Quantum Optics

A DISSERTATION

SUBMITTED TO

GURU NANAK DEV UNIVERSITY, AMRITSAR

In the partial fulfillment of the requirement

The degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

IN

PHYSICS

2016-18

Supervised by: Submitted by

Dr. Paramjit Kaur Monika

Asst. Prof. Roll No: 2016PHB2346

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
GURU NANK DEV UNIVERSITY, AMRITSAR-143005
 CERTIFICATE

This is certified that the dissertation entitled as “Quantum optics” is

submitted by Monika in partial fulfillment for the award of MASTERS

OF SCIENCE IN PHYSICS. It has reached the standards and fulfils the

requirement of regulations for the award of degree and is record of

research work carried out by her under my supervision.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives me immense pleasure to acknowledge my indebtedness, sincere
gratefulness and profound sense of gratitude to those without whom this
dissertation would not have been possible.

I am highly obliged to Prof. N.P.S Saini Head, Department of Physics, Guru

Nanak Dev University, Amritsar for providing full co-operation during the entire
work.

It gives me immense pleasure to put on record my heart-felt gratitude to my

esteemed supervisor, Dr. Paramjit Kaur, Asst. Prof, Department of physics,
Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar for not only guiding me with her experience
and knowledge but also for providing a very informal and relaxed environment. I
am deeply indebted to her for his sagacious suggestions, constructive and healthy
criticism, patience and encouragement and that I have perceived through the course
of present research work. It was indeed a great experience to work under her
scholarly guidance and supervision.

Words are not sufficient to acknowledge for being highly indebted to my

parents and family for their juvenile encouragement, blessings and
assistance without which not have been possible to carry out this research work
and with the grace of almighty GOD I am able to complete my work.

(Monika)
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction 5

1.1 Development of quantum optics and the photon theory of light 5

1.2 Findings of quantum optics 5

2. Interaction between atom and light 6

3. Quantization of electromagnetic field 6

4. The Jaynes-Cumming Model 11

4.1 Violation of energy conservation 13

4.2 Method of averaging 13

4.3 Dressed states of Jaynes-Cumming Model 15

4.4 Near Resonance 20

5. End result 23

References.
Introduction To Quantum Optics:
Quantum optics is a field of quantum physics that deals specifically with the
interaction of photons with matter. The study of individual photons is crucial to
understanding the behavior of electromagnetic waves as a whole. To clarify what
this means the word “quantum” refers to the smallest amount of any physical
entity that can interact with another entity. Quantum physics, therefore, deals
with the smallest particles; these are incredibly tiny sub-atomic particles which
behave in unique ways.
The word “optics” in physics, refers to the study of light .photons are the smallest
particles of light (though it is important to know that photons can behave as both
particles and waves.

Development of quantum optics and the photon

theory of light:=>
The theory that light moved in discrete bundles (photons) was presented in Max
Planck’s 1900 papers on the ultraviolet catastrophe in black body radiation. In
1905, Einstein expanded on these principles in his explanation of the
photoelectric effect to define the photon theory of light.
Quantum physics developed through the first half of the twentieth century largely
through work on our understanding of how photons and matter interact and
interrelate .This was viewed, however, as a study of the matter involved more
than the light involved.

Finding of quantum optics:=>

Quantum optics views electromagnetic radiation as traveling in the form of both a
wave and a particle at the same time.
This phenomenon is called wave particle duality.
The most common explanation of how this works is that the photons move in a
stream of particles, but the overall behavior of those particles is determined by a
quantum wave function that determines the probability of the particles being in a
given location at a given time.
 Taking findings from quantum electrodynamics (QED), it is also possible to
interact quantum optics in the form of the creation and annihilation of photons,
described by field operators. This approach allows the use of certain statistical
approaches that are useful in analyzing the behavior of light.
It is a field of research that uses semi- classical and quantum mechanical
physics to investigate phenomenon involving light and its interaction with matter.

