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Bases
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define acid and base using the Arrhenius and the Bronsted-Lowry
theories;
2. Explain what an alkali is;
3. Differentiate between acid strength and base strength;
4. Discuss the autoionisation of water;
5. Interpret the pH scale for acidic, neutral and alkaline solutions;
6. Identify the properties of acids, bases and alkalis;
7. Test a solution to see whether it is an acid or a base using indicators;
8. Determine the relationship between the number of moles and
molarity; and
9. Prepare a standard solution whose molarity is known.
X INTRODUCTION
Hello there! Are you ready for this topic entitled Acids and Bases? Firstly, do you
notice that some common chemical compounds around us are acids and bases?
Can you identify them and list them out? Acids and bases can be found
in the food we eat and the things we use. For example, citric acid is found in
lemons and other citrus food. How does it taste? Not so wonderful if you eat it
straightaway, right? The acid in vinegar is acetic acid while the acid used in car
batteries is sulphuric acid.
166 X TOPIC 7 ACIDS AND BASES
In fact, the lining of our stomachs produce gastric juice which is essential for
digestion. The acid in gastric juice is hydrochloric acid.
How about base? Bases such as ammonia are used in household cleaning products
while sodium hydroxide is used to make soap. From these examples, we can
conclude that acid and base are essential and used widely in our everyday life.
In this topic, you will be learning more about acid, base and alkali such as what is
an acid, a base and an alkali, and their characteristic properties. This will be
followed by the pH scale and how to test for acids and bases.
Finally, you will learn how to determine the mole and molarities of substances
present in aqueous solution of acids and bases. So, are you ready now? Let us put
on the lab coat and get started!
HA is the general formula for an acid such as nitric acid, HNO3, and sulphuric
acid, H2SO4, whereas MOH is the general formula for a metal hydroxide such as
potassium hydroxide, KOH, and magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2.
Do you know that the Arrhenius theory of acids and bases has important
limitations? Firstly, it can only be used to explain acids and bases that are
dissolved in water and secondly, it does not explain why substances such as
ammonia, NH3, which does not contain an OH group like most bases, show basic
properties in water.
So, Johannes Bronsted, a Danish chemist, and Thomas Lowry, an English chemist
(see Figure 7.2) later proposed a more general theory of acids and bases. They
defined acid and bases differently from Arrhenius.
Now, let us see what is going on in an acid-base reaction. For example, when a
Bronsted-Lowry acid such as hydrochloric acid, HCl, is placed in water, a proton
is transferred from the acid to base, which is water. The products are hydronium
ion, H3O+, and chloride ion, Cl, as follows:
When an acid loses its protons to a base, it forms a base itself. Similarly, a base, in
accepting protons, forms an acid. This means that every acid has its conjugate
base and every base has its conjugate acid. IsnÊt this interesting?
In the previous example, hydrochloric acid has a conjugate base, the chloride ion,
Cl, and the water has a conjugate acid, the hydronium ion, H3O. In the reverse
reaction, H3O+ is the acid and donates a proton to the base that is chloride ion,
Cl. Some typical examples of Bronsted-Lowry acids include not only electrically
neutral molecules, such as HCl and HNO3 but also cations and anions that
contain transferable protons such as NH4+, HSO4 and HCO3.
In the reverse reaction, a proton is transferred from the acid, NH4+, to the base,
OH, as follows:
7.1.3 Alkali
Now, we move on to alkali. What can we say about it? Do you know the origin of
this word?
Alkali is originally from the Arabic word, „Al-Qaly‰.. They are metal
oxides or basic oxides of alkali metals that dissolve in water to
produce the corresponding metal hydroxides.
Do you know that most common basic salts are alkali salts? More examples of
metal oxides are shown in Table 7.1, namely, potassium oxide, calcium oxide and
barium oxide. They dissolve in water to form the corresponding bases: potassium
hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and barium hydroxide.
