11 TH Physics

CBSE
Class 11 PHYSICS
Revision Notes
CHAPTER 1
PHYSICAL WORLD
1 Physics-Scope and Excitement

2 Physics, technology and society
3 Nature of physical laws
There are four fundamental forces which govern both macroscopic and microscopic
phenomena. There are
(i) Gravitational force
(ii) Nuclear force
(iii) Electromagnetic force
(iv) Weak force
The relative strengths of these forces are Fg : Fw : Fe : Fs = 1: : .
All those quantities which can be measured directly or indirectly and in terms of which the
laws of physics can be expressed are called physical quantities.
(a) Fundamental quantities
(b) Derived quantities.
The units of the fundamental quantities called fundamental units , and the units of derived
quantities called derived units.
System of units:-
(a) MKS
(b) CGS
(c) FPS
(d) SI
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental
quantities are raised to represent that physical quantity.
Material downloaded from myCBSEguide.com. 1 / 4

The equation which expresses a physical quantity in terms of the fundamental units
of mass, length and time, is called dimensional equation.
According to this principle of homogeneity a physical equation will be dimensionally
correct if the dimensions of all the terms in the all the terms occurring on both sides
of the equation are the same.
If any equation is dimensionally correct it is not necessary that must be
mathematically correct too.
There are three main uses of the dimensional analysis-
(a) To convert a unit of given physical quantities from one system of units to another
system for which we use n2 = n1[M1/M2]a[L1/L2]b[T1/T2]c
(b) To check the correctness of a given physical relation.
(c) To derive a relationship between different physical quantities.
Significant figures: - The significant figures are normally those digits in a measured
quantity which are known reliably plus one additional digit that is uncertain.
For counting of the significant figure rule are as:
(i) All non- zero digits are significant figure.
(ii) All zero between two non-zero digits are significant figure.
(iii) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an understood decimal point are
not significant. But such zeros are significant if they come from a measurement.
(iv) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of a decimal point are significant.
(v) All zeros to the right of a decimal point are significant.
(vi) All zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a non-zero digit are not
significant. Single zero conventionally placed to the left of the decimal point is not
significant.
(vii) The number of significant figures does not depend on the system of units.
In addition or subtraction, the result should be reported to the same number of

decimal places as that of the number with minimum number of decimal places.
In multiplication or division, the result should be reported to the same number of

significant figures as that of the number with minimum of significant figures.
Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measurement to the true value of the physical
quantity and precision refers to the resolution or the limit to which the quantity is
measured.
Difference between measured value and true value of a quantity represents error of
measurement. It gives an indication of the limits within which the true value may lie.
Mean of n measurements
Absolute error Where = measured value it may be – positive,

negative or zero.
Mean absolute error

Relative error - it is the ratio of the mean absolute error to the true value.
The relative error expressed in percent is called percentage error.

The error is communicated in different mathematical operations as detailed below:
SUMMARY
1. Physics deals with the study of the basic laws of nature and their manifestation indifferent
phenomena. The basic laws of physics are universal and apply in widely differentcontexts
and conditions.
2. The scope of physics is wide, covering a tremendous range of magnitude of

physicalquantities.
3. Physics and technology are related to each other. Sometimes technology gives rise tonew
physics; at other times physics generates new technology. Both have direct impact on society.

4. There are four fundamental forces in nature that govern the diverse phenomena of
themacroscopic and the microscopic world. These are the ë gravitational force í, the ë
electromagnetic force í, the ë strong nuclear force í, and the ë weak nuclear force í .
Notification of different forces/domains in nature is a basic quest in physics.
5. The physical quantities that remain unchanged in a process are called

conservedquantities. Some of the general conservation laws in nature include the laws
ofconservation of mass, energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, charge, parity, etc.
Some conservation laws are true for one fundamental force but not for the other.
6. Conservation laws have a deep connection with symmetries of nature. Symmetries ofspace
and time, and other types of symmetries play a central role in modern theories of
fundamental forces in nature.

CBSE Class XI PHYSICS
Revision Notes
CHAPTER 2
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
1. Measurement and units of Measurement, SI Units

2. Measurement of length, Mass and Time
3. Accuracy, precision of instruments and errors in measurement
4. Dimensions of physical quantities
1. Physics is a quantitative science, based on measurement of physical quantities. Certain

physical quantities have been chosen as fundamental or base quantities (such as
length,mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance, and
luminous intensity).
2. Each base quantity is defined in terms of a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen but properly
standardized reference standard called unit (such as metre, kilogram, second, ampere,kelvin,
mole and candela). The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called fundamental
or base units.
3. Other physical quantities, derived from the base quantities, can be expressed as a
combination of the base units and are called derived units. A complete set of units, both
fundamental and derived, is called a system of units.
4. The International System of Units (SI) based on seven base units is at present
internationally accepted unit system and is widely used throughout the world.
5. The SI units are used in all physical measurements, for both the base quantities and the
derived quantities obtained from them. Certain derived units are expressed by means of SI
units with special names (such as joule, Newton, watt, etc).
6. The SI units have well defined and internationally accepted unit symbols (such as m for
metre, kg for kilogram, s for second, A for ampere, N for newton etc.).
7. Physical measurements are usually expressed for small and large quantities in scientific

notation, with powers of 10. Scientific notation and the prefixes are used to simplify
measurement notation and numerical computation, giving indication to the precision of the
numbers.
8. Certain general rules and guidelines must be followed for using notations for physical
quantities and standard symbols for SI units, some other units and SI prefixes for expressing
properly the physical quantities and measurements.
9. In computing any physical quantity, the units for derived quantities involved in the
relationship(s) are treated as though they were algebraic quantities till the desired units are
obtained.
10. Direct and indirect methods can be used for the measurement of physical quantities. In
measured quantities, while expressing the result, the accuracy and precision of measuring
instruments along with errors in measurements should be taken into account.
11. In measured and computed quantities proper significant figures only should be retained.
Rules for determining the number of significant figures, carrying out arithmetic operations
with them, and ë rounding off ë the uncertain digits must be followed.
12. The dimensions of base quantities and combination of these dimensions describe the
nature of physical quantities. Dimensional analysis can be used to check the dimensional
consistency of equations, deducing relations among the physical quantities, etc. A
dimensionally consistent equation need not be actually an exact (correct) equation, but a
dimensionally wrong or inconsistent equation must be wrong.

Revision Notes
CHAPTER 3
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
1. Position, path length and displacement

2. Velocity and Speed
3. Acceleration and Relative velocity
4. Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated motion
1. An object is said to be in motion if its position changes with time. The position of the object
can be specified with reference to a conveniently chosen origin. For motion in a straight line,
position to the right of the origin is taken as positive and to the left as negative.
2. Path length is defined as the total length of the path traversed by an object.
3. Displacement is the change in position: . Path length is greater or equal to

the magnitude of the displacement between the two points.
4. An object is said to be in uniform motion in a straight line if its displacement is equal

in equal intervals of time. Otherwise, the motion is said to be non-uniform.
5. Average velocity is the displacement divided by the time interval in which the
displacement occurs: . It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is m/s.
On an x-t graph, the average velocity over a time interval is the slope of the line connecting
the initial and final positions corresponding to that interval.
6. Average Speed is the ratio of total path length traversed and the corresponding time
interval. It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is same (m/s) as that of velocity.
The average speed of an object may be greater or equal to the magnitude of the average
velocity over a given time interval.
7. Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity as
the time interval Δt becomes infinitesimally small: . It is also a
vector quantity and its SI unit is m/s.