Interaction between atom and light:=>

To study the atom and light interaction mainly we have two atom models:-
 Semi-classical Rabi model
 Fully quantum-mechanical model ; the Jaynes -Cumming model
Now we briefly discuss Jaynes –Cumming model
In 1936, Isidor I Rabi investigated the semi-classical version of a model which
bears his name. And in 1963 a fully quantized version was considered by Jaynes
and Cumming model.
Rabi problem concerns the response of an atom to an applied harmonic electric
field, with an applied frequency very close to the atom’s natural frequency .It
provides a simple and generally solvable example of light atom inter-action. In the
Rabi model the electric field E is oscillatory with constant magnitude. On the
other hand in Jaynes –Cumming model of the two level atom interacting with a
quantized single-mode field.
So first we quantize the electro-magnetic field

Quantization of Electromagnetic Field:

The derivation is as follows :=>
To perform this quantization first look at the Maxwell equation for an
electromagnetic field in vacuum. These are given in known form as :=>

.E  0 (1)
.B  0 (2)
B (3)
 E   (4)
t
E
  B  (1/ C 2 )
t
With these equations an electromagnetic vector potential A and a normal electric
potential  can be associated . The field they obey the equations :=>
B   A (5)
A
E   (6)
t

For the following derivations the coulomb gauge used is

. A  0 (7)
Combining this with equation (4) and using the fact that for free space   0
gives :

1  A
 ( A)  (   )
C 2 t t
1 2 A
.(. A)   2 A  2 2
C t
1 2 A
 A 2 2
2

C t (8)
So in a vacuum the electromagnetic vector potential obeys a wave equation. Now
consider a cubic region space of length L. This region of space can be considered
as a box with arbitrary boundaries.
For this box the vector potential can be written as a Fourier expansion of the box
.This gives
A(r , t )    eK  AK  (t )eiK .r  eK*  AK* , (t )eiK .r (9)
K  1,2

Here  is the polarization of the wave, K is the wave number and eK  is the
polarization vector .The AK (t ) is the amplitude for each mode. The Wave number
K obeys the standard quantization condition
2 ni
Ki 
L

(1/ V )  d 3reiK .r e iK .r   KK '

AK (t )  A
 1,2
K ( ) 
ˆ K

 ˆ K  '    '
ˆ K
K.
ˆ K  0
Circularly polarized vectors
 eiK .r
A(r , t )   AK  (t ) K 
K , V
We take potential as real no.
AK* , (t )  AK , (t )
*K , K ,
Substitute value of A in wave equation (9)

We have:
1 2 eiK .r
  ][ AK , (t ) K ,
2
0
C 2 t 2 K , V
1 2 eiKr eiK .t
(  K , K , V
C 2 t 2 K ,
A (t )    2

K ,
AK (t ) 
ˆ K ,
V
0

1 A (t )
2  K
A (t )  ˆ K , eiK .t / V   K  ( K 2 )  ˆ K , eiK .r  0
C K K V
AK  (t )  C 2 K 2 AK , (t )
 K2 AK , (t )

 K is angular frequency of k th mode ,the above equation simple harmonic

oscillator’s equation . The solution of this equation is given by
AK ,  AK (0)eiK t
(10)
Hamiltonian :=>

1 3 | B |2
2
H d r  | E 2
| 
0
0
1 3 A

2  d r[0 ( ) 2  C 2 0 |   A |2
t
A A eiKr
E    K , ˆ K ,
t K , t V
0 2 AK , (t ) AK ' , ' (t )

2 
d 3
r | E |2

2V
 
K , K ', ' t u 2
K , K ' , '

 '
 '

 d re V , K K
i( K K ' )r
3

0, otherwise
1  AK , (t ) A K , (t )
2
0  d 3 r | E |2  0
2
 K, t t
0

2
 | A
K,
K , (t ) |2

C 02

2  d 3 r | B 2 | 0
2
 
K,
K | AK , |2

0
 | A (t ) |  K2 | AK , (t ) |2
2
H K ,
2 K,

(C 2 0 ) / 2  d 3r | B 2 |0 /2 K | AK , |2

H 0 /2 | AK , (t ) |2  K2 | AK , |2

K ,

AK , AK , is
complex quantity ,we want a real value of E , So we introduce some
new real numbers:
 QK(1),  Re{ AK , }
QK(2),  Im{ AK , }
QK(1), 2  QK(2), 2 , K Z  0
| AK , |   (1) 2
2

