MACROMOLECULES
Constructed by covalent bonding of monomers by
condensation reactions where water is removed from
functional groups on the monomers.
CARBOHYDRATES
Polysaccharides – chain polymers of sugars & sugar
derivatives (oligosaccharides – short)
Patterns:
 Single repeating units
 Two- type alternating units
Functions:
 Short-term energy storage (such as sugar);
 Attached to proteins on cell surface – cellular
recognition of other cells and signal molecules
 Intermediate-term energy storage (starch for plants
and glycogen for animals);
 Structural components in cells (cellulose in the cell
walls of plants and many protists), and chitin in the
exoskeleton of insects and other arthropods
CARBOHYDRATES
 The formula CnH2nOn is (n- number 3 and 6)
characteristic of sugars - carbohydrate because
compounds of this sort were originally thought as
hydrated carbons.
 The single most common monosaccharide in the
biological world is the aldohexose D-glucose
(C6H12O6).
CLASSES OF CARBOHYDRATES
Monosaccharide
- Simple sugars
- Glucose, fructose, and galactose
Disaccharides
- 2 monosaccharides, covalent linkage
- Glycosidic bond forms from removal of water. (α-
glycosidic bond involves a carbon-1 with its OH
group is in the α-configuration; β-glycosidic bond
the OH grp. on carbon 1 is in β configuration)
- Lactose intolerance – deficient enzyme to
hydrolyze β-glycosidic bond.
Lactose intolerance occurs when the small intestine
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lactase. Your body needs lactase to break down, or
digest, lactose.
Polysaccharides
- insoluble in water
- structural & storage CHOs
3.1. Starch
- amylose consists of linear, unbranched chains of
several hundred glucose residues (units); 10-30%
- amylopectin highly branched forms; 70-90%
3.2. Glycogen
- (+) cells of animals and bacteria
- Liver and skeletal muscles are major depots of
glycogen
- Mammals – (-) enzyme to hydrolyze its glycosidic
bond.
- Ruminants – have bacteria and protozoans that are
capable of cellulose digestion.
- Termites – do not digest wood! They chew it into
small pieces, helped by microorganisms in their
digestive tract and convert it to glucose monomers.
Cellulose & other structural carbohydrates
- Fungi – The cell walls have celluloses with β(1->4)
or β(1->3) linkages, depending on the species.
- Prokaryotes - The cell wall of most bacteria are
more complex, two kinds of sugars, N-
acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) and N-acetylmuramic
acid (MurNAc)
- Insects’ chitin exoskeleton and crustaceans’ chitin
shells. Chitin consists of GlcNAc units only, joined
by β(1 4) bonds.
LIPIDS
- Regarded as “Large”/macromolecules (high MW)
- Hydrophobic; soluble in non-polar solvents
(chloroform; ether)
- Some lipids are amphipathic (polar & non-polar
regions)
Functions:
- Cell membrane structure
o Creates a barrier for the cell
o Controls flow of materials
- Energy storage
o Fats stored in adipose tissues
- Hormones and vitamins
o Hormones = communication between
cells
o Vitamins = assist in the regulation of
biological processes
Types of Lipids:
Fatty acids
- Saturated = consuming a high amount of
saturated fats may increase your LDL and,
therefore, your risk of heart disease.
- Unsaturated = Foods containing
polyunsaturated fats reduced LDL cholesterol
levels and lowered cardiovascular disease risk.
Glycerides
- Neutral = ester of glycerol and a fatty acid.
Principal function is energy storage – fat or oil
- 1-3 fatty acids which need not be the same:
o Monoglyceride
o Diglyceride
o Triglyceride
- Phosphoglycerides
Complex lipids
- Lipoproteins
- Glycolipids
Nonglycerides
- Sphingolipids
- Steroids
- Waxes
FATS and OILS
Both are triglycerides
Fats
- Typically obtained from animals
- Solid at room temperature
- Made from saturated fatty acids
Oils:
- Typically obtained from plants
- Liquids at room temperature
- Made from unsaturated fatty acids
Triacylglycerol
- Can store energy; Walrus, seal, penguins
(“insulation” vs. low TO)
Phosphoglycerides:
- Lipids that contain a phosphate group
- Modified fat where a phosphate replaces one of the
fatty acid chain
Uses:
- Production of cell membranes
- Emulsifying agents
Phospholipids:
- Phosphoglycerides – abundant; glycerol
- Main lipid constituent of membranes
Significant Phospholipids:
- Phosphatidylcholine (lecithin) – Dipalmitoyl
lecithin, lung surfactant
- Phosphatidylethanolamine – cephalin;
plasmalogens (brain & muscles)
- Phosphatidylserine – in most tissues
- Phophatidylinositol – precursor of 2nd messengers,
inositol triphosphate
- Phosphatidylglycerol – cardiolipin
Non-glycerides lipids:
WAXES
- Water insoluble and hard to hydrolyze
- Often used to provide hair coating
- Bees wax and sebum are examples
- Ester of a fatty acid and a long chain of alcohol
SPHINGOLIPIDS
A type of phospholipid NOT derived from fat
Used primarily in nerve tissue – myelin sheath
I people 25% of all lipids are sphingolipids
STEROIDS
Broad class of compounds that all have the same basic
structure
Principal membrane for lipid fluidity
CHOLESTEROL
- Associated with hardening of the arteries
- Appears to coat the arteries – plaque formation
- Results in increased blood pressure from:
- Narrowing of arteries
- Reduced ability to stretch
- Clot formation leading to:
o Myocardial infraction
o Stroke
- Some reproductive hormones:
o Progesterone
o Testosterone
COMPLEX LIPIDS
- Lipids bound to other molecules
- Combination results in a structure (phospholipid
bilayer)
4 major classes of plasma lipoproteins
Function of lipoproteins:
Chylomicrons –transport triglycerides from intestines to
other tissues; except kidneys
VLDL – bind triglycerides in liver and carry them to fat
tissue
LDL – carry cholesterol to peripheral tissues
HDL – bound to plasma cholesterol. Transport
cholesterol to liver
PROTEINS
Function of proteins:
- Catalytic – enzymes
- Immunoglobins – antibodies; immune system
- Transport – movement of materials; hemoglobin for
oxygen
- Regulatory – Hormones, control of metabolism
- Structural – coverings and support, skin, tendons,
hair, nails, and bone
- Movement – muscles, cilia, and flagella
AMINO ACIDS
- Building block of proteins
- 20 common amino acids
- All are alpha- amino acids except proline
- A primary amine is attached to the A-carbon. A-
carbon the carbon just after the acid
Proteins are polymers made up of amino acids.