The velocity at a particular instant is equal to the slope of the tangent drawn onposition-time
graph at that instant.
8. Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time interval during which
the change occurs:
It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is m/s2.
9. Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the time
interval Δt goes to zero:
It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is m/s2.
The acceleration of an object at a particular time is the slope of the velocity-time graph at
that instant of time. For uniform motion, acceleration is zero and the x-t graph is a straight
line inclined to the time axis and the v-t graph is a straight line parallel to the time axis. For
motion with uniform acceleration, x-t graph is a parabola while the v-t graph is a straight
line inclined to the time axis.
10. The area under the velocity-time curve between times and is equal to the
displacement of the object during that interval of time.
11. For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the five quantities, displacement
x, time taken t, initial velocity v0, final velocity v and acceleration a are related by a setof
simple equations called kinematic equations of motion :
provided the position of the object at time t = 0 is 0.
If the particle starts at x = x0 , x in above equations is replaced by (x- ).
When a body moves in a circular path with Increasing angular velocity, it has two
linear accelerations.

(i) Centripetal acceleration ac and tangential acceleration aT. Resultant acceleration of the
body is at an angle Beta given by
Where Beta is the angle between a and .
The minimum height through which a motor cyclist has to descend to a vertical loop
of radius r is h=
Circular Motion
Angular displacement : The angular displacement of an object moving around a

circular path is defined as the angle subtended by the radius vector at the centre of
the circular path in the given time.
Angular velocity : It is defined as the time rate of change of angular displacement
of the object = . Its S.I unit is rad/s.
Uniform circular motion: when a point object is moving on a circular path with a
constant speed ,then the motion of the object is said to be a uniform circular motion.
Centripetal acceleration: It is defined as the acceleration of an object undergoing
uniform circular motion .It always acts along the radius towards the centre of the
circular path. The magnitude of centripetal acceleration is, a = v2/r.

The rate of change of angular velocity is called its angular acceleration.

The acceleration which changes the magnitude of the velocity is called tangential
acceleration. It is given by ,where is the angular acceleration,
The direction of tangential acceleration is along the tangent to curved path.
velocity of projection at lowest point
velocity at the highest point H is
Tension at lowest point
For oscillation in vertical circle

For leaving the vertical circle somewhere between
Acceleration of a body down a rough inclined plane a =

When a person of mass m climbs up a rope with acceleration a, the tension in the
rope is t = m(g+a)
When the person climbs down the rope with acceleration a, tension in the rope is T= m(g-a)
Suppose two masses and are suspended vertically from a rigid support with
the help of strings as shown in Fig. When mass is pulled down with a force F, then
and
When the same system of two masses attached to a string passes over a frictionless

pulley at the edge of an inclined plane ,as shown in Fig.
Equation wil be…
During motion on level curved road, the necessary centripetal force is provided by
the force of friction between the tyres and the road. The maximum velocity with
which a vehicle can go round a level curve without Skidding is
To increase speed on turn, curved roads are usually baked outer edge of the
curved road is raised suitably above the inner edge. If 0 (theta) is the angle of banking
,then .
When frictional force is ignored ,the optimum speed is
While rounding a banked curved road ,maximum permissible speed is given by
when friction is taken into account.
When a cyclist takes a turn he bends a little inwards from his vertical position, while
turning. Angle of bending from vertical position is given by
Motion along a vertical circle is a non uniform circular motion. Tension in the string
at any position is where is the angle of string with vertical
line for looping with optimum speed:- (when tension at highest point is zero)
Impulse =
Any system is said to be in equilibrium if net force applied on the system is zero . In

this case system is either at rest or in uniform motion .
Friction is the opposing force that comes into play when one body is actually moving
over the surface of another body or one body is trying to move over the surface of the
other,
Two causes of friction are: roughness of surface in contact;(ancient view) and,
Force of adhesion between the molecules of the surfaces in contact.(Modern view)
Type of solid friction:-
1. Static friction. It comes into effect when object is at rest but external force is applied.
2. Dynamic friction .it comes into effect when object is in motion.
3. Rolling friction-it comes into effect when object is rolling.
Limiting friction is the maximum value of static friction, whereas dynamic/ Kinetic
friction is somewhat less than the force of limiting friction.
Coefficient of friction
When F= external force and R= normal reaction
Angle of friction is the angle which resultant of F and R makes with the direction
of R. The relation between
Angle of repose(a) is the minimum angle of inclination of a plane with the horizontal
,such that a body placed on the plane just begins to slide down.
Centripetal force is the force required to move a body uniformally in a circle.

Revision Notes
CHAPTER 4
PHYSICS
MOTION IN A PLANE
1. Scalars and vectors

2. Multiplication of vectors by real numbers
3. Addition and subtraction of vectors
4. Resolution of vectors
5. Motion in a plane with constant acceleration
6. Projectile motion and Uniform circular motion
SUMMARY
1. Scalar quantities have only magnitude. Examples are distance, speed, mass and
temperature.
2. Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction. Examples are displacement, velocity
and acceleration. They obey special rules of vector algebra.
3. A vector 'A' multiplied by a real number ' ' is also a vector, whose magnitude is ' ' times
the magnitude of the vector 'A' and whose direction is the same or opposite depending upon
whether ' ' is positive or negative.
4. Two vectors A and B can be added graphically by using head-to-tail method or

parallelogram method.
5. Vector addition obeys commutative law i.e, A + B = B + A
It also obeys the associative law i.e, (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
6. A null or zero vector is a vector with zero magnitude. Since the magnitude is zero, we don't
have to specify its direction.
It has the properties:

A+0 =A
.0 =0
0.A =0
7. The subtraction of vector B from A is defined as the sum of 'A' and 'negative B'
i.e A-B=A + (-B)
8. A vector A can be resolved into component along two given vectors 'a' and 'b' lying in the
same plane i.e, A= a+ b where and are real numbers.
9. A unit vector associated with a vector 'A' has magnitude '1' and is along the vector A:
The unit vectors , , are vectors of unit magnitude and points in the direction of the x-, y-,
and z-axes respectively in a right-handed coordinate system.
10.A vector A can be expressed as
Where are its components along x-, and y -axes. If vector A makes an angle with
the x-axis, then =A cos , =A sin and and direction is given by
11. Vectors can be conveniently added using analytical method. If sum of two vectors A and
B, that lie in x-y plane, is R, then: R=A+B
12. The position vector of an object in x-y plane is given by r= x +y and the displacement
from position r to position r is given by
13. If an object undergoes a displacement in time , its average velocity is given by

. The velocity of an object at time t is the limiting value of the average velocity
As tends to zero:
It can be written in unit vector notation as:

Where
When position of an object is plotted on a coordinate system, v is always tangent to the curve
representing the path of the object.
14. If the velocity of an object changes from v to v′ in time , then its average acceleration
is given by:
The acceleration a at any time t is the limiting value
In component form, we have
15. If an object is moving in a plane with constant acceleration and its
position vector at time then at any other time t, it will be at a point given by
and its velocity is given by
When is the velocity at time t=0
In component form
Motion in a plane can be treated as superposition of two separate simultaneous one-

dimensional motions along two perpendicular directions
16. An object that is in flight after being projected is called a projectile. If an object is
projected with initial velocity making an angle with x-axis and if we assume its initial
position to coincide with the origin of the coordinate system, then the position and velocity of
the projectile at time t are given by:

The path of a projectile is parabolic and is given by:
The maximum height that a projectile attains is
The time taken to reach this height is:
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from its initial position to the position it
passes y = 0 during its fall is called the range, R of the projectile. It is:
17. When an object follows a circular path at constant speed, the motion of the object is
called uniform circular motion. The magnitude of its acceleration is . The
direction of is always onwards the centre of the circle.
The angular speed , is the rate of change of angular distance. It is related to velocity v by v
= R. The acceleration is . If T is the time period of revolution of the object in
circular motion and ν is its frequency, we have

Revision Notes
CHAPTER 5
LAWS OF MOTION
1. The law of inertia

2. Newton’s first law of motion
3. Newton’s second law of motion
4. Newton’s third law of motion
5. Conservation of momentum
6. Equilibrium of a particle, Laws of Friction
7. Circular motion
1. Aristotleís view that a force is necessary to keep a body in uniform motion is wrong. A
force is necessary in practice to counter the opposing force of friction.
2. Galileo extrapolated simple observations on motion of bodies on inclined planes, and

arrived at the law of inertia. Newtonís first law of motion is the same law rephrased thus:
ìEverybody continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless
compelled by some external force to act otherwiseî. In simple terms, the First Law is “If
external force on a body is zero, its acceleration is zero”
3. Momentum (p ) of a body is the product of its mass (m) and velocity (v) :p = mv
4. Newtonís second law of motion :
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction in which the force acts. Thus
where F is the net external force on the body and a its acceleration. We set the constant of
proportionality k = 1 in SI units. Then
The SI unit of force is newton : 1N = 1 Kg m .
(a) The second law is consistent with the First Law (F = 0 implies a = 0)

(b) It is a vector equation
(c) It is applicable to a particle, and also to a body or a system of particles, provided Fis the
total external force on the system and a is the acceleration of the system asa whole.
(d) F at a point at a certain instant determines a at the same point at that instant. That is the
Second Law is a local law; a at an instant does not depend on the history of motion.
5. Impulse is the product of force and time which equals change in momentum. The notion of
impulse is useful when a large force acts for a short time to produce a measurable change in
momentum. Since the time of action of the force is very short, one can assume that there is
no appreciable change in the position of the body during the action of the impulsive force.
6. Newtonís third law of motion:
To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction In simple terms, the law can
be stated thus :
Forces in nature always occur between pairs of bodies. Force on a body A by body B is equal
and opposite to the force on the body B by A.
Action and reaction forces are simultaneous forces. There is no cause-effect relation between
action and reaction. Any of the two mutual forces can be called action and the other reaction.
Action and reaction act on different bodies and so they cannot be cancelled out. The internal
action and reaction forces between different parts of a body do, however, sum to zero.
7. Law of Conservation of Momentum
The total momentum of an isolated system of particles is conserved. The law follows from the
second and third law of motion.
8. Friction
Frictional force opposes (impending or actual) relative motion between two surfaces in
contact. It is the component of the contact force along the common tangent to the surface in
contact. Static friction opposes impending relativemotion; kinetic frictionopposes actual
relative motion. They are independentof the area of contact and satisfy the following

approximate laws:
(co-efficient of static friction) and k (co-efficient of kinetic friction) are constants

characteristic of the pair of surfaces in contact. It is found experimentally that k is less than
s
Quantity Symbol Units Dimensions Remarks
Kg m or
Momentum P Vector
Ns
Force F N F=m a Second Law
Kg m or Impulse =force time=change in

Impulse
Ns momentum
Static
f, Ns
friction
Kinetic
f, N
friction

Revision Notes
CHAPTER 6
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
1. Notions of work, work-energy theorem, power

2. Kinetic energy
3. Potential energy
4. The conservation of Energy
5. Non-conservative forces-Motion in a vertical circle, Collisions
SUMMARY
1. The work-energy theorem states that the change in kinetic energy of a body is the
workdone by the net force on the body.
2. A force is conservative if (i) work done by it on an object is path independent anddepends

only on the end points {xi, xj}, or (ii) the work done by the force is zero for anarbitrary closed
path taken by the object such that it returns to its initial position.
3. For a conservative force in one dimension, we may define a potential energy function
V(x)such that
4. The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that the total mechanicalenergy
of a body remains constant if the only forces that act on the body are conservative.
5. The gravitational potential energy of a particle of mass m at a height x about the earth’s
surface is V(x) = m g x
where the variation of g with height is ignored.

6. The elastic potential energy of a spring of force constant k and extension x is
7. The scalar or dot product of two vectors A and B is written as A. B and is a scalarquantity
given by : A.B = AB cos , where is the angle between A and B. It can bepositive, negative or
zero depending upon the value of . The scalar product of twovectors can be interpreted as
the product of magnitude of one vector and componentof the other vector along the first
vector. For unit vectors :
Scalar products obey the commutative and the distributive laws.
Physical Quality Symbol Dimensions units Remarks
Work W J W=F.d.
Kinetic Energy K J
Potential energy V(x) J
Mechanical energy E J E= K+V
Spring Constant K
P=F.v
Power P W

Revision Notes
CHAPTER 7
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION
1. Centre of mass
2. Moment of a Force
3. Equilibrium of a rigid body
4. Moment of inertia
1. Ideally, a rigid body is one for which the distances between different particles of the body
do not change, even though there are forces on them.
2. A rigid body fixed at one point or along a line can have only rotational motion. A rigid
body not fixed in some way can have either pure translation or a combination of translation
and rotation.
3. In rotation about a fixed axis, every particle of the rigid body moves in a circle which lies
in a plane perpendicular to the axis and has its centre on the axis. Every Point in the rotating
rigid body has the same angular velocity at any instant of time.
4. In pure translation, every particle of the body moves with the same velocity at any instant
of time.
5. Angular velocity is a vector. Its magnitude is and it is directed along the axis of
rotation. For rotation about a fixed axis, this vector has a fixed direction.
6. The vector or cross product of two vector a and b is a vector written as a × b. The
magnitude of this vector is ab sin and its direction is given by the right handed screw or the
right hand rule.
7. The linear velocity of a particle of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis is given by v=
*r where r is the position vector of the particle with respect to an origin along the fixed axis.
The relation applies even to more general rotation of a rigid body with one point fixed. In
that case r is the position vector of the particle with respect to the fixed point taken as the