QK ,  Q K , , K  0
(2) 2

 Kx K y Kz
K ,

K Z  0, K  K x , K y , K
K Z  0, K  K x , K y ,  K z
 K  ( K x ,  K y ,| K z |)

 | A |2  2 [QK(1),  QK(2), 2 ]
2
K ,
K, K ,

2 

K,

(QK , ) 2
K Z 0

0 QK , 0 QK ,
H
2
 
K, ,
[K2 | QK , |2 (
t
)2 ] 
2
 
K, ,
[K2 (QK , )  (
t
)2 ]

QK ,
H 0  [
k,
2
K | QK , |2 (
t
)2 ]

Q is canonical postulate

P  a Q
 H H
Q , P  
P Q
P2
H 0  [ Q  2 ] 2 2

K ,  , k z 0 a
H 2 0 P 
  Q 
P a2
a  2 0
.
P  2 0 Q
1 2
H   [0 2 Q2  P ]
 4 0
(11)
Identify x  Q ; p  P ; m  2 0 we get equivalent harmonic oscillator equation.
To quantize it :=>
 [Q , P ]  i

Q  (b  b )
4 0 K
P  0 K (ib  ib )

For each value of ( K x , K y , K Z )we have two modes


QK(1)  [bK(1)  bK(1)  ] 
4 0 K 
 (12)
(2)  
QK(2)  [bK   bK  ]
(2)

4 0 K 
Substitute eq. (12) in eq. (11), we get
H   K [b b  1/ 2]


AK ,  / (4 0 K )[bK(1),  bK(1),   ibK(2),  ibK(2),  ]

AK ,  / (4 0 K )[b(1)K ,  b(1)K ,   ib(2)K ,  ib(2)K ,  ]
Define
 (bK1   ibK2  )
 , KZ  0
 2
aK ,  1
 (b K   ib K  ) , K  0
2

 2
Z

 (b1 K   ib2K  )
 , KZ  0
 2
a K    1
 (bK   ibK  ) , K  0
2

 2
Z

 (bK1    ibK2   )
 , KZ  0
  2
aK    1  2 
 (b K   ib K  ) , K  0
 2
Z

For all K, we have

AK ,  (aˆK ,  aˆK , ) 
ˆ K , ei K .r
2 0 K
Check if
[b , b' ]   '
 [aK  , aK ' ' ]   KK '   '

A(r , t )   (aK ,  aK , ) K , ei K .r

K , 2 0 K

A(r , t )   (aK ,  aK , ) K , ei K .r

K , 2 0 K

 (aK  K  ei K .r  aK  *K  ei K .r )

K , 2 o KV
From (9) equation
aK (t )  aK (0)e iK t

A [aK , (0)ei ( Kr t ) K  aK  (0) *K  ei ( Kr t ) ]

 2 0 V
A
E
t
K
 i [aK  (0) K  ei ( K .r t )  aK  (0) *K  ei ( K .r t ) ] (13)
K , 2 0 V
The equation (13) gives the quantized electro-magnetic field
The Jaynes Cumming Model:
It describes the interaction between a single two state atom and a light field .The
Hamiltonian of this model contains an atomic term ,an electromagnetic field
term an interaction term
H  H ATOM  H FIELD  H INT

Let two states |e> and |g>

1
H field   K (a  a  )
K 2
0
H atom  [| e  e |  | g  g |]
2
0 Z

2
These are field and atomic Hamiltonian of Jaynes- Cumming model

Instead of taking ground state energy as zero if we take it as

0

2
 H0  H A  H F
0 1
  Z  (a  a  ) 
2 2

The interaction term is given by

H INT  dˆ.Eˆ
Where d̂ is dipole operator , as we considered two states so we have four
independent operators
|g><g |,|g><e| ,|e><g |,|e><e|
dˆ  (  d ge    deg )
H INT  (d ge   deg  )(  / 2 0 V )[u ( R)aˆ  h.c]

Where u(R) is the mode function of the field at the center of mass coordinate R,

u ( R)
2 0 V
to be a real by a proper choice of phase.

H INT   g (ˆ   ˆ  )(aˆ  aˆ  )

  g (ˆ  aˆ  ˆ  aˆ   ˆ  aˆ  ˆ  aˆ  )

Which contains 4 terms. To further simplify this , we involve the rotating wave
approximation and 1 and 3 terms. There are two ways to understand the RWA.

