acting on it.
 Permeability: The Gases Evolving from the Melt and from the Mold may have to
Go through the Core to Escape Out of the Mold. Hence Cores are Required to
have Adequate Permeability.
 Refractoriness: In Most of the cases, Core is Surrounded all Around by the Melt,
it is Desirable that the Core Material should have Higher Refractoriness.
 Collapsibility: As the Casting Cools, it Shrinks, and so the Core should have
Good Collapsibility (Ability to Decrease in Size). Lack of Collapsibility may
Provide Resistance against Shrinkage and can cause the Casting Defect of Hot
Tears.
 Smoothness: Surface of the Core should be Smooth so as to Provide a Good
Finish to the Casting Surfaces in Contact with the Cores.

 Friability (Ability to Crumble): After the Casting is Completely Cooled, the Core
should be Removed from the Casting before it is Processed Further. Hence the
Friability is also an Important Consideration. [Friability: the condition of being
easily crumbled or pulverized]

 Low gas emission: Because the Cores are Subjected to Very High
Temperature, the Evolution of Gases from the Inside are Very High at that
Temperature. These Gases are Otherwise Likely to Produce Gas Inclusion
Defects. So the Cores should be Made such that the Evolution of Gases is
Minimum.
Core prints
 Core prints are provided so that the cores are securely and correctly
positioned in the mold cavity.
 Design of core prints takes care of the weight of the core before pouring and the
upward metallostatic pressure of the melt after pouring.
 Core prints should also ensure that the core is not shifted during the entry of
the melt into the mold cavity.
 Main force acting on the core when melt is poured into the mold cavity is due to
buoyancy which is the difference in the weight of the liquid metal to that of the
core material of the same volume as that of the exposed core.
SAND CASTING
Core Making Pattern Making
(If Needed)

Sand Sand Preparation Mold Making

Raw Solidification
Melting Pouring
Material & Cooling

Removal
of Sand Mold

Cleaning and
Inspection

Cast Product
Sequence of Steps in Sand Casting
Shell Molding Process

3 to 8% phenolformaldehyde / ureaformaldehyde thermosetting resin


230 to 350o C

Lubricants like zinc/calcium stearate improve flowability


Shell Molding Process
Advantages of Shell Mould Casting
• Good surface finish (Ra 1.25 to 3.75 microns)
• High dimensional tolerance
• Amenable towards automation
• Thin sections (up to 0.25 mm) can be cast by this process

Limitations
• Patterns are expensive
• Highly complicated shapes cannot be made

Applications
• Cast iron, Aluminium and copper alloys are cast by this
process
Investment Casting
(Lost-wax casting)
Investment Casting
(Lost-wax casting)
Steps followed in Investment Casting Process
• A heat disposable pattern made of wax or plastic is made
• A pattern assembly (tree / cluster) is prepared attached to a
central wax sprue
• Pattern assembly is invested into a ceramic slurry composed of
silica flour suspended in solution of ethyl-silicate. Ceramic shell of
6mm thickness is formed around the wax assembly.
• The assembly baked in oven to melt out the wax/plastic thereby
the dimensions of mold cavity precisely match those of the
product
• The shell mold is fired at 900 to 1000 deg C to remove all traces
of wax and also the strength gets enhanced
• Molten metal is poured when the mold is still hot resulting in a
production of a cluster of castings at a time
Applications of Investment Casting
• Intricate shaped objects like jewelry
• Cylinder heads
• cam shafts
• gas turbine blades
Advantages of Investment Casting Process
• Complicated and intricate shaped products can be easily cast
• High dimensional tolerance achievable
• Surface finish is excellent
• Additional machining not required as it is a net shape process
• All types of metals and alloys can be cast by this process
Limitations
• A relatively expensive process
• Size of the casting is limited (max. around 5 kg)
Centrifugal Casting
It refers to several casting methods in which the mold is rotated
at moderate to high speed so that the centrifugal force
distributes the molten metal into the mold/die cavity
Centrifugal Castings are of three types
• True Centrifugal Casting
• Semi centrifugal Casting
• Centrifuge Casting
Casting some liquefied metal in a spinner with a rotational
movement around its axis.
The liquid metal is submitted to a centrifugal force that takes it away
from the rotation axis and flattens it against the spinner wall that is
generally metallic.
That process allows to obtain some excellent physical and
mechanical qualities of the metal.
The centrifugal force brought during all the solidification time of the
alloy limits the defects and avoids all kinds of inclusions by ejecting
them to the center. So, the structure of the metal is thinner, more
compact and more homogeneous than in the casting by gravity. The
mechanical characteristics consequently are improved.
True Centrifugal Casting Machine
Centrifugal Casting Process

Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process

Pipes, cylinder liners, and similarly shaped parts can


be cast by this process
True Centrifugal Casting produces hollow shaped products without using
internal cores

The Centrifugal accelerating force is high almost 70 to 80 times that of


gravity which helps in pushing the molten metal to the walls of the
mold

Outer shape is controlled by the mold contour while the inner shape is
controlled by the amount of the molten metal poured in

There are horizontal as well as vertical axis machines. Only short tubes are
manufacture in the vertical machines

Advantages
• Mechanical properties of the castings are better
• Directional solidification can be accomplished
• Core requirements are eliminated
• Gating system is not required
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

VERTICAL TYPE

Limitations
• Axisymmetric shapes and
concentric holes are suitable
• Equipment cost is high so
suitable for mass production
Semi centrifugal casting

Wheels and pulleys


• Solid castings are produced
• Rotating speed is not very high
• Density is high at the outer section than in the inner section
• Such casting technique suitable for products undergoing subsequent
• machining
Semicentrifugal Casting Process

Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process


Centrifuge Casting
Castings are made of Al, Mg, Zn and their alloys
CASTING DEFECTS
 Casting defects caused due to evolution of gases
 Casting defects due to shrinkage
 Defects caused by molding material
 Casting defects due to pouring of the melt
 Metallurgical defects
Examples of common defects in casting

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g)
CASTING DEFECTS CAUSED due to EVOLUTION of GASES
Can be classified into blow holes and open blows, pin hole porosity, and air
inclusion.
Gas Defects are caused to a great extent by the lower gas passing tendency
of the mold which may be due to
 Lower Venting,
 Lower permeability of the mold: Caused by
 Finer grain size of the sand,
 Higher clay,
 Higher moisture,
 Excessive ramming of the molds.
 Improper design of the casting.
Blow holes and Open blows: These are the spherical, flattened or
elongated cavities present inside the casting (blow Holes) or on the surface
of the casting (open blows).
Scar: a shallow blow usually found on a flat casting surface
Blister: This a scar covered by a thin layer of the material
Causes:
 Moisture left in the mold and the core. because of the heat of the melt, the
moisture is converted into steam, part of which when entrapped in the casting,
ending up as blow hole (or open blow when it reaches the surface).
 Lower venting
 Lower permeability of the mold.
Pin Holes is caused by decrease in the solubility of the Hydrogen in the melt.
generated in the furnace or by the dissociation of water inside the mold cavity.
Porosity: Very small holes uniformly dispersed throughout a casting.
 As the melt gets solidified, it loses the temperature which decreases the
solubility of gases and thereby expelling the dissolved gases.
 Hydrogen while leaving the solidifying material causes very small diameter and
long pin holes showing the path of escape.
 These series of pin holes cause the leakage of fluids under high operating
pressures.
Causes:
 High pouring temperature which increases the gas pick-up.

Air Inclusions: If the atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the melt in the
furnace/ladle and while the flowing in the mold are unable escape then they are trapped
inside the casting and weaken it.
Causes:
 Higher pouring temperatures which increase the amount of gas absorbed
 Poor gating system design such as
 Straight sprues in unpressurised gating,
 Abrupt bends and other turbulence causing practices in the gating
 Low permeability of the mold
Remedies:
 Choosing the appropriate pouring temperature
 Improve gating practices by reducing the turbulence.
CASTING DEFECTS due to SHRINKAGE
Shrinkage Cavity is a void or depression in the
casting caused mainly by uncontrolled and
haphazard solidification of the cast material.
Causes:
 Wrong location or improper sized gating system,
 Inadequate risers or poor design of casting
involving abrupt changes of sectional thickness,
 Too high pouring temperature.
Remedy:
 Promotion of directional solidification by judicious
use of chills.
DEFECTS Due to MOLDING MATERIAL
Casting Defects caused by the Characteristics of the Molding Material Include
 Cuts and Washes
 Penetration
 Fusion
 Run Out
 Rat tails and Buckles
 Swell
 Drop

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