origin.
8. The centre of mass of a system of particles is defined as the point whose position vector is
9. Velocity of the centre of mass of a system of particles is given by V = P/M, where P is the
linear momentum of the system. The centre of mass moves as if all the mass of the system is
concentrated at this point and all the external forces act at it. If the total external force on the
system is zero, then the total linear momentum of the system is constant.
10. The angular momentum of a system of n particles about the origin is
The torque or moment of force on a system of n particles about the origin is
The force Fi acting on the particle includes the external as well as internal forces.
Assuming Newton’s third law and that forces between any two particles act along the line
joining the particles, we can show = 0 and
11. A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium if
(1) it is in translational equilibrium, i.e., the total external force on it is zero and
(2) it is in rotational equilibrium, i.e. the total external torque on it is zero:
12. The centre of gravity of an extended body is that point where the total
gravitationaltorque on the body is zero.
13. The moment of intertia of a rigid body about an axis is defined by the formula
where is the perpendicular distance of the ith point of the body from the axis.
The kinetic energy of rotation is .
14. The theorem of parallel axes: = allows us to determine the moment of intertia
of a rigid body about an axis as the sum of the moment of inertia of the body about a parallel
axis through its centre of mass and the product of mass and square of the perpendicular

distance between these two axes.
15. Rotation about a fixed axis is directly analogous to linear motion in respect of kinematics
and dynamics.
16. For a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis (say, z-axis) of rotation, , where I is
the moment of inertia about z-axis. In general, the angular momentum L for such a body is
not along the axis of rotation. Only if the body is symmetric about the axis of rotation, L is
along the axis of rotation. In that case, . The angular acceleration of a rigid
body rotating about a fixed axis is given by Iα = τ. If the external torque τ acting on the body
is zero, the component of angular momentum about the fixed axis (say, z-axis of
such a rotating body is constant.
17. For rolling motion without slipping , where is the velocity of translation
(i.e. of the centre of mass), R is the radius and m is the mass of the body. The kinetic energy
of such a rolling body is the sum of kinetic energies of translation and rotation:
.

Revision Notes
CHAPTER 8
GRAVITATION
1. Kepler’s laws, Universal law of gravitation

2. Acceleration due to gravity
3. Gravitational potential energy
4. Escape Velocity, Orbital Velocity, Geostationary and polar satellites
Kepler's law of planetry motion
(a) Kepler's first law (law of orbit): Every planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit
with the sun is situated at one focus of the ellipse.
(b) Kepler's second law (law of area): The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet
sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time , i.e., the areal velocity of the planet around
the sun is constant.
(c) Kepler's third law (law of period): The square of the time period of revolution of a planet
around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit of
the planet around the sun.
Gravitation is the name given to the force of attraction acting between any two
bodies of the universe.
Newton's law of gravitation: It states that gravitational force of attraction acting

between two point mass bodies of the universe is directly proportional to the product
of their masses and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them, i.e , where G is the universal gravitational constant.

Gravitational constant (G): It is equal to the force of attraction acting between two
bodies each of unit mass, whose centres are placed unit distance apart. Value of G is
constant throughout the universe. It is a scalar quantity. The dimensional formula
. In SI unit, the value of G = .

Gravity: It is the force of attraction exerted by earth towards its centre on a body
lying on or near the surface of earth. Gravity is the measure of weight of the body.
The weight of a body of mass m=mass X acceleration due to gravity=mg. The unit of
weight of a body will be the same as those of force.
Acceleration due to gravity (g): It is defined as the acceleration set up in a body

while falling freely under the effect of gravity alone. It is vector quantity. The value of
g changes with height, depth, rotation of earth the value of g is zero at the centre of
the earth. The value of g on the surface of earth is . The acceleration due to
gravity (g) is related with gravitational constant (G) by the relaion, where M
and R are the mass and radius of the earth.
Gravitational potential: The gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field

is defined as the amount of work done in bringing a body of unit mass from infinity to
that point without acceleration. Gravitational potential at a point
Gravitational intensity (I) is related to gravitational potential (V) at a point by the relation,
Gravitational potential energy of a body, at a point in the gravitational field of

another body is defined as the amount of work done in bringing the given body from
infinity to that point without acceleration.
Gravitational potential energy U=gravitational potential
X mass of body =

Revision Notes
CHAPTER 9
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
Elastic behaviour of solids

Stress and strain
Hooke’s law
Young’s modulus, bulk modulus, shear modulus of rigidity
Poisson's Ratio, Elastic Energy
Deforming Force : A force which produces a change in configuration of the object on

applying it, is called a deforming force.
Elasticity: Elasticity is that property of the object by virtue of which it regain its original
configuration after the removal of the deforming force.
Elastic Limit : Elastic limit is the upper limit of deforming force upto which, if deforming
force is removed, the body regains its original form completely and beyond which if
deforming force is increased the body loses its property of elasticity and get permanently
deformed.
Perfectly Elastic Bodies: Those bodies which regain its original configuration immediately
and completely after the removal of deforming force are called perfectly elastic bodies. e.g.,
quartz and phosphor bronze etc.
Perfectly Plastic Bodies: Those bodies which does not regain its original configuration at all
on the removal of deforming force are called perfectly plastic bodies, e.g., putty, paraffin,
wax etc.
Stress : The internal restoring force acting per unit area of a deformed body is called stress.
Stress =
Its unit is N/m2 or Pascal and dimensional formula is[ ].

Stress is a tensor quantity.
Stress is of Two Types
(i) Normal Stress If deforming force is applied normal to the area, then the stress is called
normal stress.
If there is an increase in length, then stress is called tensile stress.
If there is a decrease in length, then stress is called compression stress.
(ii) Tangential Stress If deforming force is applied tangentially, then the stress is called
tangential stress.
Strain : The fractional change in configuration is called strain.
Strain =
It has no unit and it is a dimensionless quantity. According to the change in configuration,

the strain is of three types
(1) Longitudinal strain=
(2) Volumetric strain =
(iii) Shearing strain = Angular displacement of the plane perpendicular to the fixed surface.
Hooke’s Law
Within the limit of elasticity, the stress is proportional to the strain.
Stress &infi; Strain
or Stress = E * Strain
where, E is the modulus of elasticity of the material of the body.
Types of Modulus of Elasticity
1. Young’s Modulus of Elasticity

It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the longitudinal strain Within the elastic limit.
y = Normal stress / Longitudinal strain
Its unit is N/m2 or Pascal and its dimensional formula is [ ].
2. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity
It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the volumetric strain within the elastic limit.
K =
K = = Δp V / Δ V
where, Δp = = Change in pressure.
Its unit is N/m2 or Pascal and its dimensional formula is [M-1T-2 ].
3. Modulus of Rigidity (η)
It is defined as the ratio of tangential stress to the shearing strain, within the elastic limit.
η = Tangential stress / Shearing strain
Its urut is N/m2 or Pascal and its dimensional formula is [ML-1T-2 ].
Compressibility
Compressibility of a material is the reciprocal of its bulk modulus of elasticity.