(A) Violation of energy conservation:=>

  a atom is de -excited from |e> to |g> and destroy a photon

  a  atom is excited from |g> to |e> atom creation of photon

Thus these two terms violates the energy conservation so vanish

H INT   g (  aˆ     aˆ )
(B)Method of averaging :

The above argument is rather heuristic .We can make it more rigorous . For this
purpose ,it is easiest to work in the interaction picture. Decompose the total
Hamiltonian as
H  H 0  H INT
H0  H A  H F
H INT  e(iH0t )/ H INT e( iH0t )/
H INT  ei ( H A  H F )t /  g (ˆ   ˆ  )(aˆ  aˆ  )ei ( H A  H F )t /
  g[eiH At / (ˆ   ˆ  )eiH At / ][eiH F t / (aˆ  aˆ  )eiH F t / ]

Now
eiH At /   e iH At /
eiH At / | g  e | e iH At /
and
H A  0 ee

Now
 e | ei0 |ee|t  e | (1  i | e  e | t........)
 e | i0  e | t..........
 e | (1  i0t..........)
 e | ei0t
Also
eiH At / | g  eiot|e e| | g 
 (1  i0t | e  e | ....  ....) | g 
| g  i0t | e  e | g  .....  .....
| g 
So
eiH At / | g  e | e  iH At /
| g  e | e  i0t
   e  i0t
 e(iH At )/   e(  iH At )/  e(iH At )/ | e  g | e(  H At )/ gg
H A  0 gg
ei0 | g  g |t | e  (1  i0 | g  g | t  ........) | e 
| e  i0 | g  g | e  t  .......
| e 
So  g | ei |g  g |t  g | (1  i0 | g  g | t  ..........)
0

 g | i0  g | .......
 g | (1  i0t  .......)
 g | ei0t
thus
e(iH At )/ | e  g | e( iH At )/ | e  g | ei0t
   ei0t
Similarly
eiH F t / aeiH F t /  e  it a
eiH F t / a  eiH F t /  eit a 
(1)
H INT  g (ei0t   ei0t  )(e it a  eit a  )
(1)
H INT   g (e i ( 0 )t  a  e i ( 0 )t  a  ei ( 0 )t  a   ei ( 0 )t  a  )
Now, we note that terms 1 and 4 terms that do not conserve energy are
multiplied by oscillatory terms which involve the sum of the frequencies of the
field and the atomic transition , while other terms which do conserve energy are
multiplied by terms involving the difference of the two frequencies . For the near
resonant case we are most interested in , difference of frequencies.
Since the Schrodinger equation is a differential equation of first order in time we
have to integrate in time. This time integration brings the frequency sum and
difference into the denominator. Hence the dominant contribution must come
from the slowly varying part. The interaction Hamiltonian in the interaction
picture is then given by

Schrodinger equation
d | 
i  H INT
(1)
| 
dt

(1)
H INT   g (  a  eit    ae it )
Dressed states of Jaynes Cumming Model:
Lets back to Schrodinger picture under RWA Hamiltonian reads:

H  0 ee  aa    g (  a     a)

Instead of taking ground state energy as zero if we take it as

 /2
0
H ATOM  [| e  e |  | g  g |]
2
0 Z

2
H0  H A  H F
0 Z
  (a  a) 
2
Z  Z
 [  a  a] 
2 2
[  0   ]

Where  is applied frequencThe atom can be found | e , n> excited and |g , n+1 >
Now define a factor
 Z
N  aa 
2

Now
 Z
H JC  N    g (a    a  )
2
 Z
[ H JC , N ]  [ N    g (  a     a), N ]
2
 Z
 [ N , N ]  [ , N ]  g[ˆ  aˆ   ˆ  aˆ , N ]
2 (14)

Now
[ N , N ]  0
 Z   Z  Z 
[ ,a a  ] [ , a a]
2 2 2
[ [ z ,  z ]  0]
 Z 
[ , a a]  0 a  a
2
 Z 
[ , a a]  0
2

[ a a involves field operators and  Z represent atom operators and are
independent]
Z
[  a     a, N ]  [  a     a, a  a  ]
2
1
 [  a     a, a  a]  [  a     a,  z ]
2
(15)
Consider a typical state | e   | n  | e   | n 
Now
1  
[ a    a,  Z ] | e   | n 
2
 1
{[  a     a,| e  e |  | g  g |] | e   | n ]}
2
1
{[  a     a,| e  e |  | g  g |] | e   | n ]}
2
1
 [(  a    a  )(| e  e |  | g  g |)  (| e  e |  | g  g |)(  a    a  )] | e   | n 
2
1
 [(  a    a  )(| e  e |  | g  g |)  (| e  e |  | g  g |)(  a    a  )] | e   | n 
2
1
 [a | e  g || e   | n   | g  e || e   | n   | e  e | a  | g   | n   | g  g | a  | g   | n 
2