Peptide bond – how the amino acids are linked together
to make a protein
Primary structure of proteins - refers to the linear
sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain. The
primary structure is held together by covalent bonds
such as peptide bonds, which are made during the
process of protein biosynthesis.
Secondary structure of proteins – long chain of amino
acids will commonly fold or curl into a regular repeating
structure
- Structure is a result of hydrogen bonding
between amino acids within the protein
- Common secondary structures are:
o α - Helix = myosin / actin structure
proteins used in muscle
o β – Pleated sheath = held together by
hydrogen binding between adjacent
sheets of proteins
o Silk fibroin – main protein of silk is an
example of a β – Pleated sheath
structure.
o Composed primarily of glycerine and
alanine
o Stack like corrugated cardboard for
extra strength
 - secondary structure adds new properties to a
protein like strength and flexibility
Tertiary structure of proteins:
Fibrous proteins
- Insoluble in water
- Form used by connective tissues
- Examples – silk, collagen, and β – keratin
Globular proteins
- Soluble in water
- Form used by cell proteins
- 3-D structure – tertiary
Quaternary structure of proteins
- Many proteins are not single peptide strands
- They are combinations of several proteins
- Aggregate of smaller globular proteins
- Most frequently identical subunits of the same
protein
- Conjugated protein – incorporate another type
of group that performs a specific function
- Prosthetic group – non amino acid components
- Aggregate structure – this example shows four
different proteins and four prosthetic group
NUCLEIC ACID
- Storing, transmitting and expressing genetic
information
- Linear polymers of nucleotides strung together
in a genetically determined order that is critical
to their role as informational macromolecules
- Monomers are nucleotides
2 types: DNA and RNA
Function:
- Information storage (DNA),
- Protein synthesis (RNA),
- Energy transfers (ATP and NAD).
NUCLEIC ACID
- Nucleic acids are complex structures used to
maintain genetic information
DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid
- Serve as the “master copy” for most information the
cell
RNA – ribonucleic acid
- Several types. It acts to transfer information from
DNA to the rest of the cell
DNA and RNA composition
- Primary structure of both materials is very similar
- Each consists of a sugar / phosphate backbone to
which nitrogenous bases are attached
Sugars used:
- Ribose = used in RNA
- Deoxyribose = used in DNA
Nucleoside
- A sugar (deoxyribose) – base (nitrogenous)
combination
- Deoxyribose not really a carbohydrate
- β N- glycosidic linkage
Nitrogenous bases
- 5 bases in two classes
Purines
- A double ring (6 and 5 member) structure
- Includes adenine and guanine
- Used by both DNA and RNA
Pyrimidines
- A 6 member ring structure
- Cytosine is used in DNA and RNA
- Thymine used in DNA
- Uracil used in RNA
Nucleotides
- Produces if the –OH on the sugar of a nucleoside is
converted into a phosphate ester
- Deoxyadenosine monophosphate
- DNA secondary and tertiary structure
- Sugar phosphate back bone – causes each DNA
chain to coil around the outside of the attached bases
- Base pairing – hydrogen bonding occurs between
purines and pyrimidines. This causes 2 DNA strands
to bond together. Always pair together:
o Adenine – Thymine
o Guanine – Cytosine
- The combination of the stair step sugar phosphate
backbone and bonding between pairs results in a
double helix structure
- a stable double helix, the two component strands
must be antiparallel (running in opposite directions)
as well as complementary.
Types of DNA
B-DNA is the main form of DNA in cells, other forms
may also exist, perhaps in short segments interspersed
within molecules consisting mainly of B-DNA.
A-DNA has a right-handed, helical configuration that is
shorter and thicker than B-DNA.
Z-DNA, on the other hand, is a left-handed double helix
that derives its name from the zigzag pattern of its
longer, thinner sugar-phosphate backbone.