Compressibility (C) = 1 / k
Its SI unit is N-1m2 and CGS unit is dyne-1 cm2 . Steel is more elastic than rubber. Solids are
more elastic and gases are least elastic. For liquids. modulus of rigidity is zero. Young’s
modulus (Y) and modulus of rigidity (η) are possessed by solid materials only.
Limit of Elasticity
The maximum value of deforming force for which elasticity is present in the body is called its

limit of elasticity.
Breaking Stress
The minimum value of stress required to break a wire, is called breaking stress. Breaking
stress is fixed for a material but breaking force varies with area of cross-section of the wire.
Safety factor =
Elastic Relaxation Time
The time delay in restoring the original configuration after removal of deforming force is
called elastic relaxation time.
For quartz and phosphor bronze this time is negligible.
Elastic After Effect
The temporary delay in regaining the original configuration by the elastic body after the
removal of deforming force, is called elastic after effect.
Elastic Fatigue
The property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behaviour becomes less elastic under
the action of repeated alternating deforming force is called elastic fatigue.
Ductile Materials
The materials which show large plastic range beyond elastic limit are called ductile
materials, e.g., copper, silver, iron, aluminum, etc. Ductile materials are used for making
springs and sheets. Brittle Materials The materials which show very small plastic range
beyond elastic limit are called brittle materials, e.g., glass, cast iron, etc.
Elastomers
The materials for which strain produced is much larger than the stress applied, with in the
limit of elasticity are called elastomers, e.g., rubber, the elastic tissue of aorta, the large
vessel carrying blood from heart. etc. Elastomers have no plastic range.
Elastic Potential Energy in a Stretched Wire

The work done in stretching a wire is stored in form of potential energy of the wire.
Potential energy U = Average force * Increase in length
= Stress * Strain * Volume of the wire
Elastic potential energy per unit volume
U = * Stress * Strain
= (Young’s modulus) * (Strain)2
Elastic potential energy of a stretched spring = kx2
where, k = Force constant of spring and x = Change in length.
Thermal Stress When temperature of a rod fixed at its both ends is changed, then the
produced stress is called thermal stress.
Thermal stress = = yαΔθ
where, α = coefficient of linear expansion of the material of the rod.
When temperature of a gas enclosed in a vessel is changed, then the thermal stress produced
is equal to change in pressure (Δp)of the gas.
Thermal stress = Δ p = Ky Δ θ
where, K = bulk modulus of elasticity and
γ = coefficient of cubical expansion of the gas.
Interatomic force constant
K = Yro
where, ro = interatomic distance.
Poisson’s Ratio

When a deforming force is applied at the free end of a suspended wire of length 1 and radius
R, then its length increases by dl but its radius decreases by dR. Now two types of strains are
produced by a single force.
1. Longitudinal strain = ΔUl

2. Lateral strain =
3. ∴ Poisson’s Ratio (σ) = = The theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio
lies between – 1 and 0.5. Its practical value lies between 0 and 0.5
Relation Between Y, K, η and σ
(i) Y = 3K (1 – 2σ)
(ii) Y = 2 η ( 1 + σ)
(iii) σ =
Coefficient of elasticity depends upon the material, its temperature and purity but not on
stress or strain.
For the same material, the three coefficients of elasticity γ, η and K have different
magnitudes.
Isothermal elasticity of a gas ET = ρ where, ρ = pressure of the gas.
Adiabatic elasticity of a gas Es = γρ where, γ = ; ratio of specific heats at constant pressure

and at constant volume
Ratio between isothermal elasticity and adiabatic elasticity;
Cantilever
A beam clamped at one end and loaded at free end is called a cantilever. Depression at the
free end of a cantilever is given by
δ =

where, w = load, 1 = length of the cantilever,
y = Young’s modulus of elasticity, and = geometrical moment of inertia.
For a beam of rectangular cross-section having breadth b and thickness d.
For a beam of circular cross-section area having radius r
Beam Supported at Two Ends and Loaded at the Middle
Depression at middle δ =
Torsion of a Cylinder
where, η = modulus of rigidity of the material of cylinder, r = radius of cylinder,

and 1 = length of cylinder,
Work done in twisting the cylinder through an angle θ
W = 1 / 2 Cθ2
Relation between angle of twist (θ) and angle of shear (φ) rθ = lφ or φ = r / l = θ

CBSE Class 11 PHYSICS
Revision Notes
CHAPTER 10
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
1. Pressure, Pascal's Law, Effects of gravity on fluid pressure

2. Viscosity, Stokes' law, velocity, streamline and turbulent flow
3. Bernoulli’s theorem and its applications
4. Surface energy and surface tension
Fluids : Fluids are those substances which can flow when an external force is applied on it.
Liquids and gases are fluids.
Fluids do not have finite shape but takes the shape of the containing vessel,
The total normal force exerted by liquid at rest on a given surface is called thrust of liquid.
The SI unit of thrust is newton.
In fluid mechanics the following properties of fluid would be considered
1. When the fluid is at rest - hydrostatics

2. When the fluid is in motion - hydrodynamics
Pressure Exerted by the Liquid : The normal force exerted by a liquid per unit area of the
surface in contact is called pressure of liquid orhydrostatic pressure.
Pressure exerted by a liquid column p = hρg
Where, h = height of liquid column, ρ = density of liquid and g = acceleration due to gravity
Mean pressure on the walls of a vessel containing liquid upto height h is (hρg / 2).
Pascal’s Law
The increase in pressure at a point in the enclosed liquid in equilibrium is transmitted

equally in all directions in liquid and to the Walls of the container.
The working of hydraulic lift, hydraulic press and hydraulic brakes are based on Pascal’s
law.
Atmospheric pressure

The pressure exerted by the atmosphere on earth is atmospheric pressure. It is about
100000 N/m2 .
It is equivalent to a weight of 10 tones on 1 m2 .

At sea level, atmospheric pressure is equal to 76 cm of mercury column. Then, atmospheric
pressure = hdg = 76 x 13.6 x 980 dyne/cm2

[The atmospheric pressure does not crush our body because the pressure of the blood
flowing through our circulatory system] balanced this pressure.]
Atmospheric pressure is also measured in torr and bar.
1 torr = 1 mm of mercury column
Aneroid barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
Buoyancy : When a body is partially or fully immersed in a fluid an upward force acts on it,
which is called buoyant force or simply buoyancy.
The buoyant force acts at the centre of gravity of the liquid displaced] by the immersed part
of the body and this point is called the centre buoyancy.
Archimedes’ Principle : When a body is partially or fully immersed in a liquid, it loses some
of its weight. and it is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of the
body.
If T is the observed weight of a body of density σ when it is fully immersed in a liquid of
density p, then real weight of the body w =
Laws of Floatation : A body will float in a liquid, if the weight of the body is equal to the
weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of the body.
If W is the weight of the body and w is the buoyant force, then
1. If W > w, then body will sink to the bottom of the liquid.

2. IfW< w, then body will float partially submerged in the liquid.
3. If W = w, then body will float in liquid if its whole volume is just immersed in the liquid,
The floating body will be in stable equilibrium if meta-centre (centre of buoyancy) lies
vertically above the centre of gravity of the body.
The floating body will be in unstable equilibrium if meta-centre (centre of buoyancy) lies
vertically below the centre of gravity of the body.

The floating body will be in neutral equilibrium if meta-centre (centre of buoyancy)
coincides with the centre of gravity of the body.
Density and Relative Density
Density of a substance is defined as the ratio of its mass to its volume.