1  
= [ a | g   | n   a | g   | n ]
2
 a | g   | n  (16)

= [(a  a  ), a a] | e   | n 
   

 [(a   a   )a  a  a  a(a   a   )] | e   | n 
 [a  a  a  a  2 a   a  a 2   a  aa   ] | e   | n 
 a  2 a | g   | n  a  aa  | g   | n 
 a  [a  a  aa  ] | g   | n 
 a  (1) | g   | n 
 a  | g   | n  (17)
[ a   a,  Z ]  0
  

Substituting the values of eq. (15),(16) and (17) in eq. (14), we have

[ H JC , N JC ] =0
N is conserved quantity and hence
 Z
H0  H0   N 
2

Full Hamiltonian of system become

 Z
H  g (  a     a)
2 H INT
H0

The interaction term only couples the subspace {| e ,n >;|g,n+1>}.Therefore only

this subspace needs to be consider for solving the Hamiltonian . The beauty of the
JC model is that non- trivial but exact solution to the full Hamiltonian can be
obtained in the RWA. This is precisely due to the fact that we can decompose the
Hamiltonian matrix into 2  2 sub-blocks.
The Hamiltonian can then be written in matrix from as
  e, n | H | e, n   e, n | H | g , n  1  
H 
  g , n  1| H | e, n   g , n  1| H | g , n  1  
 

  e, n | H 0 | e, n   e, n | H INT | g , n  1  
 
  g , n  1| H | e, n   g , n  1| H | g , n  1  
 INT 0 
  e, n | H 0 | e, n   e, n | H INT | g , n  1  
 
  g , n  1| H INT | e, n   g , n  1| H 0 | g , n  1  
The H INT term only works on the off- diagonal elements , while the H 0 term
applies only on the diagonal terms . Applies only on the diagonal terms . Applying
the operators on the states gives for the Hamiltonian

 e, n | H 0 | e, n  e  n | (| e  e |  | g  g |) | e   | n 
2
 
 [ e  n || e   | n  0] 
2 2
Now
 e  n | H INT | g   | n  1 
  g  e |   n | ( a | e   | n  1 )
  g  e |  | n  n  1(| e   | n )
  g n 1
  
 g n 1 
H  2

 g n 1  
 
 2 

   n 
 2 
  2 
  n  
 
 2 2 
n n  2 g n  1
Where is Rabi frequency defined as
To find energy eigen values
| H   I | 0
  n 
 2   2 
  
  n     =0
 
 2 2 
  2
 (   )(   )  n  0
2 2 4

2 2
  2  n  0
4 4
n   2
2
 
2

4
   2n
2


2
This gives
Rn
E  
2
Rn  2  2n
Where Adding the conserved number terms gives for the full energy

Rn
E  [ (n  1)  ]
2

Similarly ,we can find Energy Eigen vectors

n n
| n  sin | e, n   cos | g, n 1 
2 2
n n
| n  cos( ) | e, n   sin( ) | g, n 1 
2 2
n
sin  n 
( Rn  ) 2   2n
Rn  
cos  n 
( Rn  ) 2   n2
Or more compact
n
tan 

The Eigen vector equations are called dressed states of the Jaynes - Cumming
Hamiltonian .The states are an entanglement of the two basis states | e , n > and
|g , n+1> with a simple rotation
sin  n
The state | e, n> and |g , n+1 > are the Eigen states of the Hamiltonian
without the interaction term. The interaction term couples the two possible
states, and the system become entangled. The system is maximally entangled
when Sin = Cosine . From the compact form it follows that this is the case when
delta approaches to zero. So when the system is on resonance the entanglement

is maximum. This is physically reasonable, because when the system is on

resonance the interaction term allows the greatest amount of mixing of the
states. When the system is not on resonance the states behave like the non
interaction states |e, n> and |g ,n+1 > . This can clearly be seen in figure. This
figure shows a graph where the energy of the states is plotted verses the de-
tuning parameter. The dotted lines represents the energy term for the
Hamiltonian without interaction terms. it is clear that detuning is almost zero, the
system has the great coupling .But when detuning is large, the energy behaves
like there is no coupling .Only when the detuning parameter close to zero does
the interaction term contribute significantly.
 A Plot of the dressed states versus the detuning parameter

