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Pattern
Gate
Runner
Various Allowances
Incorporated into a Pattern
of a Casting.
Rate of Contraction of Various Metals
1 3.00 3.00
1 to 2 1.50 2.50
Wood 2 to 4 1.00 1.50
4 to 8 0.75 1.00
8 to 32 0.50 1.00
1 1.50 3.00
1 to 2 1.00 2.00
Metal and Plastic 2 to 4 0.75 1.00
4 to 8 0.50 1.00
8 to 32 0.50 0.75
Machining Allowances of Various Metals
Metal Dimensions (inch) Allowance (inch)
Up to 12 0.12
Cast Iron 12 to 20 0.20
20 to 40 0.25
Up to 6 0.12
Cast steel 6 to 20 0.25
20 to 40 0.30
Up to 8 0.09
Non-ferrous 8 to 12 0.12
12 to 40 0.16
Molding materials
Choice of molding materials is based on their processing properties.
Sand: Green Sand (Mixture of Sand, Clay, Water, and Some Organic Additives)
is the most commonly used
Ceramic: Ceramic molds are similar to plaster molds, except that the mold
can withstand the higher melting point metals.
Graphite: Powdered graphite can be combined with cement, starch, and water
and compacted around a pattern
Rubber: Several types of artificial elastomers can be compounded in liquid
form and poured over a pattern to form a semi-rigid mold. rubber molds are
sufficiently flexible to permit stripping from an intricate pattern or shapes with
reentrant surfaces. Unfortunately, rubber molds are suitable only for small
castings of low melting point materials.
Molding Sand
Desired Properties of Molding Sand
Refractoriness: Ability of the molding sand to withstand the high
temperatures of the melt so that it does not fuse with the melt.
Presence of sand imparts this property to the molding sand.
Cohesiveness or Bond: Due to this property, rammed molding sand
particles are bonded together once the pattern is withdrawn from the mold.
Cohesiveness is obtained by coating the sand grains with clays that
become cohesive when moistened.
Permeability: Property of the molding sand due to which it allows the gases
inside the mold (During solidification of casting) to escape to the surroundings.
Permeability is a Function of the
Size of the sand particles,
Amount and Type of clay or bonding agent,
Moisture content,
Compacting pressure
Collapsibility: It is the property due to which sand mold automatically
Collapses after Solidification of the casting to allow free contraction of the cast
material.
In the Absence of collapsibility, contraction of the cast material is hindered by the
mold resulting in tears and cracks in the casting.
Flowability or Plasticity: Property of molding sand to flow around and over the
pattern to acquire the desired shape during molding.
Green Strength: Property of the green sand to retain the shape of the mold. The
strength refers to the compressive strength
Molding sand containing moisture is termed as green sand.
Dry Strength: Ability of the dry sand to retain the mold cavity and at the same
time withstand the metallostatic forces.
When the moisture in the molding sand is completely expelled, it is called dry
sand..
Hot Strength: Strength of the sand required to hold the shape of the mold cavity
when all the moisture of sand has been eliminated and the sand reaching a
high temperature when the melt in the mold is still in the liquid state.
Adhesiveness: Property of the molding sand by which it is capable to adhere to
the surface of the molding flask.
Other Requirements:
Cheap and easily available,
Low thermal expansion coefficient,
Reusable,
Chemically inert and non sticking to the casting surface.
Composition of Molding Sand
Friability (Ability to Crumble): After the Casting is Completely Cooled, the Core
should be Removed from the Casting before it is Processed Further. Hence the
Friability is also an Important Consideration. [Friability: the condition of being
easily crumbled or pulverized]
Low gas emission: Because the Cores are Subjected to Very High
Temperature, the Evolution of Gases from the Inside are Very High at that
Temperature. These Gases are Otherwise Likely to Produce Gas Inclusion
Defects. So the Cores should be Made such that the Evolution of Gases is
Minimum.
Core prints
Core prints are provided so that the cores are securely and correctly
positioned in the mold cavity.
Design of core prints takes care of the weight of the core before pouring and the
upward metallostatic pressure of the melt after pouring.
Core prints should also ensure that the core is not shifted during the entry of
the melt into the mold cavity.
Main force acting on the core when melt is poured into the mold cavity is due to
buoyancy which is the difference in the weight of the liquid metal to that of the
core material of the same volume as that of the exposed core.
SAND CASTING
Core Making Pattern Making
(If Needed)
Raw Solidification
Melting Pouring
Material & Cooling
Removal
of Sand Mold
Cleaning and
Inspection
Cast Product
Sequence of Steps in Sand Casting
Shell Molding Process
Limitations
• Patterns are expensive
• Highly complicated shapes cannot be made
Applications
• Cast iron, Aluminium and copper alloys are cast by this
process
Investment Casting
(Lost-wax casting)
Investment Casting
(Lost-wax casting)
Steps followed in Investment Casting Process
• A heat disposable pattern made of wax or plastic is made
• A pattern assembly (tree / cluster) is prepared attached to a
central wax sprue
• Pattern assembly is invested into a ceramic slurry composed of
silica flour suspended in solution of ethyl-silicate. Ceramic shell of
6mm thickness is formed around the wax assembly.