The oxides of the metals in Group 1 and Group 2 in the Periodic Table dissolve
in water to give solutions of strong bases. How about weak bases? Well,
magnesium hydroxide is an example of a weak base and it has low solubility in
water. Most other metal oxides are relatively insoluble in water.
Keep in mind that although the symbol H+(aq) is convenient to use in equations,
it does not really represent the structure of the ion present in an aqueous
solution. This is because as a bare proton with no electron nearby, H+, is much
too reactive to exist by itself. Rather, the H+ attaches to a water molecule, giving
the more stable hydronium ion, H3O+. We often write H3O+(aq) to represent an
aqueous acid solution.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Account for the acidic properties of nitrous acid (HNO2) in terms of the
Arrhenius theory and Bronsted-Lowry theory. Then, state the conjugate
base of nitrous acid.
H2O
MgCl2(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq)
H2O
HCl(g) H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
Different acids and bases ionise to different extents in aqueous solutions. Those
acids or bases that ionise completely in aqueous solution form respectively
strong acids and strong bases; those acids and bases that ionise only to a small
extent are weak acids and weak bases respectively. Let us find out some
examples of them.
Typical examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid, HCl, sulphuric acid,
H2SO4, and nitric acid, HNO3. As for weak acids, their typical examples are
ethanoic acid or more commonly known as acetic acid, CH3COOH, nitrous acid,
HNO2, and hydrogen fluoride, HF.
Examples of strong bases include most metal hydroxides like NaOH and
Ba(OH)2 while examples of weak bases include ammonia.
The strength and weakness for acid and base are summarised in Table 7.2 for
your quick and easy reference.
ACID BASE
Strong HClO4 Perchloric acid NaOH Sodium hydroxide Strong
acid H2SO4 Sulphuric acid KOH Potassium base
HBr Hydrobromic acid hydroxide
HCl Hydrochloric acid Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide
HNO3 Nitric acid Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide
Based on the previous equation, we can see that the H2O molecule that gives a
proton is an acid which then becomes an OH ion, the conjugate base of water.
The H2O molecule that accepts a proton is a base which then becomes an H3O+
ion, the conjugate acid of water.
How about the reverse reaction? In the reverse reaction, two water molecules are
formed. The H3O+ ion gives a proton to OH ion. When the H3O+ ion gives a
proton to OH ion, it behaves as an acid. When the OH ion accepts a proton, it
behaves as a base. Do you know that water is said to be amphiprotic? It means
that H2O molecules can donate protons (acting as an acid) as well as accept
protons (acting as a base).
7.2 pH SCALE
We now know what is acid strength and base strength. Then, how do we test
acid strength and base strength? We can test acid strength and base strength by
using the pH scale. Do you what the pH scale is?
The scale starts with a pH of 0, which indicates that a substance is very acidic,
and ends with a pH of 14, which indicates that the substance is very basic or
alkaline. The middle of the scale shows a pH of 7, which indicates that a
substance is neutral. The pH scale is shown in Figure 7.3.
TOPIC 7 ACIDS AND BASES W 173
As for Figure 7.4, it shows you the pH scale and pH values for some common
substances that we are familiar with.
Figure 7.4: The pH scale and pH values for some common substances
174 X TOPIC 7 ACIDS AND BASES
Based on Figure 7.4, we can see that lemon juice is acidic with a pH of 2.0 while
baking soda is a base with a pH of 8.5.
ACTIVITY 7.1
After you have poured the milk, you can add one
teaspoon of baking powder and half a teaspoon
of baking soda to make this fluffy pancake.
Baking soda and baking powder are two ingredients that are used in
baking especially for cakes and biscuits. What are their functions?
How would you differentiate between baking soda and baking
powder? How would you test whether baking soda and baking
powder are acids or bases? Write a short report on how you would
carry out the test.
(a) Acids have a sour taste. Citrus fruits such as orange and lime have a sour
taste.
(b) Acids turn litmus paper from blue to red and cause bromothymol blue to
change from blue to yellow.