NEAR RESONANCE:=>

 Z
H JC   N   g[  a     a ]
2
[  0 ,near resonance]
H JC   N  g (  a     a )
H JC  H1  H 2
Where
H1   N
H 2  g[  a     a ]
Now
 [ H1 , H 2 ]  0
| 
is any arbitrary state of the system at any time t
|  Ce (t )eiHt / |1  Cg (t )eiHt / | 2 
e iHt / |  1  eiH 2t / e iH1t / |  1 
Z
 i[  ( a  a  )]t /
e  iH1t /
| 1  e 2
| 1 
|e  e|| g  g |
 it [ a  a  ]
e 2
| 1 
it
  (|e  e|| g  g |)
 [eia at
e 2
] | 1 
i | g  g |t
 e 2
|   1
1
[Because |e><e| don’t act on ]

 it
|  (t )  e  i a at (1  | e  e | .....) | n   | e 
2
 it
 e  i a at (| n   | e   | n   | e  .....)
2
 it
|  (t )  e  i a at (1  | e  e | ......) | n   | e 
2
 it
 e  i a at (| n   | e   | n   | e  ......)
2
it
 
 eia at e 2
|n  |e 
1
 i ( a  a  ) t
e 2
| 1 
 eit | 
Effect of H(1) is to give overall phase change and does nothing
From schrodinger equation we have

d | 
i  H 2 | (t ) 
dt
| (t )  C1 (t ) |  1  C2 (t ) |  2 
Where
C1 (t )  Ce (t )eiHt / , C2 (t )  Cg (t )eiHt /

i [C1 (t ) |  1  C2 (t ) |  2  H 2 [C1 (t ) |  1  C2 (t ) |  

i [C1 (t ) |  1  C2 (t ) |  2 ]  C1 (t ) g (ˆ  a  ˆ  a  ) | e   | n  C2 (t ) g (ˆ  a  ˆ  a  ) | g   | n  1 

i [C1 (t ) |1  C2 (t ) | 2 ]   gC1 (t ) n  1(| g   | n )  C2 (t ) g n  1 |1 

 |
Pre multiply by

i C1 (t )  C1 (t ) g n  1

C1 (t )  igC2 (t ) n  1

i C2 (t )  C1 (t ) g n  1

C2 (t )  igC1 (t ) n  1

C1 (t )  ig n  1C2 (t )

C1 (t )  ig n  1(igC1 (t ) n  1)

C1 (t )   g 2 (n  1)C1 (t )

d 2C1 (t )
2
 g 2 (n  1)C1 (t )  0
dt

C1 (t )  A cos( g n  1)t  B sin( g n  1)t

Similarly
C2 (t )  C cos( g n  1)t  D sin( g n  1)t

Now we apply boundary conditions:

1.C1 (0)  1, C2 (0)  0

 A  1, c  0
2.C1 (0)  0
  B  0

This gives us states

Excited state is given by
C1 (t )  cos( g n  1)t
Ground state is given by
C2 (t )  D sin( g n  1)t

These equations signifies the spontaneous emission .

Conclusion
We have considered a two level atom having two states initial and final state and
have energies Ei and E f , now when the field is quantized, transitions will occur
for the case Ei  E f , even when no photons are present – the so called
spontaneous emission . This is the only one of several differences that will appear
in the atom-field dynamics in the comparison between cases when the field is
quantized and when it is not. This is obviously in agreement with the case of a
classical driving field – no field, no transition . But in the case of above equation ,
transition may occur even when no photons are present. This is spontaneous
emission and it has no semi classical counterpart .
In the classical case there must always be a field present initially . But in the
quantum –mechanical case there are Rabi oscillations even for the case when n=0
. These are vacuum field Rabi oscillations and ofcourse , they have no classical
counterpart . They are the result of the atom spontaneously emitting a photon
then re-observing it, re-emitting it, etc: an example of reversible spontaneous
emission . Thus the spontaneous-emission is explained by Jaynes-Cumming model
(quantum theory) which was not explained by semi-classical theory .

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