• The assembly baked in oven to melt out the wax/plastic thereby
the dimensions of mold cavity precisely match those of the
product
• The shell mold is fired at 900 to 1000 deg C to remove all traces
of wax and also the strength gets enhanced
• Molten metal is poured when the mold is still hot resulting in a
production of a cluster of castings at a time
Applications of Investment Casting
• Intricate shaped objects like jewelry
• Cylinder heads
• cam shafts
• gas turbine blades
Advantages of Investment Casting Process
• Complicated and intricate shaped products can be easily cast
• High dimensional tolerance achievable
• Surface finish is excellent
• Additional machining not required as it is a net shape process
• All types of metals and alloys can be cast by this process
Limitations
• A relatively expensive process
• Size of the casting is limited (max. around 5 kg)
Centrifugal Casting
It refers to several casting methods in which the mold is rotated
at moderate to high speed so that the centrifugal force
distributes the molten metal into the mold/die cavity
Centrifugal Castings are of three types
• True Centrifugal Casting
• Semi centrifugal Casting
• Centrifuge Casting
Casting some liquefied metal in a spinner with a rotational
movement around its axis.
The liquid metal is submitted to a centrifugal force that takes it away
from the rotation axis and flattens it against the spinner wall that is
generally metallic.
That process allows to obtain some excellent physical and
mechanical qualities of the metal.
The centrifugal force brought during all the solidification time of the
alloy limits the defects and avoids all kinds of inclusions by ejecting
them to the center. So, the structure of the metal is thinner, more
compact and more homogeneous than in the casting by gravity. The
mechanical characteristics consequently are improved.
True Centrifugal Casting Machine
Centrifugal Casting Process
Outer shape is controlled by the mold contour while the inner shape is
controlled by the amount of the molten metal poured in
There are horizontal as well as vertical axis machines. Only short tubes are
manufacture in the vertical machines
Advantages
• Mechanical properties of the castings are better
• Directional solidification can be accomplished
• Core requirements are eliminated
• Gating system is not required
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
VERTICAL TYPE
Limitations
• Axisymmetric shapes and
concentric holes are suitable
• Equipment cost is high so
suitable for mass production
Semi centrifugal casting
(g)
CASTING DEFECTS CAUSED due to EVOLUTION of GASES
Can be classified into blow holes and open blows, pin hole porosity, and air
inclusion.
Gas Defects are caused to a great extent by the lower gas passing tendency
of the mold which may be due to
Lower Venting,
Lower permeability of the mold: Caused by
Finer grain size of the sand,
Higher clay,
Higher moisture,
Excessive ramming of the molds.
Improper design of the casting.
Blow holes and Open blows: These are the spherical, flattened or
elongated cavities present inside the casting (blow Holes) or on the surface
of the casting (open blows).
Scar: a shallow blow usually found on a flat casting surface
Blister: This a scar covered by a thin layer of the material
Causes:
Moisture left in the mold and the core. because of the heat of the melt, the
moisture is converted into steam, part of which when entrapped in the casting,
ending up as blow hole (or open blow when it reaches the surface).
Lower venting
Lower permeability of the mold.
Pin Holes is caused by decrease in the solubility of the Hydrogen in the melt.
generated in the furnace or by the dissociation of water inside the mold cavity.
Porosity: Very small holes uniformly dispersed throughout a casting.
As the melt gets solidified, it loses the temperature which decreases the
solubility of gases and thereby expelling the dissolved gases.
Hydrogen while leaving the solidifying material causes very small diameter and
long pin holes showing the path of escape.
These series of pin holes cause the leakage of fluids under high operating
pressures.
Causes:
High pouring temperature which increases the gas pick-up.
Air Inclusions: If the atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the melt in the
furnace/ladle and while the flowing in the mold are unable escape then they are trapped
inside the casting and weaken it.
Causes:
Higher pouring temperatures which increase the amount of gas absorbed
Poor gating system design such as
Straight sprues in unpressurised gating,
Abrupt bends and other turbulence causing practices in the gating
Low permeability of the mold
Remedies:
Choosing the appropriate pouring temperature
Improve gating practices by reducing the turbulence.
CASTING DEFECTS due to SHRINKAGE
Shrinkage Cavity is a void or depression in the
casting caused mainly by uncontrolled and
haphazard solidification of the cast material.
Causes:
Wrong location or improper sized gating system,
Inadequate risers or poor design of casting
involving abrupt changes of sectional thickness,
Too high pouring temperature.
Remedy:
Promotion of directional solidification by judicious
use of chills.
DEFECTS Due to MOLDING MATERIAL
Casting Defects caused by the Characteristics of the Molding Material Include
Cuts and Washes
Penetration
Fusion
Run Out
Rat tails and Buckles
Swell
Drop