TOPIC 7 ACIDS AND BASES W 175
(c) Acids react with metals to form salt and hydrogen gas, H2. For example,
nitric acid reacts with zinc metal to form zinc nitrate and hydrogen gas.
(d) Acids react with bases or alkali to form salt and water. The reaction is a
neutralisation reaction. For example, nitric acid reacts with potassium
hydroxide to form potassium nitrate and water.
(e) Acids react with salts of weaker acids to form the weaker acid and the salts of
the stronger acids. For example, nitric acid (a strong acid) reacts with sodium
ethanoate (salt of ethanoic, which is a weak acid) to form ethanoic acid (weak
acid) and sodium nitrate (salt of nitric acid, which is a strong acid).
(f) Acids conduct electricity in aqueous solutions. Acids ionise into ions in
solutions that are free to move in an electric field, thus conducting electricity.
(g) Carbonate salts react with acids, forming salt, carbon dioxide gas and water.
For example, sulphuric acid reacts with copper carbonate to form copper
sulphate, carbon dioxide gas and water.
(h) Concentrated acids are corrosive and can cause injury to the skin and corrode
metals.
(b) Bases feel soapy to touch. Common examples are soaps which are mildly
basic and household bleach solutions.
176 X TOPIC 7 ACIDS AND BASES
(c) Bases turn litmus paper from red to blue and bromthymol blue from yellow
to blue.
(e) Bases conduct electric current in aqueous solutions because bases are ionised
to some extent.
(f) Concentrated bases are corrosive and can burn the skin.
ACTIVITY 7.2
You will need: three small beakers, water, vinegar, lemon juice, and
white chalk about three pieces.
Steps:
(b) Pour lemon juice into beaker 1 until it is half full, vinegar in
beaker 2 and water in beaker 3.
(c) Put one piece of chalk in each of the beakers. Make sure part of
the chalk is in the liquids.
What can we expect from this test? If the solution is an acid, the blue litmus
paper turns to red while in bases, the red litmus paper turns to blue.
Besides litmus, there are other indicators which can be used to do the test. They
are shown in Figure 7.6.
178 X TOPIC 7 ACIDS AND BASES
Table 7.3 describes four indicators of acid, neutral and alkali solutions with their
colour identification.
Table 7.3: Four Indicators and their Colour Identification for Acid, Neutral and Base
Solutions
Colour in Solution
Indicator
Acid Neutral Base
Bromothymol blue Yellow Green Blue
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink
Methyl orange Red Orange Yellow
Cresol purple Yellow Green Purple
TOPIC 7 ACIDS AND BASES W 179
Another way to test for acids and bases is to use a universal indicator. In order to
determine the pH of a solution, firstly, you need to dip the universal indicator in
the solution, and then check the colour change against the colour of the universal
indicator in solutions of known pH from 1 to 14. Figure 7.7 shows you the colour
changes for some substances using the universal indicator.
Last but not least, if you want more accurate values of pH, you can use a pH
meter (see Figure 7.8) to determine whether a substance is an acid or alkali. Have
you seen this pH meter before?
ACTIVITY 7.3
Let us try make our own indicator using the following steps:
(e) When the liquid turns dark purple, stop the heating. Cool the
liquid.
(i) When they turn bluish purple, remove the strips and hang them
to dry.
Do you know that you have just prepared some cabbage indicators?
Now, you can use these indicator to do the test:
Put some apple juice, lime juice, tea, coconut oil, sea water, battery
water and shampoo into separate petri dishes. Dip your indicator
strips into the liquids. Observe the colour change in the paper strips
for each liquid.
Note which liquids are acids and which are bases by the colour
changes of the cabbage indicators.
TOPIC 7 ACIDS AND BASES W 181
Next, we will investigate the relationship between the number of moles and
molarity. Let us get started!
Mass of solute g
Concentration (g / dm 3 ) =
Volume of solution (dm 3 )
As you can see from these formulas, the unit for concentration is g dm3 or
mol dm3. However, the unit of concentration that is widely used is molarity
(mol/dm3) or molar concentration (M).