Density of a liquid = Mass / Volume
Density of water = 1 g/cm3 or 103 kg/m3

It is scalar quantity and its dimensional formula is [ ].
Relative density of a substance is defined as the ratio of its density to the density of water at
4°C, Relative density = Density of substance / Density of water a = Weight of substance in air /
Loss of weight in water Relative density also known as specific gravity has no unit, no
dimensions. For a solid body, density of body = density of substance While for a hollow body,
density of body is lesser than that of Substance. When immiscible liquids of different
densities are poured in a container, the liquid of highest density will be at the bottom while,
that of lowest density at the top and interfaces will be plane. Density of a Mixture of
Substances When two liquids of mass m1 and m2 having density p1 and p2 are mixed
together then densityof mixture is
When two liquids of same mass m but of different densities p1 and p2 are mixed together
then density of mixture is
When two liquids of same volume V but of different densities p1 and

p2 are mixed together then density of mixture is
Density of a liquid varies with pressure
where = initial density of the liquid, K = bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid and Δp =
change in pressure

Revision Notes
CHAPTER 11
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
1. Temperature, heat and its measurement

2. Thermal Expansion
3. Heat capacity and Calorimetry, Change of state
4. Heat transfer
The branch dealing with measurement of temperature is called thremometry and the devices
used to measure temperature are called thermometers.
Heat
Heat is a form of energy called thermal energy which flows from a higher temperature body
to a lower temperature body when they are placed in contact.
Heat or thermal energy of a body is the sum of kinetic energies of all its constituent particles,
on account of translational, vibrational and rotational motion.
The SI unit of heat energy is joule (J).

The practical unit of heat energy is calorie. 1 cal = 4.18 J
1 calorie is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C.
Mechanical energy or work (W) can be converted into heat (Q) by 1 W = JQ
where J = Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat.
J is a conversion factor (not a physical quantity) and its value is 4.186 J/cal.
Temperature
Temperature of a body is the degree of hotness or coldness of the body. A device which is
used to measure the temperature, is called a thermometer.
Highest possible temperature achieved in laboratory is about 108 while lowest possible
temperature attained is 10-8 K.

Branch of Physics dealing with production and measurement temperature close to 0 K is
known as cryagenics, while that deaf with the measurement of very high temperature is
called pyromettemperature of the core of the sun is 107 K while that of its surface 6000 K.
Different Scale of Temperature
1. Celsius Scale In this scale of temperature, the melting point ice is taken as 0°C and the
boiling point of water as and space between these two points is divided into 100
equal parts
2. Fahrenheit Scale In this scale of temperature, the melt point of ice is taken as 32°F and the
boiling point of water as 211 and the space between these two points is divided into 180
equal parts.
3. Kelvin Scale In this scale of temperature, the melting pouxl ice is taken as 273 K and the
boiling point of water as 373 K the space between these two points is divided into 100 equal
pss
Relation between Different Scales of Temperatures
Thermometric Property
The property of an object which changes with temperature, is call thermometric property.
Different thermometric properties thermometers have been given below
(i) Pressure of a Gas at Constant Volume
whereand pt, are pressure of a gas at constant volume.A constant volume gas thermometer
can measure tempera from
(ii) Electrical Resistance of Metals

where α and β are constants for a metal.
As β is too small therefore we can take
where, α = temperature coefficient of resistance and R0 and Rt, are electrical resistances at
0°C and t°C.
Platinum resistance thermometer can measure temperature from
(iii) Length of Mercury Column in a Capillary Tube
ThermoElectro Motive Force
When two junctions of a thermocouple are kept at different temperatures, then a thermo-
emf is produced between the junctions, which changes with temperature difference between
the junctions. Thermo-emf
where a and b are constants for the pair of metals.

Unknown temperature of hot junction when cold junction is at .
Where is the thermo-emf when hot junction is at .
A thermo-couple thermometer can measure temperature from
Thermal Equilibrium
When there is no transfer of heat between two bodies in contact, the the bodies are called in
thermal equilibrium.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
If two bodies A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with thirtli body C, then bodies A
and B will be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Triple Point of Water

The values of pressure and temperature at which water coexists in equilibrium in all three
states of matter, i.e., ice, water and vapour called triple point of water.
Triple point of water is 273 K temperature and 0.46 cm of mere pressure.
Specific Heat
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass the substance through 1°C
is called its specific heat.
It is denoted by c or s.
Its SI unit is joule/kilogram . Its dimensions is
The specific heat of water is , which high compared
with most other substances.
Gases have two types of specific heat
1. The specific heat capacity at constant volume (Cv).

2. The specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cr).
Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) is greater than specific heat constant volume
For molar specific heats
where R = gas constant and this relation is called Mayer’s formula.
The ratio of two principal sepecific heats of a gas is represented by γ.
The value of y depends on atomicity of the gas.

Amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of any substance is given by Q =
mcΔt
where, m = mass of the substance,

c = specific heat of the substance and
Δt = change in temperature.
Thermal (Heat) Capacity

Heat capacity of any body is equal to the amount of heat energy required to increase its
temperature through 1°C.
Heat capacity = me
where c = specific heat of the substance of the body and m = mass of the body.
Its SI unit is joule/kelvin (J/K).
Water Equivalent
It is the quantity of water whose thermal capacity is same as the heat capacity of the body. It
is denoted by W.
W = ms = heat capacity of the body.
Latent Heat
The heat energy absorbed or released at constant temperature per unit mass for change of
state is called latent heat.
Heat energy absorbed or released during change of state is given by Q = mL
where m = mass of the substance and L = latent heat.
Its unit is cal/g or J/kg and its dimension is
For water at its normal boiling point or condensation temperature (100°C), the latent heat of
vaporisation is
L = 540 cal/g
= 40.8 kJ/ mol
= 2260 kJ/kg
For water at its normal freezing temperature or melting point (0°C), the latent heat of fusion
is
L = 80 cal/ g = 60 kJ/mol
= 336 kJ/kg
It is more painful to get burnt by steam rather than by boiling was 100°C gets converted to
water at 100°C, then it gives out 536 heat. So, it is clear that steam at 100°C has more heat
than wat 100°C (i.e., boiling of water).
After snow falls, the temperature of the atmosphere becomes very This is because the snow

absorbs the heat from the atmosphere to down. So, in the mountains, when snow falls, one
does not feel too but when ice melts, he feels too cold.
There is more shivering effect of ice cream on teeth as compare that of water (obtained from
ice). This is because when ice cream down, it absorbs large amount of heat from teeth.
Melting
Conversion of solid into liquid state at constant temperature is melting.
Evaporation
Conversion of liquid into vapour at all temperatures (even below boiling point) is called
evaporation.
Boilding
When a liquid is heated gradually, at a particular temperature saturated vapour pressure of

the liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure, now bubbles of vapour rise to the surface
d liquid. This process is called boiling of the liquid.
The temperature at which a liquid boils, is called boiling point The boiling point of water
increases with increase in pre sure decreases with decrease in pressure.
Sublimation
The conversion of a solid into vapour state is called sublimation.
Hoar Frost
The conversion of vapours into solid state is called hoar fr.
Calorimetry
This is the branch of heat transfer that deals with the measorette heat. The heat is usually
measured in calories or kilo calories.
Principle of Calorimetry
When a hot body is mixed with a cold body, then heat lost by ha is equal to the heat gained

by cold body.
Heat lost = Heat gain
Thermal Expansion
Increase in size on heating is called thermal expansion. There are three types of thermal
expansion.
1. Expansion of solids
2. Expansion of liquids
3. Expansion of gases
Expansion of Solids
Three types of expansion -takes place in solid.

Linear Expansion Expansion in length on heating is called linear expansion.
Increase in length
where, ll and l2 are initial and final lengths, Δt = change in temperature and α = coefficient of
linear expansion.
Coefficient of linear expansion
where 1= real length and Δl = change in length and

Δt= change in temperature.
Superficial Expansion Expansion in area on heating is called superficial expansion.

Increase in area A2 = A1(1 + β Δt)
where, A1 and A2 are initial and final areas and β is a coefficient of superficial expansion.
Coefficient of superficial expansion
where. A = area, AA = change in area and At = change in temperature.
Cubical ExpansionExpansion in volume on heating is called cubical expansion. Increase in

volume
where V1 and V2 are initial and final volumes and γ is a coefficient of cubical expansion.

Coefficient of cubical expansion
where V = real volume, AV =change in volume and Δt = change in temperature.
Relation between coefficients of linear, superficial and cubical expansions
2. Expansion of Liquids
In liquids only expansion in volume takes place on heating.
(i) Apparent Expansion of Liquids When expansion of th container containing liquid, on

heating is not taken into accoun then observed expansion is called apparent expansion of
liquids.
Coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid
(ii) Real Expansion of Liquids When expansion of the container, containing liquid, on heating
is also taken into account, then observed expansion is called real expansion of liquids.
Coefficient of real expansion of a liquid
Both, yr, and ya are measured in °C-1
We can show that
where, are coefficient of real and apparent expansion of liquids and yg is

coefficient of cubical expansion of the container.
Anamalous Expansion of Water

When temperature of water is increased from 0°C, then its vol decreases upto 4°C, becomes
minimumat 4°C and then increases. behaviour of water around 4°C is called, anamalous
expansion water.
3. Expansion of Gases
There are two types of coefficient of expansion in gases
1. Volume Coefficient (γv) At constant pressure, the change in volume per unit
volume per degree celsius is called volume coefficient. where V0, V1, and
V2 are volumes of the gas

2. Pressure Coefficient (γp) At constant volume, the change in pressure per unit pressure
per degree celsius is called pressure coefficient. Where
are pressure of the gas at
Practical Applications of Expansion
1. When rails are laid down on the ground, space is left between the end of two rails.
2. The transmission cables are not tightly fixed to the poles.
3. The iron rim to be put on a cart wheel is always of slightly smaller diameter than that of
wheel.
4. A glass stopper jammed in the neck of a glass bottle can be taken out by warming the neck
of the bottles.
Important Points
Due to increment in its time period a pendulum clock becomes slow in summer and
will lose time. Loss of time in a time period
Loss of time in any given time interval t can be given by ΔT =(1/2)α Δθt
At some higher temperature a scale will expand and scale reading will be lesser than
true values, so that
Here, Δt is the temperature difference.
However, at lower temperature scale reading will be more or true value will be less.

Revision Notes
CHAPTER 12
THERMODYNAMICS
1. Thermal equilibrium
2. Zeroth law of thermodynamics
3. Heat, internal energy and work
4. First law of thermodynamics, Isothermal and adiabatic processes
5. Second law of thermodynamics, reversible and irreversible processes
6. Heat engines and Refrigerators
Thermodynamicalsystem : An assemnbly of externely large number of gas

molecules is called a themodynamical system. The pressure P, volume V, temperate T
and heat cotent Q are called Therodynamical parameters.

Zeroth Law of Themodynamics : (Concept of temperate ) According to this law,
when themodynamics systems A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a
third themodynamicsytem C, then the systems A and B are in themal equilibrium with
each other also.
Internal Energy of a Gas is the sum of kinetic energy and the potential energy of the
molecules of the gas.
where K is Boltzman’s constant. Internal energy of an

ideal gas is wholly kinetic.
First Law of Thermodynamics (principle of conversation of energy) According of this

law dQ = dU+dW Where dQ is the small amount of heat energy exchange with a
system, dU is small change in internal energy of the system and dW is the small
external work done by or on the system.

Second Law of Themodynamics: It is impossible for self acting machine, unaided by

an external agency to convey heat from the body at lower temputre to another at
higher temperature. This statement of the law was made by Clausius.

According to Kelvin, it is impossible to derive a continuous supply of work by cooling
a body to a temperature lower than that of the coldest of its surroundings.

Heat Engines : A heat engine is a divice which converts heat energy into mechanical
energy. Efficiency of a heat engine is the ratio of work done (W) by the engine per
cycle of the energy absorbed from the source per cycle.
= heat rejected to the sin k

Revision Notes
CHAPTER 13
KINETIC THEORY
1. Molecular nature of matter and Behaviour of gases

2. Kinetic theory of an ideal gas
3. Law of equipartition of energy
4. Mean free path
Boyle’s Law: At constant temperature volume of given mass of gas is inversely proportional
to its pressure. or PV = cons tan t
Charle’s Law: At constant pressure volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to
its absolute temperature.
*For 1° rise in temp.
Gay Lussac’sLaw: At constant volume, pressure of a given mass of gas is directly

proportional to its absolute temp.
= cons tan t .
For rise in temperature
Ideal Gas Equation: for n mole of gas

PV=nRT,
for 1 mole , PV=RT
Universal gas constant: R =8.31 J
Boltzmann constant:
Where = Boltzmann constant, = Avogadrosno.
Ideal gas: A gas which obeys gas law strictly is an ideal or perfect gas. The molecules of such
a gas are of point size and there is no force of attraction between them.
Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of Gases

1. All gases consist of molecules which are rigid, elastic spheres identical in all respect for a
given gas.
2. The size of a molecule is negligible as compared with the average distance between two
molecules.
3. During the random motion, the molecules collide with one another and with the wall of
the vessel. The collisions are almost instantaneous.
4. The molecular density remains uniform throughout the gas.
5. The collisions are perfectly elastic in nature and there are no forces of attraction or
repulsion between them.
Law of equipartion of energy: For any thermodynamical system in thermal equilibrium,

the energy of the system is equally divided amongst its various degree of freedom and
energy associated with each degree of freedom corresponding toeach molecule is ,
where is the Boltzmann’s constant and T is absolute temperature.
The law of equipartition of energy holds good for all degrees of freedom whether
translational , rotational or vibrational.
A monoatomic gas molecule has only translational kinetic energy

So a monoatomic gas molecule has only three (translational) degrees of freedom.
In addition to translational kinetic energy, a diatomic molecule has two rotational
Kinetic energies
Here the line joining the two atoms has been taken as x-axis about which there is no rotation.
So, the degree of freedom of a diatomic molecule is 5, it does not vibrate.
At very high temperature, vibration is also activated due to which two extra degree of
freedom emerge from vibrational energy. Hence at very high temperature degree of freedom
of diatomic molecule is seven.
(Each translational and rotational degree of freedom corresponds to one mole of absorption
of energy and has energy (1/2 )