182 X TOPIC 7 ACIDS AND BASES
In the following examples, you will learn how to find the molarity of a substance.
Problem 1
The concentration of nitric acid, HNO3, is 126 g dm3. Find its molarity.
(Relative atomic mass: H, 1; N, 14; O, 16)
Solution
126 g dm 3
Thus, molarity of HNO 3 1
2.0 mol dm 3
63 g mol
Problem 2
25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution was poured into a beaker. The
concentration of the alkali was 1.5 mol dm3. Calculate the number of moles of
sodium hydroxide in the beaker.
Solution
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Solution:
Step 3: Dissolve the solid sodium chloride in distilled water in a beaker as shown
in Figure 7.10(b).
Step 4: Carefully transfer the dissolved sodium chloride into a 1dm3 volumetric
flask. Rinse the beaker with distilled water and add the washings into
the flask as shown in Figure 7.10(c).
Step 5: Finally, add distilled water until the total volume of the solution is
exactly 1dm3. Shake well to ensure thorough mixing as shown in Figure
7.10(d).
SELF-CHECK 7.3
Please note that in this method, the amount of dissolved solute used is fixed.
However, the amount of solvent used (in this case, water) is increased. This
process liquefies the solution. As a result, the concentration of the solution will
decrease. The number of moles of solute in the original and new concentration of
the solution is represented by the following equation:
Mi u Vi = Mf u Vf
186 X TOPIC 7 ACIDS AND BASES
For example, how do we prepare 200 cm3 of 0.50 M H2SO4 solution from a 2.00 M
solution?
(0.50 M) (2.00 cm 3 )
Vi
2.00 M
50 cm 3
Note that the solution volume increases by a factor of four (from 50 cm3 to 200 cm3).
Thus, the concentration of the solution must decrease by a factor of four too (from
2.00 M to 0.50 M).
Next, by using a pipette, we transfer 50 cm3 of the 2.00 M solution into a 200 cm3
volumetric flask. Finally, add distilled water until the total volume of the solution
is exactly 200 cm3. Shake the solution well to ensure thorough mixing, and then we
are done!
SELF-CHECK 7.4
You are given a 10.0 M solution. 10.0 cm3 of this solution is withdrawn
and then diluted to 250 cm3. Determine the concentration of the final
solution.
TOPIC 7 ACIDS AND BASES W 187
ACTIVITY 7.4
You are given a 2.0 M concentrated acid. To dilute the acid, you pour
some water into a beaker and then add the acid to the water. More
water is then added to further dilute the acid. Discuss why in diluting
the concentrated acid, you did not add water directly to the acid.
x Acid and base can be defined using the Arrhenius theory and the Bronsted-
Lowry Theory.
Alkalis are metal oxides or basic oxides of alkali metals that dissolve in water
to produce the corresponding metal hydroxides.
Properties of acids: sour taste, turn litmus paper from blue to red, conduct
electricity, etc.
188 X TOPIC 7 ACIDS AND BASES
x Properties of bases and alkalis: bitter taste, feel soapy to touch, turn litmus
paper from red to blue, neutralise acid to form salt and water, corrosive, etc.
x We can do test for acids and alkalis by using litmus paper, or indicators such
as universal indicator.
x Acidicity and alkalinity are measured by acid-base indicators that can change
colour in acid or base solutions. Or, we can use the pH meter for a more
accurate reading of pH value.
In the dilution method, the amount of dissolved solute used is fixed but the
amount of solvent used is increased, thus liquefying the solution.
Acceptor Dilution
Acid Donor
Acid-base reaction Molarity
Alkali Number of moles
Autoionisation pH scale
Base Properties
Concentration Reversible reactions
Conjugate acid Standard solution
Conjugate acid-base pairs Strength
Conjugate base Test
TOPIC 7 ACIDS AND BASES W 189
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