Revision Notes
CHAPTER 14
OSCILLATIONS
1. Periodic and oscillatory motions

2. Simple harmonic motion and its equations
3. Free, forced and damped oscillations, Resonance
Periodic Motion: A motion which repeats itself over and over again after a regular
interval of time.
Oscillatory Motion: A motion in which a body moves back and forth repeatedly
about a fixed point.
Periodic function: A function that repeats its value at regular intervals of its
argument is called periodic function. The following sine and cosine functions are
periodic with period T.
These are called Harmonic Functions
Note :- All Harmonic functions are periodic but all periodic functions are not harmonic.
One of the simplest periodic functions is given by

f(t) = A cos ωt [ω = 2π/T]
If the argument of this function ωt is increased by an integral multiple of 2π radians, the

value of the function remains the same. The function f(t) is then periodic and its period, T is
given by
Thus the function f(t) is periodic with period T

F(t) = f ( t + T )

Thus the function f(t) is periodic with period T
F(t) = f ( t + T)
Linear combination of sine and cosine functions
A periodic function with same period T is given as
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM): A particle is said to execute SHM if it moves to and
fro about a mean position under the action of a restoring force which is directly
proportional to its displacement from mean position and is always directed towards
mean position.
Restoring Force Displacement

F a x
F= - k x
Where ‘k’ is force constant.
Amplitude: Maximum displacement of oscillating particle from its mean position
Time Period: Time taken to complete one oscillation.

Frequency = Unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz).
Angular Frequency:
Phase:

1. The Phase of Vibrating particle at any instant gives the state of the particle as regards its
position and the direction of motion at that instant. It is denoted by ø.
2. Initial phase or epoch: The phase of particle corresponding to time t = 0. It is denoted by

ø.
Displacement in SHM :
Where, = Displacement,
A = Amplitude
ωt = Angular Frequency
ø0 = Initial Phase.
Case 1: When Particle is at mean position
Case 2: When Particle is at extreme position
Acceleration
Case 3: When particle is at mean position x = 0,

acceleration =
Case 4: When particle is at extreme position then

Revision Notes
CHAPTER 15
WAVES
1. Transverse and longitudinal waves

2. Displacement relation in a progressive wave
3. The speed of a travelling wave
4. The principle of superposition of waves
5. Reflection of waves, Beats, Doppler effect
Angular wave number: It is phase change per unit distance.
i.e. ; S.I unit of k is radian per meter.
Relation between velocity, frequency and wavelength is given as :-
Velocity of Transverse wave:-
1. In solid molecules having modulus of rigidity ‘n’ ’ and density ‘ρ’ is
1. In string for mass per unit length ’m’ and tension ‘T’ is
Velocity of longitudinal wave:-
(i) in solid , Y= young’s modulus
(ii) in liquid , K=bulk modulus
(iii) in gases , K= bulk modulus
According to Newton’s formula: When sound travels in gas then changes take in the
medium are isothermal in nature.

According to Laplace: When sound travels in gas then changes take place in medium are
adiabatic in nature.
Factors effecting velocity of sound :-
(i) Pressure – No effect
(ii) Density
Temp-
(iii) Effect of humidity:– sound travels faster in moist air

(iv) Effect of wind –velocity of sound increasing along the direction
Wave equation if wave is travelling along +ve x-axis
Y=A sin (ax - kx), Where,
If wave is travelling along –ve x- axis
Phase and phase difference
Phase is the argument of the sine or cosine function representing the wave.
Relation between phase difference ( and time interval is
Relation between phase difference and path difference is
Equation of stationary wave:-

(1) Stationary wave formed
(2) For (+ve) sign antinodes are at x= 0,

And nodes at x=
(3) For (-ve) sign antinodes are at x=

Nodes at x= 0,
(4) Distance between two successive nodes or antinodes are and that between nodes and
nearest antinodes is
(5) Nodes- point of zero displacement-

Antinodes- point of maximum displacement-
A = Antinodes
Mode of vibration of strings:-
1.
M= mass per unit length

V= frequency, V=velocity of second , P=1, 2, 3, …..
b) When stretched string vibrates in P loops
c) For string of diameter D and density ρ
d) Law of length = constant

11 TH Physics

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

11 TH Physics

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

CBSE

1 Physics-Scope and Excitement

The relative strengths of these forces are Fg : Fw : Fe : Fs = 1: : .

Material downloaded from myCBSEguide.com. 1 / 4

For counting of the significant figure rule are as:

(i) All non- zero digits are significant figure.

(v) All zeros to the right of a decimal point are significant.

In addition or subtraction, the result should be reported to the same number of

Material downloaded from myCBSEguide.com. 2 / 4

Absolute error Where = measured value it may be – positive,

Mean absolute error

The relative error expressed in percent is called percentage error.

2. The scope of physics is wide, covering a tremendous range of magnitude of

Material downloaded from myCBSEguide.com. 3 / 4

5. The physical quantities that remain unchanged in a process are called

Material downloaded from myCBSEguide.com. 4 / 4

1. Measurement and units of Measurement, SI Units

1. Physics is a quantitative science, based on measurement of physical quantities. Certain

Material downloaded from myCBSEguide.com. 1 / 2

Material downloaded from myCBSEguide.com. 2 / 2

1. Position, path length and displacement

3. Displacement is the change in position: . Path length is greater or equal to

4. An object is said to be in uniform motion in a straight line if its displacement is equal

vector quantity and its SI unit is m/s.

Material downloaded from myCBSEguide.com. 1 / 6

It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is m/s2.

It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is m/s2.

simple equations called kinematic equations of motion :

provided the position of the object at time t = 0 is 0.

If the particle starts at x = x0 , x in above equations is replaced by (x- ).

Material downloaded from myCBSEguide.com. 2 / 6

body is at an angle Beta given by

Where Beta is the angle between a and .

Angular displacement : The angular displacement of an object moving around a

circular path. The magnitude of centripetal acceleration is, a = v2/r.

Material downloaded from myCBSEguide.com. 3 / 6

The direction of tangential acceleration is along the tangent to curved path.

velocity of projection at lowest point

velocity at the highest point H is

Tension at lowest point

For oscillation in vertical circle

Acceleration of a body down a rough inclined plane a =

Material downloaded from myCBSEguide.com. 4 / 6

Equation wil be…

When frictional force is ignored ,the optimum speed is

While rounding a banked curved road ,maximum permissible speed is given by

when friction is taken into account.

Material downloaded from myCBSEguide.com. 5 / 6

Two causes of friction are: roughness of surface in contact;(ancient view) and,

Force of adhesion between the molecules of the surfaces in contact.(Modern view)

Type of solid friction:-

When F= external force and R= normal reaction

Material downloaded from myCBSEguide.com. 6 / 6

1. Scalars and vectors

4. Two vectors A and B can be added graphically by using head-to-tail method or

5. Vector addition obeys commutative law i.e, A + B = B + A

It also obeys the associative law i.e, (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

It has the properties:

Material downloaded from myCBSEguide.com. 1 / 4

10.A vector A can be expressed as

the x-axis, then =A cos , =A sin and and direction is given by

13. If an object undergoes a displacement in time , its average velocity is given by